1. Nimbikara School of Vedanta Umesh Mishra

DELHI UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

University of Allahabad Studies 1940

SÅNSKRIT SECTION

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA

BY UMESHA MISHRA, M.A., D.Litt., (Kāvyatīrtha) Allahabad Unirersity.

।। श्री : ॥। यतो विश्वं सर्व प्रभवति च यस्मिन्निविशति नियम्येभ्योऽभिन्नो भवति पुनरन्यः श्रुतिबलात्। मुमुक्षूणां ध्येयः शुभगुएायुतो भक्तविवशो गुणातीतो दिव्यः परमपुरुषो वै विजयताम्॥ १॥ श्रद्धतं प्रतिपेदिरे श्रतिबलाद्वशिष्ट्ययुक्तं पुनः केचिच्छुद्दयुतं द्वितीयरहितं प्रख्यापयन्तीह ये। द्वैताद्वतमतं तथा बहुविधं शून्यं पुनः केचन ते सर्वे प्रतिपाद्यन्ति शिव हे त्वामेव नाव्यं प्रभुम ।।२।। 1

श्रयते श्रुतिषु शाश्वते शिवे। भेद्बुद्धिरिह किन्तु तत्त्वतो नास्ति भेद इति कैर्न बुष्यते।। ३।। तीर्थेश हृदये निधाय सततं ध्यात्वा गणेशं पुन- नेत्वा भीजयदेवपाद्युगलं निम्बार्कदेवं तथा। विष्णो: प्रीतिकरं सुयुक्तिलसितं शाष्त्रानुसारेख तद्· भेदाभेदमतं शुभं वितनुते भीमानुमेशः कृती॥४॥

UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

INTRODUCTION

The gradual development of a philosophical thought in India is linked with the gradual unfolding of the intellectual and sentimental life of a human being. It may be said to represent the theoretical aspect of human existence while the practical side is represented by the actual experiencing of it. If, therefore, a system of thought does not correspond to the actual functioning of human life on correct lines, it would have neither any practical value nor general appeal. There being people of divergent taste, it is but natural that we should have various schools of thought in accordance with their different needs. It needs no explanation when it is said that the Absolute Monism of Shankara, or the Qualified Monism of Rāmanuja, or the Unqualified or Pure Monism of Valla- bha could not satisfy every class of people. Proceeding on the assumption that everybody is not qualified for every kind of teaching and that the various schools of thought are only to represent the different stages in the growth of the intellectual and spiritual life of such people, it requires no apology to evolve any consistent school of thought to satisfy the longing of a particular group of people. This may be said in justification of giving a new inter- pretation to the already existing theory of Bhedābheda or Draitādraita by Nimbārkācārya. The theory of Bhedabheda is not quite new to us. We know from our studies of the Brahma-Sutra that Ashma- rathya (Bra. Sū., I. ii. 29; I. iv. 21) and Audulomin (Ibid., I. iv. 21; III. iv. 45; IV. iv. 6) were the two old exponents of this theory. Even in later centuries Bhās- kara and Yādavaprakāsha, the old teacher of Rāmānuja, were the supporters of the same theory. And after that we find Nimbarka expounding the same view-point. It is needless to say that although apparently they appear to

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look at the Truth from the same angle of vision, yet there is a distinct peculiarity with each of these savants of Vaişņava-Sampradāya. It is a sort of convention that even such great thinkers as Ramanuja and others feel hesitation in having full con- fiderce of people as regards their teachings; and therefore, they always try to trace the origin of their thought from God Himself or any other similar reliable authority. Likewise, it is said that the view-point which Nimbārka took up was first taught to Sanaka, Sanātana, Sanandana and Sanatkumära, the four sons of the Creator through his mental creation by God Himself, in the form of a Swan. It is due to this very belief that this school of philosophy is known as the Sanakādi-Sampradāya or Hamsa-Sampra- dya. Later, the great sage Narada was taught the same philosophy by Paramācārya Shrī Kumāra (Vedānta Pārijāta Saurabha I. iii. 8), that is, Sanatkumāra, which fact is corroborated by the Chandogya Upanisad (VIII. i. 1) wherefrom we learn that Nārada learnt Brahmavidvā from Sanatkumāra. Nimbārka speaks of Narada as his preceptor (guru) परमाचार्येः श्रीवुमारैरस्म- द्गुरवे श्रीमन्नारदायोपढिष्टःVedanta-Parijata-Saurabha, I. iii. 8; Dashashlokī, verse 6; Vedāntaratnamaňjūșā, p. 75). That Narada is regarded as his guru may be due to the fact that Nimbarka has followed the Narada- Pañcaratra in the interpretation of his philo- sophy; for, we cannot think that Nimbārka was the direct disciple of Närada, the pre-historic sage. Al- though Keshava Kashmiri Bhattācārya, a prominent writer of this school of thought, says in his introduction to his commentary on the Bhagavadgita that Nimbārkācārya is the oldest of the Acaryas ( भीनिम्बार्काचार्यस्यैव भगवच्छव्दाभिहि तत्ववेन सरवजञत्वात् सर्वेभ्यः प्राचीनाचार्यत्वात् थ। तद्व्याख्यानस्यैव ..... उपादेयत्वम्- Tattvaprakāshikā, p. 5), yet it is very difficult for us to believe in it. Besides these, Parāshara is also recognised

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with great honour as a supporter of this school of thought (इति सवझपराशरोक्कश्रीभगवत्पाप्तिलक्षणो मोक्ष :- Siddhanta-Jahnavi, Q. 165).

LITERATURE AND AUTHORSHIP

The first and the earliest author of this school is Nimbārka himself. It is, therefore, that he is sometimes called Ādyācārya (Siddhānta-Jāhnavī; p. 201; Siddhānta- Setukā, p. 172). His old name was Niyamānanda (VRM. p. 1). He was a great devotee of Lord Krsna from his very childhood. It is believed that he is an incarnation of the Sudarshana-Cakra, the well-known weapon of the Lord (Ibid.). According to some, his parents were Aruņa Muni and Jayanti Devi. while others believe that their names were Jagannatha and Saraswati. He was born at Nim- bapur. also called Nimba or Naidūryapattana, in the pro- vince of Andhra, in the family of a Telugu Brahmana, on the third day of Vaishākha Shukla. From an account given in the Bhaktamala (Chapter XXII) by Näbha Svamin we know that once he had invited an ascetic to take food at his place. But somehow the meal could not be ready before the sun-set, and after it when he was called upon for his meal, he refused to take it, for ascetics do not take any food after the sun-set. Niyama- nanda then prayed to his Lord, who at once came to the help of his devotee and placed His Sudarshana-cakra at the Setting mountain which appeared like the shining Sun. This Sun was shown to the ascetic from the top of a Nimba tree, who then agreed to take his food with Niyamānanda. After the meal, it, again, became quite dark and the ascetic could easily know what had happened behind the scenes. While parting he said to his host that as you have shown me the sun from the top of a nimba tree through the force of your devotion, you will henceforth be called Nimbārka

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or Nimbaditya. Since then, he is known by that name. No more about his personal history is known to us. About the period when he flourished, Dr. R. G. Bhandarkar says in his Vaişnavaism and Shaivaism (p. 62) that he died in about 1162 A.D. and so he should have flourished either in the beginning of the 12th century or the end of the 11th century A.D. In the Bhavisya- Puraņa-Parishista (Chapter, 21), it is said that Nimbā- ditya flourished after Visnu Swamin and prior to Mādhvā- cārya -- विष्णुस्वामी प्रथमतो निम्बादित्यो द्वितीयकः । मध्याचार्यस्तृतीयस्तु तुर्यो रामानुज: स्मृतः ॥ This Madhvācārya is believed to be born in 1199 A.D. Hence, this also supports to his having lived in the 11th century. That he was recognised as all-powerful and the giver of the desired objects to all is clear from the account given in the Bhavisya Purāņa- उदयव्यापिनी प्रा्या कुले तिथिरुपोषणे। निम्बार्को भगवान् येषां वाब्छितार्थप्रदायक: ॥ Keshava Kashmiri calls him Omniscient in the introduction to his commentary on the Bhagavadgitā (p. 5). He was a Vaisnava by faith; and like his predecessors he tried to solve the riddles of the universe on the Vaisnava line. History tells us that the great orthodox thinkers of the country while trying to propound a particular school of thought and be called Acaryas, accepted the three Pras- thanas-Upanisads representing the Shruti-Prasthana. Brahma-Sutra representing the Nyaya-Prasthana and Bhaguvadgită standing for the Smrti-Prasthāna,-as the basis of their thought; and it is surprising that the elastic nature of all these three Prasthanas could easily satisfy all their demands. Nimbärka also followed the same old trodden path. Of these three, again, much more emphasis

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is laid on the Brahma-Sütra which really gives better faci- lities to establish one's own viewpoint in all its aspects through the time-honoured five factors of argumentation, namely, Visaya (the topic under consideration), Sangati (relevancy), Samshaya (doubt or question arising upon the topic), Pürva-Paksa (the first side or the prima facie argument concerning it) and Siddhanta (answer or demon- strated conclusion), like the five factors of Nyāya. There- fore, Nimbärka wrote a brief commentary on the Brahma- Sūtra in the light of his new interpretation and named it Pārijātasaurabha. This commentary is very brief unlike other commen- taries and does not indulge in discussing the interpretation given by other Acaryas. He merely confines himself to the exposition of his own interpretation in very brief and clear language. This is a peculiarity which is not found with any other Acarya. He also wrote a set of ten verses, called Dashashloki, wherein he has explained his Bhedā- bheda theory. This work is an elementary book dealing with the subject especially written for those who could not easily study works of higher standard. (मन्दमतीनां रर्वशाकार्थ- जिज्ञासूनां शिथिलपयनानां शाख्त्रार्थेविचारासमर्थानां मुमुक्षणामुपकारार्थ वेदान्त- रत्नभूतां शासत्राथकामधेनुं दशश्लोकीमपि निर्मम VRM p. 2). He also wrote a work named Sadācāraprakāsha on Karmayoga (कर्मयोगः श्रीमगवचरसौराचार्ये: सदाचारप्रकाशे निर्णीतः (VRM p. 97; Shrutyanta Suradruma p. 118.) Another work of his is the Prapatiicintamani (तब प्रप्तिचिन्तामणौ मगवभर सौरायाचार्ये :..... fzay - SS; p. 172; VRM; p. 140). From the com- mentary of Keshava Kashmiri on the Bhagavadgitã, it appears that Nimbärka also wrote a commentary on the Bhagavadgītā, but it is not available these days. (तदेतदष्ययपट्ऋत्रयात्मक गीताशास््र ... सवविदु्षा प्रमाणम्। ... अत एव बहुभिराचार्ये: स्वस्वमतानुसारेश व्यास्यातमिदं शास्त परन्तु तेषां सवज्ञत्वाभा- वात्तदृत्याख्यानानां शाख्रविरुद्धांरोनापि युकत्यात्र सर्वमुमुक्षपादेयत्वं किम्तु ... श्रीव्यासवचनाच्छ्रीनिम्बार्काचार्यस्यैय ... सर्वेभ्य: प्राचीनाचार्यत्वात् तद्व्याख्या-

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नस्यैव ... उपादेयत्वम्। तस्य स्वतिगम्भीरायतया ... मन्दमतीनां तत्र प्रवेशानई- त्वात तेषां ... उपकाराय ... तदुकार्योपलब्धये ... मया .. टीका सुगमा ... यथामति विधीयते-TP. pp. 4-5; ii) व्याख्यातमादो तद्दभ्रबोधादाचार्यवर्येण हरिप्रियेा। निम्बाकेनाम्नाऽतिगभीरबोधं श्रीनारदानुग्रह्भाजनेन ।। End of the TP on the Bhagavadgita. Shrīmadvārşabhānavīdayita Dāsa in his commentary, Aņubhășya, on Shrī Shrī Caitanyacaritāmrta by Krșņa Dasa, says that Nimbaditya was born in the village named Mungerapattana (p. 4). He, while speaking of Keshava Kashmiri, says that according to the Bhaktiratnākara (Chapter, XII) Nimbaditya had as many as twenty-nine pupils, namely, Shrinivāsācārya, Vishvācārya, Purușot- tama, Vilāsa, Svarūpa, Madhava, Balabhadra, Padma, Shyāma, Gopāla, Krpā, Devācārya, Sundara Bhațța, Pad- manābha, Upendra, Rāmacandra, Vāmana, Krșņa, Pad- mākara, Shravaņa, Bhūri, Mādhva, Shyāma, Gopāla, Balabhadra, Gopīnātha, Keshava, Gokula, and Keshava Kashmiri (Shrī Caitanyacaritamrta, Ch. XVI. 25; pp. 271-72). Another writer of importance is his own pupil Shri Nivāsācārya. He is regarded as an incarnation of the Shankha-conch-shell-one of the ornaments of the Lord (Shankhāvatāra Puruşottamasya-VRM; p. 3). He calls himself the direct pupil of Nimbärka. At the instance of his teacher he wrote a commentary on the Saurabha of Nim- barka and named it Vedantakaustubha. (तदाज्ञया तदुकवर्त्मना तद्नुप्रहकामेन तच्छ्िष्येण मया मृदुमितपदो वेदान्तकौस्तुभः ...... विरच्यते VK., 1. i. 1). He is, also like his teacher, quite simple in explaining the lines of the Saurabha. Likewise, he also does not discuss the views of other commentators on the Brahmasütra. He is very clear in his exposition. He very often quotes Shruti texts in support of his statements. He quotes a Kärika from faafrg who is believed to be the same as धर्मकीर्चि (vide शंकरमिश्र 's com. on खए्डनखएडखाध, Parichheda 1, p. 53, E. J. Lazarus, Benares Edition).

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Another work of his is the Khyåtinirnaya of which we have a few references here and there only (Siddhäntase- tukā., p. 161). As he is the direct pupil of Nimbārka he may be placed in the 11th or 12th century. He is also be- lieved to be a Telugu Brāhmaņa. The next important author is Shriderācārya, the pupil of Krpācārya. He is believed to be the incarnation of the Lotus possessed by the Lord in His hand (vide Introduction to the Siddhanta-Jāhnavī and Siddhānta-Setukā, p. 2). Anantarāma Vedantin in his work called Acāryacarita tells us that Shrīdevācarya was born in 1112 Sambat, that is, about 1055 A.D. in a Telugu Brāhmaņa family. He wrote a Vrtti, named Siddhānta-Jāhnarī, on the Brahma-sūtra (Cf. चक्रुर्वेदाम्तसूत्राएां वृतिं वेदान्तजाहवीम्) But unfortunately, the Vrtti available extends only as far as the first four Sūtras of the Brahmasutra. His pupil was Sundara Bhatta who wrote a commentary on his teacher's Jahnari and named it Siddhanta-Setuka. This commentary also is not available bevond the Catussutri. Both of these two commentaries are very elaborate and they discuss freely the views of other schools of thought. Shrideva also can be placed in the 11th century as a contemporary of his own teacher. He is also very often quoted by Keshava Kashmiri in his com- mentary on Vedäntakaustubha (Cf. the beginning verses of Prabhā, p. 19). Vishvacarya is another old writer of this school. He wrote a commentary on the Prapatticintamani of Nim- bārka (vide Setukā, p. 172). He bows down to Shri-Nivāsa- cārya in his work. His name along with a quotation of his is found in the Vedāntaratnamanjūșā of Purușottama- deva (p. 3). Another author of great name and fame is Purusot- tamācārya. He wrote a very comprehensive and easy com- mentary on the Dashashloki of Nimbarka and named it Vedāntaratnamañjușā. He bows down to Shrī-Nivāsā-

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carya as his guru (तं वन्दे मनसा गिरा च शिरसा श्रीश्रीनिवासं गुरुम -VRM; p. 1). He also wrote another work named Sid- dhantaksirarņava of which only a reference is found in the Setukā (p. 161). He was also a Telugu Brāhmaņa. If he is really the pupil of Shri-Nivasa then he may be placed in the 11th century along with Vishvācarya whom the former quotes. Then, we have several other writers about whom we know very little. Madhaca-Mukunda, the author of Para- paksagiricajra, criticises in his work the views of other schools of thought and shows the superiority of the Nim- bārka school. Anantarama wrote the Vedantatattrabodha. It is a small treatise and vet it deals with almost all the aspects of the school. It criticises the Vishistādvaitavāda. He refers to the Vedarthasangraha and Vedantadipa (p. 30). Another work of his is Acaryacarita. Krsnastararaja, consisting of a set of twenty-five verses, appears to be an old work of anonymous authorship. It has been commented upon by Purușottama Prasāda, son of Nārāyaņa Prasāda, who was born in 1680 Sambat (1623 A.D.) in a village named Jagādharī near Kurukșetra. He was initiated into this schcol by Dharmaderacarya. His commentary is called Shrutyanta-suradruma. The com- mentary is very lucid and deals with all the salient points of the system. Other works of this author are Paratat- tranirnaya (ride Introduction of Shrutyantasuradruma, p. 2) and Nyāyadīpāralī (Cf. Shrutyantasuradruma, p. 54). Both of these works are not available these days. Krsnastararaja has got another commentary named Shrutisiddhantamanjari by an anonymous writer. It is not so important as the other. Vedāntakārikāralī, alsocalled Adhyātmakārikāvalī, is another anonymous work. It is in verse. It deals with almost every aspect of the school but very briefly. It has F. 2

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been commented upon by Purusottama Prasāda who named his commentary as Adhyatmasudhātarangiņī. Scabhūderūcarya seems to be a famous writer of this school (Cf. Introduction to the Suradruma, p. 1). Keshaca Kashmīrī, pupil of Gangala Bhatta ( श्रीगाङ्गलामिधम् TP., p.1) is a famous writer of this school. Another name of his guru seems to be Mukunda (Can he be identified with the author of the Parapaksagirivajra?) who is mentioned in the Vedāntakaustubhaprabhā, a com- mentary on the Brahmasutra by Keshava, several times. (Vide-(1) श्रोमुकुन्दं गुरुं नत्वा पूर्वाचार्योकवर्त्मेना। ब्रह्मसूत्राणि संच्षेपात् वित्रियन्ते स्वतुष्टये-P'rabha. on Brahma.Su.I.i.1;(2).श्रीश्री- निम्बार्कमता नुयायिश्रीमन्मुकुन्दचरणारूणपद्ममकरन्दभृङ्कगा जगद्वि जयिश्रीकेशव- काश्मीरिभट्टन etc., etc.at the end of each Pada of his Prabha .; (3) यानेन मुक्तिः कृष्णस्तं मुकुन्दं गुरुं श्रये-Prabha : IV. iv. 22; (4) पायाच्छ्रीमुकुन्दो नः श्रीनिम्बार्केपदाश्रितान्-Prabha. 1. iv. 28). As he does not mention the name of Mukunda in his commentary on the Bhagavadgita as his guru but he men- tions the name of Gangala instead, it is assumed that either he had two gurus or that they were identical personages. There seems to be no justification for the assumption of Kishoradāsa, the editor of the works of this school that Mukunda is the name of the father of Keshava (Vide In- troduction to the Tattvaprakāshikā, p. 1), when we find that Keshava very often adds the word Guru after the word Mukunda (Vide notes above). We are told that he was a Telugu Brahmana, born in the province of Andhra, in the village named Vaidūryapat- tanam. He is generally placed in the 14th century. He travelled far and wide. Once, he went to Kashmir and met there one Vidyādharācarya, a scholar of the Shākta school of thought in a philosophical discussion. He de- feated the Acarya and converted him to his own Vaişnava cult, and gave him the name of Brajeshācārya. This new Vaisnava wrote a commentary on Keshava's Kramadīpikā

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in 1450. It is believed that Brajeshācrya was the first Vaișnava teacher of Kashmir. Perhaps the title of 'Kāsh- mīrī' was added to Keshava's name from his victory in Kashmir. It is said that Keshava had miraculous powers and once he compelled a representative of the Moghul king at Muttra through his mystic powers to obey his orders. Keshava then came to Bengal where he met Shrī Caitanya- deva whom he initiated into the Vaisnava cult.1 Keshava Kashmīrī wrote several works; some of the more important works are : (1) Prabha, generally known as Kaustubhaprabha a commentary on Shrī-Nivasācarya's commentary on the Brahmasūtra; (2) Tattraprakāshikā on Bhagavadgītā; (3) Upanisad-prakāshikā a commentary of the important twelve U'panisads; (4) Vişnusahasranāma- Bhāsya; (5) Stotras in praise of Lord Krsna, and (6) Krama- dipika a Tantric work dealing with the Vișnu-Mantra. Besides, it is believed that he wrote a commentary on the

1 About this Keshava we learn from Krena Dasa's Caitanya- caritamrta (Cha. XVI. 28-108) that he was a digrijayi and moved from one centre to another centre of learning to discuss with scholars knotty philosophical problems. He accordingly went to Navadvipa and met there Nimai Pandita, while the latter was sitting on the bank of the river Ganga. He was received with due respect. When Keshava expressed his desire for having some scientifie discussion, the Pandita requested him to compose some verses in praise of the river Ganga. Keshava, endowed with unique merit, readily com- posed one hundred verses in one hour. The Pandita was carefully and patiently hearing all these verses. He, however, picked up one verse from his composition* and requested Keshava to explain it and point out the defects and the alonharas therein. Keshava said that there was no defert and that there were only two alaikaras -- Upamu and Anupraso in that verse. Whereupon the Pandita pointed out that there were five deferts-and five alankaras in it. The five defeets are: अविमृष्टविधेयांश in two places, विरुदमति, भअक्रम and पुनरुत्त. The five अलंकारड are: शब्दालंकार in two places, while भर्थालंकार in three places: अनुप्रास and पुनरुकवदामास are the शब्दालंकारड while उपमा, विरोधाभास and अनुमान are the three अर्थालंकारड. At this Keshava was perplexed and went away full of admiration for Nimai Pandita who was regarded as an incarnation of God. *महत्व्रं गंगायाः सततमिदमाभाति नितरां यदेषा श्रीविष्णोश्चरणकमलोत्पत्तिसुभगा। द्वितीयश्रीलक्ष्मीरिव सुरनरैरर्च्यचरणा भवानीभर्तुर्या शिरसि विभवत्यन्भुतगुखा॥

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Shrīmadbhagavata (Vide Introduction to TP, p. 1-3). Most of his works are still unpublished. Vanamālī Mishra, Brahmacārī, wrote his Vedāntasid- dhantasangraha, also called Shrutisiddhanta, in verse along with a commentary in prose. He lived in a village named Triyugapur, some six miles from Brndavana. He belongs to the family of the Bhāradvājas (Vide last verses of his book). The book consists of seven chapters dealing with almost every topic though very briefly. These are the works on Nimbārka school known to us upto this time.

EPISTEMOLOGY OR THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

We shall see that according to Nimbārka there are three tattras, namely, the Paramatman or Purusottama, the Jica (Individual self) and the Jagat (universe). For the knowledge of these they believe in only three means of right knowledge, namely, Perception, Inference and Valid testimony. A brief treatment of each of these is given here in order to differentiate the stand-point of Nimbarka from the rest of the schools. PERCEPTION is that valid source of knowledge through which an object is known directly. It is valid as the knowledge derived through it corresponds to the actual reality. Its process is that through the instrumentality of the sense-organ a contact with the object, which is the intermediary stage, is brought about, which in its turn, leads to the production of the knowledge. There are two kinds of Perception-External and Internal. The former, again, is divided into five different types in accordance with the number of our external organs of sense-percep- tion. The Internal-Perception is produced through the instrumentality of the Manas (mind) where the objects of perception are internal, such as, pleasure, pain, etc.

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INFERENCE is that source of knowledge through which things not present before the five external organs of sense are cognised. The main factor to assist this source of knowledge is the concomitant relation between the major and the middle terms. They, like the Naiyāyikas, utilise all the five factors of syllogism in arriving at a conclusion. The five factors are: (1) Proposition (Pratijña); as-the hill is on fire; (2) Reason (Hetu); as-because it is smoky; (3) Explanatory example (Udāharaņa); as-wherever there is smoke there is fire, as for instance, a kitchen; (4) Appli- cation (Upanaya); as-so is this hill; (5) Conclusion (Nigamana); as-hence, the hill is on fire. Of these, the reason or the Middle term is of three kinds : i) Keralānrayī (only positive), in which case there is only affirmative invariable concomitance; as in the argu- ment-it is nameable, because it is knowable; and no nega- tive: ii) Keralaryatireki (only negative), in which case there is only negative instance, positive instance being impos- sible; as for instance, this is earth, because it has smell; iii) Anrayaryatireki where both positive and negative argu- ments can be adduced with the help of positive and nega- tive instances, as for instance-wherever there is smoke there is fire; as in the kitchen; and where there is no fire, there is no smoke, as in a lake. There are two important factors in an Inference-a) Paksadharmata, that is, the presence of the Middle term with which the concomitant relation of the Sadhya (Major term) has been established, in the Minor term (paksa); and b) Vyapti (concomitant relation). The middle term, which possesses both the positive and the negative instances, has to fulfil the following five conditions: 1) Paksarrttitra, that is, the Middle term should be present in the Minor term (Paksa), as smoke is in the hill; 2) Sapaksanrttitva, presence of the Middle term in the positive instance; as smoke is in the kitchen: 3) Vipaksārrttitra, non-

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presence of the Middle term in the negative instance; as smoke is not present in the lake; 4) Abādhitavisayatva, the presence of the object of the Middle term in the minor not disproved by any stronger proof; 5) and A satpratipaksatra, absence of the counter-syllogism. But in the case of an exclusively positive instance, the Middle term has to satisfy only four conditions; negative instances being impossible, the necessity of showing the absence of the Middle term in the negative instance does not arise at all. Likewise, in the case of an exclusively negative instance, positive instance being impossible, the necessity of showing the presence of the Middle term in the positive instance does not arise. Like the Nyãya-Vaishesika school of thought, the Nimbārka school also believes in the fallacies of probans. They are five in number : 1) Asiddha or unproved reason. There are three varieties of it-a) a reason (hetu) the sub- ject or place of which is devoid of the distinctive feature of the supposed minor term (ashrayāsiddha); as in the example 'a sky-lotus is fragrant, because it is a lotus', the minor term 'sky-lotus' is only an imaginary thing; b) a reason which is non-existent in the minor term (svarupasiddha): as in the instance 'water is tasteful, because it has smell', 'smell,' being the quality of earth, is not present in water; c) a reason with which no concomitant relation is established (ryūpyatrasiddha); as in the example 'whatever exists is momentary, because it is existent (sattrūt)', no concomi- tant relation between the middle term and the major term is established for want of an instance. 2) Viruddha, or con- trary reason, is that wherein the reason establishes the concomitant relation with the opposite of the major term ; as in the example 'sound is eternal, because it is artificial', the reason 'artificiality' coincides with the opposite of eternity. 3) Anaikantika or a reason which is co-existent with the major term only partially. It has three varieties : a) a

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reason which is too wide; as in the instance, 'the hill is smoky, because it is fiery', where the reason 'fiery' is too- extensive and is present even where there is no smoke. This is named Sadhārana. b) A reason which is equally present in its homogeneous instance (sapaksa) and heterogeneous instance (ridharma-ripaksa); as in the example 'sound is eternal, because it is knowable', the reason 'knowability' is not only present in the sapaksa but also in the vipaksa. This is called Asadharana. c) A reason which is neither present in the homogeneous instance (sapaksa) nor in the heterogeneous instance (ripaksa); as in the example, 'earth is eternal, because it possesses smell', the reason 'pos- session of smell' is not found in anything apart from earth which, in its entirety, is the major term. This is called Anupasamhārī. 4) Prakaranasama or inconclusive reason, that is, a reason wherein there is the possibility of another reason proving the opposite of the thing to be proved, that is, the major term; as in the example 'water is hot, because it possesses touch'. Here there is the scope for counter- reason to prove the opposite, as-water is not hot, because it is not tejas. 5) Bādhita or Kālātyayāpadista, that is, a reason where the negation of the major term in the minor is proved through a stronger proof; as in the instance, 'water is hot, because it is fiery'. the absence of heat is proved through perception which is a stronger means of cognition. SCRIPTURAL TESTIMONY (Shabda-Pramāņa) is a statement of one who speaks the truth (apta). There are three types of äptas in accordance with the difference in the degree of the authoritativeness of the speaker. (1) The Vedas are most authoritative; hence, the statements of the Vedas are the best of the authorities. (2) The Smrtis and their authors like, Manu, Vālmīki, Parāshara, Vyāsa, and others, who depend upon the Vedas alone for their author- ity, possess their authoritativeness of lower degree than

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that of the Vedas. (3) The commentators of these, as they depend upon the Vedas and the Smrtis for their authority, are also authoritative next to the Vedas and the Smrtis. ANALOGY and other sources of knowledge recog- nised by other schools of thought are not regarded here as independent sources of knowledge, as their scope is cover- ed by the already recognised three means of knowledge. Verbal testimony conveys its sense, through its Vrtti to others. This Vrtti is of two kinds-Primary (Mukhya) and Secondary (Amukhya or Jaghanya). The former is something like the poteney (shakti) in the words which is capable of conveving the meaning of those words. This, again, is of three kinds : a) Conventional (Rudhi), wherein the potency belongs to the whole word; as in the words 'Hari', 'Narada' ete .; b) Etymological (Yauaika), wherein the potency belongs to the parts; as in the word 'Madhara', the letter 'ma' means 'Laksmi', and hence, the meaning of the word 'Madhava' is 'the husband of Laksmi'; c) where the meaning is obtained through both-Etymology and Convention (Yoga-rudhi); as in the word 'Pankaja' mean- ing that which is produced out of mud, that is, lotus. The latter, that is, the Secondary ortti, (mode of expression) is of two types-a) Laksana, indirect applica- tion of a word through the relation of shakya. This itself has three varieties : i) Jahat-wherein the direct implica- tion of the word is left out; as in the example-'there is a villa on the current of the river Ganga', where 'current of the river Ganga' means, through indirect implication, 'bank of the river'; ii) A jahat-where the direct implication of the word is carried along with the implied meaning; as in the instance 'red runs', the term 'red' means 'red horse'; iii) and Jahadujahat-where the direct implication of the word is partly left out and partly carried along with the implied meaning; as in the example-this is that very Devadatta',

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the identity between 'this' and 'that' is due to dropping out the uncommon features and accepting the common ones. This is also called 'Bhāga-lakșanā'. (b) Gaunī, that is, the con- nection of the implied attributes possessed by the term (shakya); as in the example 'simho Devadattah' (Devadatta is lion), the attributes of ferociousness, etc., possessed by a lion, become connected through implication with Deva- datta. This is also called 'Lakşita-lakşanā' Of these three sources of knowledge, ordinarily Per ception is most reliable, at least as far as the worldly objects are concerned. Scholars of this school go even so far as to assert that the knowledge obtained through the Scriptural testimony is the efficient cause of final emanci- pation only through direct Perception. Thus. Percep- tion is more important than the Scriptural testimony even. It is needless to say that Perception is more reliable than Inference. But for the true realisation of the nature of the Lord, Scriptural testimony alone is the right means (Shrīkrsnastava, verse 19). So says the Shruti- Nendriyani nanumanam-that is, neither the sense-percep- tion nor the inference can lead to the realisation of the Lord (Quoted in VRM., p. 61; Suradruma. p. 195). Thus, it is clear from the above that for the true knowledge of the Paramatman and the Jica along with Their qualities, the only source of knowledge is the Seriptural testimony. while for the knowledge of the various aspects of the cos- mie world. the sources of knowledge are Perception and Inference. It may be mentioned here that although Perception and Inference both are valid sources of knowledge, yet sometimes there appear some defects in these also. As for instance, at the perception of illusory head one may take it to be the head of a particular man; or at the sight of the rise of profuse smoke from a mountain top after the fire is extinguished by a heavy shower. one mav infer the F. 3

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mountain to be fiery ; hence, it is held that these two sources of knowledge are not independent like the Scriptural testi- mony (VRM., p. 61). It may be, therefore, concluded that as far as these two sources of knowledge are concern- ed. self-validity (sratah prāmāņya) of knowledge is not possible according to this school. In the case of Verbal testimony, on the other hand, self-rulidity is recognised even according to Nimbārka.

VALIDITY OF THE SO-CALLED ERRONE- OUS COGNITIONS

The Nimbarka school of thought is an exponent of the theory of distinetness and identity: and accordingly. be- lieves in the mutual distinctness and identity of the Para- matman, Jira and the Jagat (Saurabha, Kaustubha, on Bra. Sũ. III. ii. 27). It is, therefore, that the system is also known as Satkhyātirāda. Hence, everything being of the nature of Brahman, the knowledge of animate and inanimate objects is always valid beyond doubt (Dasha. Verse 7; VRM., pp. 83-84), and there is no erroneous knowledge ever. Thus, as regards the stock example of the so-called erroneous cognition-'idam rajatam' (it - ovster-shell-is a piece of silver), it is said that had silver been really non-existent in the pearl-oyster, then there would have been no imposition of it upon the pearl-oyster; just as, no one sensibly ever imposes the existence of lotus upon sky. Moreover, according to the Process of Quintuplication of the five elements (Pañcikarana) the fiery element, which is also the cause of silver, is present even in the pearl-oyster. Hence, it is not erroneous to say that pearl-oyster is a piece of silver. But as the silver is present there only in very subtle form, it is not of any practical use. And it is this aspect of the thing that leads one to speak of the statement as an erroneous

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one. It should be kept in mind that in common parlance the term 'real' (yathartha) ordinarily is used in connection with that object which forms the major portion of the com- posite, and it is this major portion which is spoken of in worldly usage; while that which forms the minor portion is said to be unreal (ayathärtha) or illusory, and is not even recognised for any eonsideration. It is this consideration which leads one to make distinction between such terms as- existence and non-existence; right and wrong; real and illusory, ete., etc. This double aspect of an object also is in keeping with the Bhedabheda theory of this school (Sura- druma, p. 20), Similarly, the knowledge of snake in rope is not erroneous; for the knowledge of snake which the knower has come to possess at that moment is produced from his cor- rect knowledge of the true existence of snake which he al- ready had in his subconscious mind. If it were not so, that is, if the knowledge of the snake in the rope were produced out of the non-existence of the knowledge of an existing snake, then a child who has no such knowledge also should perceive the snake in that rope, which never happens. Hen- cc, the knowledge of snake is real and not illusory. In the same way, the knowledge of water in the mirage is also real in accordance with the Process of Pancīkaraņa. It is not visible, because earthly elements predominate in the mirage. Hence, it is not of any practical value also. Likewise, when a man is suffering from jaundice, he happens to see the white conch-shell as yellow. This is due to the influence of the bile over the rays emanating from the eyes that the white colour is suppressed and the yellow colour is manifested in its place. This biliary influence is not perceived by others. Hence, those who do not see the yellow colour think him to be wrong, while, in fact, he is not so. Sometimes, people are found suffering from the so- called mistaken notion regarding a particular direction

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(digbhrama). They take the east to be the west, the south to be the north, and so on. Sometimes, the notion is so strong that people never get rid of it throughout their whole life. This is also a case of valid cognition. The validity of this notion is due to the simple reason that a particular direction is present in another direction, and it is due to some unseen cause that only one direction is cognised there, while the presence of another is overlooked. In the same manner, it is due to the swift motion of a fire-brand that it is taken to be circular forming as one connected row of light. Again, people wrongly think that it is the reflection of mirror which manifests the colour of the face. The fact is, on the other hand, that the rays coming out of the eyes become obstructed by the mirror and then through the mirror those very rays reflect upon our face and manifest its colour. The whole process takes place so very swiftly that no one easily becomes aware of it. There is another so-called erroneous knowledge about the visibility of two moons simultaneously. Now, this is due to the fact that the rays of the eye become diverted to- wards two directions through darkness, etc., caused by the obstruction of the fingure, so that there being two different causes there appear to be two distinct moons. Through the help of one of the causes one perceives the moon in her own place while through the other cause one being diverted a little, perceives the spot near by the moon and through it perceives the moon which has left her own place. Hence, through the two different causes although the moon, quali- fied by the occupation of the two different places simulta- neously, is cognised, yet since there is the cognition of two moons and there being difference in the form of the object of cognition and also as there is no cognition of a single moon, there is a general notion that there are two moons. Here, as there are really two different causes, there is

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bound to be the cognition of two moons qualified by the occupation of the two different places. This necessitates the duplication of the form of the moon in all its reality. Thus, it is clear that ocular tejas, when divided into two through the influence of the darkness, leads to the visibil- ity of two moons. When the darkness, however, is removed then only one moon is seen. In all these cases of the so-called erroneous cognitions both the source of knowledge and the knowledge are always present; and through the cause one comes to have the know- ledge of the effect. In every case, the knowledge should be present; for, if it were not so, and even if the object he present, there would be no effect. (Suradruma, pp. 199 -- 203). It would not be out of place to mention here that ac- cording to the Shankara Vedänta also the presence of the knowledge of snake in the mind of the person who takes a piece of rope for the snake is accepted without any hesitation; but what is called erroneous in this, is the im- position of that knowledge upon 'idam'. The Shańkara Vedanta also believes in the process of Pañcīkaraņa. and as the taijasa element which is the cause of the silver also is present in the pearl-oyster, it would not be wrong to say that there is silver in the pearl-oyster. But, as the Vimbarka school also holds, that is of no practical use. So there is not much difference in the two views. But Shankara does not refer to this point at all. He empha sises the aspert of contradiction (badha) and the false imposition, which. however, are not possible in the Nimbarka school. Whatever has been said above as regards the so-called erroneous cognitions refers not only to the waking state of consciousness but also to the dreaming state. Thus, according to Nimbarka, all the dream-cognitions are valid; and the reason for this is that the Lord Himself is the

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direct cause of all the objects of dream-cognitions. says the Shruti-"there are no chariots, no horses for the So

chariots and no paths, but He creates the chariots, horses for the chariots and the paths".(न तत्र रथा न तत्र रथयोगा न प्थानो भवन्ति, श्रथ रथान् रथयोगान् पथ: सृजते-(Brhada. IV. iii. 10). As regards the view that as both the cognitions and the objects of these cognitions are short-lived, they cannot be regarded as the creations of the Lord Himself, it is said that even the duration of the creations of the Lord depends upon His sweet Will; and so, some creations, like Akāsha, etc., exist till the time of the final dissolution, while others, like some individual beings, are comparatively short-lived, and those, like objects of dream- cognitions, are created and destroyed simultaneously. Regarding the objection that the creation of God should be visible to all and as dream-cognitions are not so, they cannot be regarded as His creations, it may be said that it is not true of each and every object. For instance, objects like happiness, sorrow, fear, fearlessness, ete., ete., although are His creations, yet these are not visible to all. So says the Lord Himself "Buddhi, wisdom, non-illusion, forgiveness, truth, self-restraint, calmness, pleasure, pain. existence, non-existence, fear, courage, harmlessness, equanimity, content, austerity, giving of gifts, fame and bad name, are the various qualities of the beings which are created by Me",- बुद्धिर्ज्ञानमसम्मोहः चमा सत्यं दमः रमः । सुम्वं दुःखं भवोऽभावो भयं चाभयमेव च।। श्रहिं सा समता तुश्रिस्तपो दानं यशोऽयशः । भवन्ति भावा भूनानां मत एव पृथग्विधा: ॥(Bhagavadgita. X. 4-5). In fact, the various dream-cognitions are created by the Lord Himself in accordance with the merits and demerits of the dreaming persons in order that they may experience pleasure and pain as fruits of their past deeds. The dura-

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tion of these cognitions also is determined by the Lord in that very light. The dreaming-self is not responsible for these cognitions. If the Individual Self were responsible, then he would have never allowed such dreams to appear as are believed to forecast evil effects; for instance, the cognition of a black man with black teeth, etc. (Saurabha, Kaustubha, and Prâbhā., on Brahma. Sū. III. ii. 4-7; Suradruma., p. 200.) Moreover, creations like those of the dreaming state are caused by such Beings who possess the qualities of satyasankalpa, etc., which are unmanifest in case of Individual-Self so long as he is not free from bondage. Hence, the Lord Himself is regarded as the creator of dream-cognitions, and therefore, these coguitions also cannot be erroneous. On these grounds, Nimbārka and his followers hold that all cognitions are real (yathartha). They do believe in remembrance (smrti) (Dasha. verse 5) and recognition (pratyabhijna-VRM, p. 8), but not as independent sources of knowledge. Such a knowledge inheres eternally in the Individual- Self who is its substrate. In the waking state it is manifest but it is unmanifest in dreamless sleep. It is an extra- ordinary quality of the Jira. Their relation is like that of the sun and his lustre. Jñana is eternal and possesses the peculiar characteristics of contraction (sankoca) and ex- pansion (vikasha). So says the Lord Himself-'Know- ledge is enveloped by nescience whereby mortals are deluded. And in whom nescience is destroyed by know ledge, knowledge shines like the sun.'- अज्ञानेनावृतं ज्ञानं तेन मुहन्ति जन्तबः ।। ज्ञानेन तु तदजञानं येषां नाशितमात्मनः । तेषामादित्यवजुज्ञानं प्रकाशयति तत्परम्।। -Gita. V. 15-16 along with the Tattvaprakāshikā, pp. 117-19. But we should not forget that under the influence of nescience caused by the eternal Māyā, this knowledge of the Jira remains screened;

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and so, the Jiva is not able to know everything during the state of bondage. But the Jiva comes to know every- thing about his property, etc., left by his forefathers and also about the existence of the external world and its various aspects when he is so informed by his relations. (Vide- एकस्मिन्नपि जन्मनि च पदार्थावधारणे मुह्यति। तत्र परमत्मना स्थापितान् सूर्यादीन पितृपितामहादि नञचतांञ्चार्थान पूर्वसिद्धान पुनः परिजनवचनात् वेति च -- Kaustubha, on Bra. Sū. II. ii. 28). Knowledge, being pervasive in its nature, helps the experiencing of pleasure and pain through out the whole body (Kaustubha, II. iii. 24), by the atomic Jina although it remains in the heart alone, like the light of a lamp, or the smell of a flower which spreads far and wide although its substrate remains only in one place. As regards the argument that knowledge, being per vasive, may even extend bevond one's own physical organism and may help another Jiva to experience pleasure and pain as it helps its own Jiva in the case of its own body, it may be said that knowledge, in the state of bondage, being limited by the influence of nescience in the form of action (karmātmakājñāna). requires the help of sense-organ and object-eentact of the organism to which it itself belongs for its manifestation. Such a contact is possible in the same organism to which that knowledge belongs and not in any other organism with which it has no connection. Hence, the Jira ensouled in one body cannot experience the feelings of another organism. In the state of final emancipation, however, the influence of nescience being cast off, knowledge becomes free to help the Jira to experience the feelings of every other organism. So says the Shruti-'Perceives all that is to be perceived and experi- enoes everything in every way' (Saurabha, Kaustubha and Prabhā. on Bra. Sū., II. iii. 23).

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EXISTENCE AND REALITY Existence or reality according to Nimbārka is of two kinds-Independent (Svatantra) and Dependent (Para- tantra). Paramātman or Para-Brahman alone is the in- dependent reality. The dependent existence, on the other hand, is of two kinds: Conscious and Non-conscious. Jiva-Individual-Self -- is the only conscious reality. The non-conscious reality, however, is of three types: Aprā- krta, that is, not pertaining to Prakrti, the primordial cause; Prākrta, the products of Prakrti and Kāla (time) (Dasha., verse 3).

GOD or PARAMĀTMAN Of these realities, the Universal-Self, variously known as Bhagarān, Ishrara, Ramākānta, Krsna, Purusottama, ete., is by His very nature free from the five kinds of pain (klesha), namely, Nescience, Egoism, Attachment, Hatred or Anger and Fear of death. (VRM., p. 43). He is beyond the influence of the three gunas-sattra, rajas and tamas. He is satyakäma (with true desires) and satyasankalpa (with true volitions). The law of karman does not affect Him. His powers are unthinkable. He is beyond all. He is the substrate of all that is good. He is the giver of final emancipation. He is infinite and unthinkable. He pos- sesses the following six qualities which He makes use of for creating the universe: 1) Knowledge through which He directly perceives everything of every place and of all the three times; 2) Power (shakti) through which He makes possible what is impossible; 3) Strength (bala) with which He supports the entire universe; 4) Supremacy (Aishrarya) by which He controls everything; 5) Energy (tejas) due to which He never feels tired although there is much to cause weariness; and 6) Prowess (rirya) through which He can subdue everything without being suppressed. Some of the more important qualities of God are: Mixing with all F. 4

26 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

freely without considering their place in life and society (saushilya), never taking note of the faults of His devotees (vātsalya), non-endurance of the sufferings of His depen- dents (mūrdava), sincerity in mind, body and speech (aryava), volition to protect others even at the cost of His own strength (sauhärda), being the place of refuge of all- from Brahma down to the lowest inanimate object (sharanya), endowed with the nature of destroying the faults of others (kārunya), firmness in battle (sthiratva), faithful observance of His promises (dhairyatva), being grieved at the misery of others without there being any cause for it and then being desirous of removing their sufferings (daya), having charming appearance (ma- dhurya), and similar other qualities which are all natural and eternal in Him. These qualities are required for the protection of those who seek shelter under Him (VRM., pp. 44-45, Saurabha, Kaustubha on Bra. Sū., I. ii. 2). He is of the nature of ryasti, that is, of limited pervasion and also that of samasti, that is, of all-pervasion. He is both unmanifest and manifest. He is omnipresent and omnipotent. He is the Lord of all. He is the cause of this Cosmic world. He is known through the Vedas. (Saurabha, Kaustubha on Bra. Sütra., I. i. 3). He is the subtlest of the subtle, the eternal amongst the eternals and greatest amongst the great. He is the source of all crea- tions (Saurabha, I. i. 10). It is out of Him that these ele- ments or beings (bhutani) come to exist. It is through Him that these created things have their existence and it is He in whom these retire at the end (Taittiriya Upa., III. 1). In other words, during all these three states, namely, crea- tion, existence and destruction, the created beings or ob- jects do not sever their connection from the Lord. He is the cause both of bondage and emancipation. He is the Lord of all and dwells in all the bhūtas (sarvabhūtā- dhivasah). He is the support of all the lokas. He is the

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inner soul of all the beings. He is the bestower of boons. He is the object of our adoration. He dwells in the heart of all beings and by His illusive powers (māyā) causes all beings to resolve as though mounted on a wheel (Vide- ईश्वरः रुर्वभूतानां हद्देशेऽर्जुन तिष्ठति। भ्रामयन् सर्वभूतानि यन्त्रारूढ़ानि मायया-Gita. XVIII. 61). There is nothing beyohd Him. All this is threaded in Him like the rows of pearls in a string (vide- मत्तः परतरं नान्यत् किञ्चिदस्ति धनञ्जय। मयि सर्वमिदं प्रोतं सूत्रे मणिगा इव-Gita. VII. 7). This whole cosmie universe, Buddhi, manas (mind), the gross air, tejas, water, Akasha, earth and the four types of beings, namely, viviparous (jarāyuja), oviparous (an- daja), produced from sweat (svedaja), and produced by ger- minating (udbhijja), are all ever present in Krsna. He is the doer and is eternal (VRM., pp. 43-47). He is present in the heart of all as their controller. He is all bliss and is the source of bliss to all other beings (Saurabha, I. i. 13, 15). He is the source of all light. When He shines, everything shines after Him; by His light all this becomes manifest (Muņdaka, II. ii. 10; Kațha. V. 15; Shvetāshva- tara. VI. 14). He is all happiness (Bra. Sū. I. ii. 15 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). He is all-perva- sive (Saurabha, on Bra. Sū., I. ii. 10). He is called Ak- sara, as He is the support of all the objects created from Äkasha down to the earth in all the three times (Bra. Sū. I. iii. 10 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). He is free from all evils. His nature is ever present (Bra. Sū. I. iii. 19), and is the cause of the manifestation of the na- ture of Jira (Saurabha, on Bra. Sū. I. iii. 20). He creates whatever He desires simply out of His sweet Will (Bra. Sū. II. i. 24 along with Saurabha, Kaustubha and Prabhā.). He is far superior to the Individual-Self (Bra. Sū. II. i. 21 along with Saurabha). He is āptakāma, that is, all His desires are ever fulfilled and He has no more desire

28 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

for anything (Kaustubha on Bra. Sū., I. ii. 11). He is the destroyer of the Universe (Kaustubha. I. ii. 9). He is the cause of all causes (Kaustubha I. ii. 14). He is pre- sent in every thing, conscious or unconscious, but is not affected by the demerits of the thing, as He is beyond the influence of the law of karman, just as the Ākāsha, pre- sent in the ink-pot or surrounded by walls and roofs, is unaffected by the defects of the pot or the room (Saurabha. III. ii. 11; 19, 30). He is unlimited (Bra. Sū. III. ii. 22). He is not cognizable through eyes, speech, action or manas, but becomes manifest through extraordi- nary devotion and austere penances (Kaustubha on Bra. Sū. III. ii. 24-25; Gītā. XI. 54). As the Lord is the cause of all and is in the heart of all, He is also the form of all (sarvarūpa), just as the sun is the eye of all (Kaus- tubha. III. ii. 30). It is He who establishes moral laws for the universe (Kaustubha., III. ii. 32) Although He is infinite and unlimited, yet for the purposes of devotional meditations He becomes limited, like the Ākāsha in a jar or the lustre within a window (Bra. Sū., III. ii. 34 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). This limitation is due to the influence of a condition (upadhi) in the form of the place of His manifestation (Prabha. on Bra. Sū., III. ii. 34). Besides, Paramatman is not gross (asthūla), but not atomic (ananu), not short but not long, whereby the possi- bility of His being a substance is also denied; He is not- red, not-viscid, not shadow, not darkness, not air, not Ākāsha, not resin (asanga), not taste, not smell. He has no eye-sight, no ear, no speech, no manas, no tejas like fire, etc. He has no vital-air (prāņa) and no mouth. He is not measured, nor is there anything which can be measured through Him. There is no space within Him (anantara). There is nothing which is not in Him. He does not eat anything, nor is He the food for any one (Brhadāraņyaka. III. viii. 8).

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He is the material cause (upādāna). That is, He manifests in grosser form His subtle natural potencies and their real effects inherent therein in the form of conscious and unconscious entities. He is also the instrumental cause, that is, He connects the conscious beings, who, through their beginningless past deeds and dispositions (samskāra) created by them, have got very faint or weak memory and cannot have any knowledge, with the means of experienc- ing the results of their past deeds by giving that much of knowledge to them which they would require in experienc- ing the fruits of their past deeds (VRM., p. 65). So say the Shrutis-"He desired, may I become many, May I grow forth (Chando. VI. ii. 3)"; 'Brahman is the forest, He is the tree from which came out the heaven and the earth, etc.' (Quoted by Saurabha, I. iv. 25)'; "He then Himself mani- fested His ownself" (Taittiriya. II. 7). He is the cause of the universe (Bra. Sū., I. iv. 27; II. i. 8 along with Saura- bha). He is responsible for all our dream-cognitions (Bra. Sū., III. ii. 27 along with Saurabha). He destroys the sins of His devotees (Kaustubha. I. i. 21). Like other na- tural qualities, He possesses colour (rūpa). The Shruti which speaks of Him as arapam, etc., refers to the physical and cosmic colour which, of course, is denied of Him (Kaustubha. I. i. 21). He has eternal body which is not made up of the products of the primordial matter. It is this body of the Lord upon which the devotees concentrate their minds in meditation. If He had no body, then there would have been nothing to meditate upon for those who are desirous of salvation, and then there would have been no upasana which necessitates the presence of a form to meditate upon. (Kaustubha. on Bra. Sū., I. i. 21). Again, the Shruti-"The person that is seen in the eyes, that is the Self that I spoke of; this is the immortal, the fearless Brahman" (Chāndogya, VIII. vii. 4) also shows that the Lord has a body; for only then the expression 'is seen' can

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be used. (Kaustubha. I.i.21). It is because He possesses a body that the Shruti speaks of the colour of His hair as golden, etc. (vide-Tattva. on Gītā. IV. 6). It is also due to His having a body that He is said to have two or four hands according to the wishes of His devotees (VRM., p. 72). The Lcrd in the form of Gopāla ever remains in the company of Rukmiņī, Satyabhāma and other ladies of the Braja, and He should be meditated upon by the devotees in this very form (VRM., p. 72). He possesses the ornaments of Shrivatsa, Kaustubha, Shankha, Cakra, Sharnga, Padma, Gada and Vamshi. He puts on the Vanamālā (a particular type of garland which hangs upto the feet) (VRM., p. 72). Paramätman alone is the instigator of doing good or bad deeds. And accordingly. He alone is the giver of the rewards of those deeds in accordance with the merits and the demerits of the persons. It is at His instance that a Being comes to this universe for experiencing pleasure and pain; and again, it is at His instance that one becomes free from bondage (Kaustubha on Bra. Sū. I.i.30; Bra. Sū., III. ii. 40-41 along with Saurabha, Kaustubha, and Prabhā.). Jaimini, following rigidly the Shruti-'Yajeta svar gakamah,' etc.,-thinks that action or dharma or apūrva accruing from the performance of rites and sacrifices, alone is the giver of the result, and not God. This view is not accepted by Nimbārka who thinks, like Bā- darāyana, that dharma or apurva or any meritorious deed independent of God never gives any reward. In fact, by the performance of such deeds one becomes qualified for getting rewards which God alone gives. Just as mere ploughing the field, etc., would not give the agriculturist good harvest, but it is the Lord who gives him a good harvest, so the Vedic sacrifices performed by the depen- dent selves cannot alone lead to any good result. It is God

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who is the giver of rewards. So says Shrīnivāsa that Purușottama alone makes people do righteous and unrighte- ous deeds in accordance with their past deeds, and rewards them accordingly (Kaustubha II.iii.41) There is no difference between Nimbārka and Shankara or Rāmānuja on this point (Vide-Shankara and Rāmānuja Bhāsyas on II. iii. 41-42). . Paramatman is of the nature of both cit and acit (Kaustubha. 1.ii.24). While creating the universe, He is both the doer and the object (karman). It is, therefore, that the Shruti says-'Then He Himself manifested His ownself' (Tai. II.7). As He creates the universe only for His Lila (playful activities), there is no sense of injustice and cruelty in Him (Bra. Su. II.i.32-33). While creating the universe Paramatman, who is naturally all bliss, the Lord of all, does not require the help of any instrument. It is simply by His Divine Will mixed with His eternal, infinite and unthinkable Potency that He creates strange objects of various types (Bra. Sū. II.i.30 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). Other beings, such as, Indra, or other gods, sages, ete., are capable of creating something only through the grace of the Lord (Bra. Su., II.i.27 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). He is the substrate of eternal action (Prabha. on Bra. Su., II.iii.32, p. 680). He is identified with the susuptisthana (Bra. Su., III.iii. 7. along with Saurabha, Kaustubha and Prabhā). He is independently all-illuminative (VRM., p. 6). In sound sleep He is always present as the experiencer of the happi- ness (VRM., pp. 11-12). He is by His very nature the knower (Ibid.). All the qualities of the Lord are all-pervasive, natural and bestower of the final emancipation. This being so, we should not think that all beings even in bondage will be influenced by these qualities of the Lord, for though these are all-pervasive, yet they become manifest in them alone

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who are true devotees and who have tried to realise Him through the regular process of hearing, reasoning and con- templating; in case of others, these remain unmanifest (VRM., pp. 18-19). Vişvaksena, Jaya, Vijaya, etc., who are eternally liberated, are the attendants of the Lord; Garuda is His conveyance; Shesa is His seat; Shankha (conchshell), Cakra, Gada (mace), bow made of horn and arrow, plough, and wooden pestle, etc., are His weapons; lute and horn are His musical instruments; kirita (crown), ear-rings, kaus- tubha (a jewel), raijayantī (necklace), vanamālā (gar- land), keyūra (a bracelet or an armlet). kataka (a chain), ring, yellow silken garment, etc., are His ornaments; All these are conscious. (Shrutyanta suradruma, p. 103). He has got infinite forms. Some of these are known as Vyūhas, while others are His avataras. By the former we should understand those particular forms through which the Lord manifests Himself for the sake of the creation of the universe and for making Himself easily available to His devotees during meditation. Generally, there are four such special forms, namely, Vasudeva, Sankarşaņa, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha. According to another classification they are twelve, namely, Keshava, ete. Of these Vyuhas, Vasudera is the Lord Himself in His nirguna aspect. He is also known as Ksetrajña (Shrutisiddhantasangraha, Chapter IV, verses 23, 26) Sankarsana is the Individual-Self. It is in this form that the Lord is within us as the internal check or the regulator of our internal feelings (antaryamin) (Ibid., verse 23) Pradyumna is the manas of all the beings. He does not undergo any change even when there is Pralaya. (Ibid., verse 24). From Him is manifested Aniruddha. He is the controller of cause and effect. From Him is manifested the entire universe, animate and inanimate. (Ibid., verses 24-25).

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It is out of His sweet Will for the protection of the virtues and the virtuous, for the destruction of the vice and the vicious and for firmly establishing righteousness and for the fulfilment of the desires of His devotees, that the Lord manifests Himself through several forms which are called incarnations (anataras). During these incarnations although His potencies (shakti) remain unmanifest, yet He is in His Full Svarupa. It is, therefore, that in the Gītā the Lord Himself says-'There is nothing beyond Me' (VII. 7). The Shruti also says-'Krsna is the Highest God'. These incarnations are of three types :- (1) Gunāratāra is one which is the creator, protector and destroyer of the cosmic existence by controlling the three gunas. He does the above-mentioned functions through the help of the deities presiding over the three gunas and Time. He, as the controller of rajas with the single limitation (upadhi) in the form of rajas and through its presiding deities, namely. Chaturmukha, Dakșa, Kāla, etc., is the creator; as the con- troller of sattna, Himself with the single limitation of sattra and through the presiding deities, namely, Kala, Manu, etc., is the protector; and as the controller of Tamas and through the presiding deities, namely, Rudra, Kāla, etc., is the destroyer. (2) Purusāratāra-There are three kinds of this incarnation : the first is the controller of the Prakrti (the primordial canse) which evolves Mahat and who takes rest, that is, sleeps, in the Causal ocean. The second is the controller of the aggregate (samasti) who takes rest in the Garbhoda (eternal water?). The third is the controller of the ryasti (individual) who sleeps in the Ocean of milk. The different names are due to the different limitations and states. (3) Lilāvataras-They are of two kinds: (a) Aveshavatara which itself is either (i) Svamshavesha-meaning the infusion of the Lord's ownself into a physical organism made up of the Prakrti directly without having the Individual Self (Jiva) F. 5

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as an intervention; as for instance, the incarnations of Nara and Nārāyaņa; or (ii) Shaktyamshāvesha wherein the supreme Lord infuses His potency (shakti) alone into a physical organism, and this He does with the Individual Self as an intervention. There is difference of grade at this stage and so their names differ; for instance, Dhan- vartari, Parashurama, ete., are classed as Prabhava, while Kapila, Rşabha, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanātana, and Sanatkumāra, Nārada, Vyāsa, etc., are regarded as Vibhara. (b) Svarūpāratāras are those incarnations of the Lord wherein He manifests Himself in His own Sat-Cit and Ananda form. These incarnations are in no way different from the Lord in rature, qualities and potencies; just as. one lamp is not different from the other. This incarnation is also of two types : (i) Amsharūpa in which case the Lord does not manifest His full powers, qualities, ete., althongh He is present in the physical organism in full: as for instarce, the incarnations of Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Vāmana, Hayagrīva, Hamsa, etc .; and (ii) Pūrņarūpa in which case, the Lord manifests His full powers, qualities, etc .; as for example, the incarnations of Shri Nrsimha. Dasharathī Rama and Shrī Krsna (Dasha., verse 4: VRM., pp. 47-49). It is quite clear from the above that according to the Nimbārka school the Lord is not attributeless (nirguņa); as the existence of the nirguna-Brahma is not proved through any source of knowledge. (VRM., p. 60).

INDIVIDUAL SELF OR JIVA

Of the two dependent realites, the conscious one is the Irdividual Self. In the Mahavakya-'Thou art that', the term 'Thou' refers to Jiva, the Individual Self. It is of the nature of consciousness. It does not depend upon the activities of any instrumental agency, except the Lord for its light; and hence, it is also of the very nature of

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light (Vide-Atrayam purusah svayamjyotirbhavati). Even then the Jira is said to be the substrate of conscious- ness. Both of these, that is, Jīva's being Jñānasvarūpa and Jñanashraya, are possible simply because they believe that identity does not depend upon the absolute resembl- ance or the sameness between the dharmin and the dharma (attribute) but upon the non-apprehension of the difference, (VRM., p. 47). Its very nature, existence and activities all depend upon the Supreme Lord (VRM., pp. 13-15; Vedantatattvabodha, p. 23). The powers of Jiva are limited. Jiva is eternal. The knowledge of Jica is screened by aridya (nescience) in the form of its past deeds which have no beginning (VTBodha., p. 12). It should be noted here that according to this school of thought aridya or Maya is used in the sense of the deeds of the past (karman) and not as false knowledge or illusory appearance. So says the Lord Himself-'Wisdom is en- veloped by unwisdom' (Gītă, V. 15). It is due to this very fact that the Jica becomes deluded. Under the influence of its own past deeds, it experiences pleasure and pain (Sau- rabha, on Bra. Su., I. ii. 8). So says the Shruti also-'It eats the fruit as if it were sweet' (Mundaka, III. i. 1). For reaping the fruits of its past deeds, it has to assume a body, which is made in accordance with the Jiva's own past deeds (Kaustubha, I. iii. 11-12). It is called by various names, such as, karmātman (that is, the doer), as it is in bondage through the influence of its own past deeds (VT Bodha., p. 13), Ksetrajña, etc. Jiva, as it has entered into an organism, is not the controller of anything (Saurabha. and Kaustubha., I. ii. 19-21). It is the experiencer (bhokta) of pleasure and pain as it is the master of the sense-organs (Saurabha and Kautubha. II. iv. 15). In suşupti the Jiva retires to the daharākasha which is identified with the Supreme Lord and comes back from there every day (Kaustubha. I. iii. 15).

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That Jira is the doer is clear from the texts-'One should live for hundred years while engaged in doing actions'; 'Desirous of srarga, one should perform the sacri- fice'; 'Desirous of salvation, one should submit oneself to the Lord'; 'He is to be searched out'; 'He is to be realized'; 'Desirous of salvation, one should contemplate upon Brahman', etc., ete., all of which require that a conscious entity should be the doer. It is also clear from these very texts that Paramatman Himself is not meant to be the doer. (Bra-Sü., II. iii. 32 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). The Individual Self, which is identical with the egoistic element and which by its very nature is the doer, manifests itself as such through the sense-organ and object-contact during the state of bondage; just as, fire which is the natural substrate of burning manifests its burning nature when it comes in contact with wood, etc. And it is due to this that during sound sleep (susupti) and the state of fainting, there being no sense-organ and object-contact, the doership of Jira is not quite obvious, although it is not totally absent; for it is clear from the fact that its doership as regards the act of breathing is present even during those two states. (Prabhā. on Bra. Sū., II. iii. 32). The Individual Self freely (yathākamam) moves about within its own body during the dreaming state (Br. Upa. II. i. 18). It takes away, through its buddhi, along with it the cognising faculty of the sense-organs and retires to sleep. Likewise, it takes away the prūna (vital air) and freely moves about within its own body during susupti (Br. Upa. II. i. 17-18). All these go to prove that the In- dividual Self is the doer. Further, it is said in the Taitti- rīya (II. v. 1) that rijnana performs sacrifice and other deeds. Now, here the term rijñana is used in the sense of Jiva and not as intellect; for, if it were so, then the term should not have been used in the first case but in the instru- mental case (Bra. Sū., II. iii. 33-35).

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Now, it may be asked : if Jiva were the doer, then it should have been independent also; for independent entity alone can be the doer (vide-soatantrah kartā), and then the Jiva should never have performed any such action which would have produced undesired results. There are two parts in the above argument. As to the second part of the enquiry, it may be said that there is, no doubt, some regular conse- quence between the desired and the undesired results accru- ing from the righteous and unrighteous deeds respectively, but there is no such rule in the actual performance of the action; through some unseen force sometimes one is led to perform good deeds and sometimes bad deeds (Bra. Sū. II. iii. 36 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). Since Jica is the doer, he is also the experiencer and it is then alone that bondage and liberation are also attributed to Jiva (Bra. Su. II.iii.37). Besides, had Jira been not the doer who would have then performed the samadhi by merging one's self into the Brahman after having thought of Him as distinct from body, sense-organs, manas, and intellect, and having stopped the activities of one's own intellect (Kaustubha. II, iii, 38)? As for the first part of the enquiry, it may be said that in fact, the Paramatman alone is independent, and, as such, He alone can be the doer, and in reality it is the Lord Himself who is the doer. But for every practical purpose He has transferred that doer- ship to the Individual Self. It is, therefore, that the doer- ship of the Individual Self is also dependent upon the Lord. So it is said in the Kauşītaki (III. 8) that whomsoever the Lord wants to take to the good loka, He makes him do good deeds, and whomsoever He wants to take to the lower regions, He makes him do evil deeds. Again, it is said in the Shruti-'The Lord enters into the heart and controls all peo- ple.' In the Gita also, the Lord Himself says-'I am seated in the hearts of all and from Me proceed memory, wisdom and their absence' (XV. 15) (Bra. Su., II: iii. 40).

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Jina is atomic (anu). It is because Jira is atomic that it can go out of the organism at the time of death. Moreover, if it were all-pervasive, then the feelings of plea- sure and pain would have been felt everywhere. It can- not be of the medium size, for in that case, it would not be eternal (Bra. Sū., II. iii. 19 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). Muņdaka (III. i. 9) and Shvetāshva- tara (V. 8) speak of the atomic nature of the Jiva. The Jiva being atomic, although it occupies only a point in the body, yet like a drop of sandal wood-paste, it enlightens the whole body and experiences the feelings of pleasure and pain over the entire organism (Bra. Sū., II. iii. 23) So says the Smrti-'Although atomic, the Jira pervades over the whole body, as it is the case with a drop of the Haricandana paste', 'As the single sun illumines the whole earth, so the Ksetri illumines the entire ksetra' (Gītā, XIII. 34). (Kaustubha, on Bra. Sū. II. iii. 23). As the Jiva has turned its face away from the Lord under the influence of its own past deeds, it has to wander from one birth to another (Kaustubha. I. ii. 6). Due to its con- tact with avidya and karman, it falls into bondage (Pra- bhā. on Bra. Sū., I. ii. 6). It dwells in the heart and is the seat (adhisthana) of the Lord in a physical organism. It is the Lord's niyamya (that which is controlled) (Prabhā on Bra. Sū., I. ii. 21). It is called aja (unborn). It has no discriminative power. It is impelled by the force of its own past deeds which have no beginning (Kaustubha. I. iv. 10). It has knowledge as its quality which pervades over the entire body; and like a lamp, it enlightens the whole body, or like the smell of a flower whose substrate remains in one particular place, it spreads over the entire organism (Kaustubha., II. iii. 24-27). As its knowledge is all-pervasive, it is also sometimes said to be all-pervasive. but this does not refer to its nature (Saurabha., Kaustubha, and Prabha., II. iii. 28). There are four states of Jiva-

NIMBÄRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 39

waking, dreaming, sound sleep and going-out. Fainting is half death, in which state the Jiva reaches half way to the state of death. The state of fainting cannot be in- cluded under sound sleep, for in the latter case, there is happiness (Bra. Sū., III. ii. 10. along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). Jiva is infinite and distinct from one another by its very nature. This very nature of Jiva differentiates it from the Lord who is only One. This belief in the plurality of the Jira denounces the theory of Ekajina. As the number of Jira is infinite. there is no danger of all Jira's becoming liberated (VRM., p. 19). It, being an amsha of the Lord, is free from sins by its very nature, but its real nature is screened by the Maya in the form of its deeds of the past which have no beginning (Kaustubha. I. iii. 20). The manifestation of its nature also depends upon the Lord (Saurabha. I. iii. 20). Jira is the amsha (potency) of the Lord. So says the Lord Himself-'In this Jiraloka the Jiva is my own amsha in the form of shakti (potency)'- ममैवांशो जीवलोके जीवभूतः सनातन :- Gita, XV. 7; अपरेयमितस्त्वन्यां प्रकृतिं विद्धि मे पराम्। जीवभूताम्-Gita, VII. 5. It is to be remembered that here the term amsha has been used in the sense of Potency and not as a part or a spark or reflection (vide-amsho hi shaktirūpo grāhyah-Kaus- tubha, II. iii. 42; TP. of Keshava, on Gītā. XV. 7, VII. 5.). So say the Shrutis also-'The Jiva is the amsha of the Para'. 'This is the shakti of the Para. Jiva is less powerful and dependent' (Quoted in the Kaustubha, II. iii. 42). As such, it is distinct from Paramātman who is the amshi; but as its existence, activities, etc., are all de- pendent upon the Lord, it is also not distinct from Him. (Kaustubha. II. iii. 42). That the Jiva is the potency of the Lord, is further proved by such texts as-'all the beings are His Păda, that is, amsha (Saurabha. II. iii. 43).

40 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

It is because Jiva is the amsha of Paramatman, the latter does not experience pleasure and pain belonging to the former; just as, the defects of light (prakasha) which is the amsha do not affect the sun who is the amshi; or those of the sound which is the amsha do not affect the Akasha which is the amshi (Bra. Su., II. iii. 45 along with Saura- bha and Kaustubha). The Individual Self experiences pleasure and pain under the influence of its past deeds, but the Universal Self does not experience any such feeling (Prabhā. on Bra. Sū., II. iii. 45). As an amsha the Indivi- dual Self is identical with the Universal Self, but due to the former's connection with the cosmic body, injunction and denial regarding the Individual Self become possible, as for instance, so and so is not qualified for performing sacrificial rites, while so and so are qualified (Bra. Sū., II. iii. 47 along with Saurabha and Kaustubha). All the Jicas, though amsha of the same Lord, yet are not identical with one another. With the difference of the physical organism occupied by the Jiva, there is the difference between the Jiras themselves; and there is no possibility of the overlapping of their experiences even (Saurabha and Kaustubha, II. iii. 48). Due to the influ- ence of Māyā, the knowledge of Jiva is limited during the state of bondage (VRM, p. 20; Kaustubha, II. iii. 48). Even during the state of liberation the difference and non- difference between Jira and Paramatman remain non-affect- ed (Kaustubha, I. i. 7).

JIVA AND BRAHMAN-THEIR RELATION

Now, as the Individual Self is the potency of the Lord, it leads us to discuss the relation between the Individual Self and the Universal Self. We find that there are several pas- sages in the Upanisads, such as 'He who controls the In- dividual Self from within'; 'Having entered into the heart the Lord is the ruler of the people'; 'Paramatman is inde

NIMBÄRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 41

pendent and possesses more qualities'; 'Jiva is less power- ful, is dependent and is inferior'; 'The two unborn selves are said to be respectively conscious and less conscious, powerful and less powerful', etc., which show that the Indi- vidual Self is quite distinct from the Lord. Again, the Shrutis-'I, the desirer of salvation, after the fall of my body and the exhaustion of my prarabdha-karman (the set of past deeds which have begun to yield fruits), am to reach Him from here'; (Chando. Upa., III. xiv. 4); 'There are two drinkers of the Truth, existing in the body obtained as the result of the good deeds (of the past), both dwelling in the cavity of the heart, in the most highly splendid Parama-rayu. The knowers of Brah- man and those who perform the five sacrifices of dera, pitr, bhūta, manusya and brahma; and have per- formed the Naciketa-fire sacrifice thrice describe these as shadow and the sun respectively' (Katha. Upa., I. iii. 1); 'Know thou the Jiratman as seated in the chariot' (Katha., I. iii. 3); 'The two birds of handsome plumage, insepar- able friends, nestle on the same tree. One of them eats the fruit as if it were sweet, while the other, without eating illumines all round' (Mundaka. III, 1), support the differ- ence. Even the great-guru of Shankara, Gaudapāda says- 'The difference between Jira and Paramatman which has been pointed out before, etc., (Māņdūkyakārikā, 14). There are several passages in the Bhagavadgita which support the difference between the two. For instance-'O Arjuna, the Lord dwells in the heart of all beings' (XVIII. 61); 'He who sees Me everywhere and perceives everything in Me, of him will I never lose hold and he shall never lose hold of Me' (VI. 30)); 'He, who established in unity, wor- ships Me abiding in all beings, that yogin lives in Me whatever be his mode of living' (VI. 31): 'There is nothing whatsoever higher than I, O Dhananjaya. All this is threaded in Me as rows of pearls in a string' (VII. 7); 'I F. 6

42 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

am seated in the hearts of all, and from Me proceed memory, wisdom and their absence. And that which is to be known in all the Vedas am I; and I indeed am the know- er of the Veda and the author of the Vedanta (XV. 15); 'Since I excel the destructible (ksara), and am more excel- lent than the indestructible, in the world and in the Veda. I am proclaimed the Supreme Purush" (XV. 18). Again, the Shrutis which speak of Jña (Omniscient) and Ajña (less- knowing); the two unborns; the Lord and the Dependent Self; the Lord of the Ksetrajña; the eternal amongst the eternals, the conscious of the conscious, ete. (Vide-Shata- patha, X. 6. 3. 2) all support the difference. From all these texts quoted above it is elear that the Individual Self is quite different from the Universal Self. Besides, if they were absolutely identical, then by creating the universe, a place for all sorts of pain, Para- matman would have been accused of doing wrong to Him- self. Jiva is the doer of good and bad deeds and the experiencer of the three kinds of pain, and if it were the same as the Paramatman, then the latter would have also become the doer and experiencer of the results of the past deeds, like the former (Saurabha and Kaustubha on Bra. Sü., II. i. 20). On these grounds, it is said that Jiva is distinct from Brahman. But at the same time, there are such texts which defi- nitely assert the identity between the two. For instance, 'Thou art that'; 'This Atman is Brahman'; 'I am Brahman'; 'This whole is Brahman', etc. etc. And as all these texts have equal strength, it is difficult to accept one kind of texts and reject the other. It is not possible too to classify the texts as Primary and Secondary. Hence, Nimbärka advo- cates the theory of Bhedabheda. That is, the relation be tween Jina and Brahman is both of identity and difference. (Bra. Sū., I. ii. 6; I. iv. 20 along with Saurabha and Kaus- tubha). By identity here it means that the existence,

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 43

activities, etc., of the Individual Self are all dependent upon the Lord. In the case of the non-conscious reality also, when it is said-'Sarvam khalvidam Brahma' (indeed all this is Brahman), what it means is that the whole non- conscious reality comes out of Him (Kaustubha. II. i. 21). Several instances may be adduced in support of the above. For instance, stones; like admantine, emerald, etc., are earthly modifications and as such may be called earthly, yet in form these are quite distinct from the earth; or the lustre of the admantine though not different from adman- tine, yet in form it is different ; so the ocean and the waves; the sun and its lustre, ete., ete. (Bra. Sū., II. i. 22 along with Saurabha; and Kaustubha; II. 1. 13). Regarding this theory of the Bhedābheda, AUDULO- MIN says that the texts-'This Jiva, after going out of this body after death, realises its own nature, attains the high- er light, that is, Paramatman' (Chandogya. VIII. xii. 3); 'Just as rivers, flowing when go to the ocean, become there invisible having freed themselves from the name and the form, so the wise losing his name and form goes to the Divine Person Who is greater than the Great' (Munda., III. ii. 8)-show that the Jira, leaving this body, goes out and attains the Brahmahood (Paramātmanā saha bhāvāt- Brahmabharapannatrat). Hence, the Jira is the same as Brahman. The difference between the two exists only so long as the Jira is in bondage. They become one and identical when the Jiva becomes liberated. To this SHRI-NIVASA says that for the good of those who have no sharp intellect this view is quite good. But the fact is that even during the cosmic existence the atomic and less-knowing Jiva, although distinct from Brahman who is all-pervasive, omniscient and infallible in nature, yet like the leaf from the tree, the light from the lamp, quality from the qualified, sense-organ from the vital-air, its exis- tence and activities being dependent upon the Lord, it is

44 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

not distinct from the Paramatman. So even in the state of liberation although the Individual Self has no separate independent existence, etc., and hence, may not be regarded as distinct from Him, yet when we find that the Shruti says-'Svena rupena sampadyate'-'realises its own nature' in liberation, then it is difficult to deny their dis- tinctive nature even during the state of liberation. If it be not accepted, then the nature of both, the Jina and the Paramātman, becomes loose (Kaustubha. I. iv. 21). ASHMARATHYA, on the other hand, thinks that Jiva is the effect of Paramätman who is the cause of all, as the Shruti says-'Yato va imani bhutani jayante' from whom these beings (from the highest to the lowest) have come out (Tai. Upa., III. 1). Thus, they are related as cause and effect. But when we know that after all the effect, that is, the Jiva, is the same as the cause, then the identity between the two becomes established. So there is a sort of natural Bhedabheda between the two (Bra. Sū., I. iv. 20 along with Kaustubha). KASHAKRTSNA, however, is of opinion that as the Paramatman dwells in the Jivatman, who is His niyamya (that is, controlled by Him) as the Shrutis say-'He who dwells in the Atman, etc.'; 'Whose body is the Atman (that is, Jivatman)'; 'He who controls the Jivatman from with- in'; 'That Atman, the immortal, is the controller'; 'He having entered into the heart of all rules over all', etc., etc., the controller is identified with the controlled (Bra. Su., I. iv. 22 along with the Saurabha and the Kaustubha).

DIVISIONS AND SUBDIVISIONS OF JIVA The Individual Self, who, under the influence of its series of past deeds which have no beginning, is not capable of differentiating between its own nature and that of the other (Kaustubha. I. iv. 10), is of two kinds: (1) Baddha (not free)-that is, one who has identified itself with the

NIMBĂRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĂNTA 45

physical body of a god, or of a human being, or of any other being who is a modification of the primary matter (Prakrti) under the influence of its own past deeds and is experienc- ing sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell-the various modifications of Prakrti and is devoid of the Supreme Bliss (Kaustubha. I. iv. 10; VRM., p. 22). (2) Mukta (free from bondage),-liberated self is one who has received the grace of the Lord through good luck due to his pitiable condition and has realised the Supreme Bliss through hearing, thinking and meditating upon the Shrutis by sitting at the feet of his guru and who has freed himself from the influence of Prakrti (Kaustubha, I.iv.10). Baddha, again, is either mumuksu (desirous of free- dom from the cosmic existence) being disgusted with expe- riencing of the various kinds of worldly pains, or bubhuksu (desirous of experiencing worldly pleasures). Of the mumuksu, again, there are some who desire the realisa- tion of the true nature of the Lord (bhagavadbhāvāpatti), while others desire for the realisation of their own nature (nijasvarūpāpatti). Similarly, the bubhukșu is, either who has got blissful future (bhāvishreyaska), or is ever worldly (nitya-samsārī). Of the liberated beings (mukta) also, there are some who are eternally liberated (nitya-mukta). They experi- ence eternal bliss alone through the eternal perception and service of the Lord and are eternally free from the experi- encing of the worldly pains proceeding from the Prakrti and its modifications, such as, coming into the womb of the mother, taking birth, growing old and then leaving the physical body. They are, again, either those who are immediately connected with the Lord (anatarya) such as, His crest (kirīta), bracelet (kataka), ear-rings (kundala), and flute, or those who attend upon the Lord (Pārsadas), such as, Vişvaksena, Garuda, etc. Of other liberated beings, some are such who have been freed and are experi-

46 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

encing the Absclute Bliss of the Lord, as it is said by the Lord Himself-'Freed from passion, fear and anger, filled with Me, taking refuge in Me, purified in the austere penances (tapas) of wisdom, many have entered into Myself' (वीतरागभयक्रोया मन्नया मानुपाश्रिताः। बहवो ज्ञानतपसा पूता मन्भावमागता :- Gītā., IV. 10). 'Having taken refuge in this wisdom and being assimilated to My own nature, they are reborn even in the emanation of a universe, nor are disquieted in the dissolution' (इदं ज्ञानमुपाश्रित्य मम साधम्येमागताः । सर्गेऽपि नोपजायन्ते प्रलये न व्यथन्ति च-Gita., XIV. 2). Those who have entered into the very being of the Lord Himself are capable of assuming infinite bodies according to their own desires in accordance with the Divine Will, as we have in the various incarnations. So says the Shruti-'He manifests Himself in one form, into two forms, three forms, five forms and thousand forms (Dasha., verse 2; VRM., pp. 22-23). Others are those who are satisfied simply by the realisation of the Blissful nature of their own. For facility of easily grasping the divisions and sub-divisions of the Individual Self a table is given below : JIVA

Baddha Mukta -

Mumukşn Bubhuksn

Bhagavadbhāvā- Nijasvarū- pattilakşaņamukti- pāpatti- Bhävishreyas- Nityasamsa- kāmāḥ. kamāh. kāḥ. riņah

Mukta Nitya Mukta -

Niratishayānandarūpabhagavad- Svasvarūpāna- Anantaryāb. Pārșa- bhāvāpattilakşa- ņamuktivantah ndāpattimātreņa santnsțāh. dãh.

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 47

PASSAGE OF JIVA TO OTHER LOKAS The Individual Self during the state of bondage has got limitations, as has been pointed out above, under the in- fluence of avidya in the form of its own past deeds. These limitations disappear when the Self becomes free from bondage. The process of release is that after having fully experienced the worldly pleasures and pains by assuming a form of a god, or of a human being, or of a lower creature under the influence of its own past deeds, the Jiva is favoured by the Lord, without there being any cause for it. So says the Shruti-'The Atman is not to be attained by studying many Vedas or other Sciences, nor by intelligence, nor by much hearing or learning. By him alone He is attained whom alone this Atman selects; to him this Atman reveals His own nature- (नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यो न मेधया न बहुना श्रतेन। यमेवैष वृणुते तेन लभ्यस्तस्यैष आ्रत्मा विवृरुते तनूं स्वाम् -Kațha. I. ii. 23). Then the Jira turns towards his preceptor (acarya) and serves him as one would serve a god. Then through the good teachings of his teacher he casts off all his ignorance, doubts, etc., and through the constant meditation of the true nature of the Lord, which when becomes mature, he shakes off all his ties of actions; and ultimately, becomes qualified for that type of liberation which is characterised as the realisation of the Nature of the Lord. So says the Shruti-'He who is free from de. sires perceives Him, through the sense-organs including manas, one knows the Greatness of one's Self and becomes free from sorrow' (तमक्तुं पश्यति वीतशोको धातुः प्रसादान्महिमानमात्मनः -Kațha., I. ii. 20). Again, 'The actions of Jiva becomes ineffective, the ties of the heart are broken, all the doubts are removed, when that Supremely Great is seen'-(भिदते हृदयभन्थिरिछ्यन्ते सर्वसशयाः। क्षीयन्ते चास्य कर्माणि तस्मिन् दृष्टे परावरे-Mundaka II. ii. 8) 'When the Jina sees the golden coloured Creator and

48 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

Lord, as the Person from whom Brahma comes out, then the wise, shaking off virtue and vice and becoming free from avidya, attains the highest similarity' (यदा पश्यः पश्यते रुक्मवर्णं कर्त्तारमीशं पुरुषं ब्रह्मयोनिम्। तदा विद्वान् पुरयपापे विधूय निरब्जनः परमं साम्यमुपैति -- Mundaka, III. i. 3). The Lord Himself has also said-'Through My favour the Jiva gets the indes- tructible eternal place' (मत्प्रसादादवाप्रोति शाश्वतं पद्मव्ययम्-Gita. XVIII. 56). The Individual Self under the influence of its past deeds, known as aridyā or Māyā, has to leave one organism and go out for assuming another body in accordance with its own deeds at some definite time, which is called death. When the time for it approaches, then the organ of speech of that Jira along with the cther sense-organs becomes connected,* that is, becomes one, with the manas (Bra. Su., IV. ii. 1-2). In other words, except manas all the other sense-organs stop their individual functions. Then the Manas, along with all the sense-organs which have become one with it, becomes connected with the vital-air (prāna). The vital-air then begins to move upward and manifest ing its various movements in the hands and feet, in com- pany with the Individual Self becomes connected with tejas. (Here is a slight difference between what is said in the Chändogya Upanisad and that which is said here in the Saurabha. The Chāndogya Upa., VI. viii. 6. says that the Prana goes to the tejas which, in its turn, comes in contact with the Jirg. The Saurabha, on the other hand,

"It should be noted here that by the term 'sampatti' Shankara means 'laya' extinction; while Nimbarka, like Rāmanuja, savs- samyogarupa sampattih. Hence, while explaining the Shruti- Vānmanasi sampadyate-Shankara says that the vrtti of vani becomes dissolved into Manas. Nimbarka, on the other hand, says- वागिन्द्रियस्य मनसि संयोगरूपा सम्पति :- Saurabha, iv. ii. 1. Kaustubha. adds-वागेब वृत्तिमती मनसि सम्पयते। सम्पत्तिरिह संयोगरूपा काया न तु लय रूपा, भनुपादानभूते मनसि वाचो लयासम्मवात् । Moreover, the organs of speech, etc., should follow the Jiva to the next birth and hence, there can be no merg- ing of these into the Manas-Kaustubha; IV. ii. 1.

NIMBARKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 49

follows the version of the Brhadaranyaka., IV. iv. 2, where we find that the Prana is directly connected with Jiva and through Jiva it becomes connected with tejas. Both Shankara and Rāmānuja also hold the same view). By tejas we should understand all the five elements (Bra. Sü., IV. ii. 5). Then through the grace of the Paramätman the upper portion of the heart becomes en- lightened and the Jiva with the help of that light takes hold of one of the arteries, and accompanied with the subtle elements which are the germs of the would-be body (Bra. Sü., III. i. 1 along with the Saurabha and the Kaustubha) leaves the body and goes out of the body through eyes or any other part of the body. Of the Fettered Selres, there are some who have done only wrong deeds and never any good deed in their life. When such persons die, they go straight to the abode of the God of Death (yamaloka), as it is said-'The way to the Supreme Liberation does not appear to the ignorant de- luded by the illusion of wealth and acting carelessly. He who thinks that this world alone exists and not the other, comes, again and again, in my control' (Katha., I. ii. 6); and there they experience various types of pain in the well- known seven hells-raurava, mahāraurara, vahni, vai- tariņī, kumbhī, tāmisrā and andha-tāmisrā (Bra. Sū., III. i. 12-15). These Jicas do not go to the Candraloka even for assuming another body, after the experience of hell, to come to this world again. They get their bodies even without going there: for, Candraloka is meant for meritori- ous and jnunins alone. So says the Shruti-'They die and are born again. This is the third place' (Chandogya., V. x. 8). Their body is produced out of the watery elements present in another bhuta (bhūtantarapravistabhiradbhiķ sharīramārabhyate-Kaustubha III. i. 18). Those Individual Selves who have not attained the true knowledge of the Lord but have performed good and F. 7

50 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

righteous rites and sacrifices ({e) -such as, the perform- ance of Agnihotra, penances, speaking truth, protection of the Vedas, showing hospitality, offering oblations to Vishvedevas; and have done deeds of charity (q=)-such as, the digging of wells, building of temples, etc. (vide --- वापीकूपत डागादि देवतायतनानि च। अ्न्नप्रदानमारामाः पूर्तमर्थ्याः प्रचक्षते ।। एकागिकर्महवनं त्रेतायां यब हूयते। अन्तर्वेद्यां च यद्दानमिष्टं तद्भिधीयते॥ अमिहोत्रं तपः सत्यं वेदानां चैव पालनम्। आतिथ्यं वैश्वदेवश्च इष्टमित्य- firefaa n), go to the Candraloka through the Dark-path (dhuma-marga), when they die. That is, when the Individual Self of this type leaves the body, it goes to the presiding deity of the smoke which used to gather round the Jica, coming out of the fire wherein the Jica used to offer oblations, while living. The presid- ing deity is non-human and his function is to take the Jira to the next loka (Chandogya, IV. xv. 5). It being impossible for the Jira encased in the subtle body to move from one loka to another independently, God has appointed these presiding deities of the various lokas to carry the Jina from one loka to another. Or it may be that God in order to enhance the dignity of the Jiras, has appointed these deities to help them. These deities are called Atirahikas (Prabha., IV. iii. 4). The presiding deity of the smoke leads the Jina to the presiding deity of the Rätri (night), which, in his turn, takes him to the presiding deity of the dark half side of the month (aparapaksaderatā). This deity also takes the Jiva to the presiding deities of the winter solstice (dakşiņāyana). It should be noted here that this type of Jiva does not go to the presiding deity of the year, where only those who take to the Path of Light go. (Chāndogya, V. x. 3). These deities, in their turn, carry the Jiva to the Pitrloka wherefrom he is taken to the Äkāsha whose pre- siding deity takes him to the Moon. Here the Jira assumes a body produced out of the

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watery elements which have accompanied him, since his perfcrmance of the sacrifices while living, along with the other subtle elements. This body helps the Jiva to reap the fruits of his meritorious deeds. He remains in this loka till all the fruits accruing from his good deeds become exhausted in the company of other gods. (Kaus- tubha, III. i. 7). No sooner the fruits of his rites and religious sacrifices become exhausted than he, again, returns to the cosmic world, along with the residue of his collected action (sañcita-karman), other than that the result of which has been experienced in the Candraloka (Kaustubha, III. i. 8). The watery body, which the Jira had assumed in the Candraloka melts away by the heat of the grief caused by the perception of the declension or exhaustion of his bhoga (Shankara-Bhāsya, on III. i. 8). The Jiva then comes down from the Moon through Akāsha, Vāyu, Abhra (cloud which does not give any water), and Megha (clouds giving water). From Megha he comes down in the form of rains, which appear, in course of time, as sprouts, plants, etc. These grains will be eaten by various beings in accordance with the deeds of that Jina. That is, those who have done good deeds will enter into the body of good beings, while others will enter into the body of lower creatures (Kaustu- bha, III.i.8). So says the Shruti-'Those whose conduct here has been good, will quickly attain some good birth-the birth of a Brahmana, the birth of a Ksatriya, or the birth of a Vaishya. And those, whose conduct has been bad, will quickly attain some evil birth-the birth of a dog, the birth of a hog, or the birth of a Candāla (Chandogya., V. x. 7). Thus, the chain of births and deaths continue in the case of such Jinas. But then there are other Jinas who become favoured by the grace of the Lord even in the very womb of the mother. So such Jiva takes his birth when sattoa pre-

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dominates. Since his very birth he becomes a desirer of liberation and acts accordingly. So all his actions are without any desire for their results and are done for the sake of the Lord. Such a Jiva always carries with him the grace of the Lord. His inner-senses, in course of time, become completely purified which makes him disgusted with the world. The Jira then starts enquiry about the true nature of the Lord through the time-honoured process of shravana, manana, and nididhyāsana. When his medita- tions become fully matured then the darkness of his avidya becomes dispelled (Dasha., verse 6), and ultimately, he becomes liberated (Prabhā., III. . 1).

KNOWLEDGE AND KARMAN

In order to be liberated one should perform Upāsana (meditation) for which there is only one way (Kaustubha. III.iii.1); as all the Shrutis speak of the same Paramūt- man, there can be no two ways for His realisation. Thus, says the Katha-'That approachable is spoken of unani- mously by all the Vedas' (I.ii.15). The Lord Himself also says-'I alone am to be known by all the Vedas' (Gitā, XV.15). He should avoid all the bhogas and their causes, and should hear of the Lord and His attributes, think of Him and His attributes, and meditate upon Him and His attributes (Kaustubha, III.iii.4). As to the question who should be the object of meditation-whether the Individual Self, with limitations, present in the body as the knower, doer, and experiencer, or That Self which is free from all limitations, with His natural manifested form and free from evils, etc., Nimbārka holds that no doubt, the Individual Self should form the basis of our meditation but not as in bondage but as free from all limitations, liberated, etc. (बद्धाकाराद्विलक्षणो मुक्ताकारः प्रत्यगात्मा साधनकालेऽनुसन्धेयस्ताटप्रूपस्यैव मुक्की भावित्वात्-Saurabha III. iii. 52)

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The highest aim of life, that is, liberation, is to be achieved through the attainment of true knowledge. So the prominence of Vidyā is emphasised by Bādarāyaņa (Bra. Sü., III.iv.1) on the basis of several Shrutis-'The knower of the Atman crosses (the ocean) of grief' (Cha., VII.i.3); He, who knows the Highest Brahman, becomes Brahman' (Mundaka,. III.ii.9); 'The knower of Brahman becomes one with the Para-Brahman' (Taittiriya, II.i.1); 'He, who knows that Purusa as Great shining like the sun, above the darkness, becomes immortal;' 'There is no other path to go' (Yajurveda, XXXI. 19); 'As the flowing rivers reaching the sea lose their name and form, so the wise lose, their name and form (that is, their individuality) and reach the Dirine Person Who is greater than the great (Mundaka, III.ii.8); 'When the Jira perceives the golden coloured Creator and Lord, as the Person from whom comes out Brahma, then the wise shaking off virtue and vice and becoming free from avidyā, attain the Supreme Similarity' (Muņdaka, II.i.3). JAIMINI, on the other hand, holds that since Atman is the doer, He is subordinate to Action. The doer is led towards the action leading to Svarga only when he knows the Atman as distinct from body, etc. Thus, through the samskara of the doer (kart), the knowledge of the Atman, that is, vidya, is subordinate to action. The Shrutis like, 'the knower of the Atman goes across the ocean of grief', 'the knower of Brahman achieves the Highest', etc., etc., are all merely valedictory passages (arthavāda) (Kaustubha, III.iv.2). This view is supported from the instance of king Janaka, who being a Jñanin, performed several sacri- fices (Saurabha, III.iv.3) and also by the authority of the Shrutis-'that whatever action is done through nidyū, (knowledge), faith, and Upanisad (meditation), is more powerful (effective)', (Cha. I. i. 10); 'Vidyā and Karman follow him who goes to the other world'; (Brhada., IV.

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iv.2); 'One who has studied the Vedas at the hermitage of his preceptor, according to the prescribed rules, during the hours of leisure which he gets after performing the duties towards his preceptor, and having obtained his permission, should enter into the life of a householder studying the Vedas in some sacred place, etc.' (Chändogya. VIII.xv.1). All this shows clearly that even after having attained the true knowledge of the Veda, one should con- tinue to perform actions (Kaustubha, III.iv.6). Again, the Shruti-'Let a man desire to live for hundred years performing actions even here. Thus doing actions you will not be influenced by wrong deeds, and not otherwise' (Ishāvasya. 2)-shows that the utility of knowledge (ridya) is for action (Saurabha, III. iv. 7). On these grounds, Jaimini holds that Knowledge is subordinate to action. NIMBĀRKA, like Shankara and others, does not agree with Jaimini. The reason is that the Shrutis speak of the Lord, as an object of vidyā, and far superior to the Individual Self. All the Shrutis agree on this point that Paramātman alone is to be known, which would never have been possible had ridyā or Paramätman been sub- ordinate to action. (Kaustubha, III.iv.8). There are several Shrutis which declare that the sages, after they had realised the true knowledge, declined to perform any action. Thus, the sons of Kavasa sage, having known the Paramātman, said-'Why should we now study or per- form any sacrifice. Undoubtedly, knowing this, the old sages did not perform the Agnihotra'; 'Having known the Atman, the Brūhmanas, devoid of the desires for sons, wealth and lokas, only go on begging (Brha. Upa., III.v. 1).' These Shrutis will lose their force if vidya (know- ledge) were subordinate to action (Kaustubha, III. iv. 9). On the other hand, holds Nimbārka, the performance of action not leading to any result, is declared to be sub-

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ordinate to vidya, that is, before the attainment of knowledge one must perform actions (Kaustubha, III. iv. 9). The Shruti-'Whatever a man does with knowledge, faith and meditation, becomes more effective' (Cha., I.i. 10) does not refer to all nidyas, but only to the particular vidyā called udgītha (vide-Chā. I.i.1). Again, the text -'Vidyū and Karman follow him, etc.' (Brhadāraņyaka, IV.iv.2), should be taken as referring to two different aims and persons-vidya for one, and karman for another (Kaustubha, III. iv. 11). The Shruti-'One who has stud- ied the Vedas at the hermitage of his preceptor, according to the prescribed rules, during the hours of leisure which he gets, after performing the duties towards his preceptor, and having obtained his permission, should enter into the life of a householder studying the Vedas in some sacred place, etc.' (Chāndogya, VIII. xv. 1) refers to a man who has studied the Vedas and not to a man who has attained true knowledge (Kaus- tubha, III.iv.12). Then the Ishāvāsya text 'Let a man desire to live for one hundred years,' etc., does not refer to a man who has attained true knowledge; for there is nothing in the text to suggest such a meaning (Kaustubha, III.iv.13). If, however, one makes out such a meaning, then we should understand that it is said in praise of a man equipped with true knowledge. So the meaning in that case will be that if a ridran performs any action, he is not influenced by its result, as it is said by the Lord Himself-'Though ever performing actions, taking refuge in Me by My grace, he obtains the eternal indestructible abode' (Gītā, XVIII.56); 'He who knows Me is not bound by action' (Gita, IV.14). Besides, we know that wise men willingly deny the production of issues, simply because it is the means of action. So says the Shruti -- 'What is the use of having an issue for a man who thinks of the direct knowledge of the Atman to be the Highest

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Aim' (Brha. Upa., IV.iv.22). It is because of the predomi- nance of knowledge that they say that the meritorious and demeritorious actions, the cause of the three kinds of pain. are made ineffective through knowledge. So says the Shruti-'When one has realised the Highest Entity, then the fetters of the heart are rent asunder, and all the doubts are dispelled and all his actions perish, that is, are made ineffective.' (Mundaka, II.ii.8). The Lord Himself has also said 'The fire of wisdom, O Arjuna, reduces ali the actions into ashes' (Gită, IV.37) (Kaustubha, III.iv. 14-16). Besides, we find that the sages, retired from worldly life, devote themselves to the knowledge of Brahman in their hermitage and that they never talk of any action in the form of the performance of Agnihotra, etc. The argument-that as there is no mention of any äshrama in the Vedas, the reference made to the sages above has got. no strength,-is not correct; for, we find definite mention of the ashrama in the Upanisads; for instance, the Chāndogya (II.xxiii.1) says-'Dharma has got three branches-sacri- fice, study and giving gifts represent the first; penance and austerity are the second and one who leads the life of a Brahmacari in the house of his preceptor is the third.' Again, 'Those, who meditate upon faith and penance in the forest, go to light,' ete. (Chandogya., V. x. 1); 'Those who practise meditation and contemplation (penance and faith) in a retired place' (Mundaka, 1.ii.11); 'Desirous of this very loka, that is, Atmaloka, the ascetics give up all the actions' (Brha. IV.iv.22). All these texts show that there are definite references to this äshrama in the Vedic texts; so the view of Jaimini does not get any support from the Shrutis and is not accepted. Having thus proved that the most important factor for the attainment of liberation is knowledge and not action, a further question is raised: whether know-

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ledge is quite independent of action or not? To this it is said that all those who desire for knowledge and consequently, liberation, do require the performance of āshruma-karmans (actions pertaining to some āshrama or the other). In other words, for the attainment of true knowledge all those actions which are perform- ed in the various ashramas are necessary. But when the true knowledge is attained and the ultimate aim is realised, there remains no necessity for the performance of any action. So says the Shruti-'The Brahmanas desire to know the Atman through the regular study of the Vedas, the performance of sacrifices and aimless penances and giving of gifts' (Brha., IV.iv.22). It is clear from the above that actions are required for the attainment of knowledge alone. Just as, the necessity of having a horse is for going to some other place, but when one has reached that place, then he does not require the horse any more. So says the Lord Himself-'Acts of sacrifice. gift. and austerity should not be given up. They should be perform- ed; for, sacrifice. gift, and penance are all the purifiers of the intelligent (Gīta, XVIII.5). Again. 'He. from Whom the beings come out, by Whom all this is pervaded, by worshipping Him through one's actions, either worldly or raidika, a man gets true knowledge' (Gītā, XVIII. 46). Thus, by the performance of obligatory and occasional (naimittika) actions, in accordance with one's own āshrama, proper for the worship of the Lord, through the kindness of one's own preceptor of the particular branch of learn- ing, true knowledge, which is the material cause of the realisation of the true nature of the Highest Being, in the forms of upāsana, meditation, highest devotion, is produc- ed (Kaustubha, III.iv.26). Through these actions an enquirer after true knowledge gets his inner-sense purified which leads to the attainment of true knowledge, but even then he should also possess shama (restraining of the manas F. 8

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from things other than the study of Vedānta); dama (turn- ing back the external senses from things other than the Vedantic study); uparati (continued abstention from what is other than such study when they are thus withdrawn); titikșa (the ability to bear the influence of opposite pairs, like pleasure and pain, heat and cold, etc.); samādhāna (centering of the manas, brought under control, on the study of Vedanta); shraddha (faith in the teachings of Vedānta as taught by the preceptor as subordinate to the true knowledge). Equipped with all these a desirer for libera- tion, restraining his sense-organs and manas concentrates upon the Atman and realises his true nature within one's ownself (Brhada, IV.iv.23). These are all essential for the attainment of true Fidya. Shama and dama, ete .. help one to concentrate one's mind by destroving one's sins. So says the Shruti -- 'Through dharma he casts off sins.' And when sins are dispelled, then the true knowledge becomes illuminated (Kaustubha, III.iv.27). Besides, for the attainment of true knowledge pure food is equally necessary. Pure food leads to the puri- fication of the inner-sense (sattra), which in its turn, leads to the dhrucasmrti (that is, love for the Lord similar to that of a worldly man for perishable objects; as it is said -- 0 Lord, the love, which an avivekin-ignorant has got for things perishable, may not leave me while thinking of Thee-VRM., p. 127). Of course, when life be found in danger without food, then for its preservation alone one may take even such food which one would not have taken in normal condition in any case (Kaustubha, III.iv.29-30) Performance of sacrifice, etc., which is useful for the attainment of knowledge, should be performed even by those who are not desirons of liberation. So says the Shruti-'Agnihotra should be performed as long as one lives' (Kaustubha, III.iv.32). When one, in accordance with one's, Ashrama, performs sacrifices in order to get

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true knowledge, then those actions do not predominate over knowledge and subdue it. In other words, sacrifices, ete., when performed as part of the duty of the ashrama, lead to the heaven; but when the same are performed as accessories of knowledge, then they produce true know- ledge (Kaustubha, III.iv.35). So says the Shruti-'The Atman which has been realised through Brahmacarya is never lost, that is, is never forgotten' (Cha., VIII.v.3). It is not necessary to belong to one ashrama or other for making oneself qualified for the attainment of true know- ledge, etc. Irrespective of one's being attached to any ashrama, one is qualified for true knowledge, muttering of mantra (japa), religious fasts, meditation of God. etc. There are several instances of persons, such as, those of Raikva, Vācaknavī, Samvarta, etc., who did not belong to any ashrama, but they were jnanins (Kaustubha., III. iv.36). But then, it is better to follow an ashrama, for it helps one to realise the truth in a better and easier way. It is, therefore, that the Smrti says that 'a drija should not remain without attaching himself to an ashrama even for a day' (Saurabha and Kaustubha, III.iv.39). Muttering of some mantras also helps one to attain true knowledge, through the purification of one's inner- self (antah-karana). So says Manu-'A Brāhmana cer- tainly achieves the highest success through the muttering of a mantra' (II.87). True knowledge results even from the acts performed while attached to an ashrama in pre- vious births. So says the Lord Himself-'Fully perfected through manifold births, he reaches the Supreme Goal'- (Gīta, VI.45), whereby it is inferred that before the attain- ment of true knowledge, although apparently one had not done any action while attached to any äshrama in the present life, yet one must have performed actions while attached to one ashrama or the other in previous births the resnlt of which is never lost (Kaustubha III. iv. 38).

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Silence, that is, constant meditation of the Lord with- out speaking a word, is also, as much helpful for the attain- ment of true knowledge as sacrifice, shama, shravana manana and nididhyasana, etc. He should be free from vanity, fraud, etc., and should never boast of his know- ledge (Kaustubha, III.iv.47-49). These are some of the accessories for the attainment of ridya. After one has equipped oneself with all the means of the realisation of true knowledge and if one has no obstacle in one's way, then one does attain it in that very birth; but if there be obstacles, then one will have to wait for another birth. There are Shrutis to support both : 'To many the Atman is not an object of hearing, while many who heard of Him do not know Him' (Katha., I.ii. 7) ;. 'Vämadeva knew of the Atman while in the womb of his mother' (Kaustubha, III. iv.50).

LIBERATION. The attainment of true knowledge leads to liberation. If the person who has attained true knowledge has exhaust- ed his Prärabdha-karman, then after the fall of this very body, he will get liberation; but if it has not been fully ex- hausted, then he will have to take another body or birth for the experiencing of the remainder of his Prarabdhakarman. And then at the fall of that body he will get liberation. So says the Shruti-'For him the delay is only so long as he is not liberated and then he will reach perfection' (Chāndogya, VI. xiv. 2). As the nature of the realisation of the Paramatman is so subtle and obscure that 'many who have heard of Him do not know Him' (Katha, I.ii.7), and as the influence of aridyā is so powerful that it is not possible to realise the ultimate aim simply by practising the accessories of the realisation only once, repetition (abhyāsa) has been prescribed in Vedanta as one of the six indications

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(linga) of shravana (study); and so the Shruti-'Thou art that' has been repeated nine times in the same chapter (Vide-Chandogya, VI.viii.7; ix.4; x.3; xi.3; xii.3; xiii. 3; xiv.3; xv.3; xvi.3). So the Lord Himself also says-'O Arjuna, if you are not able to concentrate your mind firm- ly on Me, then in order to know Me have repeated practice' (Gītā, XII.9); 'Visnu should be constantly remembered and never should be forgotten, ete.' (Brahma, Sū., IV.i. 1-2). While thus meditating upon the Lord for His own realisation, one should always bear in mind that one should think of Him as one's own self with which He is related as the amshi (Bra. Su., IV.1.3). So says the Lord -'O Gudākesha (the controller of sleep), I am the Indivi- dual Self seated in the heart of all beings' (Gitā, X. 20): Also know Me as the Ksetrajña, that is, as identical with the Individual Self' (Gitā, XIII. 2). The meditation upon the Lord should be done while sitting; for, in other postures, namely, lying down, or standing, or walking, he may either fall asleep, or his mind may be disturbed in making efforts to keep the body steady. Hence, the concentration and the firmness of the manas, which are so very essential for meditation, are pos- sible only while seated (Bra. Sū., IV.i.7-9. So says the Lord-'In a pure place established on a fixed seat of his own, neither very much raised, nor very low, made of kusha-grass covered with the skin of the black antelope and then with pure cloth, one over the other, there while seated on it, with his manas centered at one point, with functions of the inner and outer senses subdued, sitting on his seat, he should practise yoga for the liberation of the Individual Self' (Gita VI.11-12). Regarding the proper time and place for meditation, one should see that when and wherever one's manas (mind) becomes firm at one point, one should practise meditation (Bra. Sū., IV.i.11). So says the Shvetāshvatara (II. 10)-

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'One should meditate in a solitary place which is not un- even, is pure and free from pebbles, fire, sand, sound, tanks, mosquitoes, which is pleasing to the mind and is undisturbed.' This practising of meditation should con- tinue without any break till the end of one's own life; for the future depends upon the last desire of the dying man. So says the Smrti-'O son of Kunti, whosoever at the end leaves his body thinking upon any being, to that being only he goes after death. ever to that conformed in nature' (Gītā, VIII. 6). Thus, when through the constant practice of these above means a man has attained true knowledge, or supreme love for the Lord, then he becomes unaffected by sins, accruing from the kriyamana, in future, like a lotus leaf unaffected by water. So says the Shruti-'As water does not eling to the lotus leaf, so no evil clings to one who knows it' (Cha. IV. xiv. 3). As for the past sins, it is said-"Just as, the soft fibres of the Ishika reed would burn when thrown into fire, in the same manner, are burnt the evils of one who has attained true knowledge' (Cha. V. xxiv.3); 'The effects of all his actions perish when He, who is the Highest, is seen' (Mundaka, II.ii.8). Just as, the past and future effects of evil deeds done in several births are made ineffective by ridyā, in the same manner, the effects of meritorious deeds both of the past and the future births, do not cling to one who has attained vidyā (knowledge). For a man desirous of liberation, merit is as much an object of hatred as the demerit. So says the Shruti-'One who has realised the true knowledge goes across both the merit and the demerit' (Brha. IV.iv.22); 'He shakes off both merit and demerit.' Both these are equally opposed to liberation. Hence, when one becomes free from these and the body falls down as dead, one gets liberation' (Bra. Su., IV. i. 14 along with Sau- rabha). All this refers to such deeds as are still treasured

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up and have not yet begun to yield fruits. As for those deeds of the past which have begun to fructify, the attain- ment of knowledge cannot make them ineffective or destroy their force. They can be exhausted only by experience, which may be possible either in the very birth wherein one has realised the truth, or one may require to take another birth for their complete exhaustion. So says the Shruti- 'Action (Prarabdha) never becomes exhausted unless it has been experienced (Bra. Sū., IV.i.19). But actions done with some aim in view are destroyed like other meritorious and demeritorious deeds (Saurabha and Kaustubha, IV. i. 17). It should be noted here that such actions, as the per- formance of Agnihotra, giving of gifts, performance of austere penances and similar other obligatory and occasion- al actions, ete., are not included amongst those which become ineffective through knowledge; for these actions have been recommended in the Shrutis as means of realis- ing true knowledge. Thus, the Brhadāraņyaka says- 'Through the study of the Vedas, performance of sacrifices and austere penances, giving of gifts. a Brāhmaņa desires to know Him Who is known through the Upanisads' (IV. iv.22). And as the attainment of Vidya continues up to the end of one's life, one should continue the obligatory and the occasional actions in accordance with one's ashrama, throughout the life. In other words, actions pertaining to the different ashramas, such as, the perfor- mance of Agnihotra and austere penance, giving of gifts, etc., are helpful for the attainment of knowledge and as the period for the acquisition of knowledge extends up to the end of one's life, these also should be continued till the end of life (Saurabha, IV.i.16). When the person eager for liberation (mumuksu) has realised the supreme devotion of the Lord and his body is about to fall down as dead and release the Jiva for libera-

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tion, then his organ of speech along with its mode of functioning and along with it all other sense-organs become connected with the mind (manas), and not merged into it as Shankara says; for according to Nimbarka, these will merge only into the Paramātman (Kaustubha, IV.ii.1). So says the Shruti-'O Saumya, when the Jira departs from here its speech becomes connected with the mind, the mind with Prana, the Prana with tejas, and the tejas with the Highest Deity' (Cha. VI. viii. 6). The manas becomes connected with the vital-air which, in its turn, becomes connected with the Individual Self, as the Shruti says- 'In the same manner, at the end, when he is dying, all the prana, etc., go towards the Ätman', and 'When Jiva is go- ing out, leaving the body, prana follows it' (Brha., IV.iv. 2) and 'then all the other sense-organs follow the Jiva' (Ibid.). As said before, the Individual Self carries along with him the subtle forms of all the bhūtas with which the fresh body will be formed in the next world (Kaustubha, IV. ii. 5). The Lord is ever present in the heart of all, as the Shruti says-'He, the Paramätman, taking in all the tejas, that is, the sense-organs, within Himself, is found in the heart.' and He being influenced by the sincere devo- tion of His devotee becomes favourably inclined towards him; for He knows that here in the heart is the artery through which when the Jiva goes out 'it will be assimilated in Me'; so the Lord favours the dJiva with that knowledge by which the Jiva will go to Him. As He Himself savs -- 'I give them the yoga of discrimination by which they come to Me' (Gita, X.10). Then, the front of the heart becomes enlightened and the gate of the artery, called Suşumnā, which penetrates the head, also becomes illumi- nated. After this, the Jiva, under the influence of his vidya which has reached its perfection by that time, comes out of the body through the Susumn. So says the Shruti

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-- 'The upper part of the heart becomes enlightened and through that light the Self comes out through eyes, or head, or any other part of the body' (Brha. V.iv.2). And there the Self comes in contact with the rays of the sun which always remain in contact with the artery, and then through these rays he proceeds upwards to the regions of the sun. So says the Chandogya (VIII.vi.5)-'When the Self thus departs from this body, then by these very rays he proceeds upwards.' The rays of the sun are ever present whether it is night or day. That these are present in the night also is clear from the heat found in our body during the night. In the winter nights, however, they are not quite obvious as they are suppressed by the cold atmos- phere, dew-drops, frost, etc. Hence, even if a wise man dies in the night. he gets hold of the rays of the sun and directly goes to the regions of the sun. The rays of the sun and the Susumna are always connected with each other. So says the Chandogya-'Just as a long road goes to both villages, this as well as that, so do the rays of the sun go to both the worlds, this as well as the other. They proceed from the sun, and enter into these arteries; they proceed from those arteries and enter into the sun' (VIII. vi. 2). The text, which says that for a dying man day-time, the bright half of the moon, the summer solstice are very auspicious, while the night-time, the dark half of the moon, the winter solstice, etc., are not so, does not refer to the case of a wise man. It refers to the case of those who die with- out having realised the true knowledge (Bra. Sū., IV. ii. 17-19, along with the Saurabha and the Kaustubha). So, if a wise man is dead in the winter solstice, even then he takes up the Path of the Light and goes to the Brahma- loka. In the case of Bhisma, we should know that he waited for the summer solstice only to show that he had full control over the time of death and also to give a lead F. 9

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to the religious faith (dharmapravartana) (Kaustubha, IV. ii.19). Thus, it is clear from the above that a wise man when dead proceeds through the rays of the sun and through the Path of God, also known as the Path of Light. The gross body is left behind and the Jiva proceeds upwards encased in the subtle body. That the Jiva possesses a body is proved from the fact that while going through the Divine Path, he has a talk with the moon, which would not have been possible otherwise (Kaustubha, IV.ii.9). The heat found in the gross body during the life time is the attribute of the subtle body. This, again, is proved through the method of agreement and difference. So long as the subtle body is in the gross one, the heat is felt in the latter, but when the former is away, then no heat is found in the gross body. This subtle body accompanies the Self and does not leave him before the realisation of the Paramatman. When the Jira becomes ultimately liberated, then this subtle body merges into the Highest Being along with the organ of speech, mind and other sense-organs which had accompanied the Jiva. The subtle body consists of the eleven sense-organs, five subtle elements, called tanma trani, and Prana. But as the Prana and the sparsha" tanmätram are one and the same, the subtle body is said to consist of sixteen elements only. So says the Shruti-'Just as, these rivers flowing towards the sea, their goal, having reached the sea, disappear, their name and form are des- troyed and all is called 'sea', so of him that sees the Purusa around, the sixteen kalās, whose goal is the Purusa, hav- ing reached the Purusa, disappears, his name and form are destroyed and all is called Purusa alone. He then becomes free from parts and is immortal' (Prashnopanişad, VI.v). Now, a question may be asked : wether there is only one Path or there are several Paths. There are Shrutis

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which show that the Paths are many and as Nimbārka rigidly follows the Shrutis, he should believe in the plu- rality of the Path. Thus, it is found in the Chändogya (V.x.1-2) that 'they go to light, from light to day, from day to the bright half of the month, from the bright half of the month to those six months during which the sun rises towards the north; from those six months to the year; from the year to the sun; from the sun to the moon; from the moon to the lightning. There comes a person, not hu- man, who carries them to Brahman. This is the Path of the Gods.' Brhadaranyaka says-'They go to light, from the light to day, from day to the bright half of the month, from the bright half of the month to those six months during which the sun rises towards the north, from those six months to the regions of the gods (deraloka), from the regions of the gods to the sun, from the sun to the lightn- ing; from lightning a person, not human or created out of the mind, comes out and takes the Jiva away to the regions of Brahman' (VI. ii. 15). Again, in the same Upanisad (V.x.1), we read 'When a man goes away from this world after leaving his body. then he gces to the regions of Väyu and there he is given a small passage, like a hole in the wheel, and through it the Jiva goes to the regions of the sun. There also he gets a small passage, like a hole in a musical instrument, called 'Lambara', through which he goes upto the regions of the moon. There again, he gets a small passage, like a hole in a drum, through which he goes up and reaches the regions of Prajapati'. Kauşītakī, on the other hand, says-'He, after hav- ing reached the Path of the Gods, goes to the Agniloka, then to the Väyuloka, then to the Varunaloka, then to the Ādityaloka, then to the Candraloka, then to the Prajapati. loka and then to the Brahmaloka.'

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In the Chandogya (IV.xv.5), we read-'Now, for such a one, whether they perform his obsequies or not, he goes to light, from light to day, from day to the bright half of the month, from the bright half of the month to those six months during which the sun rises northwards, from the months to the year, from the year to the sun, from the sun to the moon, from the moon to the lightning. There is a person, not human. He carries them to Brah- man. This is the Divine Path, the Path to Brahman. Those proceeding by this Path do not return to the world of humanity.' Again, in the very Upanisad (VIII.vi.5), we read -- 'Through these very rays he proceeds upwards.' In an- other place we find-'They being free from rajas, go to the Immortal Person through the sun' (Mundaka, I.ii.11). In all these Shrutis really speaking only one Path -- the Path of Light is meant and through this very Path those who realise Brahman can go (Saurabha and Kaustu- bha, IV.iii.1). All this is supported by Smrtis also which say-'There are only two Paths-the Path of the Light for the wise and the Path of the Smoke for the sacrificers.' Again, we read in the Mahābhārata (Moksadharma- Parvan)-'There are only two Paths-Pitryāna, the Path of the Fathers and Devayana, the Path of the Gods Those who are desirous of liberation take to the Divine Path.' In the above-quoted Shrutis the apparent incongrui- ties are removed by certain changes suggested here and there. Thus, the Brhadaranyaka reads between months and the sun-'Devaloka', while the Chandogya reads -- 'year' between months and the sun. Now, the natural course is that year should come between the months and the sun. Thus, the order should be months, year, Deva- loka and Ādityaloka. Then, in the Brhadāranyaka, again, we find that be-

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fore Adityaloka there is the mention of 'Vayu' and in the Kauşītakī 'Vāyu' comes after Agni (Here Agni stands for Light). This incongruity also can be removed by placing 'Vāyu' after 'year' and before 'Aditya'; for, in the Brhadāraņyaka, we distinctly read 'Vāyu' before Āditya'. Now, taking all the Shrutis together, it is said that the Vāyuloka is the samfe as the Devaloka; for, Vāyu is the place of abode of the gods, as the Shruti says- 'This which is purifying is the place of the abode of the gods'. So the author of the Kaustubha suggests that the order should be months, year, vayu and the sun. With this suggestion it becomes quite clear that all the Shrutis speak of the same Path-the Path of Light as the only Path to liberation (IV. iii. 2). The Jiva through the twelve stages of Light, day, the bright half of the month, the summer solstice, year, Vāyuloka or Devaloka, Ādityaloka, Candraloka, Vidyul- loka, Varuņaloka, Indraloka and Prajāpatiloka, passes while going to the Brahmaloka. Of these, the first nine are the prominent Ativahikas (that is, those who are en- gaged by the Lord to convey the Jivas from region to region), while the last three are their helpers (Kaustubha. IV. iii. 5). The function of these Ativāhikas, the presi- ding deities of the respective regions, is to welcome the Jiva when it approaches the particular region. There the presiding deity shows all possible hospitality towards the Jiva and carries it to the next region. In this way, pass- ing from region to region when the Self passes through the Prajäpatiloka, then it penetrates through the Prakrta-Man- dala (the Material boundary) and enters into the precincts of the Para-Dhama, that is, the bank of the river Virajā. There the Jiva casts off its subtle body and meets with per- sons, not human, who come there to carry the Jiva beyond that stage. Along with them simply through its will-force (sankalpa), the Jiva crosses the river and then enters into

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the Visnuloka. There the Jiva assumes the non-material body and adorns himself with the Brahma-like ornaments. While passing through the gates he comes across the sincere devotees of the Lord. Then the Jiva perceives, sitting on the Divine throne made of fine high class jewels, in a hall (mandapa) made of jewels and with thousand pillars, the Lord Purusottama along with Laksmi and others, reful- gent as the sun, beyond darkness, worshipped by Sunanda, Sudarshana and others with their hands folded together. with limbs decorated by all the ornaments, such as, crown etc., which surpass the lustre of thousand suns with their lustre, the Lord of the Universe, the guru, knowable through the Shrutis, bowed down by Brahma and others, approachable by the liberated beings, searched by those who are desirous of liberation, the cause of the universe, the very life of His own followers, One who is all-conscious- ness, and Bliss, the Lord, the very image of consciousness, living in the highest abode, by His very nature free from all that causes hatred, the Treasure of all the good and auspi- cious qualities, possessing all the powers, the Great and ever Blissful. Having seen the Lord, who is called Mukun- da or Krsna, from distance the Jiva bows down to Him uttering with happiness the words-'Salutations to Thy Lotus-like Feet, again and again.' Then the Lord Krsna casts His look of His Lotus-like beautiful face, which is tender with kindness and pity, at the Jiva and welcomes him in an extremely blissful speech. Then the Jiva be- comes of the nature of the Lord and is liberated from the fetters of the Maya and never returns to the worldly Path again (Prabha. on Bra. Sū., IV. iii. 5). There the liberated Jiva assumes all those qualities which were screened during the state of bondage (Kaus- tubha. IV. iv. 1). So says the Shruti-'In this way the Jiva, after having risen from this physical body and hav- ing reached that Supreme Light, manifests his own true

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nature' (Chã. VIII. iii. 4). And it is, therefore, that the Shruti says-'The Atman which is free from evil, unde- caying, undying, free from sorrow, free from hunger and thirst, with true desires and true volition ete.' (Cha. VIII. vii. 1), realises his own true nature (IV. iv. 3). Then the Jiva freed from all the ties feels himself not distinct from the Lord; for it is then that he perceives the Lord who is the Ätman of all. The difference, or knowing a thing to be something different from it, are all due to anidyā. But when through the study of the Shrutis, their reasonings, and meditation, the true nature of the Paramātman be- comes realised, then and there the obstacles in the way of realising the true nature of the Jica and the Paramātman are destroyed. So says the Shruti-'The knots of the heart are cut asunder. all the doubts are dispelled, and all his deeds become ineffective when the Supreme Lord is seen' (Mundaka. II. ii. 8). In other words, although the natural difference, between the Jira and the Paramatman, exists even then, vet, like the non-difference existing be- tween a gunin and guna, which although separated, one should know that the Jiva is not distinet from the Lord. Nimbärka does not believe in the non-difference in their nature (Srarūpa ribhagastu nestah), otherwise, in accord- ance with the Shrutis and the Smrtis- 'In the beginning this was sat existing' (Cha. VL.ii.1): 'All this is Brahman' (Chã. III. xiv. 1): 'Vasudeva is all in all'; 'All the ani- mate and inanimate are Krsna'; 'Know Him to be the Uni- verse, that is, of the nature of the universe', there will have to be assumed the natural non-difference (srarūpāvibhāga) even in the case of non-conscious objects, which is, of cour- se, not the fact. Moreover, as pointed out before, there are several Shrutis to support both the difference and the non-difference. Hence, the Jiva, when liberated, experi- ences non-difference in difference with the Paramatman (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 4).

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As regards the nature of the Jiva which it will assume after liberation, JAIMINI thinks that it consists of the at- tributes of freedom from evils, omniscience, laughing, playing, rejoicing; so says the Shruti-'Thus, does the Jiva rising above this body and having reached the Highest Light, appears in his own form. That is the Highest Per- son; there he moves about laughing, playing and rejoicing ete.' (Chā. VIII. xii. 3); for these attributes are said to be- long to both the Jiva and the Lord. About the Jiva, Pra- japati says-'The Ätman which is free from evil, etc.' (Cha. VIlI. vii. 1) and about the Lord also it is said- 'This is the Ätman free from evil ete.' (Cha. VII. i. 5). In other words, according to Jaimini, the liberation is the manifestation of the conscious nature (caitanyasvarūpa) of the Jiva accompanied by the attributes of freedom from evils, omniscience, omnipotence, ete., pertaining to the Para-Brahman (Prabha. on Bra. Sū. IV. iv. 5). AUDULOMIN, on the other hand, thinks that the liberated being manifests the conscious nature (caitanya- svarupa) alone; for he is of the nature of consciousness, as the Shruti says-'This Brahman is-Prajñānaghana- Jñanaikarasa-of the nature of consciousness alone' (Brha. IV. v. 13) and possesses no other attribute; while the attri- butes of freedom from evils, etc. are to show that the nature of the liberated being is distinct from the influence of pleasure and pain, and the modifications in the form of avidyā (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 6). BĀDARĀYAŅA, however, takes up the third path and holds that the liberated beings manifest the nature of consciousness as well as the attributes of freedom from evil. omniscience, omnipotence, etc. ; for there is no inconsistency in having both-the manifestation of the nature of consciousness and the attributes of freedom from evils, omniscience, omnipotence, etc. (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 7).

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KESHAVA Kashmirī summing up the arguments of Bādarāyana says that liberation is existence through the constant experiencing of the nature of the Lord along with the manifestation of His own nature in the form of con- sciousness accompanied by the attributes of freedom from evils, omniscience, omnipotence, etc. (Prabhā. on Bra. Sū. IV. iv. 7). It is clear from the above that by liberation they mean the realisation of the true nature of the Lord (Bhagarad- bhävapatti). The liberation, in fact, is attained through the direct realisation of the Lord alone which. again, is possible through His Grace only. This realisation of the Lord, in its turn, means the constant thinking of the Lord and never forgetting Him from one's heart, like the con- stant thinking of the worldly objects by the ignorants. So says the Shruti-'He whom alone this Atman selects by him is He realised; for to him this Atman reveals His own nature' (Katha. I. ii. 23). During the state of liberation the Jiva, since he has come to manifest his attributes of true desire and true voli- tion, has not to make any effort to meet his departed fore- fathers; and he can freely go to the lokas where his mother, brothers, sisters, friends, ete. dwell (Chandogya., VIII. ii. 1-9). The liberated beings remain directlv under the control of the Lord Himself (Saurabha., IV. iv, 9). Thus, the Jiva becomes srarat, that is, he shines forth with the help of his ownself which is no other than the Lord Him- self (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 9). As regards the question whether a liberated being has got a body or not, BÄDARI is of opinion that he has got no body, as the Shruti says-'But the being without a body is not touched by pleasure and pain' (Chā. VIII. xii. 1). JAIMINI, on the other hand, thinks that as the Shruti quoted above refers to the body which is produced by action and not to that which is possessed by a liberated being, the F. 10

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Jīva does possess a body, sense-organs, manas, etc., and so the Shruti says-'He being one becomes three, five, seven and nine and then he is said, to be eleven, a hundred and ten, a thousand and twenty' (Cha. VII. xxvi. 2). This text certainly refers to the body of the liberated being. According to Nimbarka the Jiva being atomic and imper- ishable cannot have this diversity without having various bodies (Prabha. IV. iv. 11). BĀDARĀYAŅA, however, holds that the liberated being can assume or do away with a body at his sweet will, hence, there is no necessity in discussing whether he has got a body or not. It all depends upon his desire. Just as, in the case of the Dradashaha sacrifice, due to the difference in desire there is difference in the nature of the sacrifice it- self. Thus, when the Dradashaha sacrifice is performed with the desire for prosperity, then it is called Sattra, and when it is done with a desire for having issues, then it is called Ahina. It is, therefore, that there are two kinds of Shrutis to this effect. Thus the Shruti-'Manas is his Divine Eye. It is by means of this Divine Eye of the Manas that He sees, desires and rejoices' (Cha. VIII. xii. 5),- shows that the Jiva has no body; while the Shruti-'He being one becomes three, five, seven, ete.' (Chã. VIII. xxvi. 2)-refers to his having a body for rejoicing, etc. (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 12). The fact is that even when the liberated being has got true desire and true volition, he depends for all his acti- vities upon the Lord, and so he cannot produce a body for himself (Prabha. IV. iv. 12). Even if he has no body of his own, he can have all possible experiences through the objects created by the Lord. So it is not certain whether he creates his own body himself for heavenly experiences or not. But that he experiences all sorts of rejoicings through the grace of the Lord cannot be denied (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 13-14). The liberated being although atomic and remains

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in one particular place, yet through his attribute of caitanya which is all-pervasive he pervades over all other bodies and has experiences thereof, as is clear from the Shruti-'Sa canantyāya kalpate-and is infinite' (Shve- tāshvatara, V. 8). A liberated being differs from the Lord in not having the power of creating, protecting, controlling, and destroy- ing the universe (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 17, 21). The liberat- ed being realises the Lord along with all His powers and enjoys everything that belongs to Him. So says the Shruti 'He becomes srarät; he becomes independent in all the worlds' (Cha. VII. xxv. 2; VIII. i 6) and 'experiences all the objects of desire along with the Lord' (Kaustubha. IV. iv. 21). Having thus attained the Brahmahood the liberat. ed being does not return to the whirl of humanity' (Chã IV. xv. 5); 'O the Son of Kunti, he who comes unto Me has no more birth'-says the Gitā (VIII. 16). This sort of liberation, that is, the realisation of the nature of the Lord is what is known as Sāyujya. It is wrong to think that Sāyujya means identity in form (srarüpaikya), for even in this state there is difference be- tween the liberated being and the Lord, as the Shruti says -'When the liberated being perceives the happy Lord as distinct from himself and also His greatness, then he be- comes free from grief. Knowing the Brahman, the stimu- lator, as distinct from himself, the happy liberated one becomes immortal'. Again, 'The liberated being assumes the resemblance with the Lord'. Other forms of liberation are : Salokya, when the liberated being gets the same heaven where the Lord dwells; Sarupya when the liberated being assumes the same form as the Lord has; and Samipya when the liberated being remains quite close to the Lord (VRM. pp. 128-30). Nimbarka does not believe in the Jivanmukti. He says that it is a term which has no meaning. To boast of

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being liberated even when the Prārabdha-karman and its effects are all present, is only to deceive illiterate people. Hence, there is only instantaneous liberation (Sadyo moksa) and not gradual (krama), as it is found in the Shankara school of Vedānta (Suradruma, p. 131-32)

NON-CONSCIOUS (ACETANA) ELEMENT The next category according to this school is the non- conscious element (acetana-padartha) which is of three kinds: Aprakrta, which is not derived from the Primor- dial Matter (Prakrti), Prakrta which is produced from the Primordial Matter and its three attributes; and Kāla (time).

APRĀKRTA Of these, the Apräkrta is different from the other two. It is of the nature of light and non-obstruction (anārarakasrabhūra). So says the Shruti-It is beyond darkness in the form of Pradhana and Time and is as lustrous as the sun'. Its scope is far above that of the Primordial Matter and is also unlimited. It is known as Bliss, as it manifests bliss. It is variously called .- Nityaribhuti, Eternal Mysterious Powers of the Lord; Paramatmaloka, the Regions of the Paramatman; Para- mavyoma, the Highest Heaven; Visnupada, the Footstep of Vişnu; Paramapada, the Highest Place ete., etc. It is Divine and is so lustrous that both gods and devils are incapable of looking at it. Persons having performed austere penances and having meritorious past deeds, when freed from the influence of avidyā, go to this plane and never come back from there (Quoted from the Mahā- bhārata by Kaustubha. I. i. 1). It is changeless, un- decaying, pure and Eternal Light. It assumes various forms in accordance with the Divine Will for the experi- encing of the Lord and the eternally liberated beings (Kaustubha. I. i. 1). It is beyond the influence of Time.

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The objects of experience of the Lord and the liberated beings along with the implements of experience and their bodies, etc., are all made of this Element. Their orna- ments, weapons, seats, flowers, leaves of plants and trees, fruits etc. of the abode of the Lord are also made of this very Element. The city gate (Gopura), courtyard (Catrara), enclosuré (Prakara), the drawing hall made of jewels (Manimandapa), forest gardens, lake etc., etc. of the abode of the Lord also are made of this very Element (VRM. p. 39).

KĀLA It is different both from the Prakrta and the Aprakrta. It is eternal and all-pervasive. Even before the creation, during the period of dissolution it was existent. It is without any beginning and end. There is no cognition which is beyond the influence of time. The notions like past, future, present, simultaneous, late and soon are all due to time. It is the instrumental cause of creation and dissolution and the material cause of the various notions of time, such as, Paramānu ete. That much of time which the sun takes to cross the space occupi- ed by a Paramanu is called atomic-time. According to this school the various divisions of time are as given in the table below : 2 Paramāņus =1 Dvyaņuka, 30 Kāșthās=1 Kalā, 3 Dvyaņukas=1 Trasareņu, 30 Kalās= 1 Muhūrta, 3 Trasarenus= 1 Truți, 30 Muhūrtas = 1 day of ours, 100 Truțis=1 Vedha, 15 Days=1 Pakşa, 3 Vedhas=1 Lava, 2 Pakşas= 1 Month, 3 Lavas=1 Nimesa, 2 Months=1 Rtu, 15 Nimesas =1 Kāșțhā, 6 Months=1 Ayana, 2 Ayanas=1 Year-the Winter Solstice is the night of the gods while the Summer Solstice represents the day of the gods.

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The four yugas consist of the Divine 12 thousand years, of which the Krta covers 4800 thousand years along with the two Sandhyas, the Treta covers 3600 thousand years along with the two Sandhyas, the Dvapara covers 2400 thousand years along with the two Sandhyas, while the Kali covers 1200 thousand years along with the two Sandhyās. This entire period represents one Cycle and such 1000 Cycles constitute One Day of the Caturmukha. Fourteen Manus appear one after another during the single day of the Caturmukha. Seventy-one yugas make one Manran- tara which is the period for one Manu. Fourteen times the above measure of time is the day of Brahma and equal to the same period is his night. One hundred years according to the above measure of time is the span of life for the Caturmukha. Half of this period of time is called Parardha. The first Parardha is past, and of the second Parärdha which is current, the present period is the first Kalpa, called the Vārāhakalpa (VRM., p. 38). Everything produced out of the Primordial Matter depends upon Time, which, in its turn, is controlled by the Lord. So says the Shruti-"The consciousness (Jña) is the time of the time". During the Lilaribhuti of the Lord which is the period of creation, He simply imitates the dependence of time, while in the Nityavibhūti stage, there is no influence of time in any form. This Kāla is partless and hence, eternal in nature; but in actual practice (kāryarūpeņa) it is non-eternal. Its own products are the products of its limitations, which, however, are no other than the actions in the form of the movements of the sun (VRM. pp. 38-39).

PRĀKRTA

The Prakrta form of the non-conscious element is that which is derived from Prakrti which is variously called,

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Māyā, Pradhāna, Tamas, Avyakta and Shakti. So says the Shruti-'Know the Prakrti to be Maya and the Lord as the Mayin'. It is eternal and subtle. It is of the nature of being (sat) and non-being (asat). All the products of Prakrti are the various forms of the three gunas, and so they depend upon the gunas (sattva, rajas and tamas). Of these, the sattva is the cause of know- ledge. So says the Gitā-'Jñāna is produced from sattra' (XIV. 17). This very sattoa, having suppressed the other two, comes up and is said to be helpful for libera- tion through the practice of Shama, Dama etc., the means of liberation as conceived by the Bhagavadgitā (XVIII. 42). Rajas is the cause of covetousness ete. It is the cause of the downfall of the Ksetrajñas from their true faith in the Supreme Reality due to the increase of greed ete. Tamas is the cause of carelessness etc. So says the Lord-'Carelessness, delusion and aridya are all produced out of Tamas' (Gītā. XIV. 17). It is the main cause of screening its own nature as well as that of others. The state of equilibrium of these three gunas is called Pradhana. or Prakriti. It is changing (parinomin) and is the Shakti of the Lord. As such it is different from Him, but as the activities, etc., of it depend upon Him, it is also not distinct from Him (Kaustubha. I. ii. 21). This very aspect of the Prakrti differentiates it from the Prakrti of the Sankhya. In the latter case, the Prakrti, being itself non-conscious, is not connected with the conscious element and hence, it is unable to achieve any end. Although the Prakrti of the Nimbarka school also is non-conscious, yet it is dependent upon Him and so, it is capable of achieving useful purpose (Kaustubha. I. iv. 3). This dependence of the Prakrti upon the Lord here is not similar to that of the Paramanus upon Ishvara in the Nyaya-Vaishesika system. Here the Prakrti is related

80 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

to the Paramatman as His Shakti. So says the Shruti- God's own power concealed by His own gunas' (Kaustubha. I. iv. 9). It is unmanifest, very subtle, and eternal, like the Paramātman. It is the cause of bondage and liberation of the Jira (Kaustubha. I. iv. 10). It is unborn (aja). During the period of dissolution, it, in the form of Shakti, remains in Brahman as its cause without being capable of differentiating between name and form. But when at the time of creation it manifests its attributes of sattra, rajas and tamas and distinguishes between name and form and modifies itself into tejas, water and food, then it is called Brahmotpanna (Prabhā, I. iv 10).

CREATION-PROCESS

At the end of Pralaya and in the beginning of the creation through the Will of the Lord and in accordance with the beginninglessness of the Adrsta of the Jivas, the equilibrium of the gunas is disturbed. Together with the disturbance there is the manifestation of products. So says the Smrti-'Hari, when the time for creation arrives, with His own desire. enters into Pradhana and Purusa and starts agitation' (VRM., pp. 23-24). This agita- tion takes place in the Prakrti. The Shruti says-' He saw, May I be many, May I grow forth' (Cha., VI. ii. 3); 'He desired, may I be many' (Tai. II. 6). The modi- fication of the Primordial Matter is called cyakta which is non-eternal (Kaustubha. I. i. 1). Its modifications are of various kinds. The process of modification is as follows-When the Prakrti, which is dependent upon the Will of the Lord, reaches the point of fructification due to the inequality of the three gunas caused by the disturbance of the Primordial cause, then it manifests Mahat which is the cause of determination. It

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 81

is, again, of three kinds according to the nature of the three gunas. Then is manifested Ahankara which is the uncommon cause of the notion of the Atman (Ego) in one's own body etc. This also, due to the difference of the three gunas, is of three kinds : that which is manifested out of the Sattvika aspect is called Vaikarika, that which is manifested out of the Rājasika aspect is known as Taijasa, while that which is manifested out of the Tāmasika aspect is called Bhūtādi. From the Vaikārika-Ahankara are manifested the presiding deities of the sense-organs and the Manas. The Manas, due to the difference in its functions and that of its locations, assumes four different names, namely, Manas, Buddhi, Ahankara and Citta. Of these, that which is the cause of speculation ete. (mananādi) is Manas. This very Manas, when it comes in contact with sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell, becomes the cause of bondage. When, on the other hand, it cuts off its connection with sound, ete., and diverts itself towards the Lord, then it is the cause of liberation. So the Shruti says-'Manas alone is the cause of bondage and liberation of human beings'. It is of two types-pure and impure. That which has definite desires is impure, while that which has no desire of any kind is pure. That which is the cause of understanding or know- ledge (bodhana) is Buddhi. That which is the cause of egoistic notion (ahambuddhi) regarding body, etc., is Ahankara, and that which is the cause of reflection or anxious thought is Citta. Candra, Brahmā, Rudra and Kșetrajña are the respective presiding deities of these. According to others, on the other hand, the four Vyūha- gods, namely, Vāsudeva, Sankarșaņa, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha are their presiding deities. Both these views have been accepted; for, Candra, etc., are regarded as the supervising deities, while the Vyuha-gods, being their F. 11

82 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

controller are forms of meditation. The location of Manas is throat, that of Buddhi is face or appearance, that of Ahankara is heart and that of Citta is naval (Shārīrakopanişad). From the Taijasāhankūra are produced the ten exter- nal organs of sense and action, that is, five sense-organs, namely, auditory, the organs of touch, sight, taste, and smell. The ear-cavity represents the organ of hearing sound for human beings; for lower creatures, such as, serpents, it is in the eyes. The sense-organ of sight is called eye. The sense-organ of touch is skin (tcak) which pervades over the entire body. There being grada- tions in the manifestation of vitality in the limbs, no touch- sensation is felt in the nails, teeth, hairs etc. The organ of taste is the tongue and its location is at the tip of it. The organ of smell is nose and its location is at the tip of the nose. Sound, touch, colour, taste and smell are the objects of cognition of these. Arka (the sun) is the presid- ing deity of the organ of sight; Dik is that of the organ of hearing; Ashrins are the presiding deities of the organ of smell; Varuna is that of the organ of taste; and Vayu is that of the organ of touch. These five are also called bhautika, as they develop into Mahabhūtas. The five organs of action are: the organ of speech, hands, feet and the organs of extrication and generation or sexual pleasure. The cause of the utterance of words is the organ of speech. There are eight locations of the organ of speech : breast (wras*), throat, head, the root of the tongue (Jihramulum), teeth, nose, lip and the palate (talu) (Vide-भष्टो स्थानानि वर्णानामुर: कण्ठः शिरस्तथा। जिह्लामूलं च दन्ताश्च नासिकोष्ठौ च तालु च-इत्यादि वेदभाष्ये-VRM., p. 27). As the lower creatures have got no samskara of these, they

3 It is to be noted here that uras has not been recognised as one of the places for the manifestation of sound by Panini. But that it is a place for the location of a praticular type of sound, called Madhyama is known to the Agamikas.

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 83

cannot have this organ. The special instrument (asādhā- rana-karaņa) of fine or mechanical art and of taking ob- jects, etc., is hand. In case of human beings it rests with the fingers of hands, while in the case of elephants, etc., it rests with the tip of the trunk. The special instrument of walking ete., is feet. In case of human beings, etc., it is in feet, while in ose of raptiles, birds, etc., it rests with breast, wings ete. The organs of extricating and sexual pleasure rest with their respective limbs. Vahni, Indra, Upendra, Mrtyu, and Prajāpati are their respective pre- siding deties. These organs of sense and action are very subtle, and are different with each individual; and these remain till the final dissolution. From the Bhūtadi-Ahankāra the five tanmātrās are produced, which, in their turn, produce the five Maha- bhutas. Thus, from the Bhūtadi is produced shabda- tanmatra which, in its turn, produces Akasha; from Akasha is produced sparsha-tanmātra; from sparsha-tanmātra is produced Vāyu; from Vāyu is produced rūpa-tanmātra, which, in its turn, produces tejas; from tejas is produced rasa-tanmātra; from rasa-tanmātra is produced water; from water is produced gandha-tanmatra, which, in its turn, produces earth. Thus, earth has got all the five qualities, water has only four, tejas has only three, air has only two, while Akasha has got only one quality. Of these, Väyu also is the cause of maintaining the body, ete., and is of five kinds: (1) Prana which has up- ward motion and its location is the tip of the nose, ete : (2) Apana-it has downward motion. The organ of extrication, that is, anus is its location; (3) Vyāna-it moves through out the whole body and in all the directions; (4) Udana-it is the cause of the throwing out of the food and drink taken in, and its location is the throat; and (5) Samana which helps the digestion of the food and drink. It moves throughout all the limbs.

84 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

According to some there are five more types of Vayu, namely, Naga which causes eructation (udgirana); Kūrma which is the cause of the opening of the eyes; Krkala which causes hunger; Devadatta which causes yawning, and Dhanañjaya which nourishes the body. But the separate existence of these is denied by Nimbārka, since these are all included in the first five kinds mentioned above. These are the twenty-four elements recognised as con- stituting the Cosmic existence according to this school of thought. There are some who, however, do not recognise the above order of the manifestation of the Bhūtadi. They think that from the Bhutadi are produced the five tan- matras from which separately are produced the five bhūtas respectively. Others, again, are of opinion that from the Bhutadi is produced the shabda-tanmatra which, in its turn, produces Äkāsha and the sparsha-tanmatra; from sparsha-tanmatra are produced Vāyu and rūpa-tanmātra; from rāpa-taumā- tra are produced tejas and rasa-tanmātra; from rasa-tan- matra are manifested water and gandha-tanmatra; and from gandha-tanmatra is produced earth. But this view is rejected, as it is against the order of the process of dis- solution (VRM .. pp. 24-29). So says the Gopalopanisad-'There was only one Brahman, without the second, from whom came out the Akşara-Aryakta; from Akşara was manifested the Mahattattra, which manifested Ahankara; from which were manifested the five tanmätras which manifested the five bhūtas.' PARASHARA while explaining the above says- 'Hari, the Lord with His sweet Will enters into the Pradhana and Purusa, and when the time for creation approaches, creates disturbance. The same Parameshvara is both the agent of disturbance and the object of distur-

NIMBÅRKA SCHOOL OF VEDANTA 85

bance. The Lord with the qualities of contraction and expansion, is present in the Pradhana. Then from the equilibrium of the three gunas, which is presided over by the Ksetrajña, there comes out the Mahat with its three aspects-Sattvika, Rajasika and Tamasika. The relation between Mahat and Pradhana is like that of the seed and its covering bark (toak). From Mahat comes out Ahankāra with its three aspects-Vaikārika, Taijasa and Bhūtādi. Of these, the Bhūtadi manifests shabda-tanmātra which manifests Akasha with sound as its specific quality. Then from the modification of Akāsha comes out sparsha- tanmätra which manifests air with touch as its specific quality. Then air manifests the rupa-tanmtra which, in its turn, manifests tejas along with its specific quality of colour. From tejas is manifested rasa-tanmatra from which is manifested water with taste as its specific qua- lity. From water is manifested gandha-tanmatra, which, in its turn, manifests earth with smell as its specific quality. This is what is called the Bhūta-tanmātra-sarga from the Tamasa aspect of the Ahankara. From the Taijasa-Ahankara are manifested the ten organs of sense and action; and from the Vaikūrika- Ahankara are manifested the Manas and the ten presiding deities of the organs of sense and action (VRM., pp. 29-30). The five tanmatras, being the cause of the five Bhūtas are regarded as Substances (dravya), while sound, touch, colour, taste and smell are the five qualities. Of these, the Prakrti. Mahat and Ahankara and the five Bhutas are regarded as representing the material cause of the gross body. Sense-organs in the gross body are like so many jewels in an ornament. Five tanmatras, Manas, ten organs of sense and action and Präņa are the seventeen constituents of the subtle body

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The gross body is of two kinds-eternal and non- eternal. The former class of organism belongs to the Lord Himself, which is the source of all the Purusarthas, the object of meditation for those who desire to meditate upon, and is the substrate of all auspiciousness. The body of the eternally liberated beings, such as, Vişvaksena, Nanda, Sunanda, the forms of Garuda, etc., are also eternal. The non-eternal type of body is of two kinds : not pro- duced as the result of karman (akarmaja) and produced out of karman (karmaja). The former is represented by the forms of Virat, etc., of the Lord. The bodies which are produced as the result of karman are of various kinds, due to the difference in the degree of karman. They are : (1) born of the placenta (jarayuja), as those of human beings; (2) born of eggs, like those of birds, reptiles, etc. ; (3) produced by penetrating earth, as sprouts, trees, etc .; and (4) those which are produced out of sweat, like lice, mosquitoes, etc. (VRM., p. 31). Of these, all the modifications from Mahat down to the five Bhūtas are related as cause and effect, and there- fore are not different from one another; just as, a pot made of earth, although it has separate existence, yet it is not different from the lump of elay.

THEORY OF CASUALITY

The Nimbärka school of Vedänta, like that of the Sankhya, is the upholder of the Satkāryanāda, according to which the effect is present in the cause even before the former's manifestation. The grounds upon which this theory is advocated are given below : The Lord Himself is regarded both the cause and the effect. Thus, the effects whether in the conscious form (cidrūpa) or in the non-conscious form (acidrūpa), with limi- tations and having different names and forms, are not dis- tinct from the Lord, the Highest cause. One who has both

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 87

cit and acit as His inherent potencies, Who is without any limitation and Who is one and without a second. So says the Shrutis-'All modifications being only a name based upon words : the truth being that all is clay' (Cha., VI.i. 4); 'O dear, it was all sat in the beginning, it was pure Being, one without a second (Cha., VI.ii.1); 'It saw, May 1 be many, May I grow forth. It created tejas' (Cha., VI. ii.3); 'Now, that which is the subtle essence,-in that, has all this its Self; That is the Self; That is the Truth; That thou art, O Shvetaketu' (Cha., VI.viii.7); 'All this is Brahman, beginning, ending and continuing in It' (Cha., III.xiv.1); 'Then this (world) was unmanifest. And that is manifested as name and form' (Brha., I. iv. 7). All these and several other Shrutis prove that Brahman is the cause and from Him comes out the effect in the form of the entire universe and that thev are not essentially distinct from cach other. It is, therefore, that by the knowledge of the single cause all the effects become known. So says the Shruti-'O Shvetaketu. didst thou ask for that instruction by which the unheard becomes heard, the unperceived becomes perceived and the unknown becomes known?' (Cha., VI.i.2-3). Again, the Shruti says-'Just as O Saumya, by a single clod of clay all that is made of clay hecomes known-all the modification being only a name based upon words: the truth being that all is clay' (Cha., VI.i.4). That in the presence of cause alone an effect is possible and not in its absence, shows that the effect is present in the cause and is not distinet from the latter, just as, it is only when clay is present there is the possibility of a jar coming into existence and not otherwise. It is, therefore, that we read in the Chandogya that-'All these creatures, O Saumya, have their root in Being (sat)' (VI.viii.4). Again, that the effect which comes after is said to exist in the form of cause before its production, and that

88 . UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

both the effect and the cause are said to have the same sub- strate, shows that effect is not distinct from the cause. So says the Shruti-'O Good man (Saumya), this (universe) was certainly existent in the beginning' (Cha., VI.ii.1); 'This (universe) was Brahman in the beginning' (Aitareya ranyaka, II.iv.1, 1). In all these, it is clear that the effect in the form of the universe was present in Brahman, the cause (Kaustubha, II.1.16). As regards the Shrutis-'It was certainly non-existent (asat) in the beginning' (Cha., III.xix.1). 'Or it was non- existent in the beginning (Taittiriva, II.vii.1) which ap- parently show that the effect in the form of universe was non-existent in its cause, namely. Brahman, -- it may be pointed out that the real meaning of these texts is that the universe with its name and form manifested was not pre- sent in the cause in the very beginning; and that they never mean that it was entirely non-existent. It is, therefore. that the term asat has been explained as aryakta (unmani- fest) and not as non-present or unreal. This meaning of the above-quoted Shruti is clear from the same text where just after 'It was non-existent in beginning' it adds `that was existent (त्रसदेवेदमम्र शरसीत्। तत्सदासीत-(C'ha .. III.xix.1). Besides, it is found that people desirous of producing curd, a jar, a neck-ornament (rucaka) definitely use milk, clay and gold as their respective material cause, and that the desirer of curd never uses clay, and so on. This res- triction in the choice of the material cause would not be necessary and also possible if the view that the effect is totally absent from the cause is upheld. Nobody has ever seen the sprouting of the barley-plant from firy particles where the former is entirely absent (Kaustubha, II.i.17). The universe present in its cause is just like a big piece of cloth folded together and not able to cover any space and become visible to all, but when it is unfolded it

Earth. of Sweet wA Mountain -ln Ocean of consisting of Milk Dvipa Ocean consisting of Golden Puskara Dvipa (c: dadhimandodaka of consisting (elar Shāka of ghi Dvipa of consisting of

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ding to the Visnu Purana II, 3.

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 89

spreads over a big space and is also seen by all as a cloth. But it is not quite correct to deny its very presence while folded. Or it is just like the limbs of a tortoise; when they are taken in they are not seen, but they become visible as soon as they are brought out. Again, the universe is just like a big tree which remains concealed in a small seed and is not visible to any person, but no sooner it comes out in the form of a tree, than it manifests itself to all. This universe with Parameshvara as its material cause is real (sat) like its own cause, and although apparently different from Brahman, yet it is not essentially distinct from Him (Kaustubha, II. 1. 19). It is quite clear from what has been said above that this school of thought, like the Sankhya school, believes in the maxim-'The unreal has no being, and the real never ceases to be' (Gitā, II.16). The modifications of Prakrti represent the objects of experience of pleasure and pain (bhogya), or the imple- ments of bhoga and also the place of bhoga of the Jiva. Sound, touch, colour, taste, and smell and objects qualified by these, food and drink, ete., all represent the objects of bhoga. Body, sense-organs, manas, ahankāra, Buddhi stand as implements of bhoga; and the place for bhoga is the entire Brahmanda along with all the 14 worlds. For 'Purusottama, the Lord, all this is His joyful sport and its implements and its place (Bra. Sū., II.i.32; VRM .. p. 31). The Brahmanda is of the form of the fruit of the wood-apple tree (kapittha) and is manifested by the Pro- cess of Paîcikarana. This is entirely produced out of Prakrti. The various parts and their locations of this Brahmāņda are given below, as found in the Visnu Purāņa (अंश २, अध्याय ३); and the Visnudharmottara (I. vii. 5-11) which are considered to be authoritative by this school of thought, in the form of a chart, F. 12

90 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

This is what is known as the earth (bhūbhāga) along with its seven Dripas and oceans. This entire earth is surrounded by the Golden Earth (Kancana-bhumi) whose area is double that of this earth. The Golden-Earth is. again, eneircled by the mountain called Lokāloka which is enveloped by pitched darkness. This, in its turn, is sur- rounded by the Garbhodaka, the interior-water, which it- self is encircled by the Egg-Pan (Anda-kataha) which is placed obliquely (tiryaksamsthanaprakarah) Below this bhi (earth) are the seven planes of Atala, Vitala, Sutala, Rasatala. Talatala, Mahatala and Patāla. In the centre of these very seven lokas, there are the twenty- one hells-Raurava, ete., for the experiencing of the rsults of evil deeds. Below these there is pitched dark- ness, then the Garbhodaka and then the Andakataha. Above this Bhuloka there is the Saryamandala extend- ing over a space of one läkh yojang and inhabited by the Siddhas, Munis, etc. This is called Bhucarloka. Above this there are the regions of the Moon, the stars and planets (nakşatra), Budha, Shukra. Mangala, Brhaspati, and then the seven sages, namely, Marici. Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu and Vasistha, who constitute the constellation called 'Ursa Major', and then there is the Dhrura, the Polar Star, in ascending order. The space between the Suryamandala and the Polar Star spreads over 14 lakh yojanas and is known as the Scargaloka. Above this, there is the Maharloka extending upwards for one koti yojana. Then, there is above this the Janaloka which covers the space extending for two koti yojanas. Beyond this, is the Tapoloka with the expansion of eight koti yojanas. Then, there is the Sotyaloka extending for twelve koti yojanas. Then, there is, again, pitched darkness and then the Garbhodaka. Then, there is the Anda-katāha which covers one koti yojana. This all taken together represents one Brahmānda.

NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA 91

Such infinite numher of Brahmandas are floating in the Vibhuti of the Lord. The creation upto the Caturmukha is directly from the Lord Himself; and after this, Catur- mukha and others are entrusted with the work of creation. This is how the universe comes to exist. The Process of Pañcikarana referred to above is as follows : The Lord, after creating the five bhütas, divides each of these into two equal parts. Then each of the second half of each of the five bhutas is divided into four equal parts. And then each of these four parts is combined with each of the four parts of each of the five bhutas leaving the one of its own kind. Each of these amalgamated parts of the five bhutas forms one half and when it is mixed with the pure first half of each of the bhutas, then the two together produce the quintuplicated bhäta. In the process of crea- tion the product beginning with the Mahat and ending with body, which is a product of food, is called Annamayah Purusah. The Manas along with the organs of action re- presents what is called Manomaya-Purusah. The five vital- airs along with the organs of action represent Prānamayah Purusah. Jira is the Vijnanamaya-Purușa, while Para- matman is the Anandamaya-Purusa.

BRAHMAN AND JAGAT

Like the relation between Jiva and Brahman, the re- lation between Brahman and Jagat also is both of differ ence and non-difference. Thus, the universe, which is an effect, is a modification (Parinama) of the Lord. Whether with forms or without forms it remains in its cause (Kaustubha, III.ii.27). Not exactly understanding the signification of the term Pariņāma in this connection, some think that Brahman, being all-pervasive can have no Parinama, which is further supported by the fact that

92 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

there are no constituent parts in Brahman. To remove these misunderstandings it is necessary that one should know that by Parinama here they mean shakti (potency). Next, the possession of constituent parts is not the cause of modification. In fact, it is the peculiar potency which whenever and wherever is present, there the modifications are found. Then even all-pervasive objects are seen to have modifications. For instance, Akāsha which is all- pervasive modifies itself into Vayu; and it is therefore, that the Shruti says-'From Akasha comes out Vāyu'. Besides, there is nothing which is not possible for the Lord to achieve. His powers are unlimited and are of diverse nature. Pariņāma has been divided by Shrī Nivāsācārya into two types: (1) Srarūpa-Parināma according to which the Prakrti, without being supervised by the Lord, herself independently produces changes, as is the case with the Sankhya System; and (2) Shakti-riksepa-laksaņa-Pariņāma, according to which a Parinama is nothing but the power of ejection and this is what the Nimbarka School of Vedānta propounds. Thus, the Lord, like a spider, when He so desires, manifests the universe, and when He wants to take it in, He contracts His powers and then there is the Pralaya. In manifesting the universe the Lord does not require any implement to help Him, like a potmaker. It is through His own extra-ordinary Powers that He ejects the universe (Saurabha, II. i. 23-24). The Lord has no desire of His own for the fulfilment of which He should create the universe. Even then when He creates the uni- verse, it is simply an act of His Lila-joyful sports (Bra. Sü., II. i. 32). Besides, He thereby helps the Jivas to experience the results of their past deeds (Kaustubha, II. i. 26, 33). We should not accuse the Lord for creating un- equal beings, namely, gods, human beings, lower creatures

NIMBÄRKA SCHOOL OF VEDÃNTA 93

etc., and for being cruel for making them experience the three kinds of pain. The Lord creates the beings in accor- dance with the individual deeds of those beings done in the past births (Kaustubha, II. i. 33). And as the crea- tion has no beginning, there would never be any lack of past deeds for the guidance of the Lord for creating beings (Kaustubha, II. i. 84).

PROCESS OF PRALAYA

The reverse of the creation is called Pralaya. The process of this is that earth through gandha-tanmatra merges into water. Water through rasa-tanmatra merges into tejas which, in its turn, merges through rūpa-tan- matra into Vāyu. Vayu through sparsha-tanmatra merges into Akāsha which having merged into shabda- tanmatra merges into the Bhūtādi (Tāmasa-Ahankāra). The organs of sense and action merge into the Rājasa- Ahankara. Manas and the Presiding deities merge into Vaikārika-Ahankāra. All these three aspects of Ahan- kara merge into Mahat, which, in its turn, merges into A nyakta. This A vyakta merges into Purusa which merges into the Lord (VRM., pp 36-37).

DIFFERENCE IN THE VERSION OF THE BRAHMA SŪTRA

Points of difference in the arrangement of the Brahma- Sūtra according to Shankarācārya. Rāmānujācārya and Nimbārkācārya are given below. This will, in brief, show the main difference in these three schools :

Nimbārkācārya Rāmānujācārya Shankarācārya 94

I. i. 9 प्रतिज्ञाविरोषाद्। I. i. 9 प्रतिज्ञाविशेधात्। I. i. 9 This Sutra is not found

I. i. 25 ० नियमाद। I. i. 25 As in Nimbārka. here.

I. ii. 16 भत एव च स मह। I. ii. 16 As in Nimbārka. I. i. 25 ० निगदान्।

I. ii. 20 म य स्मतिमतदूर्मामिलापातु। I. ii. 21 शरीरश्चोभयेऽपि हि भेदनैमम- I. ii. 20 नथ स्मातमतदुर्मामिलापाच्छारी- I. ii. 16 Not found in this School. UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

रच। I. ii. 19 As the 20th of Nimbārka.

धीयते। I. ii. 21 डभयेऽपि हि I. ii. 20 As the 21st of Nimbarka.

I. ii. 27 शब्दादिम्य :... पुर्वममिधीयते। I. ii. 27 वष्दादिम्यः ... पुस्वमपि I. ii. 26 As the 27th of Rāmānuja.

I. iii. 2 • व्यपदेशास्। धीयते। I. iii. 2 As in Nimbārka.

1.iii. 3 मानुमानमतैच्छष्दात्। I. iii. 2 • व्यपदेशाकच I. iii. 3-4 As in Nimbārka.

I.iii. 4 प्राययभृग्। I. iii. 3 Joins the 3rd & 4th I. iii. 5 As in Râmānuja.

I. iii. 5 मेदव्यपदेशान। Sütras of Nimbärka into I. iii. 23 अपि व स्मयते।

I. iii. 23 ऋपि तु स्मयते। one. I. iii. 35 As in Nimbārka.

वैनर थेन I. iii. 4 भेदव्यपदेशात्। I.iii. 38 श्रममाध्ययनार्थप्रतिषेधाव् स्मृतेश्व।

लिंगाद्। I.iii. 22 ऋपि स्मयते। I. iv. 26 As in, Nimbārka.

I.iii. 38 शरवयाध्यवनार्थप्रतिपेघात्। I.iii. 35 क्षत्रियत्वावगतेश्व। II. i. 11 तर्काप्रतिष्ठामादप्यन्ययानुमेयमिति

I.iii. 39 स्मृतेश्व। I. iii. 36 उत्तरत्र वैत्ररभेन लिंगात्। I. iv. 26 प्ात्मकृते: परिणामात्। I. iii. 39 Same as the 38th of II. i. 17 असद्व्यपदेशान्नेति चेव्र धर्मान्त-

II. i. 11 तर्काप्रतिष्ठा नादप्यन्ययानुमेयमिति Nimbārka. I. iii. 40 स्मृतेश्च। II. i. 17 मसदुष्यपदेशाभ्रेति चे्न धर्मान्तरेण II. i. 18 युर्े: शब्दान्तराज्।

I. iv. 26 भात्मकृतेः। वाक्यगेपात् युके: श्ब्दान्तराज। II. i. 30 As in Ramānuja.

II. i. 29 सवपिता व सा तहर्यमात्। I. iv. 27 परिणामाव्। II. i. 35 म कर्माविभागादिति

II. i. 11 तर्काप्रतिष्ठानाद्। त्याद्।

Nimbārka Rāmānuja Shankara

II. i. 34 म कर्माSविभागादिति सेन्नाना- वित्वादुपपयते चाप्युपलभ्यते थ। II. i. 12 अन्यथानुमेयमिति चेदेवमप्यनिमोन्त- II. i. 36 उपपद्यते चाप्युपलभ्यते वा। प्रसंग: । II. ii. 1-2 As in Nimbārka.

II. ii. । रवनानुपपतेश्च नानुमानम्। II. i. 18 As in Nimbārka.

II. ii. 2 प्रवृतेश्च। i. 30 सरवोपेता च तददर्शनात। II. ii. 6 As in Nimbārka.

II. II. ii. 6 अ्म्युपगमेऽर्याभावात्। II. ii. 19 इतरेतरप्रत्ययत्वादिति वेव्रोत्पत्ति- II. i. 35 As in Nimbarka. मात्रनिमिसस्वाद्। NIMBÄRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA

II. ii. 18 इतरेतरप्रत्थयत्वादुपपन्नमिति वेव् II. ii. 1 Both the Sutras 1-2 of संघातभावा निमित्तत्वाद्। II. ii. 31 As in Nimbārka. Nimbārka are joined in- II. ii. 38 As in Nimbārka.

II. ii. 31 लशिकत्वान। to one Sūtra . II. iii. 3 गौष्यर्सभेवात्।

II. ii. 38 सम्बन्धानुपपसेश्च। II. ii. 8 The 6th Sütra of Nim- II.iii. 4 शब्दाचच।

II. iii. 3 गौव्यसंभवात् शव्दान्न। barka is here read as the II. iii. 6 Same as the 5th of

8th Sutra. Nimbārka

II. iii. 10 आारः। II. ii. 18 As in Nimbārka. II. iii. 11 919:1

II. iii. 11 पृथिवी। The 31st Sutra of Nim- II. iii. 12 पृथित्यधिकाररूपशब्दान्तरम्यः।

II. iii. 12 पृथित्र्यधिक्ाररूपश वदान्तरेभ्यः। bārka is not found in

II. iii. 26 व्यतिरेको गन्धव तथा हि दर्शय.ते। II. iii. 26 व्यतिरेको गन्धवत्।

Rāmānuja. II.iii. 27 तथा व दर्शपति।

II. iii. 33 विहारोपदेशाद्। The 38th Sutra of Nim- II.iii. 34 विहारोपदेशात्।

II. iii. 34 उपादानात्। bārka is not found in II. iii. 35 उपादानाल्।

Rāmānuja. II. iii. 44 acasatea I

I1. iii. 44 अपि व स्मयते। II. iii. 3 As in Nimbarka. II. iii. 45 अपि व स्मर्यत।

II. iii. 45 प्रकाशादिवत नैवं परः। II. iii. 5 प्रतिज्ञाहानिरव्यतिरेकात्। II. iii. 52 प्रदेशादिति पेव्रान्तर्भावात्। II. iii. 46 प्रक्राशादिवब्रैवं परः।

II. iii. 6 शबद्ेम्यः। II. iii. 53 Same as the 52nd Stra

II. iv. 2 गोण्यसैभवात्। II. iii. 11 आ्रापः । in Nimbārka. 95 II. iv. 2-3 As in Nimbārka.

Nimbārka Rāmānuja Shańkara 96

II. iv. 3 तत् प्राक श्रतेश्व। II iii. 12 पृथिवी। II. iv. 14-15 As in Nimbārka.

II. iv. 14 ज्योतिरायधिष्ठान तु तदामननात्। II. iii. 13 श्रधिकार रूपशब्दान्तरेभ्यः। II. iv. 15 प्रारातता शब्दात्। II. iv. 18 भेदश्रतेः । II. iii. 27 व्यतिरेको गन्वत्तथा व दर्शयति। II. iv. 19 वेलन व्याच्य।

II iv. 18 भेवभ्रतेवलक्षण्याच्च। II. iii. 34 उपादाना द्विहारोपदेशाज्ज। III. i. 15 अपि व सप्त। UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

III. i. 15 अपि सप्त। II. iii. 43 As in Nimbārka. III. i. 16 As in Nimbārka.

III. i. 16 तत्रापि व तद्व्यापारादविरोघः। II. iii. 44 अरपि स्मयंति। III. i 22 साभाशर्यापत्तिरपपत्तः ।

III. i. 22 तत् स्वाभाव्यापत्तिस्पपसेः । II. iii. 45 As in Nimbärka. III. ii. 20-21 As in Nimbārka.

III. ii. 20 वृद्धिहासभाकत्व मन्तर्भावादुभय- II. iii. 52 प्रदेशभेदादिति चेन्नान्तर्भावास्।

सामअस्यादेवम्। III. iii. 2 भेदान्नेति चेन्नेकम्यामपि। II. iv. 2 Sütras 2 and 3 of Nim- III iii. 31 अनयिम: सर्वासामविरोधः: शब्दा-

III. ii. 21 दर्शनाय। III iii. 2 भेदान्नेति चेदेकस्यामपि। bärka are joined into जुमानाम्याम्।

one. III. iii. 31 प्रनियम: सर्वेषा मविरोधः शब्दालु- III. iii. 35 अन्तराभूतगामवत्स्वात नः।

मानाभ्याम्। II. iv. 13 Sutras 14 & 15 of Nim- III. iii. 36 अन्यथा मेदानुपपततिरि.त चेन्नोपदे- bārka are joined into श्ान्तरवत्।

III. iii. 35 चन्तराभूतग्रामवत्स्वात्मनोऽन्यथा one. भेदानुप्पतिरिति चेन्नोपदेशान्तरवत्। III. iii. 47 विद्येष तु निर्धारणाद। II. iv. 16 Same as the 18th Sutra III iii. 48 75a 1 III. iii. 46 विवैय तु तु निर्धारणात् दर्शनाच्च of Nimbārka.

III. iv. 7 नियमाच्व। III. iv. 7 निवमाख्च। III. i. 15 As in Nimbārka. III. iv. 18 परामशञं लैमिनिरधोदनाय्यापवद- III. i. 16 तत्रापि तद्व्यापारादविशेघः। III. iv. 18 परामर्श जैमिन्तियोदना चापवदति हि।

ति हि। III. i. 22 तल्साभाव्यापत्तिरुपपसेः। III. iv. 24 तथा चैकशाक्यतापबन्धात्। III. ii. 4 The 6th Sütra of Nim- III. iv. 24 As in Nimbārka.

III. iv. 30,37 अपि थ स्मयते। III. iv. 30,37 As in Nimbārka.

1II. iv. 42 उपपूर्वमपि त्वेके ...... । bārka is the 4th here & III. iv. 42 As in Nimbarka the 4th is the 6th. III. iv. 46 श्रुतेश्च।

Nimbārka Rāmānuja Shankara

F. 13 III. iv 46 The Sūtra faund in III. ii. 20 The Sutras 20 & 21 of IV. ii. 2 अत एव व सर्वाण्यनु। Shankara is not here. Nimbarka are joined IV. iii. 5 उभयव्यामोहान्तत् सिद्धेः।

IV. ii. 2 अत एव सर्वाण्यनु। into one. III. iii. 2 As in Nimbārka. IV. iii. 15 अप्रतीकालम्बनान्नयतीति बादरायणा IV. iii. 5 The Sutra found in III. iii. 32 As the 31st of Nimbārka. उभयथाऽदोषात् तत्कनुश्य। NIMBĀRKA SCHOOL OF VEDĀNTA

Shankara is not here. III. iii. 35 As in Nimbārka with IV iii. 14 अपती कालम्बना स्यतीनि बादरायया the difference that in

उभयथाटोषात् तत् कनुश्य। place of उपादेशान्तरवत् here it reads उपदेशवत् III. iii 46 As in Nimbārka. III iv 7 नियमातू III. iv 18 परामर्श जेमिनिबोडनाज्चापत्रदति हि। III. iv. 24 तथा चैकवाक्योपबन्धात। III. iv. 30.37 अपि स्मयते। III. iv. 42 उपपूर्वमपी येके ...... । III. iv 46 The Sūtra found in Shankara is not bere. IV. ii. 2 As in Nimbārka. IV. iii. 5 The Sutra found in Shankara is not here. IV. iii 14 अपरती का लम्बना त्रयतीति बादरायणा उभगया च दोष त् तत् सनुश्व । 97

98 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

From the above it is clear that Nimbārka sometimes agrees with Shankara and disagrees with Rāmānuja, and sometimes agrees with Rāmanuja while disagrees with Shankara. This seems to be just in keeping with his position of the propounder of the theory of Bhedabheda. Rāmānuja helps Nimbārka to establish difference (Bheda) between Jiva and Paramatman, or Paramatman and Jagat, while Shankara helps him to establish non-difference between these. To an ordinary and impartial student of Indian philosophy, the position of Nimbarka is more appealing. But to one who wants to go into the heart and spirit of the Shrutis and who is also eager to know the ultimate Truth, the position of Shankara is much more satisfying. सम्प्रदायानुसारेण निम्बादित्यमतं मया। प्रदशितं प्रबन्धेऽस्मिन् प्रीयतां परमेश्वरः।। P.S. In course of my further studies I have come to notice the following, which have not been noted above; and in order to make the book quite up to date it becomes neces- sary that I should add all these here even at the end. Keshava Kāshmīrī had one younger brother named Ananta Batta, who also wrote a work, on the Nimbārka School, and named it Vedantaratnamala (ride the colophon of the MS. काश्मीरिश्रीकेशवभट्टचरणारविन्दानुजेन etc. noticed bv Mm. Haraprasada Shastri in his Cat. of Sanskrit MSS. Vol. II. MS. No. 196). The following MSS. of the works of the Nimbārka School are noticed by Rai Bahadur Hiralal in the MSS. Catalogue of C.P. and Berar-Nos. 2593-97 :- 1. Nimbarkatattvanirnaya by Nanda Dāsa. 2. Nimbārkadvādashamahārākya. 3. Nimbārkapañcīkaraņa by Manohara Dāsa Nirañjanī. 4. Nimbārkapākhandamukhadalana by Vīrabhadra 5. Nimbārkarratajyotsnākara by Nimbārka Swāmī. All these MSS. are in possession of Rānī Sūryamukhī Bai of Nandagaon State, C.P. Nimbārkanamasahasra has been noticed by Dr. R. L. Mittra (ride his MSS. Catalogue, Vol. VII, No. 2533). This MS. appears to be a portion of a work named Naimisa (नेमिषखएडे)

INDEX

A attainment of true knowl-

Abhra-clouds which do not edge easily 59 Ativahikas-the presiding give any water 51 deities of the various Lokas Absolute Monism of Shankarā- 50 ;- their function 50 ;- cārya 2 are non-human 50; 69 Acetana element comes out of the Lord 43 Arataras 32-33 ;- Aim of 33;

Acarya-conditions for being -and His Potencies 33 ;- kinds of-33-34 an-5 Amidya or Mayo is used in the Acaryacarita by Anantarāma Vedantin 8-9 sense of the deeds of the

Action should be performed past and not as illusory ap-

before the attainment of pearance 35 ;- responsible for the bondage of Jira 38 knowledge 55 Action not subordinate to Jñana according to Jaimini 53-54 B Artion leads to the purifica- tion of the inner-sense prior Badarayana, on the part play- to the attainment of libera- ed by action in giving tion 57 results 30 Adhyātmakārikārali 9 Beings-types of-27 :- and Idyacarya, the same as Nim- God-their relation 26-27; bārka 4 -- come to the universe at Thina Sacrifice 74 the instance of God: for Anu-Bhasya 7 bhoga and also become free Analogy-not rerognised as from bondage at His ins- an independent Pramana 16 tance 30 Anantaramo, author of the Bhagaradgita-a commentary Vedantatattrabodha 9 on the-by Nimbarka 6-7 Tpta 15 :- types of-15-16 Bhagarat-a commentary on Aprakrta-the meaning and the-by Keshava Kashmiri nature of -76; -Various 12 names for-76 Bhaktamala 4 Apurra is the giver of the Bhandarkar, R.G., 5 result of Action, according Bhaskara 2 to Jaimini 30 Bharisya Purana Parishista 5 Argumentation-factors of-6 Bhedabheda-according t o Aruna Muni-father of Nim- Vimbarka-justification for bārka 4 2 :- Ashmarathva's view Ishmarathya 2 2. 44 ;- Audulomin's view Ashrama mentioned in the 2. 43 :- Bhaskara's view 2: Shrutis 56 -Yadava Prakasha's view - Duties necessary for the 2 :- supported bv the Shruti attainment of liberation 57: 42 :- Shrinivasa's view 43- -should be followed for the 44 ;- Kashakrtsna's view 44 99

100 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

Body-Gross-Eternal-85; - Dhruvasmrti-Sincere devn- of the eternally liberated Beings 86 ;- Non-eternal tion towards the Lord 58 Difference in the version of types of-86 Brahman-everything being the Brahma Sutra in accord-

of the Nature of-18 ance with the theory of the

Brahmanda-the form of-89; Bhedabheda 98 Dream -manifested by the Process Cognitions-validity

of Pañcikarana 89 ;- various of-21-22 :- taused by the Lord Himself 21-22, 29 ;- parts of-and their locations Duration 89-90 of-dependent

Brahmaridyā 3 npon the Lord 22-23 ;- and their validity also dependent upon God 22 Dradashaha Sacrifice 74 C Dvija should not remain with-

Caitanyacaritamrta, by Kriana out an Ashrama 59

Dasa 7 Candraloka is meant for meri- E torious 49 Cognitions-all-valid bevond doubt 18-23 ;- Ekajiravāda is denouneed 39

• Erroneous, Have no exist- ence 18-19 :- varieties of- F 18-21 ;- Nīmbārka a n d Shankara compared 21 Fallacies of Reasoning 14-15 Creator-the four mental sons Fettered Selves-those who of-3 have done only evil deeds Creation-Duration of-de- go to the abode of Yama and pendent upon the Lord 22; not to the Candraloka 49 -proress of 80-84 ;- Food-Pure-essential for the Parashara's riew 84-85 ;- is attainment of true knowl- in accordance with the in- dividual deeds of the beings edge 58 ;- Leads to the puri- fication of inner sense 58 created 92 ;- has no begin- ning 93 G

D Gangala Bhatta-teacher of

Daharakāsha identified Keshava 10

the Supreme Lord 35 with Gaudapada-the Paramaguru

Dashashloki, by Nimbarka 6 of Shankara, on the relation

Death 48 ;- Process of-48 ;- between Jira and Paramat-

Difference between Shań- man 41 Gods can kara and Nīmbārka 48-49; ereate anything

-Time for-Discussed 65-66; through the Grace of the Lord 31 -Time and Bhisma 65 Dharma or Apürna indepen- H dent of God never gives any result 30 Dharmadevācārya 9 Hamsa-Sampradaya 3 Hells-varieties of-49

INDEX 101

I distinct from Paramātman

Identity of Jiva with Para- 40, 42-43 ;- Distinct from one another amongst themselves matma means that the for- 39-40 ;- Infinite in number mer entirely depends upon the latter in every respect 39 ;- is an Amsha (meaning Potency) of the Lord 39- 42-43 Inference 13 ;- factors of-13; 40 ;- during liberation also is both distinct and non-dis- -conditions involved in- 13-14 ;- validity of-17 ;- tinct from the Lord 40 ;- and Paramätman-Their rela- defects of-17 ;- and scrip- tural testimony 17-18 ;- self tion-discussed 40 -- 44 ;-

validity recognised 18 Divisions and subdivisions of 44-46; Who enters into the very being of the Lord J can assume infnite bodies

Jaimini on the importance of 46 ;- Limitations of-van-

Karma 30-31 ish after it is freed 47 ;-

Janaka and Karma 53 Process of the release of-

Jayanti Deri-mother of Nim- 47 ;- Who have performed

bārka 4 religious rites go to Candra-

Jiva-not responsible loka through the Path of for Dream Cognitions 23 ;- sub- Smoke after death a n d

strate of knowledge 23 :- come back 50-51-Assumes

and its worldly knowledge watery body in the Candra-

24 ;- A t o m ic-experiences loka 50-51 ;- Duration in Candraloka 51-Some are bhoga throughout the entire body through the help of favoured in the very womb

Jnana 24 ;- is a dependent of the mother 51 ;-

Reality 24 ;- is Jñanasva- Passage of-after death 50- 51 ;- is the object of medita- rūpa and Jñāmāshraya 35: limited tion 52 ;- carries subtle ele- -powers of-are 35 ;- knowledge of- ments after death to the

is screened by Avidya in the other world 64 ;- comes out

form of its past deeds 35 ;- of the body through the

35 :- retires Susumna 64 ;- Passage to as Karmatman to the Daharakasha during the Visnuloka 69-71 ;-

Susupti 35 :- is the doer 36: liberated experiences non- difference in difference with -Its doership during Su- the Lord 71 ;- During liber- supti and the state of faint- ing 36; moves freely in dream ation 71 ;- Audulomin's view 72 :- Bādarāyana's throughout the body 36 ;- view 72 :- Keshava's view -Activities of-during Suşupti 36 ;- Doership dis- 72-73 ;- When liberated ever

cussed 37 :- Atomic 38 ;- then remains under the con.

Atomic nature discussed 38; trol of the Lord 73-74 ;- During liberation has a body -wanders from birth to birth under the infuence of or not, discussed 73-74 ;- 73 ;- Jai- its past deeds 38 ;- Qualities Badari's view

of-38-41 :- Four states of mini's view 74 :- Bādara- 74 :- When -38-39 ;- Distinct from vana's view

Paramatman 39-42 ;- Not liberated differs from the Lord 75

102 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

Jīvanmukti not Nimbārka 75 accepted by Liberation-the Highest aim of life is attained through true, knowledge 53 ;- Pro- cess of-60-66 ;- Possible

K just after the attainment of true knowledge if the Prā-

Kala-Divisions of-77-78 rabdha is exhausted 63-64

Keshava Kāshmirī 3-7, 10 ;- - Meaning of-73 ;- Types

Author of वेदान्तकीस्तुभप्रभा and of-75

a commentary on the Gita Light-stages of-in the way

10 ;- Life-sketch of-10-41; of Jiva's going to the Visnu-

-- Date of-10 ;- Miraculous loka 69-70 Latavibhati of the Lord 78 powers of-11 ;- and Shri Caitanyadeva 11 ;- His other works 11-12 M Khyātinirņaya, by Shrini- vāsacārya 8 Kishora Das 10 Madhavācūrya 5

Knowledge-inheres Madhava Mukunda, author of

Jira 23 ;- is manifest during in the the परपक्षगिरिवज्र 9 Manimandapa of the Lord 77 the waking state while un- Meditation should be done manifest during susupti 23; while sitting 61 ;- requires -is eternal and all-perva- firmness of Manas 61 ;- sive and possesses the quali- Proper time and place for ties of contraction and ex- 23-24 ;- During -61-62 ;- should till the end 62 continue pansion bondage it remains screened under the infuence of Māya Megha-clouds which give

23 ;- helps Jiva to experi- water 51 Monism-Absolute 2 ;- Quali- ence bhoga in its own body 24; is limited during the fied 2 ;- Pure 2 ;- Unquali.

bondage of its Jira 24 ;- in fied 2

liberation helps Jiva to ex- Mungerapattana. the birth

perience bhoga in every place of Nimbarka. accord

other body apart from its ing to some 7 Muttering of Mantras helps own 24 ;- makes the cause the attainment of true know- of pain ineffective 56 ;- is ledge 59 Superior to Action 54-56; -- Subordinate to Action N according to Jaimini 54 Karmapradipa-A Tantric Nabhūsvāmin 4 work by Keshava 10-11 Krsnostavarāja 9 Naciketa fire-sacrifice 41 Naidüryapattana- birth-place Kumüra-the teacher of of Nimbārka 4 Nārada 3 Narada-Pañcarūtra 3 Narada teacher of Nimbārka school 3 ;- Gurw of Nim- L härka according to Keshava

Liberated-Eternally- Beings Nimbarka-the oldest Arārya 3

32 according to Keshava 3 ;-

INDEX 103

also known as Ādyācārya and Niyamananda 4 ;- His of His devotees 29 ;- Has

life-sketch 4-5 ;- Incarna- eternal body 29-30 ;- Has twc

tion of Sudarshanacakra or four hands 30 ;- His or-

4 ;- Agreement with Shan- naments 30 ;- Alone makes

kara and Rāmānuja on cer- people do good or bad deeds

tain points 31 under the influence of

Nimbarka school-other works aridyā 31, 37 ;- Is both cit and acit 31 ;- Creates for of-98 Nirguna-Brahma not . proved His Lila 31 ;- Does not re-

34 quire any external help for . Nityavibhūti 76, 78 rreation 31 ;- is identified

Viyamananda the old with सुषुप्तिस्थान 31 ;- Is the

of Nīmbārka 4 name experiencer of happiness in

Nyayadipavali, by पुर्पोत्तमप्रसाद 9 सपुप्ति 31 :- Is the Knower 31 ;- All His qualities are all-pervasive, natural, and 0 bestower of Final emancipa-

Organ of speech-its various tion 31 ;- Attendants of- 32 ;- Conveyance, weapons, locations 82 musical instruments, gar- ments, ornaments of-32 P - Everything belonging Him is Conscious 32: to

Paksadharmata 13 - Loka 76 :- is not Nirguņa Pañcikarana Process 18. 19. 34 ;- Alone is independent 21,91 37 Paradhama 69 Parāshara-a great teacher of Paravyoma 76 Nimbarka school 3-4 Paramatman-Attributes o f Paratattranirņaya, by Puru -25-32 :- Cause of the Cosmic Tniverse sottama Prasad 9 26 :- Parijatasaurabha on t h e Source of all creations -Creation, existence and 26; Brahmasütra by Nimbārka himself 6 destruction all depend upon Him 26 ;- Cause of both Parinama-meaning of-91 ;- types of-92 bondage and liberation 21: Path of Light 65-68 :- of -Dwells in all the bhūtas Fathers 68 :- of Gods 68 26 :- Support of all the Path-one or many 66-69 lokas 26 :- Is the Inner Soul Perception-details of-12 :- of all 27 :- Is the cause of kinds of 12 :- most reliable the manifestation of the 17 :- validity o f-17 :- Nature of Jina 27 :- Mani- deferts of-17 :- and scrip- fests Himself through Devo- tural testimony 17 ;- self- tion 28 :- Beromes limited validity of-not recognised, for the sake of His devotees 18 28 :- Establishes moral laws Potency of God in creating the 28 :- Is not Atomic 28 :- IF Universe 31 both the material and the Prākrtamandala 69 instrumental cause 29 :- Prakrti-various names of- Helps Beings to experienee 78-79 ;- Shakti of the Lord the results of their past 79 :- different from that of deeds 29 ;- Destroys the sins the Sankhya 79 ;- modifica-

104 UNIVERSITY OF ALLAHABAD STUDIES

tions of-89 ;- and Para- heaven; when performed as matman-their relation 79- an accessory to knowledge, 80 Pramāna 12-16 leads to the attainment of true knowledge 59 Prapatticintāmaņi, by Nim. Sadāca a-Prakasha on Karma- bārka 6 Prārabdha Karman 41, 63 yogas by Nimbarka 6 Sanaka a teacher of the Nim. Prasthanas-the Three-5 ;- bārka school 3 Elastic Nature of the-5 Sanatana-teacher of the Nim- Products-conscious and non- bārka school 3 conscious 86-87 Sanandana-teacher of the Pure Monism of Vallabha 2 Nīmbārka school 3 Pupils of Nimbāditya 7 Sanatkumara, tearher of the Purusottamadera or Acarya Nimbarka school 3 8 ;- His works 8-9 Sanakādi-Sampradāua 3 Purusottama Prasad 9 ;- His Satkāryavāda 18, 86 works 9-10 Sattra 74 Scriptural Testimony 15 ;- alone is the valid means to realise the Nature of Lord 17 :- self-validity of-18 Shankara Mishra 7 Qualified Monism of Rāmā- Shrideracarya, pupil of Krpa- nuja 2 Quintuplication-Process of- rārva 8 :- Incarnation of Lotus 8 :- His date-8 :- 18, 19, 21, 91 His works 8. Shrinirasacarva-the Incar- nation of the Conch-shell- direct disriple of Nimbarke R 7 :- His date 8 :- His works 7-8 Rāmānuja 2-3 Reality-Varieties of-25 Shrutyantasuradruma. b.v Purusottama Prasad 9 Recognition (Pratyabhijña)- Shrutisiddhantamanjari 0 D not a means of right knowl- edge 23 the कृष्पस्तवराज 9 Siddhantakşīrārnara, by Puru- Remembrance (Smrti) not a sottamācārva 9 means of right knowledge Siddhāntajāhnavī, a Prtti 23 the Brahmasutra, by Shri- on

Repetition-one of the six devācārya 8 lingas of hrarana 60-61 Realisation-only Path Siddhānta-Setukā. a commen- tary on Jahnavi, by Sundara for the-52 one Bhatta 8 Silence helps the attainment of true knowledge 60 S Subtle Body 65 :- Constituents

Sacrifice-Performance of-65 ;- function of-65 of- useful for the attainment of Sundara Bhatta. oupil of

true knowledge 58 ;- when Shridevăcarya and author

performed as a part of the of the Setuka 8 :- His date 8 Ashrama duty, leads to Svabhūdevācārya 10

INDEX 105

T Tedantakārikavalį 9 Vedarthasangraha 9 Tattras 12 Fidya-Prominence . 18 phasised to-for liberation em- Tattra Prakasha, by Keshava 11 53 ;- Essential conditions for True Knowledge is sttained the attainment of-58 ;- through, Pure Food, Perfor. Accessories for the attain- mance of sacrifice, Mutter. ment of-50-60 ;- makes ing of the Mantras,, Silenee, past and future effects of Shama, Shrarana, Manana evil deeds ineffective 62 :- and Vididhyasana of the does not make the Ashrama Lord-58-60 :- Leads t o Karmans, like Agnihotra, Liberation 6O ete., ineffective 63 Tidyadharācūrya alia s Brajeshacarya, author of a U commentary of Keshava's

Eniverse is the creation of the Kramadīpikā 10-11 Tiprabhiksu, identified witl Lila of the Lord 92 Dharmakirti, 7 Epomisad-Prakashika, Tishistadraitarada 9 Keshava 11 Tidlmracarya-8 ;- His works I pasana should be performed 9 in order to be liberated 52 Visnu Srami 5 Visnusahasranama-Bhasya, by Keshava 11 Trtti (ode of expression) V 16 :- Varieties of-16-17

Vaisnara-Sampradaya 3 Tyapti 13

Laishnaraism and Shairaism, Tyahas 32

by Dr. Bhandarkar 5 Fanamali Mishra, author of W Tedantasiddhntasangraha 12 Pedantamanjasa, by Purusot- Watery body of Jiva in the tamācārya 8 Candraloka melts away and Fedantakaustubha, by Shri- comes down in the form of nivasa 7 E'edantasiddhantasangraha, by rains 51

Vanamali Mishra 12 Y Vedantatattrabodha. Anantarama 9 Tedantadipa 9 Fadara-Prakasha, the teacher of Rāmānuja 2