1. Prahasana In Sanskrit Literature - S Ramaratnam 1987

PRAHASANA

IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Dr. S. RAMARATNAM

Presented for the first time in the bounds of this volume is an authorltative and thorough account of the Prahasana Literature In Sanskrit. Apart from the printed works, as many as two dozen unpublished manu- scripts had been utilised in preparing this masterly treatise.

Very valuable information about the 20th Century Prahasanas in Sanskrit and a survey of the Prahasana Literature in Indian Verna- culars is provided in the Appendix. The present work may easily form a pioneering study on the subject. This has also deve- loped a model for similar studies on other playforms.

Rs. 100.00

PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT

LITERATURE

Dr. S. RAMARATNAM, M.A., Ph.D., Dipl. in German, Dipl. in Linguistics, Graduate in Mathematics, Dipl. in Computer Programming, Dipl. in Accountancy and Taxation; Cert. in Library Science.

Professor and Head of the Post Graduate and Research Department of Sanskrit, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College, Madras-600 004

KAVYALAYA PUBLISHERS MYSORE-570 014

Books by the same author :

(in collaboration with Dr. M. Narasimhachari) RAGHUVAMŚA-Canto XII of Kālidāsa SANSKRIT FOR BEGINNERS

Cover

Courtesy : Poompuhar

Thesis appreved for the Ph.D. degree by the University of Madras

Kavyalaya Publishers-1987

First Edition : 1987

Price : Rs. 100

Published by C. G. K. Murthy, Kavyalaya Publishers, Mysore-570 014

Printed by The Wesley Press, Mysore and The Diocesan Press, Madras-7-1987 C7174

PREAMBLE

I have great pleasure in introducing this comprehensive and thorough study on 'Prahasanas in Sanskrit Literature' by Professor S. Ramaratnam, Head of the Department of Sanskrit, Vivekananda College, Madras, to the world of Sanskrit scholars. Substantially it forms his doctoral thesis prepared during 1975-79, under the directior of Professor M. Narasimhachari in the Department of Sanskrit, University of Madras.

Humour has a universal appeal throughout the world irrespective of age, education and status, and does not require any special training to enjoy it. The Gamani Samyutta of the Sämyuttanikāya refers to one Tālaputa, leader of the village of darcers (Natagamani) meeting the Buddha and speaking to him about the general rule that actors on the stage should make people laugh and delight them with truth and falsehood (Satyālīkena, realistic falsehood ?).

'Then Tälaputa, the chief of the village of actors, came to the Exalted One, saluted him and sat down at one side. So seated Talapuța said to the Exalted One, 'I have heard Lord, traditional teachers of old who were actors speaking thus : 'An actor who on the stage or in the arena makes people laugh and delights them with truth and falsehood is reborn on the dissolution of the body in the company of the laughing Devas. What does the Exalted One say regarding this matter?' (IHQ.17.196 ff.). The role of Vidūşaka is found in the earliest available fragment of Aśvaghosa's Sariputraprakarana ; the Harivamsa account of the acting of Rambhabhisara shows that Vidusaka had a role in it. Even the Kāmasūtra refers to the Vidūșaka.

The earliest reference to the Prahasana is in the Nātyašāstra (XVIII. 101-6); he describes two types of Prahasanas-Śuddha and Samkirna. Bharata prescribes the presence of Vithyangas in the Prahasana and later works like the Daśarūpaka follow him and illustrate the thirteen Vithyangas. The Rasārnavasudhākara is unique in giving ten elements for the Prahasana, which are not found elsewhere. Regarding lasyangas -- ten in number, performed

vi PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

by female dancers and suited to Srngāra-and their role in Prahasanas, there is some difference of opinion among scholars. The Daśarūpaka associates the lasyāngas with the Bhāna, and its commentator Dhanika says that the Prahasana too has the tāsyāngas. Dr. Raghavan rejected this view and stated that lāsyāngas have no place in Bhāņa or Prahasana where hāsya is the main sentiment. Dr. Ramaratnam disagrees with this view, and says that though Prahasana has hasya as the predominant sentiment, still it has some scope for śrngāra as is clear in the Bhagavadajjukīya.

Among the Suddha type of Prahasanas the Bhagavadajjukīya of Bodhayanakavi is the most importavt; here humour comes. not from words, dress and actions, but from the very structure of the plot, involving the interchange of the souls of a Bhagavan and a Vesya, reminding one of the novel, Laughing Gas by Wodehouse. This, as well as the Mattavilāsaprahasana by King Mahendra- vikrama in the seventh century A.D. have been alive in Kerala on the Koodiyattam stage. The Dinmatradarsini commentary' on Bhagavadajjukīya by Nārāyana, pupil of Melpputtūr Nārāyana Bhatta, was mainly intended to help the Cakyär actors in staging the play; this Narayana has also written a commentary on the Uttararamacharita (publihed from the Balamanorama Press, Madras). Prof. Mainker has made a detailed study of the Dinmātradarsinī in his Studies in Sanskrit Dramatic Criticism (1971).

The available Prahasanas have been described in detail under two headings-the Suddba type and the Samkirna type; with full documentation. The appendix gives briefly a list of nor-available Prahasanas, select Bibliography on Twentieth Century Prahasanas, Prahasanas in other languages and 'The Farce in, English Literature '.

I am sure that this book will be favourably received by all lovers of Sanskrit and Indian theatre,

Madras, September, 1987 Dr. K. KUNJUNNI RAJA, Hony. Director, Adyar Library and Research Centre, Madras-600 020.

FOREWORD

lt gives me great pleasure to provide a foreword to Dr. Ramaratnam's study of Prahasana in Sanskrit literature. Having first learnt at the end of 1980 that he was engaged in research on this topic, I am naturally delighted now to see the finished results, which amount to a major contribution to our appreciation of Sanskrit literature. The genere of prahasana, 'farce', has been relatively neglected by scholars, despite having remained, as Dr. Ramaratnam so ably shows, much more of a living form than most types of dramatic presentation ; this is no doubt due to the prahasana's broad popular appeal.

Dr. Ramaratnam first provides us with the necessary back- ground through a concise survey of the origin and types of Sanskrit drama in his first chapter and a study of the rasa-theory, in parti- cular the hasya rasa, in his second chapter. He shows himself throughout to be well acquainted with the Sanskrit theoreticians, as well as with the views of modern scholars, all of which he discusses in a succinct and lucid fashion. With his third chapter on the theory and practice of the prahasana, he provides us with an excel- lent overview of the genre as a whole, before surveying in the next two substantial chapters the extant examples. These two chapters then divide the extant prahasanas into the two types, śuddha and samkīrna, propounded by Bharata in the Nāțyaśāstra and very broadly corresponding to their chronologial production. He shows a proper caution in assigning the earliest example, the Bhagavadajjukiya, to the 6th century A.D., a much more plausible date than that implied by Warder, who appears to date it in the 3rd century (Indian Kāvya Literature vol. 2, 1974, p. 335). This and Mahendravarman's Mattavilasaprahasana are justly famous for their literary qualities, as well as being important social docu- ments. Dr. Ramaratnam's excellent summaries of all the plays, together with the further analysis of various features of the suddha examples and the better known among the samkirna type, enable us to get a real flavour of their style and subject-matter. He has put us all particularly in his debt by providing such summaries of even the minor samkirna specimens, many of which are available

viji. PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

only in manuscript ; the perseverance and industry needed to track down and read all of these in their various locations is most commendable.

To complete the picture, he has also furnished us in two appendices with a list of prahasanas that are no longer available and a select bibliography of 20th-century examples, when the genre has enjoyed something of a renaissance after falling, as Dr. Ramaratnam demonstrates, into a rather sorry stage in the previous period. I personally am pleased to see that the latter includes one of the many productions for the stage of the late Professor V. Raghavan, the most eminent of Madras Sanskritists, whose acquaintance I was privileged to make through our ccmmon interest in the Ramayana. The enthusiasm and scholarly concern for the Sanskrit dramatic tradition flourishing in Madras through his efforts, including the establishment of the Samskrta Ranga, has found another worthy proponent in the person of Dr. S. Ramaratnam on the evidence of this volume. I am pleased to have been given the opportunity of commending it to the reader and congratulate him on its production.

Edinburgh, September, 1987. J. L. BROCKINGTON, Head, Department of Sanskrit, University of Edinburgh.

PREFACE

The Prahasana, recogrised as a play-form by Bharata has a rich literature. Full-fledged works, however, appear from the fifth or sixth centuries of the Christian era of which the Bhagavad- ajjukīya and the Mattavilasa deserve special mention. The prahasana was used as an important medium to expose the weak- nesses of the contempory society involving an element of satire but with hasya as the predominant sentiment. Though the earlier and the medieval prahasanas carried out this task with commendable decency and dignity, some later prahasanas degraded themselves by indulging in objectionable vulgarity, meaningless imitation and lack-lustre presentation. In the 20th century this trend has been reversed thanks to the prevailing sense of human dignity and literary aesthetics.

All along, scholars have been content to treat the Prahasanas in a general manner and no serious attempt seems to have been made to present a cogent, complete account of all the available prahasanas in Sanskrit. This long-felt desideratum has been filled up by Dr. S. Ramaratnam in this all-encompassing study under my guidance, which won him the Doctorate Degree from the Madras University in 1979.

Apart from the printed prahasanas, Dr. Ramaratnam collected and studied more than twenty unpublished manuscripts. The problem of the Prahasana has been studied by him in theory and in practice, which lends the study, & harmonious blend of precision and completeness. A detailed analysis of the sentimert of hāsya, the prahasana-elements, the vithyangas and their application have been carried out by the learned author with clarity of thought, lucidity of expression backed by an amazing mastery in the subject. The painstaking thoroughness with which each and every prahasana has been studied is quite commendable. The author has also included in the Appendix useful material on the modern prahasanas in Sanskrit and a few Indian vernaculars.

x PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The present study is certainly a mine of information for both students and teachers interested in the growth and development of Sarskrit plays in general, and those of Prahasanas in particular. This study also forms a model for similar studies by aspiring scholars in future.

Madras-5, M. NARASIMHACHARY, September, 1987 Head of the Dept. of Vaisnavism, University of Madras, Madras-600 005.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

In the following pages, an attempt is made for the first time, at presenting a detailed account of the Prahasana literature in Sanskrit. The present book represents the research work done by me in the Department of Sanskrit, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College, Madras first and later in the Sanskrit Department of the University of Madras, under the supervision of Dr. M. Narasimhachary, formerly Reader in Sanskrit, University of Madras and presently the Head of the Department of Vaisnavism.

Prahasana is one of the ten major types of Sanskrit Drama, the other nine being, Nātaka, Prakaraņa, Bhāņa, Ņima, Vyāyoga, Samavakāra, Vīthī, Anka and Ihāmrga. Nāțaka (Popular play) and Prakarana (Social. Play) are the most perfected varieties; depicting all the rasas and possessing varied characters. The other playforms differ from one another in the main rasa that is delineated and the type of characters introduced. Thus the Prahasana has 'hāsya' (comic) as its predominant sentiment and generally depicts the corrupt practices of certain sections of the society. The usefulness of the Prahasanas lies in their cautioning the good against the exploitation of unscrupulous elements in the society.

Though studies on some individual Prahasanas have appeared from time to time in Research Journals, no detailed study has yet been made to analyse them all on comparitive basis. Thus the present study is an attempt for the first time to present a large body of Prahasanas covering all important aspects of the theory and practice. In doing so, no effort has been spared in collecting manuscripts, microfilms and transcripts of the Prahasana pieces from different sources, though still a few texts could not be traced or procured.

The first chapter is introductory in nature, dealing with the important aspects of Sanskrit Drama, such as its origin, the différent types and their salient features .-

xii PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The second chapter gives a brief account of several theories of rasa-realisation and a detailed treatment of hāsya rasa with suitable illustrations. Other connected problems like whether or not häsya forms a secondary rasa, its relation to the other rasas and its scope in wider Sanskrit literature have also been discussed in this chapter.

The third chapter deals with the Sanskrit Prahasanas in theory and practice. The salient points discussed in this chapter are. the origin of Prahasana, its theoretical features as sanctioned in works on dramaturgy and the presence of such features in the available specimens.

Prahasanas generally fall under two categories-the suddha (pure) and the samkīrna (the mixed). Classified on this basis, only four of the available works can be brought under the śuddha class and these four Prahasanas are studied in Chapter IV.

The samkirna type of Prahasanas are discussed in Chapter V- the well known Prahasanas under section A and the minor pieces in section B.

The last chapter gives a retrospective resumè of the study made in the preceding chapters. The scope of this study is limited to the Prahasanas upto the nineteenth Century. However, a brief account of the Twentieth Century Prahasanas is also given in the Appendix. The influence of Sanskrit Prahasanas over those in other Indian languages and a brief acount of the Farces in English literature are also presented in the Appendix.

While preparing the thesis, Sanskrit verses were rendered in the roman style, but now, in print, they are given in the Devanāgarī script. One or two sandhi errors might have crept in due to this double conversion. Only the 'chāyā' is given for Prākrt verses in the original text and this has led to certain variations in metre in some of the verses quoted. Long compounds and sandhis have been split wherever necessary for the convenience of the readers. Short prose lines quoted in the course of narration are, however rendered in the roman style. While identifying the prose lines in the footnotes, reference to their abutting verse numbers are given. For example, Act II, 10-12 means, the relevant. passage

GENERAL INTRODUCTION xiii

occurs in between verses 10 and 12. in Act II. There will be two sets of Abbreviations, the one appearing after the General Introduction and the other at the end of the work. The latter can be ignored since it is incomplete.

A few words must be said here about the omission of ' Damaruka ' of Ghanasyāma, from the list of Prnhasanas studied. The work has gone through two editions so far (Madras Govern- ment Oriental Manuscripts Library Series, No. 11 and Vani Vilas Press, 1940. See also Journal of Sri Sankara Gurukula-Vol. 1); The work has ten sections under the heads, 'rājanurañjanam', ' kalidūșaņam ', ' sukavisajjīvanam ', ' kukavisant āpanam ', ' abodh ākaram ', ' śābdikabhañjanam ', 'panditakhandanam' 'jātisantarjanam ', 'prabhutvam' and 'akhandanandanam". The different sections bring out the poet's observations on several aspects of human life with an interesting mixture of wit, humour and satire. It is more of a work in the 'subhasita' style with a difforence. There are short dialogues in the beginning and at the end of each section. For example, we have 'kim vilambyate, padyatām tāvat sukavisañjīvanam nāma nibandhanam' in the beginning of the section under consideration, and the passage, 'eşa jalamdhara-dvitīvyo vinayamdharah itah eva abhivartate, tavadavam gacchavah ' occurs at the end of the section. Evidently the next discussion takes place between Jalamdhara and Vinayamdhara. So judging from its content and style the Damaruka can hardly be called a Prahasana, though it is designated so by its author.

In the preparation of this Volume, I had to go through a number of secondary material which could not possibly be accomodated in the Bibliography. One such book is David Lorenzen's 'The Kāpālikas and Kālāmukhas-Two lost Saivite Sets' (University of California Press), which ought to have been included. Some of my own articles have appeared in various Journals, but may be found missing in the Bibliography. To mention a few :

(i) 'The theory of Sanskrit Prahasana'-Sambodhi Ouiental Journal, Vol. VII, 1979. (ii) 'Two eighteenth century Farces from Karnātaka'- The Mysore Orientalist, Vol. XI, 1978.

ABBREVIATIONS

AB - Ātmabodha. Abhi. - Abhirāmarāghava Abhi. Bhã. Abhinavabh āratī. ABORI Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. AIOC - All India Oriental Conference. AT Adbhuta taranga. Aufrecht Aufrecht's Catalogus .Catalogorum. AV Atharva Veda. Ava. Avaloka. BA Bhagavadajjukīya. Bāl. Bālarāmāyana. BG Bhagavadgīt a. BORI Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. BP Bhāvaprakāśana. BR. Upa. Brhad āranyaka Upanişad. Cām. Cāmuņda Prahasana. Capeller Capeller's resume in Gurupūjākumudī, Leipzig. CC Catalogus Catalogorum. Chh. Chhandogya Upanisad. CSS Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. Dhv. Dbvanyāloka. Din. Dińmātrapradarśinī. DNP - Dnūrtanartaka Prahasana. DP Dāmaka Prahasana. DR Daśarūpaka DS Dhūrtasamāgama. DV Dhūrtavidambana. GDP Gauridigambara Prahasana. GOS Gaekwad Oriental Series. Hã. Cũ. - Hāsyācūdāmaņi. Hall. Hall's edition of Daśarūpaka. Hās. Hāsyārņava HCSL History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. IO India Office Library, London.

ABBREVIATIONS xVil

Insc. Inscription. JBORS - Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society. JBRS Journal of Bihar Research Society. JOR Journal of Oriental Research, Madras. Kal. - Kāleyakautūhala. Kam. Kāmasūtra. Kar. Karpūramañjarī. Kath. Kațhoparișad. Kau. Kauņdinya Prahasana. Kauş. Kauşītaki Upanișad. KD Kāvyādarśa. Keith A. B. Keith's ' Sanskrit Drama ' KM Kāvyamāla series. Konow Konow's ' Indian Drama '. KP Kāvyaprakāśa. KS K.āvyānuśāsana. Kuk. Kukşimbharabhaikșava. Līlā Līl avilasaprahasana. LM, Lațaka. Lațakamelaka. Māl. Mālavik āgnimitra. Man. Manusmrti. MB Mahābh āșya. M.Bh. Mahābhārata. Mith. - Mithyacara Prahasana. MKC Madanaketucarita. MP Mundita Prahasana. Mrc. Mrcchakațika. Mund Muņdakopanişad. MV Mattavil āsaprahasana. NC Nāțakacandrīkā. NCC New Catalogus Catalogorum. ND Nāțyadarpaņa. NLRK Nāļakalakșaņa ratnakoșa. NS Nāțyaśās.ra. NS Press. Nirnayasagar Perss. Pāda. Pādatāditaka. Pāņd Pāņdavānanda. PM Palāņdumaņdana. PR Pratāparudrīya. Prabh - Prabhoda Candrodaya.

xviii PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITĖRATURE

Pras. Prasannarāghava. Prās. Prāsaṅgīka. Pūr. Pūrvamīmāmsā. Raghu. Raghuvamśa. RASB Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. Rat. Ratn āvalī RC Raghuvīracarita. RG Rasagangādhara. RS Rasārņavasudhākara. Sah. Sahrday ānanda. Śāk. Abhijñāna Śākuntala. ŚB Śatapatha Brāhmaņa. Schuyler Schuylers' 'Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama'. SD S āhityadarpaņa. SK Sāndrakutūhala. Śr. Pra. Śṛngāra Prakāśa. Subha. Subhagānanda. Subhā. Subhāșitāvalī. Sūk. Sūktimuktāvalī. SY Somavalli Yogananda. TB - Tāņdya Brāhmaņa. TSS Trivandrum Sanskrit Series. UK Unmatta Kavikalaśa. URC Uttara Rāmacarita. VP - Venkateśa Prahasana.

CONTENTS

Preamble v

Foreword vii

Preface ix

General Introduction xi

Abbreviations xvi

CHAPTER ONE

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY .. 1

Introduction-Origin of Sanskrit Drama-Types of Sanskrit Drama

CHAPTER Two

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 14

Theory of Rasa-Hasya Rasa-Six kinds of laughter-Is Hasya a secondary Rasa ?- Position of Hasya among the Rasas-The definition of Hasya, a re-appraisal-The divinity and the colour symbolising Hasya-A brief survey of Hasya in Sanskrit literature.

CHAPTER THREE

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 35 Origin and development of the Prahasanas-Characteris- tics of the Prahasanas-Views of Abhinavagupta on the Prahasana-The Prahasana Elements-The Vithyangas- Prahasana elements in other forms of literature-The relation between Prahasana and other rūpakas- Characters appearing in the Prahasanas-Paradoxical

XX PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

names of characters in the Prahasanas-hereo and the heroine in the Prahasanas-Vulgarity in the Prahasanas -- Prakrt in the Prahasanas-Rasas other than Hasya in the Prahasanas-Number of acts in a Prahasana- Lāsyangas in the Prahasana-Nātyadharmi and Lokadharmi-Theatrical aspects-Instrumentation- Nāndi and the Prologue-Bharatavākya-Stage worthiness.

CHAPTER FOUR

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 75

The suddha type of Prahasanas-The Bhagavadjjukiya- The Mattavilasa Prahasana-The Hāsyacūdāmaņi- The Madanaketucarita

CHAPTER FIVE

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE PRAHASANAS 167 A. The Well Known Prahasanas 169

The Samkīrna type of Prahasanas-The Latakamelaka- The Natavata Prahasana-The Dhurtasamagama-The Hāsy ārņava.

B. The Minor Prahasanas 205

Damaka Prahasana-Gaurīdigambara Prahasana- Kuhanābhaiksava - Somavallīyogānanda - Kautuka- ratnākara - Kautukasarvasava - Dhūrtanartaka - Adbhutataranga - Prāsangika - Palāņdumandana - Vibudhamohana - Sahrdayānanda - Ghrtakulyāvalī - Lambodara Prahasana - Unmattakavikalaśa - Sāndra- kutūhaļa - Dhūrtavidambana -- Kukşimbharabhaik- sava - Candānuranjana - Mundita Prahasana - Kāleyakutūhala - Subhagānanda - Vinodaranga - Hāsyakutūhala - Mithyācāra Prahasana - Lokarañjana Prahasana.

CHAPTER SIX

Conclusion 253

CONTENTS xxi

APPENDIX-A

A list of non-available Prahasanas 255

APPENDIX-B

Twentieth Century Sanskrit Prahasanas .. 257

APPENDIX-C

Prahasanas in other Indian languages .. 265

APPENDIX-D

The Farce in English Literature 269 Bibliography .. 274 Index of Sanskrit verses and passages quoted . . 285 General Index .. 293 Errata .. 317

C

CHAPTER I

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY

Introduction

Origin of Sanskrit Drama

Types of Sanskrit Drama

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY

1.1. Introduction Man derives pleasure in reviewing and visualising his own mental states in different situations of life. He does not stop with that. He tries to give expression to those states thrcugh different means like language, gesticulations and symbolic re- presentation, which emerge as poetry, dance, painting and sculpture. Drama is one such expression of human mind.1 Drama is evidently the most popular form of literature in any language. The popularity of the drama can be gauged from such expressions as 'नाटकान्तं हि साहित्यम्' 'काव्यास्यान्तं हि नाटकम्' and काव्येषु नाटकं रम्यम्. The reason for this is that drama is the only art which combines poetry, music and dance and appeals to the ear and the eye simultaneously. It depicts different situatic ns of human life and gives expression to the hopes, emotions and conduct of men.2 When different aspects of human nature with its joys and sorrows are reproduced on the stage through gestures, words, costumes and the like, it is called drama8. There is nothing that is not found in a drama-worldly know- ledge, fine arts, different activities-in fact everything concerning human life finds a place in it.

न तज्ज्ञानं न तच्छिल्पं न सा विद्या न सा कला। न स योगो न तत् कर्म नाटथेऽश्मिन् यन्न दृश्यते।4

1 Natyasastra (NS)-'नाटयम् भावानुकीर्तनम्'-Ch. IsI. 106, Ed. Ghosn * Ibid. śl. 111. 'नानाभावोपसम्पन्नं नानावस्थान्तरात्मकम् । लोकवृत्तानुकरणं - II 3 Ibid. śl. 121. 'कृतानुकरणं लोके नाटयमित्यभिधीयते। योऽयं स्वभावो लोकस्य सुखदुःखसमन्वितः ।।' . Ibid. śl. 116.

4 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

क्कचिद्धर्म: क्चित्क्रीडा कचिदर्थः क्वचिच्छमः । क्वचिद्धास्यं क्वचित् युद्धं क्वचित् काम: क्वचिद्वध: ॥1 Drama is an education in itself, since it shows why the actions of the noble are to be emulated. and those of the wicked are to be avoided. It upholds the moral codes and confers courage, amusement and happiness. ' hitopadeśajananam dhrtikrīdāsukhādikrt." It imparts a sense of duty to those who are against it, carries instructions on love for those who are eager for its fulfilment, chastises the ill-bred or unruly; promotes self-restraint in those who are disciplined, gives courage to the cowardly and energy to the heroic. It enlightens men of poor intellect and gives wisdom to the learned.3 This is what Kālidasa has beautifully summarised as 'natyam bhinnarucer-janasya bahudhapyekam samārādhanam '.

1.2. Origin of Sanskrit Drama It is well-known that tradition assigns a mythological origin for Samskrt drama. The Rk, Yajus, Sama and Atharva-vedas contributed dialogues, gestures, music and sentiment to the drama. Lord Siva and his consort Parvati originated the Tandava and Lasya types of dances while Lord Visnu evolved the four dramatic styles-Kaisikī, Ārabhațī, Bhāratī and Sāttvatī. Other gods contributed many other dramatic artifices. Sage Bharata was entrusted with the stage-direction.5 With all its mythical colouring, the traditional theory cannot be brushed aside as totally unacceptable. It points to the fact that music and dance formed an integral part of early Samskrt drama. The Samvādasūktas6 of the Rgveda reveal traces of

1 NS, Ch. I, śl. 107. 2 Ibid., śl. 112. 3 Ibid., śls. 108, 109. * Mālavikāgnimitra, I. 4. NS, Ch. I. śls. 41-46. * I-165, 170, 179; III-33; IV-18; VII-33; VIII-100; X-11, 28, 51, 53, 86, 95, 108.

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY 5

dramatic element. The musical style of the Samaveda reci- tations is quite significant. The Epics with their vast treasure of interesting stories might have given a new impetus to the dramatic traditions in India. Though references to drama and dramatic traditions are found in the Astādhyayi of Pānini1 and the Mahābhāsya of Patañjali2, Samskrt drama did not take its full shape until about Bhasa's time (2nd Century B.c.). We do not have any specimen of Samskrt drama prior to Bhasa's time, preserved. The rather late evolution of Samskrt drama has led many Western scholars3 to believe that it was influenced by the Greek drama after Alexander's invasion of India. The word 'yavanika', (the curtain used in Samskrt dramas) according to them, is derived from 'Yavana', which means the Greeks. They further argue that Yavana girls were employed as servant maids at the courts of Indian Kings. Moreover, there are certain structural similarities between Samskrt drama and the Greek drama. But this theory is untenable because the points of contrast are far too many. Two of the main aspects of the Greek drama, viz., the Tragedy and the three Unities (of Time, Place and Action) are absent in Samskrt drama. According to Sten Konov, ' Samskrt drama came into exis- tence as a result of coalescence of two elements, viz., on the one side, the recitation of the Epic legends, and in the other, the display of the shadow images concommitantly with the mani- festations of the features of the mimic art." Konov's theory presupposes the existence of the popular stage where pantomimic shows and shadow plays were in vogue. The three terms con- nected with Samskrt drama, 'nata' (actor), 'nāțaka' (drama)' and 'natya' (dance)-all proceed from the same root, 'nrt', to dance, and dancing is the most important function of the pantomime. The Stage Director of the Sanskrit drama is called ' sutradhara' (holder of the strings) which again supports the

1 Aştādhyāyī, 4-3-110. * Mahābhāşya, 3-1-26. 3 Prof. Windish and Prof. Weber, for instance. See Keith, Sanskrit Drama, p. 57. Indian Drama, Preface p. iii, and pp. 74-75.

6 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE theory that Sanskrit drama had an indigenous origin. Similarly the tradition of the shadow play is also very old. Chāyānāțaka has been mentioned even in the Mahabharata1. In ancient India, the recitation of the epics before the spectators used to be accom- panied by the depiction of the relevant stories through shadow images2. The general term referring to Sanskrit drama, ' rūpaka', is conected to 'rupa' which indicates the display of figures in a shadow play.3 Konov's theory has been criticised by Prof. Keith in his ' Sanskrit Drama'.4 According to Keith, there does not occur any authentic information regarding the performance of the mimes prior to the origin of Sanskrit drama5. Keith also ob- serves that the term Chayanataka does not refer to the shadow play. It only refers to the play within the play. The origin of 'rūpaka' from 'rūpa' is also untenable since 'rūpa' just refers to a visible performance and not particularly to the shadow play.6 According to Keith, the recitation of the epic stories provided the necessary base for Sanskrit drama. The dramatic action has an independent origin from the religious contests and only the union of these two produced the drama'. Dr I. Shekar opines, on the basis of the findings at Mohenjodaro and Harappa8 that the Sanskrit drama owes its origin to the native Indian tradition of the Dravidians. The hoary tradition of the Sanskrit drama, however, renders it difficult to put forward any conclusive evidence with regard to its origin. As for the mimic plays, which according to Keith could not have existed in ancient India, it has to be kept in mind that this art is still preserved in our country in some form or other. It is quite probable that what we have now is only a

Cf. Indian Drama, Preface, p. iii and pp. 74-75. ª Ibid., p. 69 ff. 3 Ibid., p. 71 ff. 4 See Sanskrit Drama, p. 25. 5 Ibid., p. 49. 6 Ibid., p. 54. 7 Ibid., p. 73. " See I. Shekar, 'Sanskrit Drama-its origin and decline.' Ch. I.

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY. 7

legacy left by the ancient form of this particular art. It may be difficult to adduce literary proofs for all that is obtained now. But absence of such proofs cannot lead to an outright negation or denial of this possibility. It therefore appears . reasonable that there is truth in some of the theories put forth by scholars, since drama, after all, combines in itself elements from different sources. Thus the dialogue portion would have been inspired by the ' Samvadasuktas' of the Rgveda; Epic stories could have provided the necessary base; religious contests could have been responsible for the action part of drama. The mimic art, shadow play etc., would also have contributed their own mite for the over- all development of the Sanskrit drama. Side by side with the dramas, there arose a well-defined system of Dramaturgy in Sanskrit literature. It was a two way process-dramatists observing rules of dramaturgy provided by earlier writers on dramaturgy and the latter, framing rules on the basis of the available plays.

1.3.0. Types of Sanskrit drama Samskrt drama is referred to by the general term, 'rūpaka'1. There are ten kinds of rūpakas-Nāțaka, Prakaraņa, Bhāņa, Prahasana, Ņima, Vyāyoga, Samavakāra, Vīthī, Anka and İhāmrga. The Nātaka and the Prakarana are the most per- fected and more popular of all these forms. The characteristic features of the rupakas have been dealt with elaborately in the works on dramaturgy. We shall, however, present below some of the most important features of these, for the purpose of a full and cogent account of the subject on hand. 1.3.1. The nātaka: The plot in a nataka is chiefly drawn from a well-known episode (prakhyāta)8. It has all the five 'sandhis' (junctures) and the main sentiment in it shall be 'śrngara' or 'vīra'3. It may have acts ranging from five to ten".

1 'rūpakam tat samāropāt' It is called ' representation ' (rūpaka) because of the assumption of parts by actors. Daśarūpaka, I, 9. 2 NS, XVIII-10; DR, III-21; SD, VI-7. (Edn. NS-KM; DR-Hall; SD- NS. Press.) ' DR, III-30; SD, VI-10. * NS, XVIII-105ff; DR, III-34; SD, VI-8.

8 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The hero shall be a noble character1 belonging to one of the four types-Dhirodatta, Dhiroddhata, Dhiralalita and Dhira- santa.2 A nataka shall have as its end one of the first three 'purușārthas'-Dharma, Artha or Kāma3. All the four 'vrttis' (styles of expression), Kaiśiki, Ārabhațī, Bhāratī and Sāttvatī shall be employed in it4. Model plays: Abhijñānaśākuntala and Veņīsamhāra. 1.3.2. The Prakarana5: The Prakarana has a social theme which is invented by the poet himself (utpādya). Like nātaka the prakarana too has all the five sandhis. It has acts ranging from five to ten, has all the five vrttis and may have śrngāra as its main sentiment. The hero should be a minister, a brahman of a merchant adhering to Dharma. The heroine is either a woman from a noble family or a harlot. Slaves, Vitas and Sresthins play a significant role in a Prakaraņa. Model play: Mrcchakațika. 1.3.3. Bhāna: Bhana again has an invented theme. It has only the Mukha and the Nirvahana sandhis. Kaisikī and Ārabhațī vrttis are prohibited in it. The main sentiment is śrngara with hasya ranking next. The peculiarity of Bhāna is that it is purely a monologue play enacted by a single actor, a 'vita.' The dramatic device known as 'ākāśabhāșita' is employed in the narrative. Model plays: The Caturbhāņī-Padmaprābhrtaka, Pāda- tāditaka, Dhūrtavițasamvāda and Ubhayābhisārikā. 1.3.4. The Prahasana7: The Prahasana (Farce) too has an utpadya theme. It generally derides the evils of the society. It follows the Bhana with respect to the sandhis and the vrttis.

1 NS, XVIII-11, ª SD, VI-9. ' NS, XVIII-11. · Ibid, XVIII-4. ' NS, XVIII, 98-100; DR, III, 35-36; SD, VI. 224-226. ' NS, XVIII-159ff; DR, III. 44-46; SD, VI. 227 ff. ' NS, XVIII-153ff; DR, III. 49 ff, SD, VI. 264 ff.

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY

Hasya is the predominant sentiment in it. The Nātyasastra: speaks of two varieties-the śuddha and the sankīrņa. Daśa -- rūpaka adds one more variety, namely, the vikrta. The diff -- erence between these is mainly based on the nature of the charac -- ters employed. Ascetics, Brähmanas and others appear in the śuddha variety while the sankīrna has eunuchs, parasites and rogues. The vikrta has a free mix up of these characters and has the Vithyangas. Model plays: Bhagavadajjukīya and Lațakamelaka.

1.3.5. The Dima1: The Dima has a prakhyāta theme. It may have four acts. Arabhatī and Sattvatī are extensively employed. Vimarsa sandhi is generally avoided. Raudra is the predominant sentiment; Śrngāra and Hāsya are prohibited ... Gods, gandharvas, raksasas and the like figure in a Dima. Natural. calamities, violent fights, witchcraft and the like may also find ... place here.

Model play: Tripuravijaya of Vatsarāja.

1.3.6. Vyāyoga2 : Vyāyoga too derives its plot from a known source (prakhyäta). The incidents described in it should not: extend beyond the span of a single day. There will be no women. characters in it. Battles and boastings of the warriors form its. main theme. Kaisikī Vrtti, the garbha and vimarsa sandhis and śrngāra and hāsya rasas are to be avoided in it.

Model play: Madhyamavyāyoga of Bhāsa.

1.3.7. The Samavakāra3: The Samavakāra again derives its: theme from a prakhyata source. Battle scenes form the subject matter and gods and demons figure in it. Vira and Raudra shall be the main sentiments. It may have three acts. Vimara. sandhi and the kaiśiki vrtti are to be excluded.

Model play: Samudramathana of Vatsaraja.

1 NS, XVIII-135ff DR, III-51 ff; SD, VI-241 ff. ' NS, XVIII-141 ff; DR, III-54-55; SD, VI-231 ff .. ' NS, XVIII-114 ff; DR, III-56 ff; SD, VI-234 ff.

10 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE 1.3.8. The Vithi1: The Vithi has an utpādya theme and is a one-act play. Only two or three characters appear in it. Śrngāra shall be the main sentiment. Mukha and Nirvahana sandhis . alone are to be employed. Ākāśabhāșita may be introduced.

Model play: Premābhirāma of Rāvipāți Tripurāntaka.

1.3.9. The Anka2: The theme of an Anka may either be prakhyāta or utpādya, dealing with the death of a hero and the lamentations of women. Bharati vrtti shall be mainly employed. Only Mukha and Nirvahana sandhis occur in it. The chief . sentiment in it is Karuņa.

Model play: Ūrubhanga of Bhāsa.

1.3.10. The Ihamrga3: The theme of Ihamrga is partly prakhyāta and partly utpādya. This playform is so called be- cause its hero longs for a maiden who is difficult to be obtained like a gażelle. Kaiśiki vrtti is to be avoided. Only Mukha, Pratimukha and Nirvahana sandhis occur in it. It may have four acts.

Model play: Rukmiņīharaņa of Vatsarāja.

Apart from these major varieties, there are minor dramatic pieces known as the Uparūpakas4. The nātika (e.g., the Ratnā- vali) and the Sıttaka (e.g., the Karpūramañjarī) are the popular playforms among the Uparūpakas. Different features of the drama like the Nāndi, the Prastāvana, Vikambhaka, Praveśaka and the types of the hero and the heroine, nature of the theme, the five sandhis etc., have been discussed elaborately in books on Sanskrit drama and dramaturgy5 and hence they are not taken up for analysis here.

1 NS, XVIII-163 ff; DR, III-62 ff; SD, VI-253 ff. 2 NS, XVIII-145ff; DR, III-64 ff; SD, VI-250 ff. NS, XVIII-129ff; DR, III-66ff; SD, VI-2446 ff. ' On Uparūpakas, see article by Dr V. Raghavan, Samskrta Ranga Annual, No. V. See for instance, Sanskrit Drama by Keith, and Laws and Practice of Sanskrit Drama by S. N. Sarma.

SANSKRIT DRAMATURGY 11

The most important and abiding factor in a rūpaka is, of course, Rasa or the sentiment. The main sentiment of the playform called the Prahasana, now taken up for a detailed study, is Hāsya (comic.). A detailed account of the nature of Hasya, its subdivisions, its relation to the other rasas and allied topics are dealt with in the next chapter. A brief survey of the Rasa theory is also given at the beginning of Ch. II with a view to place Häsya in its proper setting.

CHAPTER II

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA

Theory of Rasa

Hāsya Rasa

Six kinds of laughter

Is Hāsya a secondary Rasa?

Position of Hasya among the Rasas

The definition of Hasya, a re-appraisal

The divinity and the colour symbolising Hasya

A brief survey of Häsya is Sanskrit Literature

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA

2.1. The word 'Rasa' primarily means 'taste' or 'flavour" but metaphorically it means ' the emotional experience of beauty in poetry and drama'1. Poetry and drama carry an emotional appeal to the connoisseur's mind. We witness a drama and enjoy it because it frees us from all worldly worries and distract- ions. It also arouses our dormant pleasurable instincts (bhavas). which when enjoyed, give us unalloyed pleasure and this is: known as 'rasāsvāda'. The purpose of poetry and drama is to evolve this 'rasa' and hence rasa is considered to be their soul .. But for rasa, there is nothing worthwhile in a literary work2 .. The principal rasa runs like a connecting thread in a drama® .. The theory of evolution of rasa has been dealt with at length by a number of Ālankārikas starting from Bharata. There are what are known as 'sthayibhavas' (permanent mental conditions, e.g., rati and hasa) in our mind. These are aroused by certain ' causes' called ' vibhavas' like the hero and the heroine (alambana vibhava) and the stimulant factors like the seasons, moon and surroundings (uddipana vibhava). There are again external expressions of the inner feeling called the 'anubhavas', such as the roving side glances, smile and the- like. There are also transitory mental conditions called ' vya- bhicāri (sañcari) bhavas', like despair, fatigue and anxiety. All these mingle together to evoke a particular rasa. विभाव-अनुभाव-व्यभिचारि-संयोगाद् रसनिष्पत्तिः।4

This seeminlgy simple 'rasasutra' of Bharata has been variously interpreted by different schools of criticism, the most important. of them being the 'Rasotpattivada' of Bhatta Lollata, the 'Rasā -.

1 See P. V. Kane, History of Sanskrit Poetics, p. 356 .. ' NS, GOS ed. vol. I, p. 274. 'na hi rasādrte kaścidarthaḥ pravartate." ª Abhinavabhāratī, vol. I, p. 273: एक एव तावत् परमार्थतो रसः सूत्रस्थानीयत्वेन रूपके प्रतिभाति। ' NS, p. 274, Ed. G.O.S. Vol. I.

16 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

: numitivāda' of Śrīśankuka, the 'Rasabhuktivāda' of Bhațțanāyaka and the 'Rasabhivyaktivada' of Abhinavagupta. Jagannatha "Pandita has summed up these theories and added the 'navya'- view also, in his Rasagangādhara. According to Bhatta Lollata, Rasa is generated only in the original characters and the actors, by their clever gesticulations make the spectators feel, wrongly though, that they (actors) possess those emotions. This invalid cognition makes the .spectators enjoy rasa. According to Bhattalollata the word "5 samyoga' in Bharata's sūtra means 'the relation between cause and effect, i.e., 'utpādya-utpādakabhava' and the word ' nispatti' means ' utpatti' or generation. But this theory is rejected on .the ground that it goes against the general rule that the cause and the effect should co-exist in a single substratum (sāmānā- dhikaranya). In other words, if Rasa exists in the original character or the actor, it cannot be pleasurable to the spectator. Śrīśańkuka explains rasa-realisation through inferential knowledge (anumāna). On witnessing a drama, a spectator anfers that the rasas of the original characters exist in the actors also and this inferential knowledge leads to pleasure. The word 'samyoga' in Bharata's rasasūtra means 'anumāpya- „anumāpaka-bhāva', the relation between a thing that is inferred and the thing that forms the ground of the inference. The word "'nispatti' should be interpreted as 'anumiti' or inference. Śri- sankuka's theory has the same defect as the previous one, namely, ack of 'sāmānādhikaranya' or co-ordination of cause and effect. Bhattanāyaka who comes next removes the anomalies of the two previous theories and expounds the theory of 'rasabhukti'. Bhattanāyaka recognises three functions known as (i) abhidhā- yakatva-vyāpārā (ii) bhāvakatva-vyāpāra and (iii) bhojakatva- vyapara. By the first 'vyapara' the original characters are stripped of their individual traits and by the second, viz., the bhāvakatva vyāpāra, they become universalised. Sakuntalā, for instance, is taken not as the consort of Dusyanta but as a lovely young woman. This helps the spectator get rid of the feeling of 'agamyatva' when he looks at Sakuntala. Then by the bhojakatva-vyapāra, the spectator forgets his own individual traits and enjoys the sentiment. In this process, the ' rajas' and ' tamas' constituents

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 17

of his mind are overpowered by the ' sattva' which is responsible for the happiness experienced by him. The final enjoyment of rasa by the spectator is impersonal in character and is different from'laukika ananda ' (ordinary pleasure). The word ' samyoga' in the Rasasūtra is understood as 'bhojyabhojaka bhāva', 'the relation between a thing that is enjoyed and the 'univer- salisation' through ' bhavana-vyapara'. The word 'nispatti' here means 'bhukti' or enjoyment. Commenting on Bhattanāyaka's theory, Abhinavagupta points out that there is neither the need nor an authority for assuming two separate functions, viz., bhāvakatva and bhojakatva, for they are implicitly included in the idea of 'rasavyañjana' and its ultimate 'āsvāda'. The so-called bhāvakatva, according to Abhinavagupta, consists in nothing more than a suitable use of Guņa and Alamkāra for the ultimate purpose of awakening rasa through the suggestive power of word and sense. As there cannot be any process other than 'rasapratīti' or realisation of .rasa, bhojakatva becomes redundant and hence useless. This pratīti of rasa, Abhinavagupta maintains, results from its' abhivyakti' or manifestation by the power of suggestion and consists of a state of relish known as 'vāsanā', 'āsvāda' or " carvaņā'. According to him everybody has in his heart per- manently, the vasanas or latent impressions of the sthāyibhāvas (permanent moods). On witnessing a drama, this sthāyī is . aroused by the vibhavas etc., which are taken in their general form without specific connections. The vibhavas, therefore, are generalised not by bhāvakatva-vyāpāra as Bhatțanāyaka supposed, but generally through the suggestive power of sound and sense, and specifically through a skilful use of Guna and Alamkāra in poetry and clever representation in drama. In the same way, the sthayibhava which is the source of rasa, is also generalised because the germ in it is already existent in the mind of the 'sahrdaya' in the form of latent impression. This to- gether with the beauty of the generalised representation of the vibhavas etc., removes all temporal and spatial limitations and leads to the enjoyment of rasa. Abhinavagupta interprets the word 'samyoga' in Bharata's Rasasūtra as 'vyangya-vyañjaka- bhava', the relation between a revealer and the revealed. The 2

18 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE word 'nispatti' should be interpreted as 'vyakti', suggestion or revelation.1 In the realisation of rasa there is complete absorption (citta- nispandatā) for the sahrdaya, a condition of bliss and in which there is complete cessation from all activities. This negative aspect of bliss in rasa-realisation has been modified by later Ālankārikas like Jagannātha. The soul according to the Vedān- tins, is of the form of eternal consciousness and supreme bliss. To the soul are presented, in the course of rasa-realisation, the mental impressions in their intensified and generalised ' alaukika" form. And then the veil or 'avarana' of 'avidya' is lifted up and the blissful Atman is realised along with the sthayibhāva. Just as a light when cleared of its cover, reveals itself and the objects nearby, so also the effulgent Atman, when its veil of avidya is removed reveals itself and the sthayibhavas along with their vibhavas, etc. Hence rasa is nothing but the sthāyibhāva illumined by the inner 'caitanya ' when itisfreed from its āvaraņa .* We shall now take up for discussion, Hasya Rasa, the comic sentiment.

2.2.1. Hasya Rasa: The comic sentiment has as its sthāyibhāva, hāsa (laughter). The vibhävas that evoke häsa are unseemly dress and orna- ments, impudence, greediness, quarrel, deformity, use of irrele- vant words, fault-finding nature and the like, noticed in others. अथ हास्यो नाम हासस्थायिभावात्मकः । स च विकृतपर वेषालङ्कार- विभावैः उत्पाद्यते।3

Hāsya is to be represented on the stage by anubhāvas like throbbing of the lips, nose and cheeks, opening the eyes wide or contracting them, perspiration and holding both the sides with hands.

1 See S. K. De, History of Sanskrit Poetic, Vol. II, pp. 133-134. Vide V. A. Ramaswamy Sastry, Jagannatha Pandita, a Study-pp. 94-95 ' NS, Ed. G. O. S. Vol. I, p. 312.

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 19

तस्योष्ठनासाकपोलरपन्दन दृष्टिव्या कोशाकुख्न तवेदास्यरागपाश्वग्रहणादिभि: अनुभावैः अभिनयः प्रयोक्तव्यः । Its vyabhicāribhāvas are indolence, dissimilation, drowsiness sleep, dreaming, insomnia, envy and the like. व्यभिचारिणश्चास्य अवहित्था-आलस्य-तन्द्रा-निद्रा-सप्नप्रबोध- असूयादयः ।' Jagannatha has illustrated Hasya with the following verse: श्रीतातपादैर्निहिते निबन्धे निरूपिता नूतनयुक्तिरेषा । अङ्गं गवां पूर्वमहो पवित्रं कथं न वा रासभधर्मपल्याः ॥3 'In the work composed by my revered father, the following new argument is introduced-The front part of the body of the cow is sacred. Why is that of a female ass not so?' Here the son of a logician is the ālambana vibhāva, his asser- tion without a tinge of doubt is uddipana vibhava, the showing of his teeth etc., and his inquisitive nature, which we have to imagine, are the anubhāva and the vyabhicāribhāva respectively. All these contribute to the delineation of Hasya. . According to Bharata, hāsya is of two kinds, 'ātmastha' (self-centered) and 'parastha' (centered in others). When a person himself laughs, it is ätmastha; but when he makes. others laugh, it is parastha. द्विविधश्चायमात्मस्थः परस्थश्च। यदा स्वयं हसति तदा तु आत्मस्थः । यदा तु परं हासयति तदा परस्थः ।4 The sthayibhavas which develop into different rasas are directly related to the four 'purusarthas', viz., dharma, artha, kāma and moksa. For instance, Rati is connected with kāma, dharma and artha; Krodha with artha, Utsaha with kama and

1 NS, Ed. G.O.S. Vol. I, p. 312. % Ibid. Rasagangādhara, p. 182. (Ed. Chowkamba), 1970. NS, Ch. VI, preceding śl. 54, Ed. Ghosh.

20 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

dharma, and Sama with dharma and moksa. Laughter etc., also contribute to the attainment of the purusarthas, by being accessories to the other sthāyibhāvas, viz., rati, krodha, utsāha and śama.' Hāsa, śoka, bhaya and the like are 'common' sthāyins in the sense that they are found in abundance even in laymen. Even an unsophisticated person laughs, feels grief and experiences fear. Bharata says 'strī-nīcaprakrtāveșa bhūyiștham drśyate rasaḥ '2. 2.2.2. Six kinds of laughter: Laughter is of six kinds according to Bharata8.

स्मितमथ हसित विहसितमुपहसितं चापहसितमतिहसितम् । द्वौ द्वौ भेदौ स्यातामुत्तममध्यमाधमप्रकृतौ।।

'Smitam' (gentle smile) and 'hasitam' (smile) belong to persons of superior type. 'Vihasitam' (gentle laughter) and 'upahasitam' (deriding laughter) belong to ordinary people. 'Apahasitam' (indecent laughter) and 'atihasitam' (reeling laughter) belong to the inferior type of people. The 'gentle2' smile of people of the superior type is characterised by slightly blown cheeks and elegant glances. In it the teeth are not visible. The Rasārņavasudhākara gives illustrations for these six kinds of laughter.4 The smile (hasita) should be distin- guished by blooming eyes, face and cheeks and in it the teeth would be slightly visible. The 'gentle laughter' (vihasita) produces some sweet sound and should be suitable to the occa- sion and in it eyes and cheeks would be contracted and face appears beaming. In the 'deriding laughter' (upahasita) nose would be expanded, eyes would be quinting and the shoulder and head would be bent. 'Apahasitam' is the laughter produced on occasions not suited for it. It is marked by tears in the eyes or by the shoulder and the head violently shaking. 'Reeling

' See Har Dutt Sarma, 'Hasya as a Rasa in Sanskrit Rhetoric and literature.' ABORI, Vol. XXII, 1941. ' NS, Ch. VI. * Ibid., Ch. VI. śl. 54-59, Ed. Ghosh. For details see Rasārnavasudhākara, p. 193 ff. Ed. TSS.

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 21

laughter' (atihasita) is that in which the eyes are expanded and tearful, sound is loud and excessive, and the sides are held by hands. Häsya may be subjected to another six-fold classification also viz., (i) 'ätmastha' of the uttama people; (ii) ätmastha of the madhyama people; (iii) ätmastha of the adhama people; (iv) parastha of the uttama people; (v) parastha of the madhyama people; and (vi) parastha of the adhama people. We may recall here that according to Bharata, if one laughs for himself, it is ätmastha and if he makes others laugh it is called 'parastha'. Abhinavagupta criticises this view. He says:

आंत्मस्थैर्विभावैर्विकृतवेषादिभिः विदूषकः स्वयं हसति, स आत्मस्थः, देवीं च हासयति इति तस्या: परस्थः, तदिदम् असत। एवं हि, विभावानां आत्मस्थत्वविभागः - स्यात्, न हासस्य ।2

If by 'parastha' is meant the feature of making others experience the sentiment one has, then it is common for all the sentiments and it need not be a special trait of hasya alone. For example, the master's grief is shared by his subordinates too. So the ätmastha and parastha distinction which is peculiar to hāsya alone, according to Bharata, is to be understood in a different way, says Abhinavagupta. If one laughs at oneself it is atmāstha. If one laughs due to some other extraneous reason, it is parastha. The following illustrations will make this distinction clear.

आत्मस्थो यथा- पाणौ कक्कणमुत्फण: फणिपतिर्नेत्रं ज्वलत्पावकम् कण्ठः कूष्टितकालकूटकुटिलो वस्त्रं गजेन्द्राजिनम् । गौरीलोचनलोभनाय सुभगो वेषो वरस्यैष मे गण्डोल्लासविभावितः पशुपतेर्हास्योद्रमः पातु वः ॥2

1 Abhinavabhāratī, (GOS edition), Vol. I, p. 312. 2 Quoted in Kāvyānušāsana (Ed. Nirnayasagar press), p. 89.

22 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE Here Lord Siva, getting ready as bridegroom, looks at the in- congruence of his dress and ornaments and laughs at Himself. This is an examplè of atmastha hāsya. परस्थो यथा- कनककलशस्वच्छे राधापयोधरमण्डले नवजलधरश्याममांत्मद्युतिं प्रतिबिम्बिताम् । असितसिचयप्रान्तभ्रान्त्या मुह्ुमुहुरुत्क्षिपन, जयति जनितव्रीडाहासः प्रियाहसितो हरिः ॥1 This is an illustration of parastha hasya, since here Rādha experiences häsya, looking at the confusion into which Krsna is thrown.

2.2.3. Is Hāsya a secondary Rasa? Bharata considers the sentiments of Śrngāra, Raudra, Vīra and Bibhatsa as primary in nature and the rest as secondary, being derived from them. Thus Hasya is derived from Srngāra, Karuņa from Raudra Adbhuta from Vīra, and Bhayānaka from Bībhatsa.

शृङ्गाराद्वि भवेद्धास्यो रौद्राच् करुणो रसः । वीराचैवाद्भुतोत्पत्तिः बीभत्साच्च भयानकः ॥2

Let us take up for instance, the question of häsya arising out of śrngāra.3 Bharata explains this phenomenon thus: शृङ्गारानुकृतिर्या तु स हास्यस्तु प्रकीर्तितः ।'

1 Q. in KS. p. 89. 2 NS, Ch. VI. śls. 40ff. ·Bhāvaprakāśana (G.O.S. ed ion, p. 57) gives the following mythological origin for the evolution of hasya from śrngāra. जटाजिनधरो भोगिभूषणः साग्निलोचनः । भस्माङ्गरागश्च यदा देव्या कामयते रतिम् ॥ तदा सखीनां देव्याश्च हास: समुदभून्महान्। तस्माद्धास्यसमुत्पत्तिः शृङ्गारादिति कथ्यते ।। 4 NS, Ch. VI. śls. 40ff.

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 23

The imitation of srngara leads to hasya. In a drama, while the hero's love for the heroine is taken seriously, the vidūsaka's love- affair evokes only laughter. The vidūsaka's love is never considered as evoking śrngāra. It is mere imitation of śrngāra which leads to hasya. It is not śrngārānukāra alone that leads to hasya. The 'abhasa' (semblance) of srngara also leads to hāsya. Rasābhāsa (semblance of Rasa) is caused by anaucitya or impropriety. अनौचित्यप्रवृत्तत्त्व आभासो रसभावयोः ।1

Bhāvaprakāśana discusses the rasābhāsa-case in great detail.2 Only mutual love between the nāyaka and the nāyikā gives rise to Srngara. In the case of unequal love or one-sided love there would be only 'vibhāvābhāsa', 'anubhāvābhāsa' and 'vyabhi- cāri-abhāsa'. They work upon 'ratyābhāsa' and the rasa evolved in such a case would only be 'śrngārābhāsa' but not śrngara. This ' śrngarabhasa' which does not have the sublimity of love turns out to be base and sensual in character, giving rise to ' häsya'3. Abhinavagupta offers the following illustra- tion: दूराकर्षनमोहमन्त्र इव ते तन्न्नात्नि याते श्रुतिं चेतः कालकलामपि प्रहसते नानास्थितिं तां विना । एतैर।कुलितस्य विक्षतरतेरड्गैरनङ्गातुरैः सम्पद्येत कथं तदाप्तिसुखमित्येतन्न वेदि स्फुटम् ॥4

Ravana's love for Sīta is expressed in this verse. This is a case of ' śrngārābhāsa'. Now the question is: Is there any ' hāsya' in this verse? The above words of Rāvana may not evoke any

1 Cf. Sāhityadarpaņa, Ch. III. 262. Cf. also Dhvanyāloka, Ch. III. अनौचित्याहते नान्यद् रसभङ्गस्य कारणम् । 2 See p. 132. Ed. G.O.S. 3 Cf. Raghuvamśa, XII. 36a: संरम्भं मैथिलीहास: क्षणसौम्यां निनांय ताम् । Abhinavabhāratī, Vol. I, p. 296, Ed. G.O.S.

24 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

laughter at once. But one must take into consideration the situation in full view, the 'vibhavas', 'anubhāvas' and 'vya- bhicaribhavas'. The anxiety, infatuation, weakness and the like, which are opposed to the age, nature and stature of Rāvaņa. and the anubhavas like tears, lamentation etc., and the resulting impropriety (anaucitya) which are evident here, evoke laughter. It is not the abhasa of śrngāra alone that generates laughter. The abhasa of every other rasa too leads to 'hasya'. When a coward acts like a brave man he becomes a butt of ridicule. When a pseudo-religious monk behaves as though he is a true monk, there is 'santābhāsa', which again evokes laughter. Even 'hasyabhasa' leads to hasya. Abhinavagupta gives an illustration: लोकोत्तराणि चरितानि न लोक एष सम्मन्यते यदि किमङ्ग वदाम नाम। यत्त्वत्र हासमुखरत्वममुष्य तेन पार्श्वोपपीडमिह को न विजाहसीति॥1

' If people appreciate things which deserve praise, there is nothing to say about it. But if anyone laughs at a serious thing, who will not burst into laughter at this?' Thus every 'rasa' gives rise to hāsya; 'etena sarve rasāḥ hasye antarhitah iti darsitam'2. It may be noted that Bhoja3 also objects to Bharata's statement 'śrngārāddhi bhaveddhāsyah', since 'hasya' arises not only from śrngara but from other ' rasas' as well.4 From śrngara can arise not only 'hāsya' but other rasas as well. The ' vipralambhasrngara', as for instance, the Rativilāpa in Kumārasambhava, Canto IV leads to karuņa. The so-called 'prakrtirasa' śrngāra may itself be an offshoot of vīra as in the case of Draupadīsvayamvara. So the theory, 'śrngā- rāddhi bhaveddhasyah' does not hold ground.5

1 Abhi. Bhā. Vol. I, p. 297. Ibid. Vol. I, p. 297. Ed. G.O.S. 3 Cf. Dr. V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Śrngāraprakāśa, p. 435. • Ibid. अधोच्यते शृङ्गारानुकृतिर्येह स हास्यो रस इष्यते। तर्दि वीरस्यानुकृतिर्येह सोऽपि हास्य इतीष्यताम् ॥ . Ibid.

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 25

The Dasarupaka (IV. 43) holds that ' citta' has four states: vikāsa, vistara, ksobha and viksepa, corresponding to the four rasas, Srngara, Vīra, Bībhatsa and Raudra. From these four, four others arise for they are of the same mental condition ' vikasa" etc., respectively. Thus śrngāra and hāsya have vikāsa; vīra and adbhuta, vistara; bībhatsa and bhayānaka, kșobha; and raudra and karuņa, vikșepa. But 'bhaya' is not the same kşobha as bībhatsa; raudra is not vikșepa but is dīpti, similar to the 'vistara' of adbhuta. Karuņa is similar to vipralambha- śrngara and is the height of ' druti'. Thus there seems to be no justification in the classification of rasas as primary and secondary on the basis of the respective identity of the mental states of these rasas1. It is reasonable therefore to grant independent status to 'hasya' and to all other rasas. Bharata's text must be taken to mean as indicating a study of rasas from the point òf view of their interrelation of how emotions are closely related and how one leads to another.2 In their treatment of hāsya, most of the Ālankārikas have followed Bharata closely3. Rasārņavasudhākara mentions 'narman" also as a source of hasya. Narman is one of the four elements of the Kaisiki Vrtti, the other three being 'narmasphota', 'nar- masphuñja' and 'narmagarbha'. Narman is defined as 'pari- hasa' which is not gramya or coarse. Narman may be caused by śrngārahāsya, śuddhahāsya or bhayahāsya. These again have subdivisions and altogether there are eighteen varieties. Sīmhabhūpala has illustrated all these varieties of Narman which give rise to hasya4. We may note only one illustration here.

1 Bhoja's Śrngāraprakāša, p. 435. ª Ibid. $ DR and Avaloka, (Ch. IV śl. 75, p. 108. Ed. Nirņayasagar). SD, III, śl. 214 ff. BP, Ed. G.O.S. p. 33 ff. KS, Ed. Nirnayasagar, p. 89 ff. PR, Ed. Dr V. Raghavan, p. 152. RS, Ed. TSS, p. 193. KP, Ch. IV, śl. 37, p. 84, (Pub. Motilal Banarsidass). RG, Pub. Chowkhamba, Vol. I, p. 182 ff. RS, p. 74 ff. (Ed. TSS).

26 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

वाचा शुद्धहास्यजं नर्म यथा- अचिष्मन्ति विदार्य वक्त्रकुह्राण्यासृक्वतो वासुके: तर्जन्या विषकर्बुरान् गणयतः संस्पृश्य दन्ताङ्कुरान्। एकं त्रीणि नवाष्ट सप्त षडिति व्यत्यस्तसंख्याक्र्कमा वाचः क्रौञ्जरिपोः शिशुत्वविकलाः श्रेयांसि पुष्णन्तु वः ॥

2.2.4. Position of Häsya among the rasas It has already been noted that the ābhāsa or anukrti of every rasa can lead to hasya1. The sphere of hasya is therefore much wider than that of any other sentiment2. Now the question is: Is hasya a noble sentiment at all? We laugh at the physical deformities of the Vidusaka in the play we witness. If laughter is aroused at the expense of sufferings of another, how can it occupy a unique place among rasas? It is to be understood in this context that the physical de- formities of others evoke laughter only when presented in a particular situation in the drama but not in real life. In practi- cal life, the physical deformities may evoke only sympathy and not laughter. When we laugh at the physical deformities of the Vidūsaka, we know for certain that the character is not really suffering from these deformities. But it is his skilled feigning of the deformity that produces laughter. Hence there is no stigma attached to hasya and it is as noble as any other rasa. Whatever may be the cause of laughter, it cannot be denied that it makes one happy as long as it lasts. In it we find an ex- pression of the spirit of man. Bhaya, jugupsa etc., on the other hand, make one shrink with horror or disgust. Srngara is also responsible for vikasa or expansion of the mind but it is only in privacy that it finds fuller expression3. Its vikāsa is confined to two persons only. Laughter, on the other hand, is more social

1 See above pp. 24-25. * See, Prof. Satindranath Sengupta, 'The sentiment of laughter,' Journal of Bihar Research Society, Vol. XXXIX, pt. 4, p. 377. 3 Cf. Mrcchakațika, VIII. 30. 'vivikta-viśrambha-raso hi kāmaḥ.'

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 27

in its nature and is much wider in its field of operation. It re- quires only two to make love, but a hundred can join together in laughter1. Anger always has an undesirable element in it and its consequences are also bitter. Anger can never compare with laughter in its popular appeal .. Courage is a noble quality, no doubt; but it has an element of risk; and excessive courage may lead to rashness and danger. It is always easier to make people laugh than to instill courage in them. Wonder has a thrill in it, but it presupposes our incapacity to understand and explain the nature of such a phenomenon. Sorrow is heart-rending, but it also indicates our weakness. Humour, thus, seems to be rather free from the limitations of other primary emotions. In addition to its psychological advantage, laughter contribute to our phy- sical well-being also. While all other rasas may cause worry or concern in some form or other, it is only hasya which is free from all such constraints2. Humour has a place even in grim places like the hospital, the law-court or even the battle field (Humour in Uniform). Pathos and other sentiments cannot compete with Humour in terms of universal appeal.

2.2.5. The definition of Hasya-a re-appraisal There is something special about Bharata's definition of Hasya which runs thus: 'hasyo nama hasathayibhavatmakah' ;. Hāsya is the very essence of its sthayin, hasa (laughter). The relation between the sthayi and the rasa in the case of hāsya is very close indeed and the transition from the sthayi-state to the rasa-state is very smooth and almost imperceptible. Even the close relationship between the two words hāsya and hāsa

1 For a fuller treatment, see Prof. Satindranath Sengupta, 'The se n 1 - ment of laughter'. yBRS, Vol. XXXIX, Pt. 4, p. 377 ff. ª Cf. Pādatāditakam-śl. 5: न प्राप्नवन्ति यतयो रुदितेन मोक्षं स्वर्गायति न परिहासकथा रुणद्धि। तस्मात् प्रतीतमनसा हसितव्यमेव वृत्तिं बुधेन खलु कौरुकुचीं विहाय। "Ascetics do not attain moksa by weeping. Humorous stories do not obstruct the future attainment of heaven. Therefore a wise man should laugh with an appreciative mind abandoning the mean modes of life.". ' NS, Ch. VI, bet. śls. 48 and 49; Edn. G.O.S.

28 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE speaks of the unique nature of humour. The word 'atmaka" (of very essence of) in Bharata's definition brings out clearly the closeness between the states of the sthayi and the rasa with regard to häsya. The significance of the term might be understood much better when we compare the definition of hāsya with those of other rasas.

शृङ्गारो नाम रतिस्थायिभावप्रभवः ; करुणो नाम शोकस्थायिभावप्रभवः

While other rasas are produced (prabhavah) from their respective sthāyibhāvas, hāsya is the very essence of its sthāyi, says Bharata. The rati, soka etc., of the characters represented on the stage do not produce the feelings of love or sorrow in the spectator. But häsya that is represented on the stage, makes the spectator too laugh. This is the essential difference between häsya and the other rasas. Another speciality of häsya is that, irrespective of the mood of the comic character in the play we witness-he may be angry, may be terrified or may fall in love or even experience grief-we, from a position of detachment, enjoy only häsya. This sense of detachment which is the criterion for a fuller enjoyment, is more pronounced in Hasya than in other sentiments.

2.2.6. The divinity and the colour symbolising Hāsya Bharata has allocated colours and divinities presiding over different sentiments3. According to him 'Pramatha' is the Lord of Hasya. Pramatha is one of the lower orders of divinities attending on Lord Siva. Pramatha (from 'manth' to churn) refers to the act of churning or stirring up. Hasya stirs up our spirits and revamps our mental condition and transposes us to a totally different state of happiness. This, probably, is the significance of associating Pramatha with Hasya. The colour that symbolises Hasya, according to Bharata, is white; and this is perhaps due to the whiteness of the teeth noticed

1 NS. Ch. VI, bet. śls. 44 and 45. 2 Ibid., Ch. VI, bet. śls. 61 and 62. 3 3Ibid., Ch. VI, bet. śls. 42 and 45.

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 29

when people laugh. That smile is white in colour is one of the popular 'kavisamayas'. In this connection it may be noted that whiteness suggests ' ' sattvaguna', the principle of light, purity and goodness. Hāsya is a noble rasa and has (sattva) as its fundamental quality. There is nothing like the harshness of raudra or the undesirability of bībhatsa in it. At times häsya may relate to the rough side of life also. Occasionally it may have a touch of vulgarity. But these are not the faults of the rasa as such. It is only the method adopted by a writer to evoke this rasa that may be found fault with. But good hasya, true to its fundamental quality of sattva, expands and revitalises the spirit and hence its association with white colour. Further, whiteness has in it all the colours blended, In Häsya likewise all other rasas are blended together.1

2.2.7. A brief survey of Hasya in Sanskrit Literature The origin of hasya in Sanskrit literature can be traced to the Vedic period. In the Frug Hymn, the croaking of the frogs is compared to the monotonous recitation of the Vedic hymns by the priests.2 Humour in the form of self-criticism is found in the ninth Mandala of the Rgveda,3 where the Vedic bard says that though a priest, he is towing the ways of the world in running after material benefits. In a similar hymn4 the bard admits that he took to different professions in the hope of getting some mate- rial gains. In the Gambler Hymn5 where humour is mixed with a tinge of pathos, the gambler says, 'No better use I see for a gambler than for a costly horse worn out and aged.' The dialogue between the celibate and the virgin in the Atharva Veda® is another illustration of humour in early period. There are a number of legends in the Satapatha and Aitareya Brahmanas which reveal traces of humour; e.g., the argument

1 See above p. 24. . 2 Rgveda. VII, 103. Ibid., IX, 112. * Ibid., X, 97. 5 Ibid., X, 34. * AV. IX, 134.

30 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

between the trader and his customers,1 and a part of Hariścandra's story where the King cites a number of pretexts for the post- ponement of the sacrifice of his son.2 The story of the Sisu in the Tandya Brahmana opens with a touch of humour when all the elders are addressed ' Oh, children '.8 Though philosophical in outlook, the Upanisads also reveal traces of humour here and there. The Brhadāranyaka, for in- stance, has a satire at the greedy nature of the Brahmanas when it says: 'The Brahmans desire only cows. They do not know about Brahman.'4 Even a pure śāstra like grammar offers scope for humour. Patañjali compares the consonants with an actress ' vyañjanāni națabhāryavat'.5 Many of the nyayas used in Vedanta reveal traces of humour, as for instance, the maxim of 'the opium addict and the boatman' the 'kākadantaparīksā' and logical fallacies like 'the son of Bhisma is strong because he is a Kşatriya' and 'vandhyādauhitrasmarana'-the barren woman recollecting her grandson. Sureśvarācārya gives an interesting collection of such fallacies in his vārtika on Sankara's Brhadāraņ- yaka Bhāsya: मृगतृष्णाम्भसि स्नातः खपुष्पकृतशेखरः । एष वन्ध्यासुतो याति शशशृङ्गधनुर्घरः॥

The Epics too show traces of humour here and there. The description of the disfigured demonesses surrounding Sita in the Asokavana7 and the description of Kumbhakaina being aroused from his slumber and his enormous meal,8 the monkeyish cestas of the overjoyed Hanuman when he mistakes Mandodari for

1 SB. III. iii. ª Aitareya Brāhmaņa VII. vii. 3. 8 TB, 1.i. 4 Br. Upa., 3-1-2. · Mahābhāşya, VI. i. 2 (Edn. Mahābhāşyaśabdakośa BORI. Poona, 1927) .. ' To be identified. 7 Sundara Kāņda, XVII. edn. N.S. Press. Bombay. · Yuddha Kāņda LX, 62, 63.

THEORY OF RASA-HĀSYA RASA 31

Sīta1 may be cited as instances of hasya in the Rāmayana. From the Mahäbhärata we can see Duryodhana's plight in the Maya- sabha2; the Grdhra-Gomayu episode3, etc., as instances of Hāsya. There is an instance of gnomic wisdom expressed with humour, when Vidura says that there are six kinds of people flourishing at the cost of others-thieves on the heedless, physicians on the sick, women on the sensuous people, priests on the worshippers, kings on the litigants and the wise on the fools.4 The Buddhist and the Jaina literatures too abound in humour. Many Buddhist Jataka stories impart wisdom through humorous episodes. The Jaina next Süyagadamga ridicules the plight of men, who being caught in the snares of women, hold babies and wash'their clothes like washermen.5 There is an anonymous verse quoted in the Subhasitavali, which ridicules the dubious character of certain Jaina monks.6 The classical period provided much wider scope for humour. Aśvaghosa's Saundarananda reveals the poet's sense of humour at least in one place where the Buddha asks Nanda if his (Nanda's) beloved is more beutiful than the one-eyed ape .? Kalidasa has a delicate touch of humour. One cannot read without a smile, the arguments and counter-arguments between the disguised Śiva (as Brahmacārin) and Pārvatī in Kumārasambhava (Canto

1 Suņdara Kānda, X-54. ª Sabha Parvan, I. Edn. B.O.R.I. Poona, 1971. 3 Sānti Parvan, CLIII. Mbh. V. 33.7. 8 See ' Wit, Humour and Satire in Sanskrit Literature' By S. K. Dey. Our Heritage, Vol. III, 1955. Subhāșitāvali, No. 2402: मिक्षो कन्था इलथा ते, ननु शफरवधे जालिकैषा, अत्सि मत्स्यान् तेजमी मद्यावदशाः, पिबसि मधु, समं वेश्यया, यासि वेश्याम्। दत्त्वाडरीणां गलेद्रिं किमु तव रिपवो, भित्तिभेत्तास्मि येषां चोरस्वं, द्यतहेतोः, कथमसि कितवो येन दासीसुतोऽस्मि॥ 7 Saundarananda, X.

:32 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

V). The numerous puns and 'double entendre' in Kirātārjunīya and Sisupālavadha do elicit a smile even from a most sober reader. Canto XVI of Naisadha, dealing with the marriage of Nala and Damayanti abounds in humour, though vulgar at times. The description of the Jaraddravidadhārmika' in Kādambarī is introduced by Bana, for a comic relief. The Daśakumāra- carita excels in humour-the story of Upaharavarman standing out as a prominent example. The vast fable literature aims at educating the society through humorous stories. Isolated humorous stanzas can be noticed in almost every lyric.

In the whole range of Sanskrit Literature, it is the drama which offers an important place for häsya. In fact, the come- dian Vidūşaka is an indispensible character in a Sanskrit Drama. His humorous remarks and actions not only provide the necessary comic relief for the audience, but they are also vital for the development of the plot. Bhäsa has a very high sense of humour. His vidūsakas in the Avimāraka, Pratijñāyaugandharāyaņa and Svapnavāsavadatta are delightful comedians. The Vidūşaka in Avimāraka finds fault with his master thus, 'Since you are very close to me, you mock at me. People who know nothing about my wisdom, praise me . highly'. But it is in the Carudatta that the poet excels as a humorist. The prologue of the Carudatta, and the Brāhmana burgler's remark that his sacred thread is useful as a measuiing line during nights, are but two cf the many humorous places in the play. Sage Närada (in Balacarita) is disgusted with the peace in heaven and feels that he must go to earth and rake up some quarrel and make himself happy. Kalidasa's humour is at once dignified and enjoyable. Sakuntalā, when compared to a creeper clinging to a tree, appreciates Priyamvada that she has a befitting name; Priyamvadā explaining Sakuntalā's admiration for Vanajyotsnā (Act I) the praveśaka in Act II, Vidūșaka's innocent query whether he is to help the King in the act of eating sweetmeats and a number of other places in the course of the conversation between the King and the Vidūsaka in the same act, are but a few instances of hāsya in the Abhijñānasākuntala. The Vidūsaka comparing himself with Urvasi and his fumbling with ' the love-letter of Pururavas in the Act II, his gluttony (even the

THEORY OF RASA - HĀSYA RASA 33

orb of the moon reminds him of the half-bitten pancake) provide good comic relief in an otherwise serious drama, Vikramorvaśīya. The Vidūşaka in the Mālavikāgnimitra is cleverer than his counter-parts in the other two plays. He is very resourceful and secures the love of Malavika for the King by his own efforts. His alleged fault in the dance performance of Mālavikā, his clever covering up of his desire to quench his hunger (by saying that, according to the doctor's advice, one should not transgress the dinner time unduly), his remark about Malavika's plight in Act IV (King: How is Mālavikā? Vidūșaka: As happy as a cuckoo seized by a cat) etc., are some instances of good humour. Another dramatist who handles the sentiment of humour in a masterly fashion is Sudraka. Maitreya's exchange of question and answer with Sakara in Act I, and with Kumbhīlaka in Act V, his topsy-turvy arrangements of words in haste (kim bhanasi? coram kartayitvā sandhiḥ niskrāntaḥ?) and his humorous remarks about himself (compared to a beaten up donkey) and about gaņikās (gaņikā nāma pādukāntarapravisteva loștukā duḥ- khena punarnirākriyate.) and the whole of the 'dyūtakarasamvā- hakānka' in the Mrcchakatika are remarkable for their humour. All the three plays of King Harsa have humour to a consi- derable extent. The Vidūsaka's ingnorance about the types of dances (Act I), his mistaking the rumblings of Sārikā to be the utterances of some ghost and attributing his own fear to the King (Act II), his inability to distinguish between the Rk stanzas and the Gatha, his folly in revealing the ' citraphalaka' to the Queen, his boasting that he can surpass even Brhaspati in intelligence (Act III), his comparison of the queen's arrival to the 'akāla- vātāvali' when the King rejoices over finding Sāgarikā (vayasya, seyam anabhra vrstih) in the Ratnāvali are but a few of such humorous scenes. The whole of Act III in Nagananda is a de- lightful piece of comedy. Other humorous scenes in the play include the Vidūsaka's comparing himself to Madana, (Act I) and the conversation between the heroine and the ceti in Act II. The Vidūsaka's ignorance of the exact number of Vedas, his revelation of the secrets in his drowsy condition, his pretension as a doctor and demand for fee etc., in the Priyadarsikā are worth noting. 3

34 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Bhavabhuti is often criticised for his lack of humour. But we can still find a few instances of humour in his plays-the teasing remarks of Sita's friends in Act II of the Mahaviracarita, Makaranda appearing in the guise of Mālati in Act VI of Mālati- mādhava, and Sītā asking Lakșmaņa about Ūrmilā in the Uttararāmacarita, Act I (vatsa, iyam khalu aparā kā ?) and the description of the horse by the hermit boys in Act IV of the same play. With the general decline of dramatic art in later times, hasya too suffered and lost its identity and almost went into oblivion. There was a partial revival of häsya at the hands of Murāri and Rājāsekhara but one fails to see true comedians on the lines of those created by Bhasa, Kālidāsa, Sūdraka or Harșa. Though thus hasya occupies a significant place in the nātaka and the prakaranas, the field where it is of pivotal improtance is the Prahasana. An account of the origin and development of the Prahasana will be useful not only in terms of the chief senti- ment Hasya but for the general understanding of the society and culture of India from the 7th Century down to the modern times. A study of its theoretical aspects from the point of view of the different Ālankārikas is a necessary prelude to the study of Prahasanas, which will be taken up in the following chapter.

CHAPTER III

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS

Origin and development of the Prahasanas.

Characteristics of the Prahasana.

Views of Abhinavagupta on the Prahasana.

The Prahasana Elements.

The Vīthyanagas.

Prahasana Elements in other forms of literature.

The relation between Prahasana and other rūpakas. Characters appearing in the Prahasanas.

Paradoxical names of characters in the Prahasanas.

Hero and the Heroine in the Prahasanas.

Vulgarity in the Prahasana. Präkrt in the Prahasanas. Rasas other than Hasya in the Prahasanas. Number of acts in a Prahasana. Lāsyāngas in the Prahasana. Nāțyadharmī and Lokadharmī.

Theatrical aspects.

Instrumentation.

Nandi and the Prologue.

Bharatavākya.

Stage worthiness.

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS

3.1 Origin and Development Right from Bharata, all the writers on Samskrt dramaturgy have recognised Prahasana as a distinct playform and have dealt with its theoretical aspects. On the basis of the general rule that the 'laksya' precedes the 'laksana', we may presume that the Prahasana must have existed long before Bharata's time. Among the ten types of Samskrt Drama, the Nātaka and the Prakaraņa have been accepted as the most perfected forms. It is reasonable to hold that this perfection in the dramatic art must have been achieved only after much experimentation with the smaller varieties of drama. In the absence of proper stage facilities and auditorium, the earliest Samskrt drama must have been staged in the streets and might have thus attained the name ' vithi'. The street drama called ' terukkūttu' was the popular playform in ancient Tamil country also and it was in vogue till about few decades ago. Even today one can witness this, sporadically though, in some villages and towns of Tamil Nadu. Short and well-known episodes blended with folk music and folk dance formed the main theme of the ' vithi'. The number of characters in this playform must have been the bare minimum for lack of experienced actors and necessary co-ordination. With the passage of time, there must have been a flair for original themes and this must have resulted in a playform with a preponderance of comic element which is universal in appeal and entertaining in character. That is how the playform called Prahasana would have taken shape. With the rise of Prahasana, the Vithi must have died out lending its elements to the former. That is why the Vithyangas1 figure prominently in the Prahasana. Such experiments in the dramatic art must have continued with varying degrees of stress on the length of the play as also different senti- ments and corresponding themes. An attempt to present almost the same prahasana-theme as a monologue play resulted in a separate playform called the 'Bhäna'. Even according to the theory given by Bharata, the Prahasana and the Bhana share :.- Vide p. 49 below, for an account of the ' Vithyangas.'

38 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

many common features1. At a time when tribal wars were quite common, heroic exploits of the battle must have engaged the attention of the playwrights who wrote short plays with ' Vira' as the predominent sentiment and this gave rise to the other play- forms, 'Dima'. 'Vyayoga' and 'Samavakara'. A natural sequel of valour and victory of one side is the defeat and the lamentation of the opposite ranks. An attempt to depict this unpleasant aspect of the battle scene-viz., the story of the defeated and the deceased must have given rise to the short one-act play ' Anka', with ' karuna' as the predominent sentiment. There must have been much hesitation in depicting a private sentiment as ' śrngāra'. on the stage publicly. A cautious experiment in this direction must have resulted in another one act playform, the ' Ihāmrga'. Much time must have elpased before all the characteristics of these playforms were blended together and presented in the popu- lar playform 'nātaka' and the social playform 'prakaraņa'. Thus in the history of Sanskrit Drama, the Prahasana represents one of earliest stages of development. It appears to have soon become popular with the masses, as evidenced by Bharata's statement, ' sarvalokam prahasanaiḥ bādhante nātyasamśrayaiḥ'.2

3.2 Characteristics of the Prahasana The earliest dramaturgical text dealing with the theory of the Prahasana (as also the other rūpaka varieties) is, of course, Bha- rata's Nātyasāstra. Given below are the six stanzas dealing with the Prahasana features as found in the G.O.S. edition of Nātya- sästra, which is by far the most authentic among the editions of Bharata's text. Variant readings found in the other editions are also given below for reference. प्रहसनमतःपरमहं सलक्षणं सम्प्रवक्ष्यामि । प्रहसनमपि विज्ञेयं द्विविधं शुद्धं तथा च' संकीर्णम् । वक्ष्यामि तयोयुक्त्या2 पृथक पृथक लक्षणविशेषम्।3 भगवत्तापस बिप्रैरन्यैरपि हास्यवादसम्बद्म् ।।

1 See below p. 59. ' NS, Ch. XXXVI. śl. 29. See also Dr V. Raghavan, 'A note on the Daśasūpaka,' JOR., Vol. VII, 1933 .:

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 39

कापुरुषसम्प्रयुक्तं परिहासाभाषणप्रायम् । अविकृतभाषाचारं विशेषभावोपपन्नचरित'पदम्। नियतगतिवस्तुविषयं शुद्धं ज्ञेयं प्रहसनं तु ॥ वेश्याचेटनपुंसकविटघूर्ता बन्धकी च यत्र स्युः । अनिभृतवेषपरिच्छद् चेष्टित करणस्तु® संकीर्णम् ।। लोकोपचारयुक्ता या वार्ता यश्च दम्भसंयोगः । ख प्रहसने प्रयोज्यो1 धूर्तप्रविवादसम्पन्नः1 = वीध्यङ्ग: सम्युक्तं कर्तव्य प्रहसन यथायोगम्12 ॥ 1. Kasi, Ghosh-तथैव 2. Kasi, Ghosh-तस्य व्यख्यारयेऽहम 3. Kasi, Ghosh-विशेषान् 4. Kasi, Ghosh-भिक्षुश्रोत्नियविप्रातिहास संयुक्तम् 5. Kasi, Ghosh-नीचजन 6. Kasi, Ghosh-हास्योपहास 7. K.M. Kasi, Ghosh-रचित 8. Kāvyānuśāsana of Hemacandra (Ed. Nirnayasagar, p. 442)-मिदम् 9. Kasi, Ghosh-चेष्टाकरणात्त 10. K.M .- तत्प्रहसनेषु योज्यं Kasi, Chosh-तत्प्रहसने प्रयोज्यं 11. K.M .- धूर्तोक्त विवाद संयुक्तम् Kasi, Ghosh-घूर्तविवाद्सम्पन्नम् 12. Kasi .- उद्धात्यकादिभिरिंद वीध्यङ्गे मिश्रितं भवेन्मिश्रम् । G.O.S. Gaekwad Oriental Series edition, NS-Vol. II, Ch. XVIII, śls. 101-106. K.M. Kāvyamālā edition, Ch. XVIII, śls. 154-159. Kāśī. Kāśi Sanskrit Series edition, Ch. XX, 106-111. Ghosh. ... Manmohan Ghosh edition, Ch. XX. śls. 101-107.

40 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE Bharata speaks of two varieties of the prahasana-the śuddha and the samkirna. The difference between them lies only in the nature of characters introduced. The suddha (pure) type consists of humourous speeches of holymen, ascetics, brähmanas and others. It may also have the cunning and the wicked characters (kapurusah). It is full of humorous speeches with no artificiality either in language or be- haviour. The words in it should be full of emotion and its plot should have a fixed goal. In the samkīrna variety (the mixed), harlots, servants, eunuchs, parasites and cheats have a leading role who put on coarse dress, gestures etc. Popular episodes or a story full of coarse speech may form the theme for a prahasana. It has the Vithyangas also. There are several references to the prahasana in the Nātya- śāstra itself, apart from the chapter on ' Daśarūpakas'. (i) वीथी प्रहसन डिमः । कैशिकीवृत्तिहीनानि रूपाण्येतानि कारयेत् ।।1 Kaiśikī, Ārabhațī, Bhāratī and Sāttvatī are the foui styles of expression. Kaisikī is soft and gentle and is suited for śrngāra Arabhatī which is the opposite of it is used for representing con- flict, rage, frenzy and the like. Virtue, courage, self-sacrifice and the like are best expressed through the Sāttvatī style. Bhārati is the eloquent style which can be used in any situation (vrttih sarvatra bhāratī).2 Of all the rūpakas, the nātaka and the prakaraņs are called the 'pūrņavrttirūpakas', since they can accomodate all the four vrttis. Prahasana and the other rūpakas are devoid of the kaisikīvrtti, since they have very little scope for śrngāra and its outward expression through song, dance, coquetry and the like.3 (ii) द्विसन्घि तु प्रहसनं वीध्यङ्कौ भाण एव च । मुखनिर्वहणे स्यातां तेषां वृत्तिश्च भारती ।।4

.1 NS, Ch. XVIII, śl. 7, Kavyamāla edition. ' DR, II, śl. 62. Ed. N.S. Press. Ibid., II. 47 .- गोतनृत्यविलासाद्यैर्मृदुः शृङ्गारचेष्टितैः । · NS, Ch. XXI, 47, Kāśī edition.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 41

Bharata points out that the Bharati vrtti shall be mainly emp- loyed in a prahasana and that the Prahasana as also the Bhāna Vīthi and Anka shall have only two sandhis, viz., the mukha (Opening) and the nirvahana (denoument). This is evidently due to the simplicity of the plot and structure of these playforms. (iii) नाटके सप्रकरणे भाणे प्रहसने तथा। मृदङ्गं पणवं चैव दर्दरं चैव वादयेत्।।1

Percussion instruments like the mrdanga, panava and dardara shall be played during the performance of a Prahasana, Nātaka, Prakaraņa and Bhāņa.

(iv) भेदास्तस्यास्तु विज्ञेयाश्चत्वारी अङ्गत्वमागतः । प्ररोचना आमुखं चैव वीथी प्रहसनं तथा ॥2

What Bharata means here is that the Bharati style shall be employed in Prahasana and Vithi and in the parts of the prologue, viz., 'prarocana' and 'amukha'. Many later writers on drama- turgy including Dhanañjaya have confused the issue by taking all these four names as constituting the 'angas' of the Bhārati vrtti, which shall be employed in the prologue. Further they explain the term 'prahasana' here as a short comic speech to be employed in the prologue. Professor Raghavan has clarified this point in his ' Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa,' and also in his papers on vrttis.3 By the expression 'angatvamagatah', Bharata just means 'find expression in': 'Bhāratī is a style of expression and it finds use in Prahasana, Vithi etc.,' is the proper way of construing the above statement. . (v) On the question of the scope of hasya (which is the main sentiment in the Prahasana) Bharata says, strīnīcaprakrtāveșa bhūyistham drsyate rasah'4 Abhinavagupta takes this into consideration while commenting on the Prahasana Āryas.

1 NS, Ch. XXXIV, śl. 295, Ed. G.O.S. Vol. IV. 2 Ibid., Ch. XX, śl. 26. Ed. G.O.S. * JOR, Vol. VI and VII. NS, Ch. VI, 52.

42 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

उत्सृष्टिकाङ्कप्रहसनभाणास्तु करुणहास्यविस्मय-प्रधानत्वात् रख्नकरस प्रधानाः। तत एवात्र स्त्नीबालमूर्खादिः अधिकारी। न च विततं अत्ेतिवृत्तम्। इतिवृत्तिवैचित्र्यं अपि तत्र नास्ति।1 It has already been noted that häsya has a much wider appli- cation than the other rasas.2 It is the commonest of the rasas with an entertaining nature. Hence it is called ' rañjakarasa'. Since Prahasana is rañjakarasapradhāna, its chief beneficiaries are women, children and the gullible. Another characteristic of the Prahasana is the simplicity of its plot. A simple and straightforward theme alone is used in a Prahasana and there may not be any secondary episodes like the 'pataka' or the 'prakari' in it. There are no surprise turns (vaicitrya) or gripping climaxes in it. The Daśarūpaka speaks of the śuddha, vikrta and samkīrņa classes in Prahasana. Of these the suddha is the same as in the NS and the vikrta, is the samkirna type of Bharata. The sam- kīrņa of Dhanañjaya corresponds to the one that is mixed with the Vīthyangas.3

तद्वत् प्रहसन त्रेधा शुद्ध-विकृत-संकरैः । पाखण्डिविप्रप्रभृति चेटचेटीविटाकुलम् ।. चेष्टितं वेषभाषाभिः शुद्ध हास्यवचोन्वितम् । कामुकादिवचोवेषैः षण्डकञ्जकितापसैः । विकृतं संकराद्वीथ्या संकीण धूर्तसंकुलम् । Another reference to Prahasana is found in Ch. II of the Daśarūpaka.4 'raktaiva tvaprahasane naișā divyanrpāśraye'. A Gaņikā can be depicted as in love with a hero in a playform other than the Prahasana. This, in Dhanika's words, means 'prahasane tvaraktāpi hāsyahetutvāt'. In a Prahasana, a harlot need not be presented as loving the hero. In a number of

1 Abhinavabhāratī, Ed. G.O.S. Vol. II, p. 451. ' See above pp. 26-27. * DR. III. 54-56a, Edn. N.S. Press. Ibid., II. 23.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 43

available prahasanas the scene of activity is the house of a ganikā, where her customers meet and clash with one another to win her favour. In certain cases it turns out to be the mother gaņikā who wins a lover (as Dantura in the Latakamelaka). In view of the predominence of such hilarious scenes the theory of one lady for one man (ganika or otherwise) does not always hold good in a Prahasana. The Sahitya Darpana states that the Prahasana should be devoid of the Arabhati Vrtti, and the Praveśaka or Viskambhaka.1 Ac- cording to Viśvanātha, the śuddha type of Prahasana has its plot revolving round a single rogue and one ' Kandarpakeli Prahasana is given as an instance, which however has not come down to us.2

एको यत्र भवेत् घृष्टो हास्यं तत् शुद्धमुच्यते । आश्रित्य कश्न जन संकीर्णमिति तद्विदुः ॥ The samkīrņa Prahasana has many rogues. 'Dhūrtacarita', another lost play belongs to this type. The samkirna, according to Viśvanātha, may have two acts, which means that the śuddha variety may have only one act.3 The ' Latakamelaka' is men- tioned as an instance of a two-act samkirna type of Prahasana. Viśvanatha justifies Bharata's inclusion of the vikrta in the sam- kīrņa type, thus disagreeing with Dhanañjaya's addition of the third type.

विकृतन्तु विदुर्यत्र षण्डकञ्जुकितापसाः । भुजङ्गचारणभट प्रभृतेर्वेषवाग्युतः ॥। इदं तु संकीर्णेनैव गतार्थभिति मुनिना न पृथक् उक्तम्।1

3.3 Abhinavagupta's views on Prahasana It has already been stated that holy men, ascetics and Brāh- manas are the main characters in a Prahasana. Is it not improper

1 SD, śl. 264-268, Edn. N. S. Press, 1910. अत्र नारभटी नापि विष्कम्भप्रवेशको ' Ibid. ' SD, Pp. 344-345 .- तत् पुनर्भवति द्वयङ्कमथवैकाङ्कनिर्मितम्। Ibid.

44 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

to make these noble men the buttofridicule on the stage? Abhi- navagupta analyses this problem. The activities of the holy men etc .. are not by themselves subject to any criticism or dis- approval. It is only when rogues or men of dubious character try to assume the roles of these men, that we have a case for Prahasana.

ये तु स्वभावतः न गर्हिता भगवत्तापसादि चेष्टाजिशेषैस्तेषां प्राकृतपुरुष- संक्रान्ति दौरात्म्योदितां अन्यसम्बन्धदूष्यमानतया प्रहसनीयतां याता:1 As for the number of Vithyangs to be employed in a Prahasana, Abhinava says that there is no hard and fast rule.2 With regard to the number of acts in a Prahasana, Abhinava says,-शुद्धं एकाङ्क, संकीण तु अनेकाङ्कम्, वेश्यादिचरित संख्याबलादिति केचित्'3 Abhinava also answers the question whether it is worthwhile to present on the stage a Prahasana which generally depicts the life of the degraded persons. He says that the Prahasana too has its moral appeal in that it shows how one should not act. If the association of the rogues can corrupt the minds of even the holy men, ascetics and the brähmanas, it is needless to say what effect it would have on common men. On witnessing the Prahasana, a wise man would become wiser and would learn to avoid the wicked. तद्विषये यः प्रकृष्टो विवाद: विरुद्धतया अवभासनेन फलभूतेन सम्पाद्यतया यदुक्तं प्रहस्यमान तत् तथाभूतचरितावलोकनेन हि सम्स्कृतमतिः व्युत्पाद्यो न भूयस्तान वञ्कानुपसर्पति इति।4 Nātyadarpaņa follows Abhinavabhāratī in interpreting the definition of Prahasana found in the Natyasastra. The new point that ND mentions is with regard to the statement, ' atra strībāla-mūrkhādiḥ adhikārī.'5 Does it mean that the

1 Abhinavabhāratī, p. 447 ff. Ed. GOS., Vol. II. 2 Ibid-तेषां सम्प्रयोगे संख्यायाः क्रमस्य तुन कश्चिन्नियम इति दर्शयति। 3 Ibid. * Abhinavabhāratī, p. 447 ff. 5 See above p. 42.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 45

regular connoisseurs of art (sahrdayas) are prohibited from seeing a Prahasana? Prahasana, being simple in theme and replete with comic situations, will invariably appeal to women, children and the innocent at once. They are thus trained in the art of wit- nessing dramas and analysing them critically. In course of time, they too can become full-fledged connoisseurs of art like others and can witness and enjoy the perfected playforms, the Nātaka and the Prakarana. The Prahasana, according to ND, marks the first stage in the art of appreciating the popular playform, Nāțaka. प्रह्सनेन च बालस्त्रीमूर्खाणां हास्यप्रदर्शनेन नाठ्ये प्ररोचना क्रियते। ततः सञ्जात-नाटयरुचयः शेषरूपकैः धर्मार्थकामेषु व्युत्पाद्यन्ते।1 3.4 The Prahasana Elements Among other dramaturgical texts dealing with the definition of Prahasana, Rasārņavasudhākara of Singabhūpāla deserves special mention. The author gives a list of ten new elements of Prahasana and illustrates2 them from Anandakosa Prahasana which is yet to be traced. The ten elements are: अवलगितमवस्कन्दो व्याहारो विप्रलम्भ उपपत्तिः । भयमनृतं विभ्रान्ति: गद्गदवाक् च प्रलापश्च ।। (i) avalagitam: 'Avalagitam' consists in decrying (agur) or abandóning (aTa) one's earlier decision, out of delusion. पूर्वमात्मगृहीतस्य समाचारस्य मोहतः । दूषणं त्यजन चात्र द्विधा अवलगितं मतम् ॥ e.g. यानि द्यन्ति गलाद्ध: सुकृतिनो लोम्नां च तेषां स्थितं। यान्यूर्ध्व परिपोषयन्ति पुरुषास्तेषां मुह्ठः खण्डनम् ॥ कृत्वा सर्वजगद् विरुद्धविधिना सख्वारिणां माहशां। श्रीगीता च हरीतकी च हरतो हन्तोपभोग्यं वयः ॥

1 ND, Ed. GOS, No. XLVIII, Vol. I, 1928, p. 128. ' RS, Ch. III, p. 290 ff, Ed. TSS, No. L, 1916. The definitions of the- Prahasana Elements given above are from this edition only. All the illus- trations given are from Anandakosa Prahasana quoted therein, unless otherwise stated.

46 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE Since the monk here is presented as decrying his ascetic life, this is an illustration of 'avalagitam' comprising dūsaņa. Another illustration is from the Prabodhacandrodaya,1 where a Ksapaņaka desires to take up another religious order, giving up his own (tyajana).

अहो का पालिकदर्शनमेवैकं सौख्यमोक्षसाधनम्। भो कापालिक, अहं तव साम्प्रतं दास: संवृत्तः । ममापि महाभैरवानुशासने दीक्षय।

(ii) avaskandah: 'Avaskanda' is the one where several persons offer different and absurd interpretations to a given phenomenon, according to their own bent of mind. अवस्कन्दस्तु अनेकेषां अयोग्यस्य एकवस्तुनः । सम्बन्धाभासकथनात् स्वस्वयोग्यत्वयोजना ।।

e.g. यतिः : साक्षाद्भूतं वदति कुचयोरन्तरं द्वैतवाद बौद्ध: : भावो बोधक्षणिकमहिमा सौगते दत्तपादः । जैनः : बाह्वोर्मूले नयति शुचितामाईती काचिदीक्षा सर्वे : नाभेर्मूलं प्रथयति फलं सर्वसिद्धान्तसारम् ॥

Here the adherents of different faiths try to read their own philo- sophical truths, wrongly though, in the physical configuration of a harlot. (iii) vyāhārah: 'Vyāhāra' is a humorous conversation bet- ween two or three persons. e.g. 'व्याहार: स्वसंवादो द्वित्रीणां हास्यकारणम्।' बौद्ध :- (यतिं विलोक्य) कुतो मुण्डः एकदण्डी। मिथ्यातीर्थ :- (विळोक्य, दृष्टिं अपकर्षन्, आत्मगतं) क्षणिकवादी न संभाषणीय एव। तथाऽपि दण्डं अन्तर्धाय निरत्तरं करोमि। (प्रकाशं) अये शून्यवादिन, अदण्डो मुण्डोऽइं आगलादस्मि।

1 Prabodhacandrodaya, III, bet. śls. 19 and 20.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 47

जैन :- (आत्मगतं) नूनमसौ मायावादी। भवतु, अहमपि किमपि अन्तर्धाय प्रस्तुतं पृच्छामि। (प्रकाशं) अये महापरिणामवादिन् बृद्दद्वीज, लोम्नां समानजातीयत्वेऽपि केषा्चित् संकर्तनम्, अन्येषां संरक्षणमिति व्यवस्थितेः किं कारणम् ? मिथ्यातीर्थ :- जीवदमेध्यमङ्ग धारको नरपिशाचोऽयं अन्तर्धायापि न संभाषणीयः । निष्कच्छकीर्ति :- (सादरं) सखे, आहतमुने, वादे त्वया अयं अप्रतिपत्ति नाम निग्रहस्थानमारोपितो मायावादी। मिथ्यातीर्थ :- (आत्मगतं) नूनमिमावपि माहशावेव लिङ्गधारणमात्रेण कुक्षिम्भरी स्याताम्। This humorous conversation between the followers of different religious schools is an instance of 'vyāhāra'.

(iv) vipralambhah: 'Vipralambha' is frightening and de- ceiving others by pretending possession by an evil spirit and the like. This is illustrated by another passage from Ānandakosa, where a gaņikā pretends possession of a 'yaksini' and deceives others.

(v) upapatti: ' Upapatti' is offering a humorous explanation for a well-known phenomenon or concept on the basis of another well-known observation. उपपत्तिस्तु सा प्रोक्ता यत् प्रसिद्धस्य वस्तुनः । लोकप्रसिद्धया युक्त्या साधनं हास्यहेतुना ।। e.g. मिथ्यातीर्थ :- (पुरोऽवलोक्य) अये उपसरित्तीरं पिप्पलनामा वनरपतिः यश्च गीतासु भगवता निजविभूसितया निर्दिष्टः । (विचिन्त्य) कथमस्य तरोः इयं अतिमहिमसंभावना? (विमृश्य) उपपद्यत एव- तत्पद तनुमध्याया येनाश्वत्थदलोपमम्। तद्श्वत्थोऽस्मि वृक्षाणामित्यूचे भगवान हरिः ॥

48 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

अत्र लोकप्रसिद्धेन अश्वत्थदलोरुमूलयोः साम्येन हेतुना लोकप्रसिद्धस्यैव भगवद्श्वत्थयोरक्यस्य साधनं हास्यकारणं उपपत्तिः । (vi) bhayam: 'Bhayam' is the fear caused by the arrival of the policemen etc. स्मृतं भयं तु नगरशोधकादिकृतोदयम् ।. This Prahasana Element is illustrated by a scene from Ānanda- köşa again, where the sudden arrival of the policemen throws the pseudo-ascetics out of gear. (vii) antam: 'Anrtam is an utterance of false praise or flattery. अनृतं तु भवेत् वाक्यं असत्यस्तुतिगुम्फितम् । तदेव अनृत इत्याहु: अपरे स्वमतस्तुतिः । e.g. बालातपेन परिमृष्मिवारविन्द माञिष्टचेळमिव मान्मतमातपत्रम् । सालक्तलेखमिव सौख्यकरण्डमद्य यूनां मुदे तरुणि तत्पदमार्तवं ते।। स्वमतं तु यथा कर्पूरमञ्जर्याँ- रण्डा चण्ड़ा दीक्षिता धर्मदारा मद्यं मांसं पीयते खाद्यते च। भिक्षा भोज्य चर्मखण्ड च शय्या कौळो धर्मः कस्य नो भाति रम्य:॥ (viii) vibhranti: 'Vibhrānti' is the delusion caused by the similarity of features between two things. वस्तुसाम्यकृतो मोहो विभ्रान्तिरिति गीयते। e.g. बौद्ध :- (पुरोऽवलोक्य) हेमकुम्भवती रम्यतोरणा चारुदर्पणा। काऽपि गन्धर्वनगरी दृश्यते भूमिचारिणी ।। जैन :- अयि, क्षणभव्गवादिन्, एतदुत्पातफल प्रथमदर्शिनो भवत एव परिणमते (इति लोचने विमीलयति) बौद्ध :- (पुनर्निर्वर्ण्य) हन्त, किमपदे भ्रान्तोऽस्मि । न पुरीयं विशालाक्षी न तोरणमिमे भ्रुवौ। न दर्पणमिमौ गण्डौ न च कुम्भाविमौ सतनौ !!

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS

(ix) gadgadavāk: 'Gadgadavāk' is faltering of speech due to feigned crying. असत्यरुदितोनमिश्रं वाक्यं गद्रदवाक भवेत् । e.g. (भगिन्यौ परस्परमाश्लिष्य रुदत इव)

गुह्यग्राही (आत्मगंत) अनुपात्तवाष्पकणिकं गद्गदनिःश्वासकलितमव्यक्तम्। अनयोरसत्यरुदित सुरतान्तदशां व्यनक्तीव ।

(x) Pralāpa; 'Pralāpa is welcoming an unworthy act as a worthy one.

प्रलाप: स्यात् अयोग्यस्य योग्यत्वेनानुमोदनम् । e.g. राजा :- (सौदार्योद्रेकम्) अये विडालाक्ष, अस्मदीये नगरे विषये च पतिहीना च या नारी जायाहीनश्च यः पुमान् । तौ दम्पती यथाकाम भवेतामिति घोष्यताम् ।। बिडालाक्ष :- देवः प्रमाणम्। (इति सानुचरो निष्फ्ान्तः) गुह्यग्राहि-(सश्लाघागौरवम्) नष्टाश्वभग्नशकटन्यायेन प्रतिपादितम् । उचिता ते महाराज सेयं कारुण्यघोषणा ।।

अपि च- मन्वाद्यो महीपालाः शतशो गामपालयन्। न केनापि कृतो मार्ग: पवमाश्चर्यसौख्यदः ।

3.5. The Vithyangas Since writers like Bharata and others prescribe the presence of the Vithyangas in the Prahasana, a brief description of them may not be out of place here. Bharata has stated and defined them.1 Other dramaturgical texts like the Daśarūpaka offer illsutrations too, mostly culled out from well-known plays. The most striking illustrations and their appropriate definitions chosen

1 NS, Ch. XVII ls. 104 and 105. 4

50 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

from the various texts, are given below. The Vithyangas arc thirteen in number. They are: द्धात्यफावलगिते प्रपञ्नत्रिगते छलम् । वाक्केल्यधिबले गण्डं अवस्यन्दित नालिके। असत्प्रलापव्याहारे मृदवानि त्रयोदश ।1 (i) उद्धात्यक (Speech with a hidden meaning). गूढार्थपद्पर्यायमाला प्रश्नोत्तरस्य वा । यत्रान्योन्यं समालापो द्वेधा उद्धात्यं तदुच्यते ॥2 Udghātyaka is of two kinds-(i) a series of successive words with a hidden meaning and (ii) a series of questions and answers.

Illustration for the first kind विदूषक :- भो वयश्य, क एष कामो येन त्वमपि दूयसे? स किं पुरुषो अथवा स्त्रीति ? राजा-सखे, मनोजातिरनाधीना सुखेष्वेव प्रवर्तते। स्नेहर्य ललितो मार्ग: काम इत्यभिधीयते॥ विदूषक :- एवमपि न जानामि । राजा-वयस्य, इच्छाप्रभवः स इति । विदूषक :- किं यो यदिच्छत स तत् कामयति? राजा-अथ किम्? विदूषक :- तज्ज्ञातम्, यथाऽहं सूपकारशालायां भोजनमिच्छामि। The Avaloka wrongly states that this passage is from the Vikramorvaśiya. Prof. Raghavan points out that this is from a Vithi called 'Mālatikā' which is also quoted by Bhoja in his Śṛńgāraprakāśa (Sṛ, Pr).3

1 DR, Ch. III, śls. 12 and 13a, Edn. NS. Press. Ibid p. 65 ff. * See DR, V. Raghavan, 'Bhoja's Śņngāraprakāśa; pp. 872-873, Ed. Author, 1978.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 51

Illustration for the second kind of 11 का श्लाध्या गुणिनां क्षमा, परिभवः को, यः स्वकुल्यैः कृतः किं दुःखं, परसंश्रयो, जगति कः श्लाध्यो, य आश्रीयते। को मृत्युर्व्यसनं शुचं जहति के, यैर्निर्जिता: शत्रवः कैर्विज्ञातमिदं, विराटनगरे छन्नस्थितैः पाण्डवैः ।।1 (ii) अवलगितम् (Unexpected turn) यत्रान्यस्मिन् समावेश्य कार्यमन्यत् प्रसाध्यते । तच्छावलगित नाम विज्ञेयं नाट्ययोक्तृमिः ॥2 'Avalagitam' consists in an unexpected turn in events

Illustration: Śr, Pr cites the following passage from the चित्रफलक episode in Act II of Ratnavali.3 सुसङ्गता-सरखि, यस्य कृते त्वमागता सोऽयं ते पुरतस्तिष्टति। सागरिका-(सासूयम्) सुसङ्गते कस्य कृते अहमागता ? सुसङ्गता-(विहस्य) अलं अन्यशक्कितेन, ननु चित्रफलकस्य। Here the clever Susangata indirectly refers to the love Sāgarikā has for the king in a way that is quite unexpected.

(iii) Prapañca: (Unworthy praise) असद्भत मिथःरतोत्र प्रपञ्जो हास्यकृन्मतः। 'Prapañca' is unworthy praise that evokes laughter. The Avaloka quotes the Karpūramañjarī verse, 'raņdā caņdā ... '5 as an illustration of 'prapañca'.

(iv) Trigatam: (Triple Explanation) श्रुतिसाम्यात् अनेकार्थयोजन त्रिगतं त्विह।6

1 From 'Pandavānanda,' quoted in Avaloka, N.S. Press Edn; p. 65 ff. * Śr Pr. Edn. Josyer, Vol. II, p. 492 ff. ' Ratnāvalī, Ed. C.S.R. Sastry, Madras, p. 61. · DR, p. 65 ff. See above p. 48. · DR, p. 65 ff.

52 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

If, based on similarity, three different explanations are offered regarding the exact nature of a particular sound heard, we have 'trigata'.

Illustration: वाणीमुरजक्कणित श्रतिसुभगं किं सुधामुचः स्तनितम् । जलदस्य किमज्ञातं तव मधुरगभीरवाग्विलासोऽयम्।1

Here the sweet and resonant words of the Sūtradhāra are variously understood by his assistant as the sound produced by the drum or the cloud or the speech of Sarasvati herself.

(v) Chalam: (Deception) प्रियाभैर प्रियैर्वा क्यैर्विलोभ्यछलनाच्छलम्।4

' Chalam' arises from the desire to deceive or mislead others with unfriendly words that seem friendly.

Illustration विद्वानसौ कलावानपि रसिको बहुविधप्रयोगज्ञः। इति च भवन्तं विद्यो निव्यूदं साधु तत् त्वया सर्वम् ॥3

These words of the assistant, though apparently praising the talents of the Sutradhara, are only sarcastic in nature and hence form the illustration for 'Chala'.

(vi) Vākkelī: (Witty retort) वाक्केली हास्यसम्बन्धो द्वित्रिप्रत्युक्तितो भवेत्।4

' Vākkeli' arises from a comic dialogue comprising two or more sets of questions and answers.

1 Verse from ' Abhirāmarāghava,' quoted by RS, p. 238 ff. ' DR, p. 66. ' Verse from ' Abhirāmarāghava' quoted by RS, p. 238 ff. · SD, p. 218, Ed. Motilal Banarsidass, 1977.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 53

Illustration: SD quotes the following verse as an instance of वाक्केली भिक्षो मांसनिषेवणं प्रकुरुषे? किं तेन मद्यं विना मद्यं चापि तव प्रियं? प्रियमहो वाराङ्गनाभि: सह। वेश्याप्यर्थरुचिः, कुतस्तव धनं ? द्यूतेन चौर्येण वा चौर्यद्यतपरिग्रहोऽपि भवतों? नष्टस्य काजन्या गतिः ॥1

(vii) अधिवलम् (Outvying) अन्योन्य वाक्याधिक्योक्तिः स्पर्धयाऽघिचलं भवेत्।2

'Adhibalam' is a dialogue in emulation or battle of wits among persons where each one outwits the other.

Illustration; Viśvanātha cites a passage from his own work 'Prabhavati"

वज्रनाभ :- अस्य वः क्षणेनैव निर्मथ्य गदयानया। लीलया उन्मूलयाम्येष भुवनद्वयमद्य वः॥

प्रदयम्न :- अरे रे, असुरापसद्, अलममुना बहुप्रलापेन, ...

(viii) गण्डम् (Abrupt Remark) गण्ड: प्रस्तुतसम्बन्धि भिन्नार्थ सहसोदितम् ।4

'Ganda' is a statement suddenly introduced in the middle of another statement as a sort of dramatic irony, which has some connection with the context on hand.

Illustration: Avaloka quotes the following passage from Uttararāmacarita.5

1 SD. " Ibid. ' Ibid. The full name of the work is probably ' Prabhavati-Pradyumna'. · DR, p. 65 ff. ' URC, I. 38 ff.

54 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

राम :- इयं गेहे लक्ष्मी :... परमसह्यस्तु विरहः । प्रतीहारी-देव उपस्थितः । राम :- अयि कः? प्रतीहारी-देवस्यासन्न परिचारक: दुर्मुखः।

(ix) अवस्यन्दित (Re-interpretation) रसोक्तस्य अन्याथा व्याख्या यत्ावस्यन्दितं हि तत्।1 'Avasyanditam' consists in re-interpreting certain words uttered earlier emotionally.

Illustration: The 'Avaloke' cites an illustration from ' Chalitarama '2 सीता :- जात, कल्यं खलु युवाभ्यां अयोष्यायां गन्तव्यं। तर्हि स राजा विनयेन नमितव्यः । लव :- अम्ब, किमावाभ्यां राजोपजीविभ्यां भवितव्यम्। सीता :- जात, स खलु युवयोः पिता। लव :- किमावयो: रघुपतिः पिता। सीता :- (साशङ्कम्) जात, न खलु परं युवयो:, सकलाया एव पृथिव्याः ।

Here the statement that Rama is the father of Lava and Kuśa, made first in an emotional sway, is re-interpreted by Sītā that he is the father of the entire earth.

(x) नालिका (Riddle) सोपहासा निगूढार्था नालिकैव प्रहेलिका।3 'Nālikā' is an enigmatic remark with a hidden meaning, meant for evoking laughter. It is of two kinds-(i) अन्तर्लाप (ii) बहिरलाप

1 DR, p. 65 ff. Ibid. 'छलितराम' is one of the lost Rama plays. Ibid.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 55

Illustration for अन्तर्लाप

घर्मेतरांशुमिव वक्रतयाभिरम्यं नाट्यप्रबन्धमतिमञ्चुलसंविधानम्।1

Some of the letters used in this verse combine to give the name of the play, viz., प्रसन्नराघवम् (syllables underlined.) Illustration for 'बहिर्लाप' क्रमवर्धमानविलासं रसातले किं करोति कन्दर्पः । सूत्रधार :- अये, प्रश्नोत्तरं सेयमस्मत्प्रीतिरिति देवादेशः। तत् स्वयमेव वाचयामि। निर्भरगुरुर्व्यधत्त च वाल्मीकिकथां किमनुसृत्य॥।2 The answer to the riddle posed in the verse 'above is 'वालरामायण' which is the name of the play to be presented by the 'सूत्रधार' (xi) असत्प्रलापः (Incoherent talk) असम्बद्ध-कथाप्रायं असत्प्रलापो यथोत्तरः ।' Illustration: ND cites the following verse4 as an illustration of 'asatpralāpa'. अचिष्मन्ति विदार्य वक्त्रकुहराण्यासृकवतो वासुकेर तर्जन्या विषकर्भुरान् गणयतः सम्पृश्य दन्ताङ्कुरान्। एकं त्रीणि नवाष्ट सप्त षडिति व्यत्यस्तसंख्याक्रमा वाच: क्रौचरिपोः शिशुत्व-विकला: शेयांसि पुष्णन्तु वः ॥ Here the incoherent talk and the wrong way in which child Kumāra counts the cardinal numbers, is an instance of 'असत्प्रलाप'

1 Quoted in RS, p. 238 ff ' Prasannarāghava,' I. 7. Ibid., Bālarāmāyaņa, I. 4. ' DR, p. 65 ff. · ND, p. 133 ff, Ed. G.O.S.

56 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

(xii) व्याहार: (Humorous Speech) अन्यार्थ एव व्याहारो हास्यलोभकरं वचः ।1 ' Vyāhāra' is a remark made with a different purpose while it is understood by others as having a different motive. This evokes laughter and may have a basis in greed or undue desire.

Illustration: DR cites Vidūsaka's remark from the 'lāsya- prayoga' scene of ' Mālavikāgnimitra'.2 (मालविका गन्तुमिच्छति)

विदूषक :- मा तावत्, उपदेशशुद्धा गमिष्यसि।

गणदास :- (विदूषकं प्रति) आर्य, उच्यतां यस्त्वया क्रमभेदो लक्षितः।

विदूषक :- प्रथमं प्रत्यूषे ब्राह्मणस्य पूजा भवति, सा तया लद्विता। (मालविका स्मयते)

Here what Vidūsaka meant by 'upadeśaśuddhā' is that he must be honoured first while Ganadasa thought that Mālavika was wrong in her performance.

(xiii) मृदवम् (Euphemism) दोषा गुणा गुणा दोषा यत्र स्युः मृदवं हि तत्।3 'Mrdava' is that in which defects become merits or vice versa.

Illustration: ND quotes the following verse. सन्तः सच्चरितोद्यव्यसनिन: प्रादुर्भवद्यन्त्रणाः सर्वत्रैव जनापवादचकितास्तिष्ठन्ति दुःखान् सदा। अव्युत्पन्नमतिः कृतेन न सता नैवासता व्याकुलो युक्तायुक्तविवेकशून्यहृदयो धन्यो जनः प्राकृतः ॥

' DR, p. 65 ff. ª Mālavikāgnimitra, Act II, dialogue after él. 5. ' DR, p. 65 ff. ND p. 133

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 57

3.6. Prahasana Elements and the Vithyangas in other forms of literature Before going into the question of Prahasana elements in other forms of literature, it is necessary to distinguish them from the general Hasya elements.1 A passage may be said to contain. a particular Prahasana element only if it is 'hāsyaprāya'. But the contrary is not true. Not all passages which are hāsya- oriented can be said to have a Prahasana element. A Prahasana element is that, which, while being hasya-oriented, is dramatic in nature and is full of action and gesticulations. Hāsya, plain and simple, may evoke ' smita' (gentle smile) or ' hasita' (smile), but a Prahasana element is boisterously farcical evoking ' apaha- sita' (loud laughter) or 'atihasita'2 (reeling laughter). The Prahasana element may be based on pun and other types of word- play, ridiculing of physical deformities, vain quarrel, improper speech, impertinence, roundabout talk, misquoting of scriptures or well-established sayings, exaggeration, deception and the like. The scene in the Uttararamacarita (Act I), where Sītā, pointing to Ūrmilā's picture and asking Laksmaņa who she is, is plain humour. Such elements of humour should be contrasted with Prahasana-elements and the Vithyangas described above. It may be noted that there are one or two overlappings bet- ween the Prahasana-elements and the Vithyangas, For instance. the Prahasana element 'anrtam' is similar to the Vithyanga 'Prapañca'. False praise is the basis for both. The Karpūra- mañjarī-verse, 'raņdā candā ... etc.' which is offered as an illus- tration for the Vithyanga, 'prapanca', is cited as an instance of his. 'anrtam' by Śingabhūpāla. The Prahasana element 'gadga- davāk', resembles the Vīthyanga ' asatpralāpa'. Again some of the Prahasana elements and the Vithyangas have similar names. but their features differ. Thus we have 'avalagitam' in both, the Vithyanga, 'avalagitam' is an action taking place unexpect- edly while its namesake, as a Prahasana element, consists in re- penting for an earlier decision. Thus the Prahasana elements "avaskanda and vyavahāra" resemble the Vīthyangas " avasyan- dita and vyāhāra" respectively, in name only.

1 On Hāsya Rasa, see above p. 18 ff. 3 On smita, hasita, etc. see above p. 20 ff.

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The origin of the Prahasana elements can be traced to the Rgvedic period. The following conversation between Indra and his wife Indrani from the tenth Mandala of the Rgveda1 may be cited as an illustration of the Prahasana element ' vyahara'. which is a humorous conversation between two or three persons.

Indra: They have neglected ' Soma Pressing'. They have not praised me in sacrifice and Vrsakapi is rejoicing over this. Indrani: Though much annoyed at Vrsakapi's action, thou hastenest towards him and bestowest on him prosperity. The 'kapi' has spoiled the oblations of ghee. May the dog which chases the boar seize him by the ear and devour him.

Indra: Why are you angry with our friend Vrsakapi? Indrāni: This savage beast despises me as one who has no male offspring, though I am the mother of male offspring. Indra: Iam not happy, Indrāņī, without my friend Vrsākapi. Indrani: The man who is impotent begets nor progeny, but the one who is endowed with vigour.

Indra: He who is endowed with vigour begets not progeny but he who is an impotent.

The name Vrsākapi (male monkey) in the above passage may evoke a sense of humour. The pun on the word ' kapi' (ref. to (i) monkey (ii) shortened form of ' Vrsākapi)', and Indra con- troverting Indranī on the question of progeny may also be noted for their humour. Coming to the classical period, the Sūrpana- khā episode in the Rāmāyana and the Grdhra-Gomāyu episode in the Mahabharata may be cited as instances of humour in the Prahasana style. The Prahasana elements find their extensive usage only in the dramatic literature. The Nātaka, Prakaraņa, Bhāņa, Praha- sana, Vithī and the Uparūpaka varieties, viz., the nātikā and the

1 Rgveda, X. 86. Translation of the relevent hymns are based on Wilson's edition.

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sattaka provide a number of instances of the Prahasana elements. The illustrations of the Vīthyangas from the Mālatikā Vīthī, Pāņdavānanda, Ratnāvalī (a nāțikā), Karpūramañjari (a sațțaka), Mālavikāgnimitra and Uttararāmacarita (nāțakas) and some of the lost Rāma-plays like ' Abhirāmaraghava' and 'Chalitarāma' have been already referred to.1 Illustrations for the Prahasana elements have been mostly drawn by Singabhūpāla from the non- available Prahasana 'Ānandakoșa'.

3.7. The Relation between the Prahasana and other Rūpakas It has been already pointed out that the nātaka and the praka- rana are the most perfected forms of the rupakas and that they contain all the features of the rest of the rūpakas2. The pro- logue of Bhäsa's Carudatta, the opening scene of Act II of Kāli- dāsa's Abhijñānaśākuntala, the Dyūtakarasamvāhakānka (Act II) of Mrcchakatika and Act V of Prabodhacandrodaya, for in- stance, themselves stand out as small independent Prahasanas. The Vidūsaka, who figures prominently in the nātaka and the prakarana appears in the Prahasana too. Prahasana bears close resemblance to the Bhana with regard to the dramaturgical as- pects like the 'sandhis' and the 'vrttis'. The Vita who is an indispensable character in the Bhana, may appear in a Prahasana. In fact, certain portions from well-known Bhānas like the Catu- rbhäni,3 when recast in the diologue form, will turn out to be excellent Prahasanas. The theme is 'utpādya' (invented) in both the Prahasana and the Bhana. Hasya is the main rasa in the Prahasana and generally so in the Bhana too. On the stage, of course, the Bhana differs from the Prahasana, and also from every other rūpaka, in being a monologue play. Anka is totally different from the Prahasana, since it is full of tragic element, with no room for humour. The Ihamrga, which comes later to the Prahasana in the evolution of Sanskrit Drama,4 also contains

1 See above p. 45 ff. 2 See above p. 37. Śūdraka's Padmaprābhrtaka, Īśvaradatta's Dhūrtavițasamvāda, Vara- ruci's Ubhayābhisārikā and Śyāmilaka's Pādatāditaka. · See above p. 37.

60 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Prahasana elements. It has been already pointed out that the Prahasana has taken into its fold the limbs of Vithi.1 The heroic types of Dima, Vyayoga and Samavakāra, have little scope for humour in their theme, but their prologues doubtless contain some Prahasana elements since light comedy will be useful in heightening the effect of a serious sentiment that follows. Thus the Prahasana element is essential in one form or other in every kind of rūpaka.

3.8. Characters appearing in the Prahasanas The characters in the Prahasanas are drawn from all strata of society. The ' Bhagavan', an enlightened Yogin is seen only in two Prahasanas-Bhagavadajjukīya and the Madanaketucarita. Monks belonging to different religious orders appear in a number of Prahasanas but all of them turn out to be unscrupulous cheats with " false outer robes and amorous inner inclinations". The Kāpālika in Mattavilāsa is one such specimen. Kāpālikas, Pāśupatas and Šākteyas all belong to different Tāntric sects.2 Emancipation, for a Kapālika, results through meditation on the Supreme Being as abiding in the female organ. He besmears his body with the ashes of the burnt off bodies from the cemetery. He adorns himself with the garlands of human bones. A human skull is used by him as his begging bowl. He eats human flesh and drinks wine contained in a cow's horn. He worships 'Mahabhairava' with human sacrifice and offers oblations of human flesh. The Kapalikas come under the "Kaula" system and they worship Siva and Sakti. The Kaulas have sects-Pūrva Kaulas, Uttara Kaulas, Digambaras, Kāpālikas and Kșapaņakaș. The Pūrvakaulas recourse to the symbolic representations while the other four sects practice crude worship of the sex organ. They also follow the leftist form of worship ' vamacara' as opposed to the purvakaulas, who follow the ' daksinācāra' worship. Persons belonging to all these four sects of the Kaulas appear in different Prahasanas. All the Prahasanas that have come down to us were written at a time when Buddhism and Jainism were already on the decline

1 See above p. 38. ' 'The Tantras'-Chintaharan Chakravarti, Chapt. VII, pp. 50-58.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 61

due to various reasons, one of them being the erosion of moral values. There is dig at such practices even in the Bhagavad- ajjukīya. Mattavilāsa (MV) is open with the criticism of certain corrupt practices of the Buddhists of its time. The Buddhist monk in MV even hopes to revise the Buddhist scriptures by unearthing and revealing to the world the necessary authority permitting the enjoyment of women and wine. Following MV, many later Prahasanas ridicule the corrupt practices of not only the Buddhists but other religious sects as well. The plight of the Kings in the Prahasanas is rather pitiable. They do not have a hall in their ' palace' big enough to conduct their assembly. For fear that the roof might collapse anytime over their heads, the inmates of the royal household sleep only in the open. (Hāsyārnava). Everything is topsy-turvy in the territories of these Kings. They are served by foolish ministers. Their Army Generals are cowards of the first order. A horse is useful for them only to flee from the battlefield (Latakamelaka). They are scared of seeing anything that is red in colour, and will swoon at the sight of blood in the battlefield (Has.). The doctors appearing in the prahasanas are mere quacks. They prescribe medicines that only aggravate the malady. Even nectar becomes poison when prescribed by them (Lataka.). What is more, they thamselves are the abodes of all diseases (Has. śl. 30). Other characters in the Prahasanas who look ill-suited for their profess- ions are the illiterate pundits, hypocritic teachers, impertinent students, ignorant astrologers, greedy purohits, dastardly Police Chiefs and the like.

Vițas and Vidūsakas have been sanctioned by the theory itself and they do, of course, appear in the Prahasanas. They are the chief counsellors of the cultured citizens (nägarakas) and the courtesans. The Padatāditaka Bhāņa defines a Vița thus, 'He is the one who, regardless of his life, protects his friends and their interests and whom a courtesan, smitten with love, approaches for help and whose wealth is always laid open to the needy'.1 The Vitas, generally, speak in Sanskrit and sparkle in wit and humour. They are very clever in extracting important personal

1 Pādatāditaka, verse 16.

62 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

secrets from others. Fraudulent by nature, they can easily detect duplicity in others. While the Vidūsaka has a major role to play in the nātaka, the prakarana and the natika and is generally the only character through whom humour is introduced,1 he is only a minor charac- ter in the Prahasana. The Vidūsaka has hideous dress, ludicrous behaviour and speech, excessive fondness for the pleasures of the table and has funny mannerisms.2 As an actor, he appears on the stage with the Sutradhara in the prologue and carries on with him a witty conversation. He is a close companion of the hero and acts as his 'kamasaciva' and tries to win his beloved for him (as in Mālavikāgnimitra). He is normally a Brāhmaņa but knows very little about the significance of the scriptures. He has some physical deformity or other, which offers scope for others to make fun of him.3 In the Prahasana, however, he appears only as a messenger of love for a ' ganikā', a 'nāgaraka' or a pseudo-religious monk.“ Gaņikās and their mothers play a prominent role in the Prahasanas. The Kāmasūtra devotes four entire chapters (Book VI. Ch. i-iv) for ' Vaisika', the courtesan's Art. It deals with how a courtesan should conduct herself and how she should cleverly extract money from her customers, at the same time, pretending to shower all love on them. The Nātyasāstra (Ch. xxiv) speaks of three classes of prostitutes-'Kumbhadāsī', 'Rūpājīvā' and 'Gaņika'. The kumbhadāsīs are low class servant maids having clandestine love affairs with the master of the house they are serving in. The Rūpājīvās are also non- professional prostitutes, dependent on their youth and beauty to entice their lovers. The Rūpājīvās are grouped under six heads-(i) 'paricārikā' lady-in-waiting in respectable families (ii) ' kulatā,' a married woman seeking a secret lover without the knowledge of her husband (iii) 'svairini', a married woman going after her paramour on the very face of her husband (iv)

1 See Bhāvaprakāśana, p. 94. 'hāsyakrt syāt vidūşakaḥ.' ª Cf. J. T. Parikh, Vidūşaka in theory and practice, Surat, 1953. · See Nāțyaśāstra, Ch. XXIV, śl. 103, 'vāmano danturaḥ kubjaḥ ... ' · See Kāmasūtra, I. 4.47, ' veśyānām nāgarakāņām ca mantriņah sandhi- vigrahaniyuktāḥ. '

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 63

'națī', an actress by profession but often indulging in prostitution (v) ' śilpakārikā', wife of an artisan who indulges in adultery (vi) 'prakāśavinastā', a woman belonging to any caste or class having indiscriminate affairs with any man who suits her purpose, money and temperament. Gaņikās, the third category of Veśyās, are professional prosti- tutes1 serving in temples, and royal courts. They may run their own brothels. They are generally skilled in dancing and other fine arts. They are youthful, charming and skilled in the art. of love. It is their mother who shapes their career. The mother should guard her daughter against the overtures and indiscrimi- nate association of the youths. She should, of course, invite the accomplished youths of the society to her house on an aus- picious day and announce that her daughter is ready to enter the family profession. The first taste of her youth would be given to the most eligible man of the city who would also be required to pay a huge sum of money. The mother should give her daughter's hand amidst pseudo-nuptial ceremony to the person who agrees to pay the stipulated amount. Or the mother should connive for a time at her daughter's relationship with an accom- plished youth and afterwards bring the whole matter to the notice of the wise elders for deciding how much money the man ought to pay as penal contribution. Or in case there be no one available to perform her daughter's ' first nuptials' and the necessity for initiating her daughter in amatory subjects has arisen, the mother should allow her to be trained in these matters by a suitable master who is well-versed in kāmasāstra. After the girl has thus gained the rudimentary knowledge of practical erotics, her mother should proclaim her as a lovely girl in the prime of her youth open to negotiation and try to attract all voluptuous rich youths around her. The Hasyarnava, for instance, has a pseudo-nuptial ceremony conducted in the house of a gaņikā. Other characters who figure in the Prahasanas are the cetas, cețīs (male and female attendants) and the bhujangas (eunuchs). The influence of the Mohammedan rule in India is found reflected in the Prahasanas too. Mohammedan characters appear in

1 Cf. Sinha and Basu, 'History of Prostitution in India'-Ancient, Vol. I

64 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

many later Prahasanas like Kuhanābhaikşava and Kukşimbhara- bhaiksava. The Kuksimbharabhaiksava has Europeans too in its cast.

3.9. Paradoxical names of characters in the Prahasanas One of the principal features responsible for Häsya in the Prahasana is the choice of names for the characters. These names which are paradoxical in nature may be grouped thus: (i) Names standing for something good or noble but the actions of the persons so named being quite contrary to the significance of the name. (ii) Names of the characters befitting their actions.

(iii) Names suggestive of some physical deformity (anga- vikāra).

(iv) Names indicative of some base animal nature.

(v) Names referring to some eatables of which the character is fond.

(vi) Names referring to some other weakness of the character.

(vii) Names referring to a certain branch of śāstra, which the character is supposed to have specialised in.

(viii) Allegorical names.

Of the first two types of names we have, Jñānarāsi (Heap of knowledge) in Hāsyacūdāmani who professes to know the' Kevali Jnana' but is a hoax in reality. On the other hand, we have Ajñānarāśi (Heap of Ignorance) in the Latakamelaka, whose actions justify his name. Names referring to angavikāra are many, as for instance Dīrghadanta, Vakranāsa, Dīrghaśepha and Lambavrsaa. With regard to names referring to certain animal characteristic, we have Ulūkāksaḥ and Uștrāsya or names referring to some animal like Bidālaḥ, Mārjārāḥ, Bidālaka Jambukaḥ, Śrgālaḥ etc. In the Palāndumaņdana of Hari- jīvanamiśra, there are characters named after some vegetables or edible substances of which they are fond, i.e., Palāndu mandana,

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 65 {fond of red onion), Pūrņapolikā (fond of ' poli', a kind of sweet- meat) and Laśunapantah (fond of garlic). As for names indica- ting the weakness of a character, we have Varnagāminī, Pari- hāsalatā, Nijastrītyāgisāstrin and Parastrīgrāhisāstrin. In the Vibudhamohana of Harijīvanamiśra, we come across names like Tarkakarkaśa, Pātañjalanātha and Vaiśeśikabhatțācārya, which refer to branches of knowledge the character is supposed to have specialised in. It is again Harijivanamiśra who in his Sahr- dayananda gives allegorical names to his characters like, Vyañjanā, Abhidhā, Lakșaņā and Rasapratibandhaka-all connected with Alankāraśāstra.

3.10. Hero and heroine in the Prahasana In Sanskrit dramas, the hero is expected to 'be young, ener- getic, handsome, noble and virtuous. But contrary to this, we have only old monks, ascetics and rogues as the leading characters in the Prahasana. Now the question is whether these people can be called as heroes at all. According to Kohala, quoted by Abhinavagupta, an 'adhama' character cannot be the hero in a play. This view is refuted by Abhinava. Accord- ing to him, hero is one " who figures prominently in a play and is closely associated with the main theme and the effect (kārya)" Since the main sentiment in a Prahasana is häsya, which is evoked by unseemly dress, speech etc., its hero can justifiably be an 'adhama' character.1 There is no age restriction also for one to be qualified as a hero in the Prahasana. The Pari- vrājaka in the Bhagavadajjukīya, the Kāpālika in the Mattavilāsa- prahasana, and the ascetic Jñānarāsi in the Hāsyacūdāmaņi, all seem to be well past their youth and are perhaps on the wrong side of sixty. Abhinava's definition of a hero is true with a heroine too. Thus a heroine is one who is closely associated with the main theme and consummation of the play. She need not even be the consort or fiancee of the hero. Generally Ganikās figure as heroines in the Prahasanas, as for instance, Vasantasenā in Bhagavadajjukīya and Devasomā in Mattavilāsa. Sometimes the mothers of the Ganikās have a more prominent role to play than their own daughters. In the Latakamelaka, the young

1, Abhinavabhāratī, Vol. I, p. 173, Ed. G.O.S. 5

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Gaņikā Madanamañjarī is just a passive spectator, while her mother Dantura figures prominently throughout the play, out- witting her visitors by her speech and action. Similarly Kapa- takeli has a more prominent role to play than her daughter,. Madanasundarī, in the Hāsyacūdāmaņi.

3.11 Vulgarity in the Prahasanas In accordance with the nature of the hero (an ' adhama') and the rasa that is delineated, viz., häsya, there are passages border- ing on vulgarity in most of the Prahasanas. This tendency is. particularly noticeable in most of the later Prahasanas starting with the Latakamelaka. The Lambodaraprahasana and Candā- nurañjana, however, exceed all limits of decency and are deplor- ably vulgar. But in the other Prahasanas the sexy element is well within the limits, heightening the comic effect in general. After all some overtones of śrngāra, go well the comic. Even in our day to-day life we come across such private jokes. In fact such a freedom to include jokes associated with sex, has already been wielded by poets like Śrīharsa.1 We must also take into consideration the social conditions: that existed during the medieval period in India, when most of these Prahasanas came into existence. Due to various reasons. child marriage was quite common and a boy attained his married status directly from his childhood. The problems of adolescence: were unknown and the chances of young boys and girls getting corrupted due to pornography was almost nil. Hence a joke or two connected with sex were not frowned upon, if not welcomed. In the light of these observations, the modern reader need not get appalled at the so-called vulgarity in the Prahasanas, but may just wink at it and leave it at that.

3.12. Prākrt in Prahasanas The presence of low characters in the Prahasanas necessitates the usage of different dialects of the Prakrt, in the dialogues. Most of the printed editions of the Prahasanas contain the Samskrt ' chaya', except the Natavataprahasana. In many later

1 Cf. Naiadham, Canto, XVI, śls. 50-54.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 67

Prahasanas, the Präkrt has only a conventional usage with no relevance to the times in which they were composed. While there is no appreciable difference in the roles of the disciple and the Vidūsaka in some of the Prahasanas, a difference is brought in through the language used-Samskrt for the former and Präkrt for the latter. A woman character very often switches over to Samskrt, as in Hāsyārņava and Dhūrtasamāgama, such change being indicated by the stage direction, ' samskrtamāśritya'. The different dialects like Saurasenī and Mahārāstrī, intended to make certain distinctions between some of the characters, get very often mixed up. The Präkrtis almost absent in the twentieth century Prahasanas.

3.13. Rasas other than Häsya in the Prahasanas In Prahasanas, the häsya is presented through several means -the atmastha and parastha varieties, the rasābhāsa, the Vithyangas and the Prahasana elements. But the predominance of hasya does not exclude the scope of other rasas like śrngāra, adbhuta and even karuņa. It may be noted that1 śrngāra figures in the love songs of Bhagavadajjukīya and Dhūrtasamā- gama. The Hāsyacūdāmani and Madanaketucarita too have enough scope for 'srngara'. The transmigration of souls in the Bhagavadajjukīya and the Madanaketucarita has an element of ' adbhuta'. The lament of Mrgankalekha in the Hāsyārņava is an instance of 'karuna'. One may also notice traces of 'raudra' in Prahasanas where some of the characters clash on issues like religious beliefs and love-preferences.

3.14. Number of acts in the Prahasanas Bharata does not prescribe the number of acts for Prahasana. Sāhitya Darpana states that the ' samkirna' variety of Prahasana may have two acts,2 which means that a ' suddha' piece may have only one act. The available śuddha type of Prahasanas satisfy this condition. Some of the vikrta (or samkīrņa) Prahasanas have more than two acts. The Adbhutaranga and the Mundita-

1 See below 4.1.7.3. 2 See above p. 43.

68 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

prahasana have three acts. There is one other play, Sāndra- kutūhala, which has four acts, but it is doubtful whether its first three acts can be taken as part of the genuine text of the Prahasana at all.

3.15. Lāsyāngas in Prahasanas Lāsya is a gentle type of dance suited to śrngāra, performed by female dancers on the stage. It has ten limbs or 'angas'. Natyasastra defines them1 and states that 'lasya' like ' Bhāņa', is 'ekapātrahārya', i.e., presented by a single actor on the stage2. The Daśarupaka, however, associates the ten ' lāsyangas ', with the Bhana and the Avaloka remarks that3 the Prahasana too has the lasyangas. Pointing out the mistake in associating the lasyangas with the Bhana, Prof. Raghavan states that the lāsyangas find a place only in major playforms like the Nātaka, the Suddha Prakarana, the Natika, the Trotaka and the Sattaka4. Since Bhana is a monologue play performed by a single male actor on the stage, there is no scope for lāsya in it. Anka has 'karuņa' as its main sentiment and so ' lāsya' which is śrngāra- oriented has no place in it. The Dima, the Vyayoga, and the Samavakāra are all heroic plays and so lasya cannot figure in them also. The Prahasana with hasya as its main sentiment cannot have lāsya and its ' angas'. Lasyangas may, however, figure in the prologues of all the ' sukumāra' varieties of rūpakas, viz., the Nātaka, Prakaraņa, Bhāņa and Prahasana. While we agree with Prof. Raghavan that the Lāsyangas can- not find a place in the Bhana, it is rather difficult to accept his view on the relationship between the Lasyangas and the Prahasana. Prahasana has, of course, hāsya as its predominant sentiment. Still it has enough scope for śrngara. We have in the available Prahasana specimens, delightful young pairs of lovers like for instance, Rāmilaka and Vasantasenā in the Bhagavadajjukīya, Kalākaraņdaka and Madanasundarī in the Hāsyacūdāmaņi. If

1 NS, Ch. XX, 136. 9 NS, Ch. XX, 116., 'bhāna iva ekaprayojyāni, bhāņakrtivat lāsyam.' 8 See under DR, Ch. III, 54. See Dr V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Śrngāraprakāśa, p. 175.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 69

the main rasa in a playform alone is the criterion for the inclusion of lāsya, then even a Nātaka with ' vīra' as its main sentiment cannot have läsya. Hence it would be reasonable to suppose that the Prahasana may also have the lasyanga. For instance the Bhagavadajjukiya has two beautiful love songs rendered by the heroine (śls. 28 and 29) which may illustrate the lāsyānga, 'asīnapathya. '1 The Maithila version of the Dhūrtasamāgama Prahasana has twenty delightful songs for which the author fixed the Raga and the Tala too2, and hence they are also fit for lāsya dance.

3.16. Nātyadharmī and Lokadharmī Since drama is a representation of the actions of men there is bound to be a good amount of 'realism' in it relating to the ways of the world. This realistic representation is technically called 'Lokadharmi'. When the vast and varied interests of the world are to be represented on the stage, certain improvisa- tions and techniques are to be employed and this is called ' nātya- dharmi'. Suggestive and symbolic language, soliloquies and asides to reveal the character's thoughts etc., music suited to different rasas, the make up, the peculiar convention called ' kaksyāvibhāga' or apportioning several parts of the stage for representing several geographical regions, personification of inanimate things (e.g., 'samudrarāja' appearing in person to represent the ocean)-all go under the name 'nātyadharmi'. Dialects suited to different characters, 'pravrtti' or the local manners and customs, dress according to the age, gait to suit. that, speech in accordance with the gait and action in harmony with the speech are some of the ' lokadharmi' devices. Among the ten rūpakas, the nātaka is more imaginative and it is a' nātya- dharmi' play. Prahasana along with the Prakarana and the Bhana is predominantly ' lokadharmi'; yet introduction of some of the 'natyadharmi' devices may be necessary. For instance, the 'janantika' technique (aside) is used extensively in the Hāsyacūdāmani and has a very important function in the play

1 For definition of 'āsinapāthya,' see NS, Ch. XVIII, 180-189. 2 See Dr S. S. Janaki, 'Two Farces from East India,' Samskrta Ranga, Vol. VI.

70 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE since it covers up the weakness of the recluse and helps to pre- serve his image before other characters. Significant hand- gestures and intonational changes will have to be affected while staging the Bhagavadajjukiya, indicating the transmigration of the souls.

3.17. Theatrical aspects Bharata gives a three-fold classification of theatre, based upon its size1-"jyeșta" (Big)," madhyama" (medium) and "kanīyas" (small). Commenting on this passage, Abhinava says that the Dima with divine characters shall be performed in a "jyesta" type of theatre. Nataka with royal characters requires a "madhyama"-theatre, and for the rest of the playforms, the " kaniyas" type of theatre would suffice. Thus a Prahasana can be enacted even in a small theatre since it does not require much of theatrical sophistification or large scene settings. Most of the Prahasanas are short plays and some of them have only one act, confined to a single setting such as the house of a hectera or the Math room of a recluse. Some scenic settings may how- ever be needed while staging some of the Prahasanas. For in- stance, there is a scene in the Hasyacūdamani in which the disciple of a recluse jumps from a tree. There is a similar scene in the Kuksimbharibhaiksava too. A few Prahasanas like the Madana- ketucarita require elaborate court scenes with all paraphernalia.

3.18. Instrumentation It has already been pointed out that percussion instruments like "mrdanga", "panava" and "dardara" are played when a Prahasana is staged.2 At least two of the available Prahasanas Bhagavadajjukīya and the Dhurtasamagama have references to songs.8 In the Hasyarnava we find a reference to 'talayugala', 'jhilli' and ' mardala'. The harlot-mother, Bandhurā, saks her Bhujangas to welcome King Anayasindhu with songs accompanied

1 NS, Ch. II. 2 See above p: 41. ' See above p. 68.

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 71

by the aforesaid instruments and accordingly the Bhujangas sing and dance1. In the prologue of the Latakamelaka2 the Sutradhāra says that he hears the sounding of the instruments Dindima, Gomukha, Jhilli and Mrdanga and then learns that it is the * Bhujanga music' emanating from the house of the haetera, Danturā.

3.19. Nandi and the Prologue In addition to serving the usual purpose of benediction, the nändī in the Prahasanas indicates the main rasa that is going to be delineated, i.e., the Hāsya. As in a majority of nātakas, the nandi in most of the Prahasanas deals with the Siva-Parvati theme. The five faces of Siva vying with each other to kiss the face of Pārvatī (in the Natavata), the agitation of the Ganges and the moon on the continued dalliance of Siva and Parvati (in the Latakamelaka), Śiva's laughter on seeing Heramba mistaking the moonlight from Siva's head to be waters of the Ganges (in the Hasyacūdāmani), the refusal of Parvati's friends to apply the Kasturī on her breasts on the ground that it is anyhow going to be wiped out by the embrace of the ash-besmeared body of Siva (in the Madanaketucarita) and Siva's teasing Pärvati that her face is going to be devoured by Rāhu by mistake due to its simi- larity with the moon (in the Hasyarnava)-all have an element of hasya in them. In some of the later Prahasanas, this type of fun at the expense of gods is overdone amounting to obscenity as in the case of the Lambodara and the Gaurīdigambara Prahasanas. The prologue in most of the Prahasanas is carried out in the usual style, the sūtradhära and his associates discussing the merits of the play. Excepting the Bhagavadajjukīya, all other Prahasanas contain some reference to the author and his attain- ments. The prologue of the Natavata is unique in the sense that the sutradhara performs it as a monologue in the Bhāna style with the aid of' ākāsabhāșita'. Some of the old conventions are broken in a few of the later Prahasanas. For example, in the

1 Hāsyārņava, p. 14; Ed. Chowkhamba. · Lațakamelaka, p. śl, 11, Act. I, Ed. Chowkhamba.

72 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Vibudhamohana, before the conventional ' nāndyante pravisati sūtradhärah', there is a long interlude wherein figure, verses culled out from various sources like Ratnāvalī, Mālatīmādhava, Rasagangadhara, Nalacampū and the Hitopadesa. According to Viśvanātha, Prahasana should not have the Viskambha at all. As a rule, it should not appear in the beginning of the first act of any kind of rūpaka. But in the Madanaketucarita and Kuksim- bharibhaiksava, we have Viskambha in the beginning of the first act itself. Most of the Prahasanas refer to the seasons in which they are staged. The action in most of the Prahasanas last for a day. There are exceptions as in the case of Hasyarnava, where the course of action is spread over two days.

3.20. The Bharatavakya Most of the Prahasanas end with the conventional Bharata- vākya. The Bhagavadajjukiya is an exception. It just ends with the description of the sunset. The Bharataväkya, in the well- known nataka, generally follows the set expression, 'tathāpīda- mastu'. But the Madanaketucarita, Mattavilāsa, Nāțavāța and Latakamelaka do not contain such an expression. The Madanaketucarita has an epilogue after the Bharatavakya. The Hāsyārnava breaks the convention in not having a Bharatavākya at all.

3.21. Stage worthiness The prologues in many of the Prahasanas give details with regard to when and where the plays were first presented-during a certain temple festival or at the king's court. But these details need not be taken seriously since it became a matter of routine for the dramatists to refer to such occasions even though the plays were not actually staged. Plays like Lambadoraprahasana and Candānurañjana would never have been staged, though their prologues mention that they were put on boards on such and such an occasion. But the Bhagavadajjukiya and the Mattavilasa have long been associated with the Kerala stage in the Kūdiyāttam tradi-

PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS 73 tion, and are being staged even today in many parts of the country1 .. Hāsyacūdāmaņi and Madanaketucarita are also fit to be staged2. Lațakamelaka, Hāsyārņava and Dhūrtasamāgama may need a bit of editing before they are put on boards. Most of the later Prahasanas ridiculing certain practices of several religious sects: may not appeal to the modern audience since sects like the Kāpa- likas and the Kālamukhas have almost become extinct now. Another difficulty which presents itself in staging some of the later Prahasanas is, of course, the obscenity which does not re- ceive the approbation of cultured audience. It has already been noted that while Nātyasastra divides the, Prahasana into two classes, the Dasarupaka adds one more variety, viz., the one with the Vithyangasa. The Vithyangas are certain dramatic situations and can be included in any playform including the suddha and the samkīrņa varieties of the Prahasana. Thus there seems to be no justification in. having a separate class of Prahasana with the Vithyangas. Sāhityadarpaņa follows the Nātyaśāstra and classifies the Prahasana only into two classes4-the śuddha, with higher characters and the samkirna, with the lower characters. This classification will be followed in the present study of the Pra- hasanas. On the basis of this classification, only four of the available Prahasanas can be brought under the śuddha type- the Bhagavadajjukīya, the Mattavilāsa, the Hāsyacūdāmani and the Madanaketucarita. Rest of the Prahasanas are rather coarse and are fit to be included only in the samkīrna class. A study of the four suddha Prahasanas will be taken up in the next chapter-

1 BA was recently staged during the 'Indian History Congress' on 30-12-1976. ª Hāsyacudāmani was presented by the Samskrta Ranga, Madras in 1960 .. ª See above, pp. 42-43. * See above, pp. 42-43.

CHAPTER IV

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS

The Suddha type of Prahasanas

The Bhagavadajjukīya

The Mattavilasaprahasana

The Hāsyacūdāmaņi

The Madanaketucarita

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS

4.0.0. Unlike the Caturbhani all of which belong to almost the same period and have much in common between them with respect to style and state of society represented, the four important Prahasanas, the Bhagavadajjukīya, (BA), the Mattavilāsa (MV) the Hāsyacūdāmaņi (Hā. Cū.) and the Madanaketucarita (MKC) provide a contrasting picture. BA is of doubtful authorship, MV came from the pen for a royal monarch (Mahendra Pallava), Hā. Cū. was written by a minister (Vatsarāja) and MKC was written by a court poet, Ramapanivada. These four works are also far removed from one another by time. While the date of BA is uncertain, the other three belong to the 7th, 13th and 18th centuries respectively. All these four works, in contrast to the other Prahasanas are free from vulgarity. The BA and MKC have true Yogins in their cast and deal with a noble theme-viz., mending the ways of an erring man. Though no such exalted motive is openly expressed in MV and Ha.Cu., the two are free from coarseness and obscenity. Though there is not much of a story-value in MV, its plot is simple and straight- forward with minimum number of characters, and the dialogues in it are crisp and sharp. Ha.Cu. has a very interesting plot and is full of humorous dialogues and situations. Though of late origin, MKC has all the ingredients of a classical drama, and is noted for its lucid verses and racy dialogues. An account of these four Prahasanas, which can rightly be called the śuddha Prahasanas, as given in the following pages, will bring out how closely they are connected with one another. On account of its prime importance, the Bhagavadajjukīya is taken up first for a study.

78 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

1. THE BHAGAVADAJJUKĪYA 4.1.1. The BA is undoubtedly the most popular of all the Prahasanas. It has seen four editions so far1 and a number of adaptations and translations into vernaculars.2 It is probably the most widely staged Prahasana3. The NLRK makes a special mention of it.4 The earliest reference to the BA is found in the controversial Mämandur inscription5, dating back to the 7th Century A.D. The BA has been quite popular in the Kudiyattam tradition of the Kerala stage. A twelfth century work called the Kūdiāttakrama describes the method to be followed while staging this play6.

4.1.2. Authorship of the Bhagavadajjukīya One of the most intriguing problems with regard to the BA is its authorship. Unfortunately the prologue of the play does not contain any reference to the author. Two of its MSS and also the only available Commentary give the name of the author as Bodhayanakavi7. Prof. Winternitz observes; "I see no reason to doubt that this is the name of the poet".8 The Māmandūr inscription (portion of line 6) which has led to many misunderstandings and misconceptions, runs thus:

व्यासकल्पस्य - (भग) वद्ज्जुकम् । - स्यं भत्तविलासादिपदं प्रहसनोत्तमम्-।।

The mention of BA along with MV in this inscription has led many scholars to believe that Mahendravarma Pallava,

1 BA editions : (i) Ed. Prof. A. Banerji Sastri, Journal of Bihar and Orissa Research Society, March and June, 1924. (ii) Ed. Anujan Achan, Trichur, 1925. (iii) Ed. Lockwood and Vishnubhatt, Christian Literature Society, Madras, 1978. (iv) Vanitha Press, Madras. ª For Tamil transl., see Samskrta Ranga Annual no. 5. 3 Staging of this play at least on two important occasions are known (i) All India Drama Festival at Trichur, 1971. (ii) 37th Session of Indian History Congress, Calicut, 1976. ª NLRK, Ed. Chowkhamba, p. 276. 5 South India Inscription, Vol. IV, no. 38 of 88. 6 BA, Ed. Anujan Achan, Introduction p, xviii. 7 Ibid., p. vi. Ibid.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 79

the author of MV, is also the author of BA. Michael Lockwood, in the Madras edition of the text1, puts forth the following arguments in support of the common authorship of the BA and MV. (i) The Nirnayasagar Press edition (1911) of Jalhana's Sūktimuktāvalī refers to these as Mahendravarman's works.2 (ii) The word 'Indra' in the Nandi refers to the author Mahendra and the whole verse is indicative of the author's devotion to Lord Rudra. Mahendravarman was a devout Saivite in the later years of his life. (iii) The repetitive puns on the word 'Pallava' occur in five places in the play. (iv) Words like 'atimana', 'vidhih' and 'akaruņa' which are some of the titles of king Mahendravarma Pallava, occur in the text. However, we may offer the following arguments in reply. (i) It is doubtful whether the Sūktimuktāvali verses men- tioned above are authentic, for they do not appear in the GOS. edition of the text. (ii) The word 'Indra' in the Nāndi verse3, need not be taken in any special sense (as referring to Mahendra). It does not even refer to 'Indra' as translated by the editors in their Madras edition4. The term 'Indracarumani' refers to the 'indranilamani' or the blue diamond, as explained by the commentary in the Trichur edition.5 Moreover, the whole verse is to be explained with a philosophical significance and the author of the play seems to be well-versed in different systems of Indian philosophy. This is evident from a number of stanzas.

1 p. 2ff. 2 vide 'hāsyapradhāna evam tu nātyam prahasanam sadā īti mattvaiva rājendro mahendraḥ krtavān krtī nātyam mattavilāsam ca nāțyam bhagavadjju- kam sarvānandakarau granthau sarvalokasukhapradau.' 8 vide 'tvām pātu lakşaņādhyas-suravaramukuțendracārumaņighrstah rāvaņanamitāņgusțho rudraaya sadārcitaḥ pādaḥ.' 4 " Of excellent attributes, being rubbed by the beautiful gem In the crown of the foremost of gods, Indra's diadem, And having the toe which suppressed Ravana too, May the ever worshipped foot of Rudra protect you." 5 vide Commentary, pp. 1-2.

80 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

dealing with the concepts of Sankhya, Yoga, etc., in the course of the play. The word ' pada' in the verse refers to the Yogin in the play. Religious teachers and venerable persons are generally addressed as 'pujyapadāh'. 'Laksana' refers to the 'True Knowledge'. 'Ravana' refers the troublesome worldly life (rāvayati iti ravanah). The word 'rudra' indirectly refers to the disciple, who weeps at the death of his master (rodanat rudrah). The implied meaning of the whole verse is 'May the venerable teacher, a repository of spiritual knowledge and one who is fit to be worshipped even by the gods, save you, pitiable soul, from the fetters of the dangerous and wretched worldly life'. True to the significance of the Nandi explained this way, the disciple Sandilya, who runs after the mundane pleasures, is refined by the teacher at the end. And after all, the Nandi is expected to refer to some character of the play. (iii) As for the repeated occurrence of the word 'pallava' in the text, in all the places where the word occur, it conveys only the usual meaning, viz., 'shoot' or 'foliage' and there seems to be no scope for any veiled reference to the Pallava dynasty. This will be clear if the passages where the word "pallava' occurs are read without any pre-conceived notion. (iv) Similarly the words, 'atimāna', 'vidhi' and ' akaruņa' :also would seam to carry some special significance only if they are taken out of context. But there is no reason why they should be denied the import which is quite natural to them on the basis of the context. The following grounds will justify that the two plays in question cannot be of the same authorship. (i) Had Mahendravarman been the author of BA, he would have definitely mentioned his name, at least in the prologue of the play. The prologue of MV makes a direct mention of not only the author but some of his titles too. (ii) MV contains the usual Bharatavākya, but BA does not have a Bharatavakya. It just ends with a description of the evening. This clearly brings out the different styles of com- position of the two plays. (iii) MV generally abides by the rules of dramaturgy laid «down by Bharata. BA, on the other hand, violates some of the

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 81

rules of dramaturgy as for instance, in introducing a death- scene.

(iv) MV carries open attacks on Buddhism, whereas the BA shows a more tolerant attitude towards it.

(v) Buddhist society seems to have been far more degraded at the time of MV, than it appears to be at the time of BA. (vi) The author of BA seems to be well-versed in Sāmkhya and Yoga philosophies, which the author of MV cannot boast of. (vii) The author of BA, like any other professional poet, expects royal patronage. The prologue says that the play is inaugurated at a King's court. But the author of MV, being a king himself, just states in the prologue that a new play is going to be staged. (viii) The Präkrt of BA seems to be more archaic than that of MV. In the light of these arguments, it is reasonable to accept the independent authorship of BA. In his prefaces to the Kerala edition, Prof. Winternitz points out the essential difference between the BA and the MV. 'It (BA) is certainly quite different from Mattavilasa. The Mattavilasa like all other Prahasanas, hitherto known, is a real farce and a satire. The comic effect is produced by the characters rather than by the plot. On the other hand, Bhagavadjjuka is rather a comedy in our sense of the word than a farce. The Parivrājaka in Bhagavadjjuka is a true ascetic, a Yogin and a very learned man not to be compared with the low type ascetics who are ridiculed in other Prahasanas. Even Sāndilya (the disciple) has nothing in common with this type of religious men. He is by no means a bad character like the Kapālin or the Sākyabhiksu in the Mattavilāsa'.1 . Hence BA seems to be older than MV in many respects. Certain similarities of expression and the reference to Buddhist doctrines have to be explained as due to the influence of BA over MV. King Mahendravarma has indeed tried to emulate

1 Introduction, p. 11. 6

82 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

the author of BA in presenting a Prahasana. As a mark of his indebtedness to his predecessor, he has mentioned the BA in the Mamandur inscription. Prof. Kuppuswami Sastri has suggested a reconstructed reading of the mutilated inscription as below :

व्यासकल्पस्य सुकवेः जेतुं काव्यं भगवद्ज्जुकम्। हास्यं मत्तविलासादिपदं प्रहसनोत्तमम् ।।1

4.1.3. Bōdhāyana Kavi The anonymous commentary of the play published along with the text in the Trichur edition2, clearly gives the name of the author as Bodhayana Kavi. This Bodhayana, of course, must be distinguished from the author of the stras of the Baudhayana school, and from the other Bodhayana referred to by Śrī Rāmānuja as vrttikāra, an early commentator on the Brahmasūtra of Bādarāyana.8 But it is certain that the poet belonged to the Baudhayana school (of Stra) of South India. According to Krishnamacharya4, it is probably this poet who has been praised by Sukumāra in his Raghuvīracharita, a play of the 12th century, thus 'yair bodhāyanavākyapuspakalikāḥ karņāvatamsīkrtāh'. Whatever might have been the original name of the poet it is quite clear that he was well-versed in Sāmkhya and Yoga systems, the Bhagavadgīta and in Samskrit rhetorics and dramaturgy. His lucid poetry, easy and unsophis- ticated conversational style and high sense of humour remind the readers of the plays of Bhāsa and Kālidāsa.

4.1.4. Date of the Bhagavadjjukīya: The date of BA can be fixed only tentatively since the work does not contain any historical reference. The author does not give his name or other details of his personal life anywhere in

. 1 See the article ' The Royal Artist Mahendrapallava' by T. N. Rama- chandran, J.O.R. VII, p. 236 wherein this reconstruction is referred to. a Bhagavadjjukiya, with commentary, Ed. Anujan Achan, Mangalodayam Press, Trichur, Kerala, 1925. The references to the page number and śloka numbers in this book are only from this edition, unless otherwise specified. 3 Introduction, p. xx. ' History of Classical Samskrt lit., Para 589.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 83

the work. The lower limit for the date of the work can be easily fixed on the basis of the Mamandur inscription, already referred. to. It cannot therefore be later than 610 A.D. Krishnamacharya's view1 that it must be assigned to the period between 1st cent. A.D. and 4th cent. A.D. seems to lack conviction. On the other hand, certain similarities that exist between BA and MV suggest that the former could have been earlier to the latter by not more than a few decades. Of course, BA exhibits certain deviations from the conventional practices. For, instance it does not have a Bharatavakya. This was probably due to the influence of a non-Bharata school of dramaturgy which the author of BA might have followed. Hence it is reasonable to assign the work to 6th cent. A.D. The following observations made through a study of BA, would support this view. (i) The references to Buddhism in the text reveal that it was quite popular in India during the 5th-6th centuries. It may be noted that at the height of the Gupta era, that is, during 3rd and 4th centuries, Buddhism was at a low ebb. (ii) BA reveals that religious conversion was quite common among the people. History reveals that King Harsha and King Mahendrapallava who flourished round about 7th cent. were religious converts. Perfect freedom in religious matters can be noticed here. That one could change one's religion to another and again switch back to one's first belief is clearly seen in the character of Sāndilya. (iii) References to the Sāmkhya doctrines (p. 50, lines 4-6) found in BA can be traced to the Tattvasamāsa, a work on Sāmkhya. The date of Tattvasamāsa has not been yet fixed beyond doubt, but it is generally accepted as later than 5th cent. A.D.2 (iv) BA might have belonged to the post-Kālidāsan period. The reference to a detached soul getting relieved of the fetters of life and the simile thereon, viz., a valiant man crossing a lake infested with crocodiles may be traced to the influence of the Raghuvamśa passage, 'marutih sagaram tīrnah samsāramiva nirmamaḥ'. (XII, 60).

1 HCSL., para. 589. 2 See "A note on the date of Tattvasamasa." J.O.R-VII. 145ff.

84 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

4.1.5. The play Dramatis Personae Sūtradhara, the stage director. Vidūșaka. Parivrājaka, the Yogin. Sāņdilya, the disciple. Vasantasenā, the gaņikā. Madhukarikā, the maid Parabhrtikā, the maid Yamapuruşa. Vasantasenā's mother. Rāmilaka, Vasantasenā's lover, The doctor.

Plot The theme centres round a Yogin and his disciple, Sandilya" a wayward, who takes to asceticism as it is an easy means of fetching food. All the attempts of the teacher to educate his disciple spiritually, seem to fail. As the two retire to a garden nearby, Sandilya is struck by the sweet music emanating from another part of the garden. He comes to know that the songs were sung by a gaņikā by name Vasantasenā, who was waiting there for her lover, Rāmilaka. Meanwhile Yamapurusa enters and decides to take away the life of Vasantasena under orders from his master. The death is caused by snake-bite. Sāndilya is overcome with grief at the sight of the dead body of the ganika and regrets that he did not get an opportunity of touching her beautiful body when she was alive. He then turns towards his master and requests him to revive the ganika by means of his Yogic power. The Yogin decides to bring in a sense of detachment in the mind of his disciple. By means of his Yogic power, he stages the 'Parakāyapraveśa' and enters into the body of the gaņikā. The ganikā now gets up as though from a slumber, but speaks and acts like the Yogin, which surprises her lover and her mother who had arrived by then. They arrange to get a doctor who turns out to be a quack. The girl exposes the ignorance of the doctor who runs away to save his face.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 85

The Yamapurusa now comes back since he had wrongly taken away the life of the ganika instead of that of another lady also known as Vasantasena. He wants to restore the life of the gaņikā. But to his surprise, he finds that the girl is already revived. Realising that it must have been the work of the Yogin he infuses the soul of the ganika into the body of the Yogin. Now the Yogin starts behaving in a curious fashion, immitating the words and actions of the ganika. Surprised at this the disciple Śāņdilya remarks, 'naiva bhagavān naiva ajjukā, bhagavadjjukam nama samvrttam'.1 Ultimately at the request of the Yamapurusa the Yogin relinquishes the body of the gaņika and enters into his own. Being now infused with her own soul, the gaņikā too behaves normally much to the satisfaction of her mother and lover. That Sandilya gets convinced about the transient nature of the worldly objects and becomes a true disciple, is left to the imagination of the readers.

4.1.6. Character Study 4.1.6.1. The Parivrājaka As per the definition of a hero given earlier2, the Parivrājaka, addressed as 'Bhagavän', is the hero of the BA since he is more closely connected with the denouement than any other character in the play. In the prologue, the Sūtradhāra refers to him as ' Yogeśvara' and ' dvijavrsa'. He is truly a detached soul. To his disciple's query ' tvam tavat kah ?' the Yogin replies, खपवनसलिलानां तेजसश्चैकदेशाद्- उपचितचलमूर्ति: पार्थिवद्रव्यराशि: ॥ श्रवण-नयन-जिह्वा-नासिका-स्पर्शवेदी नर इति कृतसंज्ञ: कोऽप्यहं प्राणिधर्मा ॥ (ś1. 9) He is skilled in the art of 'Parakāyapravesa'. This .he does not to demonstrate his prowess but to educate his erring disciple. The Yogin is steeped in traditional learning and is a master of

1 BA, p. 87. ª See above p. 65.

86 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE Samkhya and Yoga. He is fully aware of the ephemeral natur e of worldly life.

देहो रोगनिधिर्जरा वशगतो लीनान्तकाधिष्ठितो यो नित्य-प्रतिघातरुद्धविषयस्तीरे यथा पादपः । तं लब्ध्वा सुकृतैः अनेकगुणितैः देहात्मना विस्मितो मत्तो यो बलरूपयौवनगुणैः दोषान् न तान् पश्यति।। (śl. 3) His kindness towards his disciple is amazing. He instructs. him patiently and puts up with his silly questions and criticisms. With a view to pút him in the correct path, he stages the Parakāyapraveśa and brings in a sense of remorse into his heart. Taking pity on his disciple who is enamoured of the ganikā, he says, "eşa khalu tapasvī kartavyābodhyatayā āśramāpavādam na janāti. "1 He reprimands the doctor for his foolishness and exposes his ignorance. When the quack commits a grammatical blunder, "trīņi sarpā bhavantyete", while quoting from the vaidyaśāstra, he corrects him immediately, "ayam apaśabdaḥ trayah sarpā iti vaktavyam "2 When the doctor says that there are one hundred symptoms of serpent-bite, the Yogin corrects him that they are only seven in number. रोमाओ मुखशोषश्च वैवर्ण्य चैव वेपथुः। हिक्का श्वासश्य, सम्मोहः सप्नैते विषविक्रियाः ॥ (śl. 34)

He is held in high esteem by other characters in the play. He towers like a giant over them but never exercises his powers unduly.

4.1.6.2. Sāndilya the disciple Sāņdilya, the disciple plays a pivotal role in the drama, in the sense that it is his attitude which needs a radical reformation, and the whole theme is about how this is brought about. He is young and fickle. Though born in a Brahmana family, he

1 BA, p. 76. 2 BA, p. 92.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 87

switched over to Buddhism so as to be free from the worry of fetching the breakfast. This does not suit him since the Buddhists take food only once a day. So he again joins the Brahmanical ascetic order. He makes it clear that his switch over to different religions is not out of any inquisitiveness to find out the ultimate Truth of life.

न मामकोऽस्ति न भ्रातृको वा पिता कुतो मे भगवत्प्रसादः । एकोऽह्मन्नहतत्वेन यष्टिं प्रविष्टो न खलु धर्मलोभात् ।। (śl. 5)

He taunts his master always with impertinent questions. He even abuses him, when advised not to lament over the death of the gaņika. At times he looks very innocent and gullible. He mistakes a peacock for a tiger and is frightened. Even a song from a distance would disturb his concentration. He is enamoured of even the dead body of the gaņikā and laments that he could not touch her when she was alive. He calls her his 'svajana' and requests his master to revive her. But he is not altogether a dull head. When asked by the master as to the nature of the 'atman' and 'karmatman', he replies 'योऽजरोऽच्छेघोऽभेद्यः स आत्मा नाम',- which elicits the admira- tion of his master. He is eager to know the secrets of 'atmatattva' and ' yoga', and listens with rapt attention when his master explains. He has love and affection for his master. On seeing the body of his master bereft of life, he is overcome with terrible grief, and laments thus, 'hā dhik, hā bhagvan, hā vācālaka, hā atiyogavittaka, hā upādhyāya, 2 Later he is happy to see his master regain life but becomes worried when the master behaves differently. He heaves a sigh of relief when the master regains normalcy and says, 'esa bhagavān svabhāve paryavasthitaḥ '.8

4.1.6.3. Vasantasenā Vasantasenā the heroine of the play, is a charming young gaņikā and possesses all the skills that are expected of a woman

1 BA, p. 29. 2 BA, p. 78. 3 BA, p. 95.

88 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

of her class. Even the Yamapurusa is captivated by her beauty and hesitates to snatch away her life.1 The young disciple, Sāndilya is easily attracted to her ravishing beauty. Though a gaņikā she is devoted to a single lover, Rāmilaka, to the extent that she forgives even his weakness for gambling. Just before her death and immediately after her revival also she thinks of her lover only.

4.1.6.4. Rāmilaka : Rāmilaka, the lover of Vasantasena, has very little role in the play. He belongs to the rich ' nagaraka' class and spends most of his time in the ' gosthi' indulging in gambling and revelry. He has deep love for Vasantasena. He is very much concerned when he learns that she is bitten by the serpent and immediately rushes to the spot, and arranges to bring the doctor. He is shocked to find his lady love talking philosophy and becomes relieved only when she calls him affectionately by name.

4.1.7.0. Literary merits in the play Bhagavadjjukīya occupies a unique place among the Prahasana literature for its high literary merits. An account of the Rasa, Alamkaras and other poetic merits of BA detailed below will exemplify this point.

4.1.7.1. The sentiment Hāsya .. Unlike other Prahasanas, where hāsya is evoked by unseemly dress, speech and the like, the BA provides häsya through really humorous situations. The topsy turvy behaviour of the ganikā and the Yogin when their souls are exchanged provides refreshingly original hāsya. The hasya in the play is at once dignified and delectable. For the disciple, the burning problem of the day is just how to get a day's meal without much effort. His way of offering salutation to the Buddha is quite funny. "āhārapramādaḥ sarvapramāda iti mantrayamāņāya namo bhagavate buddhāya". His mixing up of the Samkhya and Sākyamata doctrines, his constant worry about food ('bhagavan susamāhito yogam cintayatu, aham

1 BA, śl. 23.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 89

susamāhita odanam cintayāmi'), his attempt to outwit his own teacher by quoting the moral codes1, his attempt to cover up his foolish fear on the mistaken identity of the peacock with a tiger2 ('dasyāh putrah vyāghraḥ madbhayena mayūrarūpam grhītvā palāyate) .... are some of the instances of good hasya. The quack doctor is another humorous character in the play. He does not know even the rudiments of medicine. His grammatical blunder of treating ' sarpa' as a neuter gender word and the consequent snubbing at the hands of the gaņikā evokes laughter. Hurriedly remarking that the girl had been bitten by the 'Grammarian serpent', he disappears from the scene before he is put to much severe ridicule.

4.1.7.2. Prahasana elements in the Bhagavadjjukīya The opening speech of Sandilya where he repents for his life of ascetism and states the reason for his leaving Buddhism (since he cannot get food after midday) is an instance of the Prahasana element known as 'avalagitam' āndilya's fear at the imagined presence of a tiger in the garden is an instance of 'bhayam' and the comparison of the gaņikā to a 'pravrajikā'8 is an instance of 'anrtam'. When the doctor is asked to quote the relevant rules of vaidyaśāstra, he struggles at the very first step and mutters some unintelligible sounds. This is called 'gadgadavak'. The conversation between the teacher and the disciple, in the garden may be cited as an in- stance of the vīthyanga, 'udghātyaka'. / 4.1.7.3. Rasas other than hāsya in the Bhagavadjjukīya As already noticed,4 śrngāra ranks next to hāsya in importance, in the play. We have a delightful young pair of lovers in Rāmilaka and Vasantasena.5 The two love songs of Vasantasena and Ramilaka's appreciative words on the beauty of his love®

1 Cf. p. 61, 62 'ayuktam pravrājakāņām kopitum'. 2 Cf. p. 37. 8 Cf. BA, p. 71. 4 See above p. 67. 5 BA, śls. 18.and 19. · Ibid., śls. 27 and 28.

90 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE are instances of śrngāra. The disciple's love for the gaņikā is śrngārābhāsa, leading to hāsya. The other prominent Rasa that figures in the play is ' adbhuta' arising out of the exchange of the souls. Another Rasa that strikes the mind of a discernible reader is 'santa'. The ' vairagya' of the Yogin in the play and the references to the 'anityatva' of the human body and the bondages of the worldy life etc., contribute to the development of 'śama' which is the 'sthayin' of sānta rasa.

4.1.7.4. Alamkāras Being a simple and small work, BA does not contain any complicated Alamkāras. Instances of Upamā are, of course, available in plenty, most of them on the lines of the Upanisadic similes. Human life is compared to a tree on a river bank ready to collapse and to a deep mire, dragging in the unsuspecting passers-by. The śloka in which the beauty of the heroine is described is outstanding for its simile.

सपल्लवैस्तप्तसुवर्णवणैर शोकपुष्पस्तवकैर्मनोज्ैः । अन्तर्हिताभाति वराङ्गनैषा सन्ध्याभ्रजालैरिव चन्द्रलेखा ॥ (śl. 22)

The conventional simile of the lover apprcaching his lady love like the bee seeking a lotus also finds its place in Rāmilaka's words. इच्छामि तावदस्याः कलमधुरवचोमुखं विशालाक्ष्याः । मधुपत्रतोऽभिपातुं विकसितमिव कोमळं कमलम् ॥ (śl. 27)

4.1.7.5. Meters Though short, the BA uses a variety of meters, such as āryā, anuștubh, indravajrā, upēndravajrā, vamśastha, praharșiņī, mālinī, vasantatilakā, śārdūlavikrīditam and sragdharā.

4.1.8. Philosophical ideas present in the Bhagavadjjukīya In BA, we find the quintessence of Vedanta presented in a simple and sweet style. The permanence of the soul and the perishable nature of material world and the physical body

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 91

are again and again pointed out.1 Man thinks that his birth in the world is the result of good deeds done in his previous births and becomes enamoured of strength, youth and physical charm. He is never aware of his own defects and shortcomings.2 Man is just one among the several beings in the Universe, made up of the five elements-earth, water, fire, wind and ether.3 It is the karmātman that experiences happiness and misery, sleeps, eats and does all things.4 One must carry on his duties in a detached manner, controlling his lust.5 One has to emulate the true Yogins who, free from conceit and concern, lead a simple life. One must seek the yogic knowledge which is the basis for all other types of knowledge, the essence of 'tapas' and which puts an end to all sense of duality. This alone liberates an embodied soul,6 from desire, hatred and other ill Yogic knowledge grants miraculous powers and even gods consider it as invaluable.7 One must strive for feelings.

attaining wisdom through a study of scriptures. The scriptural knowledge leads to higher knowledge (Supreme) which leads to self-control; self-control leads to penance which in'turn leads to the attainment of Yogic knowledge. The yoga brings in the knowledge of the past, present and future by which one realises the Ultimate Reality.8 The aim of human life must be to attain the 'True Knowledge' which is attained through meditation9. True knowledge leads to the recognition and realisation of the unity between the individual and the Universal soul.10 Those who are free from desire and are not touched by worldly miseries attain emancipation.11 It is not philosophy alone that the BA teaches. There are hints for practical wisdom and general ethics. One should abstain from things that are not within one's

1 Cf. śls. 3 ff. 2 Ibid. 3 śl. 9. 4 śl. 8. 5 First half of śl. 6. G śl. 15. 7 śl. 14. 8 Passage between śls. 13 and 14. 9 śl. 16 śl. 17. 10 śl. 17. 11 śl. 11.

92 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE reach. No living being should be killed. One should desist from vain talk and untimely eating. One should maintain chastity and- perform charities.1 One should conquer pride and jealousy and should be free from bias and prejudices.2 In times of doubt one must refer to the codes of conduct pres- cribed by the ancient seers which have stood the test of time . and hence have become authentic.8

4.1.9. Style of the Bhagavadjjukīya BA has an archaic, simple and effective style of expression, reminding one of early writers like Bhāsa and Kālidāsa. The old style of drama, viz., verses for descriptions and prose for conversation-is generally followed, which practice is overlooked by later dramatists like Bhavabhūti who employs a large number of verses and long undramatic descriptions. The conversational style looks easy, natural and convincing, befitting stage require- ments. The following conversation between the teacher and the disciple looks quite natural, bringing out the boyish im- petuosity of the disciple and the mature wisdom of the teacher.

परिव्राजकः आगच्छ, वत्स अधीष्व तावत् । शाण्डिल्य: - न तावद्ध्येष्ये (on another occasion he asks यद्हं अधीये वा नाधीये वा किं तव मुक्तस्य ?) परिव्राजकः किमर्थम् ? शाण्डिल्यः - अध्ययनस्य तावदर्थ श्रोतुं इच्छामि । परिव्राजकः - अधीताध्ययनैरपि कालान्तरविज्ञेया भवन्ति अध्ययनार्थाः तस्माद् अधीष्व तावत्।

Feminine curosity and anxiety are well brought out in the conversation between Vasantasena and her friends.5 The words

a Passage between śls. 15 and 16. 2 Cf. śl. 12. 3 Cf. śl. 13. * Vide pp. 44-45. 5 Vide pp. 57-58.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 93

of the Yamapurusa very well brings out the haughtiness that is expected of him. नानाराष्ट्नदीवनाचलवतीं भूमिं समालोकयन् मेघैस्तोयभरावनम्रनिचयैः प्रच्छाद्यमानो भृशम् । तीर्त्वा चारणसिद्धकिन्नरयुतं वातोद्धताभ्रं नभः सम्प्राप्तोऽस्मि यमेन यत्र विहितिस्तर्कादिवाहं पुरम् ॥ (śl. 21)

The fussiness of the doctor is also quite appropriately brought out thus.

वैद्यः (उपविश्य मण्डलं रचयित्वा) कुण्डलकुटिलगामिनि, मण्डलं प्रविश, मण्डलम्, वासुकिपुत्र, तिष्ठ, शू, शू, यावच्छिरावेधं करिष्यामि। (p. 84)

We do not have many descriptions in BA. The description of the garden and the sunset are however worth noting, of which the latter is outstanding for its imagery. अस्तं गतो हि दिनकृत् गगनान्तलम्बी मूषा मुखस्थ इव तप्तसुवर्णराशिः ।

आलक्ष्यते दहनगर्भमिवान्तरिक्षम् ॥ (śl. 36) The setting sun, clinging to the end of the horizon looks. like the molten gold in a crucible. Being illumined by his rays, the clouds appear like the जाठरामि of the sky.

4.1.10.0. Dramatic technique Moulded in the classical drama style, BA may be said to follow the rules of dramaturgy reasonably well. At the same time it does not follow the rules blindly. The practical aspect of the play is given more attention to. One or two violations of the theory have not affected the reputation of the play and in fact such innovations speak for the originality of the play-wright ..

94 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Further, such exceptions may even indicate that the author followed some other texts on dramaturgy, (i.e., other than the NS).

4.1.10.1. Nāndī and the prologue The Nandi in BA belongs to the 'astapadi' type. As ex- pected of a nändi, the opening verse is a benedictory stanza . dedicated to Lord Siva and the verse also suggests the main theme of the play.1 But it is doubtful whether the opening verse can be treated as the traditional 'nāndī śloka'. The verse is found after the stage direction : 'nändyante tatah pra- viśati sūtradhāraḥ' and is recited by the Sūtradhāra himself. (In most of the classical dramas, we have nāndi śloka first and at the end of it, occurs the conventional stage direction 'nāndyante tataḥ praviśati sūtradhārah'). This peculiar feature found in the Mattavilasa also, is a characteristic feature of Bhasa's plays. In the absence of any other benedictory stanza, the one we have as the opening verse, 'tvam pātu laksaņādhyaḥ ...... etc., ' may be taken as the nāndī śloka for stage purposes. The prologue is carried out by the sūtradhara and the vidūşaka. The vidūşaka is most probably the disciple āņdilya in the main play, as is evident from his curiosity and inquisiti- veness. The prologue of BA has a number of noteworthy features. Reference to the 'siddhapurusa' and his prediction (that the sutradhara is going to present a new play in the King's court on the seventh day) is suggestive of the character of the Yogin and his miraculous powers. Then the sutradhara refers to ten kinds of playforms that have originated from nātaka and the prakarana. This is definitely a new piece of information. The nätaka and the prakarana, known to be the best forms of rūpakas, are, in no work on dramaturgy, said to be the origin for the rest of the rupakas. Of the ten rūpakas that have sprung from the nätaka and the prakarana, according to the BA, are two new varieties, 'vāra' and 'samlāpa'. Samlāpa at least is known through references in the dramaturgical works. The Rasārna- vasudhakara mentions it as one of the Uparupakas. But the name ' vara' is totally unknown to Sanskrit dramatic tradition. When the vidūsaka asks what a prahasana is, the sūtradhāra replies, 'tena tu śiksatu bhavān, na śakyam aśikșitena kiñcidapi

1 See above p. 79; f.n. 3.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 95

jñatum.' The reference to siksana here is suggestive of the student-teacher theme in the main play. The prologue ends with a verse referring to the student following the teacher (the yogin) and the Parivrajaka enters the stage at the end of the prologue. The entry of the character in the main body of the play thus belongs to the ' proyogātisaya' variety.

4.1.10.2. Vastu, avasthā, sādhana and sandhis The Vastu in BA is utpadya or invented. The theme is 'ādhikārika' in character and the play has only one act. Being simple in theme, a Prahasana is expected to have only two sandhis, 'mukha' and 'nirvahana', the Opening and the Denoument. The 'mukhasandhi' is indicated in the opening speech of the Yogin where he refers to the ignorance of his disciple. His hope to reform his student is suggested through the words ' tasmāt anaparāddhah khalu ayam tapasvī. punarapi samahvanam karisye. '1 The same is the 'bija' as also the ārambha'. Midway between the 'mukha' and the 'nirvahana' sandhis, occurs the ' garbhasandhi' where a plan is envisaged to achieve the 'karya' and there is hope of success. Though not specifically sanctioned in theory, the 'garbhasandhi' is clearly visible in the following statement of the Yogin. 'esa khalu tapasvī kartavyābodhyatayā āśramāpavādam na jānāti. kiñci- cchrutam maheśvarādibhiḥ yogācāryaiḥ śisyānukrośah sangam na bādhata iti. Tadasya pratyayotpādanam karisyāmīdrśo yoga iti, asyāḥ gaņikāyāh śarīre ātmānam yojayāmi. "2 The same passage accounts for 'prāptyāsā' also. The achieve- ment of the 'karya' is suggested. The student is no more interested in the 'ganikā' and is happy to see his teacher regain his own soul. The suggestion is that the student is reformed. There is no ' pataka' or 'prakari' in the play. Texts on dramaturgy have made distinction between incidents that can be presented on the stage (drsya) and those that the indicated (sūcya). BA has a peculiar problem. The Yama- purușa will have to appear on the stage but his form should not be visible to other characters on the stage. In order to make this scene realistic, the other characters must continue

1 BA, p. 8. ª BA, p. 76.

96 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

their conversation in the forefront while the Yamapurusa appears at the hinter part of the stage and announces the purpose of his. visit. The setting near him (the cloud formation, for instance) must suggest that he is found in the sky. The snatching away of the life of the ganika must be indicated by a thud of the foot: and the hand gesticulating the snatch. Likewise, skilful gesti -. * culation on the part of the characters of the Yogin and the ganikā are necessary to represent the abnormal behaviour due to their exchanged souls. As mentioned earlier, BA breaks the dramatic convention by presenting a death scene on the stage. But the play does not have a tragic end since both the parties concerned come back to life later.1 As discussed earlier2 there is scope for 'lasyanga' in BA. The two love songs sung by the ganikā can be represented by a ' lāsya-dance '.

4.1.10.3. Time Analysis The incidents of BA last for a day from morning till evening. The disciple refers to breakfast in his opening speech. 'ā esa dușțalingī prātaraśanalobhena ekākī bhikșāmāhiņditum pūrva eva gatah iti tarkayami'.3 The play comes to an end with a description of the evening thus completing a day of action ..

4.1.10.4. Bharatavākya As pointed out earlier4 BA does not have a Bharatavākya in the conventional style. It just ends with a description of the evening. The editor of the Kerala edition adds the following note after the Bharatavakya, "A (one of the manuscripts) adds after 'niskrantau' two verses, of which the first has appeared as one of the two Bharatavākyas in Nāgānanda (Bombay Edi- tion). "5

1 Ānandavardhana is his 'Dhvanyaloka' allows death on the stage provided. the persons dead revive within a reasonable period of time, 'śrgāre vā, maraņasyādīrghakālapratyāpattisambhave kadācidupanibandho nātyantavirodhīi Cf. Dhvanyāloka, Ch. III, p. 368, Ed. Chowkhamba. 2 See above pp. 68-69. 3 BA, p. 9. 4 See above p. 72. 5 BA, p. 97.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 97

4.1.11. The influence of Sruti and Smrti texts on the Bhagavad- jjukīya The author of BA reveals his sound scholarship in different sastras through the Yogin in the play. The text that seems to have influenced the author to a great extent is the 'Bhagavadgīta.' The very first śloka in the main body of the play1 which speaks of the impermanence of the human body reminds one of the Gitā passage (II.18) 'अन्तवन्त इमे देहाः नित्यस्योक्ताः शरीरिणः' etc. The same śloka states how man is foolishly proud of his birth and considers it a privilege to have possessed a body. A parallel idea can be found in the 'Mundaka Upanisad' (I.29) 'अविद्यायां बहुधा वर्तमाना वयं कृतार्था इत्यभिमन्यन्ति बालाः' The Manavadharma śāstra too speaks of the 'anityatva' of the human body.

अस्थित्यूणं अनायुयुत मांसशोणितलेपनम् । चर्मावनाद्धं दुर्गन्धि पूर्ण मूत्रपुरीषयोः ॥ जराशोकस्रमाविष्टं रोगायतनमातुरम् । रजस्वलमनित्यं च भूतावसमिमं त्यजेत् ॥ (VI. 76-77)

The BA states that one must perform actions in this world in a detached style2 which reflects the Gītā passage (II.48) 'योगस्थः कुरु कर्माणि सङ्गं त्यक्त्वा धनञ्जय ।'

The Yogin's explanation of the state of 'asangata' as 'rāgadveșayormadhyasthatā' .. and the following verse : सुखेषु दुःखेषु च नित्यतुल्यतां भयेषु हर्षेषु च नातिरिक्तताम् । सुहृत्स्वमिश्रेषु च भावतुल्यतां वदन्ति तां तत्वविदो ह्यसङ्गताम् ॥। (śl. 7)

1 Vide, śl. 3, 'deho roganidhiḥ .... etc.' Vide śl. 6. 7

98 PRAHAȘANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

reminds us of the Gītā passage (II.38). 'सुखदुःखे समे कृत्वा लाभालाभौ जयाजयौ।' Regarding the proper time for the ascetics to go for bhiksā, the Yogin in BA says, न्यस्तमुसले व्यङ्गारे सर्वभुक्तजने काल इत्युपदेश:1 which corresponds to the relevant rule, विधूमे सन्नमुसले व्यङ्गारे भुक्तवज्जने । वृत्ते शरावसम्पाते भिक्षां नित्यं यतिश्चरेत्॥।2 Distinguishing between the 'antarātmā' and the 'karmātmā',. the BA says that the ' karmatma is the enjoyer of the different moods, कर्मात्मा श्रमसुखभाजनं नराणाम् which reflects the sastraic statement, पञ्चप्राणमनोबुद्धि दशेन्द्रियसमन्वितम् । अपञ्रीकृतभृतोत्थं सूक्ष्माङ्गं भोगसाधनम् ॥4 The BA warns that discontentment and lack of concentration will never lead to emancipation.5 The positive aspect of the same idea is expressed in the Gītā. युञ्जन्नेवं सदात्मानं योगी नियतमानसः । शान्तिं निर्वाणपरमां मत्समस्थं अधिगच्छति । (VI.15)

One must follow the codes of conduct prescribed by the wise and take them as 'pramāna', in times of doubt, says the BA6 which reflects the Gita passage 'यद्यदाघरति श्रष्ठः तत्तदेव इतरो जनः" and

1 BA, p. 26. ' quoted in the Com., p. 26.

4 quoted in the Com. p. 29. See Ātma-bōdha of Sankara. V. 13. 3 BA, śl. 8.

5 BA, śl. 11. BA, śls. 12 and 13. ? Gitā, III, 21.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 99 'तस्माशू शास्त्रं प्रमाणं ते" On Yoga the 'Kathopanisad' says, तां योगमिति मन्यन्ते स्थिरां इन्द्रियधारणाम् । अप्रमत्तस्तदा भवति योगो हि प्रभवाष्ययौ ।। (VI.11)

The following definition of the Yoga as given in BA corres- ponds to the above.

ज्ञानमूल तपःसारं सत्वस्थं द्वन्द्वनाशनम् । मुकतं द्वेषाच्च रागाच्च योग इत्यभिधीयते।। (śl. 15)

The reference to 'dvandvanāsana' in the BA has parallel again, in the Gītā, (II.45) 'निर्द्वन्द्वो नित्यसत्वस्थो निर्योगक्षेम आत्मवान्'

The 'Kauşītaki Upanisad too stresses that the abandonment of the "pairs of opposites" is necessary for the realisation of the Brahman ', एवं सुकृत दुष्कृते सर्वाणि च द्वन्द्वानि, स एष विसुकृतो विदुष्कृतो ब्रह्म विद्वान् ब्रह्मैवाभिप्रैति । (I.4)

1 Cf. Gītā, XVI. 24. तस्माच्छास्त्रं प्रमाणं ते कार्याकार्यव्यवस्थितौ । ज्ञात्वा शास्त्रविधानोक्तं कर्म कर्तु इहाईसि ॥ Cf. also Manusmrti, II. 6. वेदोऽखिलो धर्ममूलं स्मृतिशीले च तद्विदाम् । आचारश्चैव साधूनां आत्मनस्तुष्टिरेव च ।। Cf. Pūrvamīmāmsā, I, iii. 7. अपि वा कारणाग्रणे प्रयुक्तानि प्रतीयेरन् ।।

100 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE The BA stresses the importance of 'dhyana' for the attain- ment of 'True Knowledge', 'ध्यानमेतत् ज्ञानप्रयोजनम्' which finds a parallel in the 'Chhandogya Upanisad'

'अस्ति भगवो ध्यानात् भूय इति' 'यावद्ध्यानस्य गंत तत्रास्य यथा कामचारो भवति।' (VIII.6.2.)

Describing how one should control the senses and concen- trate on the soul, the BA says, सर्व जगत् संक्षिप देहबन्धे यथेन्द्रियाण्यात्मनि योजयित्वा। ज्ञानेन सत्वं समुपाश्रय त्वं देहात्मनात्मानमवेक्ष्य कृत्सनम् । (śl. 17) The invincibility of the sense organs and the need to control them has been very much dwelt upon in the Gita and the Upanișads. The Gītā says,

यततो ह्यपि कौन्तेय पुरुषस्य विपश्चितः । इन्द्रियाणि प्रमाथीनि हरन्ति प्रसभं मनः ॥ तानि सर्वाणि सम्यम्य युक्त आसीत मत्पर। । वशे हि यस्येन्द्रियाणि तस्य प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठिता ॥ (II. 60-61)

On the revolving cycle of birth and death, the BA says,

स्वकर्म भोक्तुं जायन्ते प्रायेणैव हि जन्तवः । क्षीणे कर्मणि चान्यत्र पुनर्गच्छन्ति देहिनः ॥। (śl. 24)

This reminds us of the śruti passage quoted in the Vedānta- paribhāșā, तद्यथेह कर्मचितो लोक: क्षीयते, एवतेवामुत्र पुण्यकृतो लोक: क्षीयते1

1 See Vedāntaparibhāșā, p.10, Ed. Univ. of Calcutta, 1927.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 101

4.1.12. Influence of the Bhagavdjjukīya on other Prahasanas BA has served as a model for all the 'suddha' type of Prahasanas that appeared later. Its influence on the ' Matta- viläsa' is evident from its quoting the Buddhistic code of con- duct found in the former. The disciple in Hāsyacūdāmaņi has Sāndilya as his model and the lovers Kalākarandaka and Madanasundarī there in, are replicas of the pair in BA. The Prahasana that has been influenced by BA to a greater extent is the ' Madanaketucarita' (MKC) of Rāmapāņivāda.1 As in BA, the reformation of an erring religious man is the central theme in MKC, and here too the 'parakāyapraveśa' technique is employed by the Yogin. The ganika is again the cause of temptation in MKC, as in BA. The influence of BA over MKC as also other Prahasanas will be better understood when individual Prahasanas are taken up for discussion in the subsequent portion of this thesis.

4.1.13. Prākrt in Bhagavadjjukīya In accordance with dramatic conventions here also the higher characters speak in Samskrt and the lower characters in Prakrt. The Sūtradhāra, the Parivrājaka, Rāmilaka and the Yamapurușa speak in Samskrt, while all the women characters, the attendants, the doctor, the Vidūsaka and Sāņdilya use Prākt. The gaņikā, infused with the soul of the Yogin speaks in Samskrt and like- wise the Yogin infused with the soul of the ganika rightly speaks in Prakrt. The two love songs rendered by the gaņikā are in Samskrt. The Prakrt employed in BA is generally Sauraseni which is the closest to Samskrt among the Prakrt dialects, and hence poses no problem to follow.

4.1.14. The Commentary The Trichur edition of the text contains a Commentary named 'Dinmatradarsini' by an anonymous Kerala writer. But it is evident that he was a disciple of the great Nārāyana

1 Vide 'Rāmapāņivāda's indebtedness to the author of Bhagavadjjukīya' -paper submitted to the All India Oriental Conference, Poona, 1978, by the present writer.

102 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Bhattatiri, the author of 'Narayaniya'.1 The commentary can thus be assigned to the 17th Century. (The Commentator mentions that he wrote a commentary 'bhāvārthadīpikā" on Uttararämacarita). It is this commentary which gives the name of the author of BA as 'Bodhayana Kavi'. The commentator proposes to explain the inner meanings (gūdhärtha)3 of the original work and tries to interpret every line with a philosophical outlook. But sometimes even simple expressions are explained laboriously to suit his own plan. Nevertheless the importance of the commentary cannot be underestimated. He quotes appropriate śruti and smrti texts here and there implied by the passages in the original work. He also gives the ' chaya' of the Präkrt passages in the text. Some of the dialogues have been versified by the commentator. For instance, the conversation between the ganika and her friend is rendered in a verse form thus : .

प्रणयकोपपराङ्मुखवल्लभ- प्रणयविह्वलधीर्मधु बोधिता । इति जगाद ततो गणिका सखीं क्क नु गतो बत रामिलको मम ॥ (p. 56)

4.1.15. Social conditions of the State at the time of Bhagavad- jjukīya The social life in India at the time of BA seems to be one of peace and prosperity, marked by stable rule and religious tole- rance. Kings patronised poets and scholars and encouraged fine arts and literature. There were weekly performances of drama, dance and music,4 and artists were substantially rewarded.5 The elite of the public lived in the main parts of

1 Cf. BA, p. 41. 'yathoktamasmadgurubhiḥ .... etc.' ª Vide BA, p. 98. ª BA, p.1. 4 Cf. The prologue of BA. 5 Cf. Ibid.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 103

the cities and at the outskirts of the cities there were beautiful gardens abutting forests. The ascetic teachers and their dis- ciples used to resort to these gardens for privacy. There were hermitages of the Hindu monks and Buddhist monasteries in many parts, in and around the city. People lived in amity and peace. They were interested in fine arts and dramatic perfor- mances were generally welcomed. They believed in Astrology and approached the well-informed ascetics to know about their future.1 There were big festivals and celebrations.2 As in all ages in India, superstitions had its sway over the common people.

The Brahmanas held key positions in society and were proud of their lineage,3 though languishing in poverty at times. Enlightened sages lived in āśramas and attracted students and devotees. They possessed miraculous yogic powers but de- monstrated it only for a good cause.4 The student-teacher relationship was generally smooth. The 'gurukula' system of education was in practice. Erring students were punished only with the aim of instilling discipline in them. Students were expected to memorise their lessons, the importance of which would be known to them only in later years.5 The teachers were versatile scholars in different branches of learning- scriptures, philosophy and general knowledge. The ascetics ate very little, just to sustain themselves and the food was pro- cured by begging.6 Leaders of different religious sects lived in peace and amity. Conversion from one religion to the other was easy and devoid of rigid restrictions .? Buddhist monks had their own monasteries and observed strict rules with regard to congregation and food habits.8

1 Cf. Prologue. 2 Cf. Sāņdilya's words, p. 15. 8 Cf. Sāņdilya's words, pp. 8-9. 4 Cf. The Parivrājaka's words, p. 76. 5 Cf. The Parivrājaka's words, p. 44. * Cf. The Parivrājaka's words, p. 26. 7 Cf. Sāņdilya's words, Pp. 8-9. 8 Ibid.

104 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE Next to Brāhmaņas the 'nāgarakas' (lit. elite citizen) occu- pied an important place in society. They moved among high circles and were usually rich. They lived an easy way of-life and were given to the pleasures of life. They spent much of their time in ' Gosthis'1 where they gambled and drank liquor. The gaņikās had a special status in society. By virtue of their skills in dancing and music and of course, by their per- sonal charm, they attracted the Nagarakas. There were also gaņikās like Vasantasenā who were devoted to a single person. The medical needs of the people were attended to by qualified physicians. Different kinds of ailments like, 'garbha- srava' (abortion), 'pițakajvara' (typhoid), 'karņaroga ' (ear infection), tumors of the heart, eye and brain were diagnosed and treated. Both oral and external applications were prescribed. Medicinal tablets were prepared afresh by the physicians them- selves and given to the patients. Physicians cured snake-bites also. More often spells and incantations were resorted to for curing the ailments. The physicians sometimes acted as exorcists in driving out the evil spirits. The doctors were paid handsomely. There also used to be quacks.

4.1.16. Conclusion The Bhagavadjjukiya excels other Prahasanas in every aspect and is one of the most interesting and original pieces in the whole range of Samskrt drama. It is also one of the most frequently staged Samskrt plays. The humour in BA is dignified and free from vulgarity. It has an excellent theme and thought-provoking moral instructions. Lofty philosophical ideas are presented in lucid verses, and illustrated with suitable similes. BA has influenced a number of later Prahasanas and stands as a model play even for the writers of the present day.

1 See BA, p. 57. On Ghosti Cf. Kāmasūtra, Ch. IV, Ed. CSS. 1964, p. 136, 'vēśyābhavane sabhāyām anyatamasya udvasite vā samāna vidyā buddhi śīla- vitta-vayasām saha vesyābhiḥ anurūpain ālāpaiḥ āsanbandhogosthī tatra madhu-maireya-surā-āsavān vividha lavaņa-phalaharita-śāka-tikta-kațuka-āmla upadmśān veśyāḥ, pāyayeyuh anupibeyusca.'

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 105

2. THE MATTAVILĀSAPRAHASANA

4:2.0. Next in importance to the Bhagavadjjukīya, (BA), is the Mattaviläsaprahasana (MV) of King Mahendravarma- pallava. 'This Prahasana is a remarkably smart production of genre, replete with mirth and satire. The characters are vigo- rously drawn throwing a flood of light on the contemporary life.' Like the BA, MV has also been quite popular with the Kerala stage-tradition of Kudiyattam. The popularity of MV can be assessed from the fact that it has gone through three editions1 and a number of translations in different languages both Indian and foreign, from time to time. It has been ana- lysed by Professor Keith,2 Mankad3 and Krishnamachariar.4 Dr. Barnett took special interest in this work and published a translation of MV.5 A number of articles have also appeared. in Research Journals, dealing with some of the important prob- lems connected with this play.6

4.2.1. Author and Date Fortunately we do not have many problems with regard to the author and the date of MV. We have clear reference to the author's name in the prologue itself. Mention is made of some of the royal titles of Mahendravarman in the prologue as also in the Bharatavakya. The date of the work can be fixed as C.610 A.D., on the basis of the Mamandur inscription .?

1 Its editions : (i) Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, No. 55, 1917. (ii) Chowhamba Sanskrit Series. (iii) Dr. N.P. Unni, Trivandrum, 1973. The page references in the following pages are from the edition referred to last. 2 ' Sanskrit Drama' by Keith, pp. 182-185. 3 Types of Sanskrit Drama by D. R. Mankad. 4 History of Classical Sanskrit Literature, by M. Krishnamachariar. 5 ' Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies', 1930. 6 (i) ' Die streiche der Berauchten' pub. by Dr. Hortel, Leipzig, 1924. (ii) Article by T.A. Gopinatha Rao, Madras Christian College Magazine, 1917. (iii) 'The Royal Artist Mahendrapallava' by Dr. T.N. Ramachandran, Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, Vol. VII, pp. 235-237. 7 See above p. 78.

106 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Mahendravarman was a gifted poet. That he could spare time for his literary pursuits in spite of hectic political activity, speaks high of his love for literature. He succeeded his father Simhavisnu to the Pallava throne and his reign is noteworthy in the history of South India for a number of reasons. Jainism which held its sway in South India till the early part of his reign, lost its hold on society gradually. There was a revival of Hindu religions especially of Saivism during the later part of his rule. Rock-cut temple architecture was given a new impetus during his rule. Architecture, music, dance, and other fine arts flourished under his rule. Mahendravarman's period was one of political turmoil. The Pallava King faced constant threat from the powerful Chalukyan King, Pulakesin II and there are conflicting accounts as to who conquered whom. The Kasakkudi plates belonging to the period of Nandivarman II (710-775 A.D.) say that Mahendravarman defeated his enemy at a place called Pallalur near Kanchipuram.1 But according to the Aihole inscription,2 Mahendravarman was confined within his fortress when the Chalukyan army besieged his capital. Anyhow it is clear that the Pallava capital could not be captured by the Chalukyan King and King Mahendravarman must have possessed considerable war tactics in halting the advancement of his powerful enemy. Mahendravarman was the forerunner of the rock-cut temple architecture in South India. Rock-cut temples dedicated to deities of different religions took shape during his reign. The temples at Mamandur, Mahendravadi, Singavaram and Nāmakkal are dedicated to Lord Vișnu while those at Siya- mangalam, Pallavapuram, Vallam, Dalavanur, Tirukazhuk- kurnam and Trichinopoly are Saivite in character. The temple at Mandagapattu is called Trimurti Temple' and the rock-cuts at Chitannavasal are Jain temples.3 The rock temples at Mahabalipuram near Madras are also attributed to him, though it is generally believed that his son, Narashimhavarma Pallava directed the construction of these temples.

1 Cf. South India Inscriptions, Vol. II, p. 356. 2 Cf. Epigraphia Indica, Vol. VI, p. 11. 8 History of Pallavas, p. 96, pub. Saiva Siddhānta Publishers, Madras 1971.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 107 Mahendravarman bore a number of tiles, some of which appear pradoxical (e.g., 'mattavilāsa'). More than a dozen of his titles appear in various temple-inscriptions and works.1 These titles which are in Sanskrit, Prakrt, Tamil and Telugu are given below along with their English equivalents. T-Trichy cave temple. P-Pallavapuram cave temple. K-Kanchi Pillar (now in Madras Museum) S-Siyamangalam cave temple. C-Chezarla slab inscription. M-Mandagapattu cave temple. 1. Akaruņaḥ-(T). Skt. Merciless 2. Anumānaḥ-(T.P.) Skt. Logician. 3. Abhimukah-(T.P.K.) Skt. Forward-looking. 4. Avanibhajanaḥ-(T.P.S.C.) Skt. Receptacle of the world. 5. Istadustacaritah-(T.P.) Skt. Performer of good, bad and degenarate acts. 6. Kaduntarambu-(T.P.)-Telugu, Fierce tidal wave. 7. Calmbu-(T). Telugu, Active, charming. 8. Citrakarappuli-(T.P.K.) Tamil, Tiger among artists. 9. Ceththakkāri-(T.P.) Old Tamil, Engraver of in- scriptions. 10. Tukānu-(T.P.) Pkt.(?). One who looks after the distressed. 11. Nirapeksah-(T) One free from desires. 12. Pravrttamātraḥ-(P). Skt. Devoted to welfare of the people. 13. Mattavilasah-(T.P.) Skt. One who sports with revelry 14. Murkhavijaya-(T.P.) Pkt. One who has won over the rogues. 15. Kakşitah-(T.P.M.) Skt. Distinguished. 16. Lokavaśyah-(P). Skt. One who has controlled the world.

1 Cf. Bhagavudjjukiya ed. M. Lockwood and A. Vishnu Bhat, Madras, 1978, Appendix D.

108 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

17. Vicitracittah-(T.P.) Skt. One of an inventive mind. 18. Vidhih-(T). Skt. Systematic, Creative Order. 19. Vunātha-(T.P.K.) Pkt. (?). from Skt. Vināthah, One without a master over himself. Mahendravarman's contríbution to literature is matching his achievements in other fields. The Bhagavadjjukīya is also attributed to him by some scholars, though it is difficult to accept the common authorship of these two Prahasanas, as already discussed above.1 A work called 'Gandhamadana', which is known only from references is attributed to him.2 But it is Mattaviläsaprahasana which has won him universal fame as a writer of a unique farce in Samskrt literature.

4.2.2. The Plot Dramatis Personæ Sutradhara: the stage manager. Devasomā: the fiancee of the Kāpālika. Natī : an actress. Nāgasena : a Buddhist monk. Satyasoma : a Kāpālika. Babhrukalpa: a Pāśupata. Unmattaka: a lunatic.

A Kāpālika, by name Satyasoma, enters the scene accompanied by his fiancee, Devasoma. Both are heavily drunken and in this state, the Kapālika forgets the name of his companion and calls her Somadevā. Devasomā takes him to task for this 'gotra- skhalana '. Satyasoma asks for pardon and blames his own drunkenness for the mistake and vows to stop drinking. But Devasoma pleads with him not to stop drinking which she terms 'sacred'. After praising his own sect which permits drinking and throwing an attack on Buddhism, the Kāpālika wants to have another bout. They move to a nearby liquor shop which is compared to a sacrificial hall. The Kāpālika notices that his begging bowl is missing. He also laments that the loss of his bowl may lead to banishment from his reli- gious order. The Kāpālika fears that it might have been stolen either by a dog or by a Buddhist monk since it contained a piece of roasted meat. Then arrives a Buddhist monk, cursing the elderly monks of his order for prohibiting wine and women. He feels that

1 See above p. 78 ff. 2 See introduction (p. 14) Mattavilāsaprahasana, Ed. N.P. Unni.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 109

originally there were portions in the sacred texts which permitted these things and that they have been deliberately suppressed by the old monks out of jealousy for the younger monks. He vows to trace the original text and thus render yeoman service to his religion. The sight of this monk hiding something inside of his cloak arouses the suspicion of the Kāpālika. He demands the monk to show the hidden object. The bhiksu says that it is his own begging bowl but the Kāpālika charges him with stealing of his bowl. In the fight that enuses, the Kāpālika and his companion Devasomā are knocked down by the sturdy Buddhist monk. Enters then a Pasupata who offers to mediate between them. The bhiksu then shows up his bowl which is red in colour. But the Kāpālika says that the original black colour of his own bowl might have been turned red by the sticky reddish robe of the Buddhist monk. Now comes a mad man carrying a bowl which he had snatched from a dog. The Kapalika recognises it to be his own bowl. He tries to snatch it away from the lunatic who refuses to budge. Being called an 'unmattaka' the lunatic requests the Kapalika to show another ' unmattaka' whom he is anxious to meet, and take the bowl as fee for his services. The Kāpālika directs the lunatic to look for the 'unmattaka' behind a wall and the lunatic hurries behind, leaving the bowl. The Kāpā- lika feels elated at the recovery of his bowl. Devasomā remarks that her lover shines in the company of his bowl like the evening in conjunction with the moon. The play comes to an end with the conventional"' Bharatavākya'.

4.2.3 Character study 4.2.3.1. The Kāpālika Satyasoma, the Kapalika, satisfies the conditions of the 'adhama' hero. He is the main character in the play. He is a degraded ascetic of the Kāpālika order and resides near the Ekāmranātha temple in Kāñcī. He is, what we may term, an Epicurean by his faith. According to him,

पेया सुरा प्रियतमामुखमीक्षितव्यं ग्राह्यः स्वभावललितो विकृतश्च वेष।।

110 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

येनेदमीदशमददश्यत मोक्षवर्त्म दीर्घायुरस्तु भगवान् स पिनाकपाणिः :1 The liquor shop is the sacrificial ground for him.2 At times he is disgusted with his own evil habit of drinking.3 He is dog- matic in his religious beliefs and throws blistering attacks on Buddhists now and then.4 According to him the Buddhists culled out portions from the Mahabharata and Upanisads and compiled their own texts. वेदान्तेभ्यो गृहीत्वार्थान् यो महाभारतादृपि । विप्राणां मिषतामेव कृतवान् कोशमञ्यम् ॥ (śl. 12) Satyasoma is not altogether devoid of finer sentiments. His description of Kanci has the touch of an artist.5 He has not also altogether neglected the study of the scriptures. He knows for instance, the expiatory ceremony performed by Lord Siva after he crushed the head of Brahma.6 He has the genius of misrepresenting the true significance of the percepts and prac- tices of his own sect.7 For him the true sign of a Kāpālika. is the begging bowl alone. Only when his lost bowl is recovered, he feels he becomes a Kāpālika again. 'bhagavatprasādāt. punarapi kapālī samvrttaḥ '(p. 65). He sees the manifestation of his Lord in his bowl. तिरोहितः स तु सहसा सुखेन नर- त्वमद्य यत् कुशलि कपाल दश्यसे। (śl. 21-b) 4.2.3.2. Devasomā Devasoma is the heroine of the play. She is probably a gaņika. She was first associated with a Pasupata but switched over to the side of the Kapalika expecting better benefits. She

1 MV, śl. 7. 2 Ibid., pp. 45-56, Ed. by Dr N.P. Unni, Trivandrum, 1974. * Ibid., p. 43. Cf. Ibid., śl. 8. 5 p. 45. e See Ibid., śl. 17. ? See Ibid., śl. 6, 'peyā surā .... etc.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 111

follows him to the liquor shops and drinks in good measure. She pleads with him not to give up drinking. For her, the city of Kāñcī is as sweet as liquor. 'bhagavan, bahagvatī vāruņī iva anavagīta-madhurā kāncī'.1 She is quickwitted. As the Kāpālika compares the liquor-shop to a sacrifice, she completes the simile saying that their "bhiksa" is comparable to the portion set apart for Lord Siva in the sacrifice.2 She has full faith in the religion of her companion. She is very shrewd in spotting the suspect, the Buddhist monk, even on the crowded main road.3 When it is the question of fighting she is up her sleeves. She calls the Buddhist monk ' dasyahputrah' and kicks him. She avoids the matter being taken to the court under the pretext that the Buddhist monk might bribe the concerned. officers and get a judgement in his favour.4

4.2.3.3. The Buddhist Monk The Buddhist monk Nägasena represents the corrupt state of his religious sect during Mahendravarman's times. His. very appearance is uncouth according to Devasomā. (p. 50) He has not forsaken any pleasures of the world. He has a flair for non-vegetarian food and soft couches.5 He is totally unhappy about the prohibition of wine and women in his religion .. According to him, Lord Buddha would not have been so unkind to. his followers by prohibiting these. He blames the older brother-monks who would have suppressed the original cano- nical texts permitting wine and women for the monks. It would. be his life's mission to restore the original texts granting these things.6 He has a weakness for women. At the sight of Deva- somā he remarks ' aho lalitarūpā upāsikā'.7 Under the pretext of helping Devasomä get up after her fall, he takes hold of her hand, but justifies his action saying, ' dharmah khalu asmākam vișamapatitānukampā'.8 He wants to avoid an encounter with

1 Ibid., p. 45. 2 Ibid., p. 46. 3 Ibid., p. 50. 4 Ibid., p. 61. 5 MV, pp. 48-49. € Ibid. ? Ibid., p. 51. Ibid., p. 55.

112 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

the drunken Kāpālika but when provoked he knocks out both his opponents at one stroke. He thanks Lord Buddha for prescribing shaven head for monks when Devasomā tries to pull his hair but falls down without getting a hold.1 When liquor is offered to him he wants to grab it but hesitates since others may see it.2 He is of course aware of some of the im- portant percepts of his religion.3

4.2.3.4. Babhrukalpa, the Pāśupata The character of the Pasupata is the weak link in the play. He has been introduced as a pseudo-religious person just to give variety in the cast. He does not lag behind the Kāpālika in his weakness for wine and women. He is angry with the Kāpālika for usurping his love and he vows to avenge for it.4 He offers to mediate between the two parties but remains a silent specta- tor when the Käpalika and the Buddhist monk fight tooth and nail for the alms bowl. He admits his inability to settle their dispute and suggests that they refer the matter to the court. His reference to those who mete out justice is significant ;

अजिह्ैः सारगुरुभि: स्थिरः श्लक्ष्णः सुजन्मभिः । तैर्धर्मों धार्यते स्तभ्मैः प्रासाद इव साधुभिः ॥ (śl. 18)

His blessing for the disputants is interesting;

विरोधः पूर्वसम्बद्धो युवयोरस्तु शाश्वतः । परस्परप्रीतिकर: किरातार्जुनयोरिव ॥ (śl. 22)

He has real interest in the religious rites of his sect, for instance, he observes the 'Dhūmavela' strictly.5

1 Ibid. ' Cf. Ibid., Pp. 53. 8 Ibid., Pp. 56-57. 4 Cf. MV, p. 56. 5 Cf. p. 67.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 113

4.2.4.1. Literary Merits The feebleness of the theme in MV should not make us ignore the literary merits of the poet. The work reveals the poet's des- criptive powers, clever handling of 'hasya', usage of appropriate 'alamkāras' and meters, and deftness in characterisation-in short, all the merits of a good dramatist. His description of the feminine charms is quite beautiful, as in :

उद्धिन्नरोमाञ्चकपोलरेखम् आविर्मयूखस्मितमञ्चितभ्रु। लब्ध्वा प्रिये दुर्लभमाननं ते भूयोऽपि किं प्रार्थयितव्यमस्ति ॥1

The Kapalika's description of his fiancee is noteworthy for its passion.

उद्भिन्नश्रमवारिबिन्दु वदनं सभ्रूलताविभ्रमम् खेलं यातमकारणानि हसितान्यव्यक्तवर्णा गिरः। रागाक्रान्तमधीरतारमलसापाङ्गं युगं नेत्रयोर अंसोपान्तविलम्बिनश्च विगलन्मालागुणा मूर्धजा: ॥2 (51. 6)

The description of Kañci is pleasant.3 The scene of the dancing drunkards in the liquor shop brings out the poet's minute obser- vation.

अहो दर्शनीयानि प्रहतमर्दलकरणानुगतानि विविधाङ्गहारवचनभ्रुविकाराणि उच्छितकहस्तवलम्बितोत्तरीयाणि विगलितवसनप्रतिसमाधानक्षणविषमित- लयानि व्याकुलितकण्ठगुणानि मत्तविलासनृत्यानि।4

The poet has given. a few thought-provoking axioms and some of them reveal his mastery over the Nyāyaśāstra.

(i) न हि प्रतिज्ञामात्रेण हेतुवादिनः सिद्धिरस्ति।5

1 MV, śl. 2. 3 Cf. Abhijñānaśākuntala, I. 30 : 'srastāmsau' etc. 3 MV, p. 45. 4 Ibid., p. 46. 5 Ibid., p. 57.

114 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURĖ

(ii) प्रत्यक्षे हेतुवचनं निरर्थकम् ।1 (iii) कुतश्चिदपि न्यायवृत्तेः भयं नास्ति ।2

The poet is adept in the use of 'anuprāsa' as revealed in :

(i) भाषावेषवपुःक्रियागुणकृतानाश्रित्य भेदान् गतं भावावेशवशादनेकरसतां तैलोक्ययात्ामयम्। (5l. 1) (ii) न हि लोकोपकारनिरतो लोकनाथो लोकं विनाशयति।3

The play has ślokas composed in well-known meters like anustubh, āryā, indravajrā, mālinī, rucirā, vamśastha, vasantatilakā, śārdūla- vikrīdita and sragdharā.

4.2.4.2. Alamkāras

Upama figures prominently among the Alamkāras. The poet being compared to the Primeval Being,4 and the absence of bowl saddening the Kapalika like the loss of a worthy friend,5 are noteworthy. Some of the similes serve to heighten the comic effect, as in the Pasupata's words :

तां क्षौरिकस्य दासीं मम दयिता चीवरान्तदर्शितया। आकर्षति काकण्या बहुशो गां ग्रासमुष्टयेव।। (51.14)

We have an instance of Rūpaka in the following passage:

आमम नष्टभिक्षाभाजनदर्शनकुतूहलमलयानिलप्रयुक्ताया ध्रुवमस्य नृत्तबुद्धि: प्रीतिलताया विलसितेषु।6

1 MV, p. 57. · Ibid., p. 63. Ibid., p. 46. See śl. 3. * Ibid., śl. 11. € Ibid., p. 58.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS

A novel idea that Manmatha has not been destroyed by Lord Śiva and that he has taken the form of the liquor inducing passion in the hearts of men, is an instance of Kāvyalinga :

मिथ्या त्रिलोचनविलोचनपावकेन भस्मीकृतां मदनमूर्तिमुदाहरन्ति। स्नेहात्मिका तदभितापवशाद् विलीना सेयं प्रिये ! मदयति प्रसभ मनांसि ॥1

Another passage in praise of the liquor as appearing differently for different persons may be cited as an illustration of ' Ullekha '.

एषा भगवती वारुणी चषकेष्वावर्जिता प्रत्यादेशो मण्डनानां, अनुनयः प्रणयकुपितानां, परात्रमो यौवनस्य, जीवितं विभ्रमाणाम् ।2 etc.

The poet is adept in the usageof puns, of course, with an eye on humour. The Kāpālika accuses the Sākyabhiksu of 'catching hold of the hand' (panigrahana) of his beloved,3 which also means marriage. The Sākyabhiksu is again charged with the crime of having changed the original colour of the bowl thus, 'nanu māyasantānasambhavāh khalu bhavantah '4 ('Indeed you people are descendants of Maya. ') Maya was the name of the mother of the Buddha. It also means illusion.

4.2.5. Hāsya in Mattavilāsa

Hasya is aroused here both through characters and situations. The very appearance of the Kapalika with his fiancee, the crooked looking Buddhist monk, and the lunatic is enough to arouse laugh- ter. The indirect criticism of the degraded life led by the pseudo- religionists of different sects is the chief source of hāsya. The bemoaning of the loss of the begging bowl by the Kāpālika and his companion, the announcement of the Buddhist monk about his ' life's mission ', the fight between the Kapalika and the Buddhist

1 Cf. MV, sl. 10. ª Ibid., p. 46. 8 İbid., p. 55. * Ibid., , 60.

116 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LİTERATURE

monk and the incoherent talk of the lunatic are some of the situa- tions that heighten the comic effect of the play.

4.2.6. Prashasana Elements and Vīthyangas in Mattavilāsa

The Prahasana element 'anrtam' corresponding to the Vith- yanga, 'prapañca', which is based on false praise, figures promi- nently in this play. The Kāpālika praises his companion thus :

प्रिये, देवसोमे! सत्यमेवैतत्-तपसा कामरूपता प्राप्यत इति। यत् त्वया परमव्रतस्य विधिवदनुष्ठानेनान्य एव रूपातिशयः क्षणात् प्रतिपन्नः ।1

Another instance of the same element is the famous śloka 'peyā surā ... etc., ' where the licentious life of the Kāpālikas is mentioned in detail. The comparison of the liquor shop to a sacrificial hall belongs to the same variety.2 The opening scene3 where the Kāpālika and his fiancee talk incoherently due to intoxication is an instance of the Prahasana element, 'gadgadavāk' corresponding to the Vīthyanga 'asat- pralāpa '. The prattlings of the lunatic too fall under the same category.

ग्रामसूकरमारुह्य गगनमुत्पतितेन सागरेण प्रभञ्ज्य रावणं बलाद् गृहीतः शक्रसुतः तिमिङ्गलः । यस्य वा कस्य वा भागिनेयः स्वल्वहं, भीमसेनस्य घटोत्कच इव।4

Terming a merit a defect, or vice versa is called 'mrdava'. .The Kapalika's criticism of the celibacy observed by the Buddhist monks5 is an instance of this Vithyanga. Chance coincidence of reference to something and its actual happening is called ' avala- gita'. When the Kapalika knows that his bowl is missing, he says,

1 MV, p. 42. 2 Ibid., pp. 45-46. 8 Ibid., p. 42. Ibid., pp. 62-63. 5 Ibid., pp. 44-45.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 117

' priye, tarkayāmi śūlyamāmsagarbhatvāt śākyabhiksuņā śunā vā (grhītam) iti. '1 Enters then the sākyabhiksu with a hidden bowl arousing the suspicion of the Kapalika and his companion. Hence this is an instance of the Vithyanga ' avalagitam '. When the 'bhiksu' says that the original texts permitting wine and women for the monks have been deliberately suppressed, by the old monks of the order,2 we have the Prahasana element, 'upapatti'. Other instances of 'upapatti' in the play are the Kapalika's accusation that Buddhists have compiled their scriptures from portions stolen from the Vedantas and the Mahābhārata,3 and the Sākyabhiksu's salutation to the Buddha for having pres- cribed shaven head when he escaped being caught by hair by Devasoma.4 The Prahasana element 'vyahara' refers to the. humorous conversation between two or three. An instance of this can be found in conversation between the Kāpālika and Šākyabhiksu.5 The same can illustrate the Vīthyanga 'vākkeli' also. Another instance of 'vyähāra' can be found in the conver- sation between the Sākyabhiksu, the Kāpālika and the lunatic.6

The Prahasana element 'pralapa' consists in showering praise on an unworthy or trivial object. Devasoma's praise of the begging bowl can be cited as an instance of this.

'हा हतास्मि मन्दभागा। सर्वलक्षणसम्पन्नतया कमलासन-शीर्षकपालानु- भावस्य पोर्णमासीसोमदर्शनस्य नित्यसुरागन्धिनः एतस्य मलिनपटसंसर्गेणेयम् ईदृश्यवस्था संवृत्ता।'7

4.2.7.0. Dramatic Technique

Mattavilāsa satisfies all the requisites of a good Prahasana. On account of its simple theme and decent humour it must be classed

1 MV, p. 48. Ibid., pp. 48-49. 3 See above, p. 110; MV śl. 12.

5 Ibid., pp. 51-52. 'bho bhikşo darśaya tāvat .... namaḥ kharapațāyeti MV, p. 55.

vaktavyam ' etc. · Ibid., p. 66. " Ibid., p. 59.

118 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURB

under the suddha variety. The number of characters in it is five and the play has only one act. It has no 'praveśaka' or 'viş- kambhaka'. The 'Kaisiki' and the ' Arbhati' vrttis have been avoided. 'Bharati' vrtti figures prominently. Hasya, of course, figures as the pradhana-rasa. The 'vastu' or the plot is ' utpadya' (invented). The Kapālika's notice of the loss of the bowl is the 'mukhasandhi' (corresponding to the 'arambha' and the ' bīja"), and his joy at its recovery is the ' nirvahana sandhi' (which is the same as 'phalagama' and the 'kārya' achieved). Mattavilāsa does not pose any problem in staging and it just needs one scene- setting viz., the streets of Kāñci.

4.2.7.1. Nāndi

The nandi in MV is unique in several respects. It is recited on the stage by the 'sutradhara' himself and it occurs after the conventional statement 'nāndyante tataḥ praviśati sūtradhāraḥ '. The nandi śloka1 is in praise of Lord Siva. One of the titles of the King, 'avanibhajana' occurs in it. There are veiled refe- rences to some of the characters of the play. The word ' Kapāli' refers to the Kāpālīka and the word 'bodha' indirectly suggests the Sākyabhiksu. The word ' nrtta ' in it may be taken as referring to the dance of the drunken people, 'mattavilāsanrtyāni', " which incidentally, has relevance to the title of the play also. It may also be noted here that the name of the play itself contains one of the paradoxical titles of the author, viz. 'mattavilāsa '.

4.2.7.2. The Prologue

The prologue here is carried out by the Sutradhara and the actress, his wife, She is most probably the actress taking the

1 Vide MV :

भावावेशवशादनेकरसतां तैलोक्ययात्नामयम्। नृतं निष्प्रतिबद्धबोधमहिमा यः प्रेक्षकश्च स्वयं स व्याप्तावनिभाजनं दिशतु वो दिव्य: कपाली यथः ॥ (61. 1) a Ibid., p. 46

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 119

role of Devasoma in the play. The Sūtradhara's description of her as 'udbhinnaromāñca' ... etc., (śl. 2) fits in with the des- cription of Devasoma by the Kāpālika in the śloka udbhinnā śramavāribindu' ... etc. (śl. 6). The 'națī' in the prologue refers to another title of the royal poet, viz., 'gunabhara'. The author pays glowing tribute to his father Simhavişnupallava in the prologue.

पल्लवकुलधरणिमण्डलकुलपर्वंतस्य सर्वनयविजितसमस्तसामन्तमण्डलस्य मखण्डल- समपरात्रमश्रियः श्रीमहिमानुरूपदानविभूतिपरिभूतराजराजस्य श्रीसिंहविष्णु- वर्मण: पुत्रः ।1

' son of Simhavisnuvarman-the principal mountain in supporting the earth in the form of the Pallava race, who has won over all the feudatory princes by his prudence, who in valour and prosperity is an equal to Indra and who has humiliated Kubera by munificence befitting his prosperity.'2 The poet speaks of his own virtues and poetic talents in the same vein. Of these talents one may note the author's reference to his being the chief repository of wise sayings.3

:... शत्रुषड्वर्गनिग्रहपरः परहितपरतन्त्रतया महाभूतसध्मां महाराजः श्रीमहेन्द्रविक्रमवर्मा नाम। अपि च- प्रज्ञादानदयानुभावधृतयः कान्तिः कलाकोशलं सत्यं शोर्यममायता विनय इत्येवम्प्रकारा गुणाः । अप्राप्तस्थितयः समेत्य शरणं याता यमेकं कलौ कल्पान्ते जगदादिमादिपुरुषं सगप्रभेदा इव ॥ ($1. 5)

The word 'sangitadhanah' in the prologue is suggestive of the author's talent in music. It may be noted that Mahendravarman has a title ' sankīrnajāti' probably because he invented the 'sankir- ņajāti' variety of tāla. The entry of the character in the main play is through the device known as 'prayogātisaya'. It is significant to note that in five

1 MV, p. 41. Ibid., p. 72. " Ibid., 61, 3 ff.

120 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LĪTERATURE

of the seven mss. used in Dr. Unni's edition of MV, the prologue ends with the words 'iti sthapana' and in the other two we have 'iti amukham'. The word 'prastavana' is not used anywhere. Though these three terms are loosely employed to denote the prologue, there is subtle difference between them and there is reason to believe that these three terms refer to the three stages of a prologue.1

4.2.7.3. Bharatavākya

Special mention must be made of the Bharatavakya in MV since it is here that the real significance of the play is reflected. It extols the Hindu from of worship and thereby hints at the revival of Hinduism during the time of the author. In it is also mentioned another title of the King, Satrumalla. It may be noted that the deity of the temple built by Mahendravarman at Dalavanur is called ' Satrumalleśvara'. Another significance of the Bharatavākya is that it seems to be recited from behind the stage after the exit of all the characters from the stage. In most of the available plays, the Bharatavākya verse is recited by one of the characters, before the end of the play.

4.2.7.4. Time Analysis

The incidents of the play cover a day's time, approximately from 8 a.m. to 6 p.m. It may be presumed that the Kāpālika and his companion start the procedings in the morning and by the time they reach the liquor shop after roaming in the streets of Kāñcī, it might be around 11 a.m. and the two decide to go for their alms. Buddhists are expected to finish their lunch before mid-day and the Sākyabhiksu in the play has already finished his lunch before he meets the Kapalika. By the time the quarrel for the bowl and the mad man episode end with the recovery of the bowl, it is evening. Devasoma in her last speech refers to the evening sky with the moon. The Pāsupata too starts for his 'dhumavela' which usually takes place after the sunset.

1 Cf. 'Prologue in Sanskrit Drama'-Seminar Paper presented by the present writer at Madras University Sanskrit Department, March, 1978.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 121

4.2.8. The Prākrt in Mattavilāsa

Though a short play MV shows varieties of Prakrt. Of the five characters only the Kāpālika and the Pāsupata speak in Samskrt and the rest in Prākrt. Devasomā and the Sākya- bhiksu speak in the Sauraseni while the Unmattaka speaks in Mägadhī. Prof. Keith observes1 that the Prākrt employed in MV is similar to that in Bhasa's plays. For instance the particle 'mā' is used along with the infinitive in Präkrt in the sense of prohibition, in the style of Bhāsa.2

4.2.9. Mattavilāsa on Stage

In his introduction to the edition of MV, Dr. Unni has given a detailed account of how the play is staged in the Kerala dramatic style of Kūdiyāttam. He has also appended to the text, a metrical commentary or tippanī of unknown authorship. The work has 41 stanzas and explains the mode of enactment of the play in the Kūdiyāttam.

Kūdiyāttam is an ancient traditional art of the staging of Sanskrit drama in Kerala. King Kulaśekharavarman of 10th century is credited with the popularisation of this art. Kūdiyāttam is somewhat different from the forms of dramatic representation prevalent in other parts of the country. In it, Sanskrit dramas are not rendered as they are. They are adapted to suit the local needs. There will be a lot of digression from the original narrative. The performance will thus last for 40 hours or more, spread over 7 or 8 days normally. The vernacular, Malayālam, is used extensively, especially for characters like vidūāşaka. There will be more music and dance than normally found in Sanskrit drama. The Kūdiyāttams are usually staged during the temple festivals in the temple-theatres called 'Kūttambalam'. The Cakyārs, the Nambiars and their women 'Nañyars' enact these plays. A special kind of drum called 'mizhavu' is played during the performance.

1 Sanskrit Drama, p. 181.

khadedum (p. 44), · Cf. devasomā : bhaavam, mā mā mama kāraņāde vadbhangeņa tave ave

122 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LĪTERATURE

The adapted version of MV for the Kūdiyāttam stage is given a totally religious colour. The reference to Siva in the opening stanza affords scope for the narration of the entire story of Siva-Pārvatī marriage. Verses from Kālidāsa's 'Kumāra- sambhava' are also quoted at appropriate places. The farcical element of the play is almost completely suppressed.

Nevertheless MV occupies a unique place in the Kūdiyāttam tradition. Its popularity is hinted at by Nīlakantha (10th century) the author of Kalyanasaugandhika, thus : 'nrtyan-mattavilāsajām dhanapateḥ prītim karisyāmyāham. '1

4.2.10. Episodes, Allusions and other References

Though essentially a farce, MV makes references to certain episodes and allusions from puranas and other texts, revealing the author's firm grounding in the Hindu traditional lore. The Kāpālika in the play feels that though polluted by the Buddhist monk, his begging bowl can be purified by an expiatory rite. Reference is made here to Lord Siva's assuming His terrible aspect, 'Bhairava' for removing the pride of Brahma. He chopped off one of the heads of Brahma and carried his skull in his hand and thus came to be called ' Kapalin'. Reference is made to the Vedic legend of Indra's killing Vrtra in the same context. The poet refers to two Mahabhārata characters, Ghatotkaca and Bhīma- sena in another context,2 which does not, of course, carry any special significance. Towards the end of the play there is a refe- rence to the Kirāta-Arjuna episode.3

The poet also mentions 'Kharapata'4 an eponymous author of a treatise on the art of thieving. Kharapata has been mentioned by Kautalya5 and Bhāsa.6 The Tamil epic Silappadi- kāram refers to one 'tandirakaranam' which is explained in the

1 Quoted in Dr. N. P. Unni's edition of MV, p. 32. 2 Ibid., p. 63. * Ibid., śl. 22. Ibid., p. 52. · Arthaśāstra IV. 8. ® Cărudatta III. él. 10 f.

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 123

commentary as Kharapata's treatise on theft.1 Kharapata is sometimes identified with Mūladeva (also known as Karņīsuta) an outstanding figure in Kathā literature,2

4.2.11. MV and other Rūpakas

MV shows considerable influence of Bhasa's plays over it. The opening remark of the play with ' nandyante tatah praviśati sūtradhārah', certain similarities in Prākrt,8 the lunatic speaking in Magadhi like his counterpart in the ' Pratījñāyaugandharāyana ', and the repeated usage of the expression 'aho nu khalu' and 'kim nu khalu'-may be taken as proofs in this direction. The Buddhist code of conduct is reproduced almost verbatim from the Bhagavadajjukīya.

MV has influenced later Prahasanas to a great extent. Degraded monks belonging to different religious sects are to be found in a number of later Prahasanas. Kuksimbhara in the Kukşimbharabhaiksava and Visnumitra in the Madana- ketucarita, are prototypes of the Sakyabhiksu of MV. The street scene has become the chief venue in a number of later Prahasanas like the Kuksimbharabhaiksava on the model of the MV.

The verse 'peyā surā ... ' has been attributed to Bhāsa by Somadeva in his Yasastilaka.4 But nowhere do we find this verse in the available thirteen plays of Bhasa. The allegorical drama Prabodhacandrodaya of Krsnamiśra also seems to have been influenced by MV to a large extent.5 The whole of its third act where the Jain, Buddhist, Kāpalika and Digambara monks appear seems to have been modelled on MV. All the monks are pseudo-ascetics given to worldly pleasures. The Buddhist monk

1 Silappadikaram, Book II, story 16, line, 180. Pub. Saiva Siddhānta Society, 1970. ª Introduction to Avantisundarikathā, KSR Institute, Madras, 1957. " See above, p. 121. · Yaśastilaka, Vol. II, p. 251. " See article, ' Krsnamiśra's indebtedness to Mattavilāsa '-Visvesvaranand Indological Journal, Vol. XII pp. 119-126.

124 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

in the Prabodhacandrodaya for instance, is happy about the provision for sensual enjoyment in his religion.

आवासो लयनं मनोहरमभिप्रायानुरूपा वणिङ- नार्यो वाञ्छितकालमिष्टमशनं शय्या मृदुप्रस्तरा: ! श्रद्धापूर्वमुपासिता युवतिभि: क्लृप्ताङ्गदानोत्सव- क्रीडानन्दभरैर्व्रजन्ति विलसज्ज्योत्स्नोज्ज्वला रात्रयः । (III.9)

He openly boasts of his achievement :

रण्डा: पीनपयोधराः कति मया चण्डानुरागाद्भुज- द्वन्द्वापीडन-पीवरस्तनभरैनो गाढमालिङ्गिताः । बुद्धेभ्यः शतशः शपे यदि पुनः कुत्रापि कापालिनी- पीनोत्तुङ्ग-कुचावगू हनभवः प्राप्तः प्रमोदोदयः ॥ (III. 18)

4.2.12. State of Society as represented in the MV

The social conditions as represented in MV give a good account of the Pallava rule during the reign of King Mahendra- varman. The prologue mentions about six classes of enemies the King had to face (' satrusadvarganigrahaparaḥ).1 Of course this usually may be taken as the internal enemies viz., kāma, krodha, lobha, moha, mada and mātsarya. But history tells us that after coming to power Mahendravarman conquered the Cholas, the Pandyas and halted the advances of the King Pulakesin II. He conquered the Gāngas, Kadambas and Rāstrakūțas also. Though the state was thus constantly at war, the normal life of the citizens was not much affected. Kañci, the capital was an important seat of learning in the South and was a meeting place of scholars from different parts of the country. The city was also famous for its beauty and splendour. Art and architecture flou- rished well. Artists were rewarded suitably.2 Qualified judges attended to the legal problems of the city. Cases were enquired

1 Cf. MV, prologue. . Ibid.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 125

into and justice was always upheld.1 Polygamy was perhaps quite common as evident from the Sūtradhāra's statement.2

There was complete religious freedom. People were free to switch over from one religion to the other. Ascetics belong- ing to different religious sects like the Kāpālikas, the Pāśupatas, the Buddhists and the Jains pursued their religious activities without interference. They often debated fiercely with one another on the relative superiority of their own sect over the rest. Ascetics generally lived in their respective temples of worship. The poet refers to the ' Ekamra' temple of Kañci, near which the Kāpālika resided. On one of the pillars of the Ekāmranātha temple we have an inscription of King Mahendravarman. The poet also makes mention of the Rajavihara of the Buddhist monks. According to Hieun Tsang, the city of Kañci was about six miles in circumference. He notes that there were more than a hundred Buddhist monasteries with more than ten thousand monks. To the south of the city was a large monastery where scholars used to assemble for discussions. It is perhaps this monas- tery which is referred to as 'Rajavihāra' in the MV.3

People respected the religious monks and offered them ' bhiksā'. This easy access to food had its side-effects too. Men with no deep religious motive took to asceticism and brought down the prestige of their religion. The Kāpālika and the Sākya. bhiksu depicted in the MV belong to this class. Though clad in yellow robes, they carried on unabated, every kind of irreligious act. The Buddhist society as reflected in the play shows corrup- tion at its height, which paved way for its rapid decline in India.

The state of society depicted in MV is in general, one of peace and prosperity. But it is difficult to say much about the way of life led by the general public in MV's time since it presents only one side of the picture, viz., the life led by pseudo-religious mendi- cants of different sects. It may however be noted that MV reveals a revival of Hinduism in South India, recovering the

1 Cf: MV, śl. 15. ª Cf. MV, Prologue. .8 -Ibid., p. 92.

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lost ground from Buddhism and Jainism. The Bhakti cult spread by the Nayanmars and the Alvars was chiefly responsible for the revival of Hinduism in this part of the country. King Mahendra- varman who had embraced Jainism in the early part of his life, switched back to Saivism in later years, probably due to the influence of saints in general and that of the great Nayanmar, Tirunāvukkarasar in particular.1 The extolling of the sacred fire in the Bharatavakya reveals the author's firm faith in the Hindu form of worship and his interest in its revival.

1. See' Mahendravarman' by Mylei Sini Venkataswami, Shaiva Siddhānta Publication, Madras-1 Jan. 1959 (Tamil), p. 33. ' History of Tamil Nadu ' by

p. 152-153. N. Subramaniam, Koodal Publishers 217-A, South Masi Street, Madras-1

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 127

3. HĀSYA CŪŅĀMAŅI

4.3.1. After the Mattaviläsa, there is a dark period in the history of Prahasana literature for nearly five centuries (7th to 12th Century A.D.). No Prahasana belonging to this period has come down to us. Then we have the Latakamelaka of Śankha- dhara Kavi and the Hāsyacūdāmaņi (Hā. Cū.) of Amātya Vatsarāja written during the 12th Century. While the Latakamelaka is a Vikrta type of Prahasana, the first of its kind preserved, Hā. Cū. is a delightful śuddha piece. The hero of Hā. Cū., Jñānarāśi by name, is a teacher who claims to possess the knowledge of many things including Astrology but he cannot stand in comparison with the Parivrajaka Yogin of the Bhagavadjjukīya. Nevertheless on account of its theme, nature of characters employed and the language which is free from coarseness and vulgarity, Hā. Cū. should justly be called a suddha type of Prahasana.

Vatsarāja was a minister under the Cālukyan King Paramārdi- deva of Kālanjara, who reigned from 1163 to 1203 A.D.1 He continued in the same capacity under his son and successor, King Trailokyavarmadeva (1204 to 1241 A.D.). Vatsarāja wrote six dramas each belonging to one variety. of rupaka.2 They are :. (i) Karpūracarita, a Bhāņa, (ii) Tripuradāha, a Dima, (iii) Rukmiņīharaņa, an Īhāmrga, (iv) Samudramathana, a Samavakāra, (v) Hāsyacūdāmaņi, a Prahasana and (vi) Kirātārjunīya, a Vyāyoga. Of these, the first five were presented before King Paramārdideva and the last one at the bidding of King Trailokyavarman.

The Karpuracarita Bhana is a one-act monologue. The hero Karpūraka, a Vița, narrates the experiences of his erratic life and how he won over his beloved by deceitful means. The Dima piece, Tripuradāha, is a four-act play, based on the Purānic story of the destruction of the three cities of the demon, Maya by Lord Siva. The Rukminīharana is based on the well-known Purānic

1 See Keith, Sanskrit Drama, p. 265.

VIII. 1918. * These six plays appeared under the title 'Rupakasatka' in the G.O.S.

128 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRİT LITERATURE

story from the Bhagavata. The Samudramathana is a Samava- kāra in three acts, dealing with the legend of the churning of the milky ocean by the gods and the demons and the consequent emer- gence of several precious objects including Goddess Laksmi. Bhāravi's mahākāvya, Kirātārjunīya, has provided the theme for the Vyayoga piece of its namesake. The Dima, Samavakāra and Ihamrga pieces are the earliest of their respective types of rūpaka that have come down to us. Evidently Vatsarāja, with no model play available for him, has based these plays on the theory found in the dramaturgical works. It may be noted that Tripuradaha and Samudramathana are also the names of the plays supposed to have been staged first by Bharata before the gods. The Prahasana under study, the Hāsyacūdāmani is a two- act play with hāsya as its predominant sentiment.

Dramatis Personae Sūtradhāra, the stage manager. Pāripārśvika, his assistant. Kapațakeli, the mother Gaņikā. Madanasundarī, the heroine. Kokila and Pārāvata, male attendants on Kapațakeli. Kusumikā and others, female attendants in Kapatakeli's house. Jñānarāśi, the teacher. Kauņdinya, his disciple. Mudgaraka, male attendant on Kapațakeli. Kalākaraņdaka, Madanasundarī's lover.

4.3.2. The Plot

In the opening scene, we find Kapatakeli, the ganikā-mother waking up from her slumber and feeling happy that the liquor that she took the previous night had worked well. A maid servant enters now and conveys the bad news relating to the theft of jewels from her house. The shocked Kapatakeli surmises that her daughter Madanasundari herself might have given the jewels to her lover Kalākarandaka in order to aid him in gambling. Any- how she wants to approach the monk Jñanarasi with a view to

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 129

find out the actual theif. She wakes up her attendant Mud- garaka who grudgingly remarks that her avariciousness is justly punished. She tempts him with a drink of wine and he promises to accompany her to the math of Jñanarasi.

At the math we find Jnanarasi teaching his pupil Kaundinya. The following interesting discussion takes place between them.

Teacher : Have you got by heart the two ślokas that I taught ? Student : I have got them by my belly, Jñanaraśi. Teacher : (Angrily) Fool ! Why do you call me by my name ? Student : Should I not call you by your name ? Teacher : Fool, you should not address the ' guru' (teacher) by name. Student : Then how to mention the mountain? (which is also ' guru '-big) Teacher : I used the word 'guru' in the sense of 'teacher' and not in the sense of 'big'. You must address me as 'Sir' or as 'Teacher'.

Then the student misquotes the slokas he had learnt, which give an entirely different meaning. The teacher scolds him for having changed the 'varna' (letters) in the original śloka. The student takes the word in the sense of ' colour ' and maintains that he had not changed the colour of what the teacher had written with a white chalk. Again the teacher has to appeal to the co.n- monsense of his disciple.

After some more exchanges like this, the student feels that what the teacher had prescribed is difficult to learn and that there is very little use of what he has learnt. He requests the guru to teach him the ' kevalividya' by which he can gain instant money at the cost of others. The teacher despiseshim saying that it is wrong to aspire for others' wealth, and as such 'kevalīvidyā' would not be imparted to him. The student is quick to remark that perhaps the teacher himself does not know the 'kevalīvidyā'.

Meanwhile Kapatakeli and Mudgaraka enter and wait outside. Sensing that there is somebody at the doorstep, Jñānarāsi boasts

130 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

loudly about his talents. He knows the origin and end of all beings in the world. He would even restore the stolen goods at once. On hearing this, Kapatakeli is happy that she has approa- ched the right man. She appears before the teacher and after offering her salutations places her problem before him. The teacher asks his student to bring the Kevalipustaka and the resource- ful student asks Kapatakeli to offer worship to the book with gold, and makes her part with her ring. After some tall talks and false pretentions the teacher decides to find out the culprit by some numerological calculation in which he fumbles very badly. Deciding within himself that arithmetic is not his field, he decides to adopt some other procedure. He writes down the names of all the members of the family and wants to pinpoint the thief by fluke. After sometime he announces that Kapata- keli must have stolen the jewels. (Evidently he has forgotten that Kapatakeli is the name of the client). Mudgaraka laughs loudly and wonders whether she would burgle her own jewels. Jñānarāśi realises his mistake but hushes it up by calling Kapata- keli aside and telling her that he purposely uttered her name so that others may not know the real thief and caution him before being caught. He also suggests that she must enquire her ser- vants Kokila and Pārāvata and permits her to leave.

The teacher now remembers that his devotee Kalākarandaka has sought his blessings for winning the gamble that day. Hence he must perform meditation for the sake of his devotee. With his disciple he resorts to a quiet garden for meditation. Here ends the first act.

In the beginning of the second act, we find Jñānarasi engaged in meditation and the student standing by his side. Kaundinya asks his teacher to stop his meditation which is definitely going to be futile since Kalākaraņdaka is not likely to win. They must rather resort to some other shady place in the garden and escape from the heat of the midday sun. The teacher agrees readily. They now observe Madanasundari and her Ceti entering the garden. Though attracted by her beauty himself, he reprimands the student for appreciating her beauty. He then complains of high fever and asks the student to bring a birch-leaf and a pen

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 131

to compose a mantra which would treat the fever. He actually" writes a 'vaśīkaranamantra' in order to captivate the heart of Madanasundarī and asks Kaundinya to powder the leaf, mix it up with sandal paste which when applied on his body would contain the fever. Kaundinya finds to his surprise the name of Madana- sundarī and a vasīkaranamantra on the leaf. He knows the intention of the teacher but wants to outwit his own teacher. How can he permit him to acquire Madanasundari whom he himself loves ? He erases the name of Madanasundari from the leaf and writes instead the name of the old Kapatakeli. Unaware of this, the teacher applies the paste all over his body. He orders Kaundinya io go and bring flowers for his worship since he does not want the presence of the student when the vasikaranamantia starts working. But the clever student climbs a tree nearby and wants to observe the effect of the mantra on Kapatakeli. Now under the spell of the vasikaranamantra Kapatakeli approaches the monk with flowers and openly solicits him. In order to project her image as still young she calls Madanasundari her elder sister. She also informs the monk that the stolen jewels have been re- covered. She appeals to the teacher to abandon his 'kasāya- vastra' so that she can apply sandal paste on his body. The angry monk tries to avoid her and even starts beating her up. The old woman calls for her servants Kokila and Pārāvata. The two are already in search of the monk in order to settle an account with him since he has branded them as thieves. On seeing them even from a distance the monk is frightened and falls flat at the feet of the old ganika and requests her to save him from the two rogues. Kapatakeli suggests that he should sit pretending to be in deep meditation. The two approach the teacher and provoke him. They identify the ring on his finger to be Kapatakeli's and take their mistress to task, 'sādhu amba, sādhu, sarvasvam etasya samarpayasi. corikā-kalankam punar- asmākam mastake āropayasi.' The two catch hold of the teacher by his hands and feet and swing him right and left. The helpless Jñānarāsi calls for his student Kaundinya. Kauņdinya who is atop the tree observing the fun comes down and poses himself as the keeper of the garden. He accuses Jñanarasi of stealing flowers

132 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

from his garden and says that he deserves to be beaten up. But Kokila is shrewd enough to identify him to be the disciple of Jñānarāśi. Kokila and Pārāvata tie up both the teacher and student to a nearby tree. The clever Kaundinya shouts loudly, ' Let the hidden treasures remain in their respective places for ever. Let the world remain poor for ever. The teacher who is the only man who knows where the treasures are hidden, is going to be killed by these people.' Kaundinya's trick works and the two stop beating the teacher and fall flat at his feet beg- ging pardon and requesting him to reveal the places of the hidden treasure. The teacher asks Kaundinya to bring the 'langalirasa ' and applies it to the eyes of the two greedy fellows and also to Kapatakeli at her request, and assures them that they would be in a position to see the hidden treasures when the charm begins to work. All the three are rendered temporarily blind and also experience severe irritation in their eyes. Kokila and Pārvāvata now realise that they have been deceived. But they catch hold of the teacher and the student and taking out the ointment from their eyes apply it forcibly in their eyes too. These two also now experience a burning sensation in their eyes. The teacher wonders whether Kaundinya had brought the wrong ointment. As all the five stumble over one another in total blindness, Kalākaran- daka and Madanasundarī arrive on the scene by chance. At the request of the teacher they bring water from a nearby pond and help the people wash their eyes. Kokila and Paravata accuse the teacher of the mischief but Kalakarandaka orders them to keep quiet. He praises his teacher in glowing terms and asks everybody to apologise to the teacher. Kalākarandaka thanks the teacher profusely for his prayers due to which he gained success at the gamble and the play comes to an end with the usual Bharatavakya.

4.3.3. Character Study

4.3.3.1. Jñānarāši (lit. Heap of Knowledge) Jñanarāśi, the teacher-monk in the play is a typical Prahasana character, a pseudo-religious man of the Bhagavata school. His is only a paradoxical name since his ignorance is exposed

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 133

at every instance. He became a Bhagavata since he failed miserably in his earlier career as an astrologer. He predicted a win for a king who took to battle, but when his prediction failed, the defeated king wanted to kill him. In order to escape the wrath of the king he took to samnyāsa.

He is a hypocrite of the first order. He has only a superficial knowledge of the scriptures but would pose as though he knows everything. When his disciple pesters him to teach the kevali vidyā, he evades him saying that it should not be taught to talkative persons. The student wonders whether the teacher knows the kevalīvidyā at all. Jñānarāśi professes to know it but does not want to practise it since such a practice brought about calamity in his own family. Being insisted by his student, the teacher decides to impart the first step in the art of prediction.

किं वाग्भिनिकषो हि नः फलमिति स्याद्गूढगर्वग्रहः प्रश्नेष्वाविलमुत्तरं विरचयेन्न व्याहरेन्निर्णयम् । सिद्धं कार्यमवेक्ष्य निश्चितमिदं पूर्व मयासीदिति स्फारं स्फारमुदीरयेदुपचरेत् किञ्चिन्मृषा साक्षिणाम् ।। (I,18)

'You must assume airs and keep saying that you do not attach importance to money. You must give confusing and vague rep ies for queries. Never should a clear-cut answer be given. Knowing about success in an enterprise, you must say that you predicted it already. You must always indulge in tall talks and keep false witnesses in good humour. '

चिन्ताचुम्बितचेतसा न रचितः प्रश्नः प्रशस्तस्त्वया नूनं सम्यगुपश्रुतिर्न भवता ज्ञाता ग्रहीतुं तदा। त्वद्दोषेण फले भ्रामोऽयमभवद्विद्या हि नः केवली कल्पान्तेऽपि न कम्पते जनमिति प्रत्याययेद् वञ्चितम् ॥ (I,19)

'In cases of reverse you must sit as though lost in meditation or keep saying that the client has not put a relevant question or that he has not properly reported the 'upaśruti' (unseen messages)

134 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

or that the reverse is due to his (the client's) own sin and that the 'kevalīvidyā' as a Science, is quite infallible. You must keep people at bay by your deceitful means.'

One must also boast of his powers as he himself demonstrates.

मद्भ्रूभङ्गि-समादिष्टा कुम्भदासीव भूरियम् । निधानकुम्भसम्भारं गेहे कस्य न ढौकयेत् । (II, 10)

True, the deceitful tricks adopted by Jñanarasi brought him success and fame. As soon as she comes to know of the theft in her house the first thing that strikes Kapatakeli is to approach him. Kalākarandaka has immense faith in the powers of this cheat. But alas, luck runs out for the monk at a crucial time when he is caught by the two rogues Kokila and Paravata. Though a monk, he is not free from the worldly desires. He is deeply attracted by the beauty of Madanasundari.

उन्मुच्य दूरमपयाति यथा यथेयं छायेव मन्मथतरोस्तरलायताक्षी। अङ्गानि मे प्रसभमेष तथा तर्थव क्रोडीकरोत्यहह दुर्विषयप्रतापः ॥ (II, 4)

Even the stone slab where she sat is enchanting for him. He simply wallows over it. But he advises his student to control the sense-organs and be discip'ined. Though greedy for money, he poses as though he is the least interested in it. When Kapatakeli offers the ring, he behaves likewise.

ज्ञानराशि :- (स्वगत सहषं) स्वीकृतः तावदस्माकम् अनया मनोरथः। तथापि निरीहतामेव अभिनयामि। 'न जानामि न गृह्ामि मम किं चिन्तयानया। अनङ्गीकार एवायं दाम्भिकानां महाफलः ॥' (I, 21)

For all his boasting he is in reality an ignorant fellow. He does not know even simple arithmetical addition. For him, five plus thirteen is twenty. When the mistake is pointed out, he manages

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 135

the situation by saying that it is a different type of calculation that is adopted in his method. He fares no better in astrological calculations.

यदि पश्यति रविसूनुः विशस्थानस्थितं व्यतीपातम्। यदि राहुः शकटभेदी स भवति कटुश्च मेषस्थः ॥ (I, 23)

रविरङ्गारकलग्ने भवति यदा पापवीक्ष्यमाणश्च। अधंशरीरभावं प्रश्ने ब्रूयात्तदा नियतम् ॥ (I, 24)

The mention of the 20th house (there are only 12 houses) and the ' angārakalagna' (there is no such lagna) are enough to point out his total ignorance in astrology.

Jñanarasi is, of course, resourceful. When he announces that Kapatakeli is the thief, forgetting that it was she who brought the complaint, he manages the situation by calling Kapatakeli aside and convincing her that it was just one of the tricks to find out the real culprit. None can beat him in showmanship. When the student offers him Kapatakeli's ring he talks philosophy.

जरामृत्युव्याधिव्यसनघटनैका ग्रहृदयो विपर्यासं यस्याः प्रगुणयति काल: प्रतिकलम् । तनौ तस्यामस्यामलमलमलङ्कारघटनम् ज्वलद्वह्नो गेहे रचयति चतुष्कानि कतमः ॥ (I, 25)

When the student suggests that they go to the Madhavimandapa to have a good look at the harlot who had come there, he declines but resorts to another vantage point from where he can see the girl much better, which evokes the admiration of the student 'ahe upādhyāya, sușthu khalu eșā ihasthitena pralokyate, (II. bet. śls 1 and 2). Though he appreciates within himself, the remarks made by Kaundinya on the beauty of Madansundarī, he scolds the disciple : '(svagatam) samyagāha kaundinyah (pra- kāśam-sakrodhamiva) re re, kim pralapasi, āh, pāpa, śāpodakena nirvāpayāmi tvad-durvinaya-pāvakam.' (II, bet, śls. 3 and 4).

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He has no firm control over his mind and allows it to waver at its will. Being captivated by the beauty of Madanasundari he wants to acquire her through the vasik aranamantra, which of course, misfires due to the mischief of the disciple. The teacher too does not lag behind in mischief-making. He promises to make Kokila and Paravata see the hidden treasure by applying the so-called langalīrasa in their eyes. Kokila comes forward first, and the other fellow wants to wait and see whether the teacher's charm works. As suspected the teacher's charm is a mere hoax and Kokila says that he is not able to see anything, leave alone the treasure. Pārāvata becomes suspicious. But the mischievous Jñānarāśi calls Pārāvata aside and tells him

'वत्स, पारावत, सत्येयं जनोक्तिः "अर्थातुराणां न सुहृत् न बन्धुः", यदयं पश्यन्नपि न कथयति तत्त्वम्, अन्यदेव दर्शयामि।' (II. bet. śls. 11 and 12)

Pāravata is also thus deceived. But the two rogues have the last laugh as they catchhold of the teacher and forcibly apply the ointment to his eyes, thus making the teacher lick his boots. As a result, the teacher is also rendred temporarily blind. For all his fool-hardiness the teacher has some luck. Kalākarandaka, his ardent disciple, not only saves him from the tight corner but pays glorious tributes to him. He calls the teacher a 'Jagadguru' and says that there is nothing that one cannot achieve by his grace.

'नास्त्यसाध्यं किमपि मे भुवने भवदनुकम्पासनाथस्य।' (II. bet. śls. 12 and 13)

4.3.3.2. Kaundinya

Kaundinya, the disciple of Jnanarasi, belongs to the same class of such disciples, whom we can come across in works like the Bhagavadjjukiya-impertinent, penny-wise and pound- foolish, and fault-finding. When the teacher pulls him up for calling him by his name saying 'तत्कथं शैलाना नाम गृह्यते।' Kaundinya asks, 'घिङ्मूख, न ग्रह्यते गुरुणां नाम', 'taking 'guru

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 137

to mean 'big' instead of 'teacher'. Again when the teacher refers to his wrong usage of the 'varna' (letters), he says he has not changed the ' varna ' (colour) of what the teacher had written. Inspite of his foolishness, he considers himself to be a ' medhāvin' and accuses his teacher of being jealous of him.

"किं मां ताडयसि? एते खलु हताशा उपाध्याया न सहन्ते आत्मनः समधिकमेधाविशेषं शिष्यम्।' (I. bet. śls. 12 and 13)

He is not really interested in studies. He cannot recite even a single śloka correctly due to his utter lack of concentration while being taught. His only interest is how to get some quick money.

'उपाध्याय, सुष्ठु कट्वक्षरं तवतद् अध्ययनम्। न च एतेन किमपि प्राप्यते। तन्मां केवलोविद्याम् अध्यापय, यया मे जनस्य धनानि स्वाधीनानि भवन्ति।' (I, 15-16)

He never misses an opportunity to criticise his own teacher. When the teacher refuses to impart the 'kevalīvidya', he iemarks ;

'अलभमान: एवं मन्त्नयसि । न च त्वं जानासि केवलीविद्याम्।' (I, 16 and 17)

When the teacher narrates the calamities that have befallen his family due to the practice of the 'kevali', the student remarks

'ज्ञांत तावत् त्िपौरुषं युष्माकं ज्ञानमाहात्म्यम्।' (I. 17-18)

When the teacher hesitates to accept the ring presented by Kapațakeli, he sarcastically remarks,

'उपाध्याय, तवैवाहं शिष्यः । किं मां प्रत्याययसि,। गृहाण तावत्।' (I. 25-26)

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He knows pretty well about the limitations of his teacher. When the teacher pretends to perform 'mantrajapa' for the welfaie of his devotee, he asks him to stop it forthwith.

'उपाध्याय, बहुसंख्यया कृतो मन्त्रजपः। जाने जितमेव कलाकरण्डक- द्यूतकरेण। न खलु ते विलम्बितप्रभावो मन्त्रः । (II. before śl. 1).

When the teacher vows to curse him by sprinkling water from the water pot (kamandalu) for mentioning the name of Madana- sundarī, he ridicules him by saying-

'किमकारणं कमण्डलुजलं प्रवाह्यसि? क्लमिष्यसि मध्याह्नतृष्णया, जानामि तव प्रभावम् ।' (II, 3-4)

He is adept in reading the mind of his teacher. When the teacher avoids the 'madhavīmandapa', and resorts to another place pretending ' vajragya', he knows fully well that the teacher had only chosen a better place from where he can have a good look at the harlot. He is fickle by nature. He is attracted even by the voice of Madanasundarī and does not like to be disturbed by the teacher.

ज्ञानराशि :- कौण्डिन्य, किमस्माकमिह निस्सङ्गानाम्। तदेहि। गच्छावः । कौण्डिन्य-उपाध्याय, तिष्ठ, तिष्ठ, तव दुरध्ययनदूनौ शीतलायतः क्णो एतयो: मधुरालापैः। (II, 3-4)

Kauņdinya is very shrewd at times. Kapatakeli approaches the teacher with the problem of theft in her house and the teacher bids Kaundinya to bring the ' kevalipustaka'. Without even a hint from the teacher Kaundinya asks Kapatakeli to offer her golden ring as ' daksiņā' for the 'pūjā'. He has a fine sense of humour and plays a practical joke on his teacher by changing the name in the ' vasikaranamantra ', as a result of which we have a truly comic situation with the old Kapatakeli making amorous advances to the monk. When Kokila and Paravata beat up the teacher he simply watches the fun from a tree top. When he faces the danger of being found out, he jumps down from the tree and poses himself as the keeper of the garden. Even when

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 139

he is recognised to be the student of Jñanarasi and bound, he does not flinch a little. He shouts aloud that they are going to be killed and that the hidden treasures are going to remain idle for ever. The trick works and the two rogues release both the teacher and the disciple and ask for pardon. Kaundinya is res- ponsible for the climax-fun when he brings the wrong ointment instead of the intended ' langalirasa '. The other characters in the play, viz., the lovers, Kalā- karaņdaka and Madanasundarī and the two servants Kokila and Paravata have only limited role in the play.

.4.3.4.0. Literary merits of the play

With BA and MV serving as his model plays, Vatsarāja has structured his play meticulously infusing it with a number of Prahasana elements. The chief merits of the play are its excellent theme and classic humour arising out of both situations and characters.

4.3.4.1. Hāsya in the Hāsyacūdāmaņi

As the title i.e., Crest-jewel of Humour suggests, the play abounds in true and good hasya. The hypocritic teacher, the impertinent student and the foolish Mudgaraka are the chief contributors to hāsya in the play. Th effect of the vasīkarana- mantra on the old Kapatakeli, the treatment meted out to the teacher by Kokila and Paravata and the 'langalirsa' episode are the most amusing situations in the play. On coming to know of the theft in their hourse the servant Mudgaraka is surprised, ' na tathā mām bādhate arthanāśo yathā āryā'pi iti parābhavaḥ. na khalu agniḥ kenāpi dagdhaḥ śrūyate'. (Act I, bet. 7 and 8). The conversation between the teacher and the student already quoted abovel is another instance of good humour. Kaundinya has very poor memory and recites even the well-known ślokas in a wrong way which give a totally different meaning. आलोक्य सर्वगात्राणि (सर्वशास्त्राणि) विचार्य च पुनः पुनः । इदमेंकं तु निष्पन्नं ध्येयो नारीजनः (नारायणः) सदा । (I, 11) 1 See above, p. 129.

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नमस्ते पुण्डरीकाक्ष नमस्ते विश्वतापन (विश्वभावन)। नमस्तेऽस्तु मृषाकोष (हृषीकेश) महापुरुषकूर्चक (पूर्वज) ॥ (I, 12)

The teacher's abortive attempts to find out the culprit, his atrocious astrological calculations, the vain boasting of the teacher and his being exposed by the student, the śrngārābhāsa figuring in the love-sickness of the teacher, the play on the words 'nidhana ' (treasure) and 'nidhana (death)1 are other instances of hāsya in the play.

4.3.4.2. Prahasana elements and the vīthyangas in Hāsyacūdāmaņi

The conversation between the teacher and the disciple already referred to above2 is an instance of the prhasana element ' vyahara'. The following passage is an instance of the Vithyanga, 'avalagitam '.

कपटकेलि :- (सप्रश्रयम्) भगवन्, अद्य मे रजन्यां मुषितं सर्वस्वम्। अपयतु भवान्। शिष्य-(ससंभ्रमम्) कि मन्तर्यते, अद्य रजन्यां मठं मुक्त्वा न कुत्रापि गसः उपाध्यायः । कपटकेलि :- (कर्णौ पिधाय ससंभ्रमम) शान्तं पापं, ज्ञानशकत्या चोरं ज्ञात्वा अर्पयतु इति मया मन्त्रितम् । (I, 20-21)

The disciple calling himself amedhavin3 and the boasting of the teacher4 are instances of the Vithyanga 'chalam'. There are a number of instances of the Vithyanga ' prapañca ' (corresponding to the Prahasana element 'anrtam'), which is based on false praise. Observing the shallowness of his teacher with respect to astrology, the student says, 'aho upādhyāyasya māhātmyam! sakalā api ālihotragāthāh kanthe krtāh ' (I. 24-25), which is one

1 Cf. Act II, 10-12. 2 See above, p. 129. 3 Cf. Act I, 12-13. 4 Cf. Act I, 20.

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 141

such instance of prapañca. The love-sickness of the old Kapa- takeli under the influence of the love-charm (vaśīkaraņamantra) may be cited as an instance of the Prahasana element, ' vibhrānti'.

4.3.5. Dramatic Technique

Lațakamelaka and Hāsyacūdāmani are the earliest two-act plays in Prahasana literature. Curiously Keith (p. 265) calls it (Ha. Cu) a one-act piece. The first act may have to be divided into two scenes. The first scene is laid in Kapatakeli's house and the next in Jñanarasi's math.

Vatsarāja excels in the effective usage of the ' svagata ' technique. The ' aside', extensively employed in the play, helps shielding the hypocrite teacher from the other characters. Unaware of his weaknesses and limitations all the other characters (excepting Kaundinya) show high regard for him. Kalākarandaka even goes to the extent of calling him a 'jagadguru'. But the audience do very well know about his amorous inner inclinations, greed for wealth etc., through his 'svagata' utterances, which add to the comic effect of the play.

4.3.5.1. Nāndī and the Prologue

The play opens with two Nāndi ślokas. In the first śloka,1 the poet invokes the blessings of Lord Siva who smiles at the sight of Ganesa extending the trunks into the spreading rays of the moon from Siva's head, thinking them to be the stream of the Ganges. At least three purposes are served by this śloka. (i) Invoking the blessings of Lord Siva, (ii) Reference to the moon in compliance to the rules of dramaturgy and (iii) Suggestion through the word 'ullasihasa' that hasya is going to be the main sentiment in the play.

In the second śloka, an imaginary love quarrel between Siva and Parvatī is set forth. Parvati accuses Siva by saying, 'You

1 kalyāņam vitarantu vaḥ prthujațājūțāgra-vistāriņas- te cūdāsasina siraḥsuradhunīdhārānukārāh karāḥ yānutpreksya madoșmabhāravidhure śuņdāladaņdam mrşā herambe ghatayatyanāratamabhūd ullāsihāso haraḥ

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have many arms to embrace (as Natarāja), many eyes to look at and many lips to kiss. Indeed you are justified in having many wives. Who am I for you ?' At the end of the Nandi, the Sūtradhara enters and recites a verse describing the sunset. The Pariparsvika enters and says that they are to stage a play under orders from King Paramārdi- deva, in connection with the 'Nīlakantha-yatra' festival. Since häsya is best suited for the diversified audience, they may stage the ' Hāsyacūdāmaņi', a Prahasana. The sūtradhāra then eulogises the scholarship of King Paramardideva.1 The next verse2 is modelled on the verse 'śrīharso |nipunah kavih' found in the Harsa plays. The last verse in the prologue which is a 'dhruvā' song sung from 'nepathya', refers to the theft in Kapatakeli's house and her plan to approach Jñanarasi for advice.

4.3.6. Merits of the playwright

The chief merits of the poet lie in his excellent handling of the comic sentiment and masterly character portrayal. But the poet has cleverly interspaced the dialogues with traditionai teachings of ethical values and religious codes. Man should employ his sense-organs cautiously and should not allow them to wander at their will. It is a pity that people run after worldly pleasures and bind themselves fast, of their own accord, like the deer falling into the trap. मृग: पाशान् प्रायः परिहरति यत्नेन मृगयो: प्रमादाद् आविद्धो भवति सहसा शोकविकलः । अये मुग्धो लोक: प्रकृतिविषमान् हन्त विषयान् स्वयं कण्ठे पाशान् घटयतितरां हृष्यतितराम्।। . (I, 16)

1 Hã. Cũ, 1. 4. 2 Ibid., 1.5. परिषदियमुदार-ज्ञान-सौजन्यधन्या रसपरवशवाणीवत्सलो वत्सराज: । अयमपि नटवर्गो नाटयमुद्राप्रतिष्ठः फलति सुकृतराशिः प्राक्तनः कोऽप्ययं मे ॥

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 143

Adorning the body with ornaments is as useless as decorating a room blazing with fire.1 There is nothing wrong in the teacher punishing his erring student. The King too punishes the wicked in order to instil discipline in the state affairs. The heat of the Sun's rays, though unbearable, is conducive to the happiness of the earth.

नृपतिरखिललोकान् पालयत्यात्तदण्ड: सुखयति जगदर्कः स्वीकृतोष्णस्वरूपः । गुरुरपि कटुचेष्टः शास्ति शास्त्राणि शिष्यं परिणतिहितभाजां भङ्गिरेवंविधैव ।।2

The corrected versions of the two ślokas wrongly recited by the student bring out the poet's acquintance with the traditional texts.

4.3.7. The Influence of BA on Hā. Cũ.

Vatsaraja is clearly indebted to the author of BA. The student teacher dialogues and the presentation of the lovers like Kalāka- raņdaka and Madanasundarī may be cited as instances. Kalā- karandaka like his counterpart in BA, also resorts to the ' pāna- gosthī', neglecting his fiancee who languishes in separation. Like the heroine in BA, Madanasundarī too is a ganikā yet devoted to a single lover. The reference to the teacher punishing the student3 cited above strikingly resembles a similar incident in BA. The teacher in Ha. Cu. is also addressed as 'Bhagavan', though he lacks the merits of his counterpart in BA.

4.3.8. The influence of Hã. Cu. on later Prahasanas

In spite of the influence of BA over it to certain extent, Ha. Cu. is one of the few original pieces in Prahasana literature. In BA, the hero is a true Yogin and the Mattavilasa has too trivial a theme. Plays like the Latakamelaka have several 'adhamas'. Hā. Cu. is unique in the sense that it is the first Prahasana with

1 See above p. 135, Hā. Cũ. I, 25. 2 Hā. Cū. I. 13. Cf. Abhijñānaśākuntala, V. 8. ª Ibid.

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a single ' adhama ' hero and it has a fairly good theme too. Thus it has served as a model for many later Prahasanas which have themes centering around a single 'adhama' hero. Prominent among the Prahasanas influenced by Ha. Cu. are the Dhūrta- nartaka, the Mundita Prahasana, the Kāleyakautūhala, Soma- vallīyogānanda, Kuhanābhaiksava and the Kuksimbharibhaik- șava.

4.3.9. Prākṛt in the Hāsyacūdāmaņi

On the ba is of the number of characters speaking in Prākrt, Hā. Cū. may even be called a Prakrt play. Excepting the teacher Jñanarāśi, all the other characters speak in Prākrt. The only other character to speak in Samskrt is the 'nāgaraka' Kalā- karandaka, but he has very little role in the play. (He has just eight dialogues to render). There are quite a few Prākrt ślokas too.1 Only on one occasion do we find a Präkrt speaking charac- ter resorting to Samskrt, that is, when Madanasundri expresses her state of love-sickness.2 The Prakrt employed throughout the play is Saurasenī.

4.3.10. State of society as depicted in the Hã. Cū.

The reference to King Paramardideva in the prologue indi- cates the continuance of the tradition of royal patronag> for poets in Vatsaraja's time. The reference to the ' vasīkaraņamantra" and the 'upasruti' etc., and also Kapatakeli's blind belief in the powers of the recluse bring out some of the superstitions of the people in medieval India. The society has not changed much from the times of BA, with respect to the student-teacher relation- ship and the life of the nāgarakas and the ganikās.

1 Hã. Cũ. 1-6, 6, 8, 9, 10 and 11-12. 2 Ibid., II. 3.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 145

4. THE MADANAKETUCARITA

4.4.0. The Madanaketucarita of Rāmapāņivāda represents the last stage of Samskrt drama. Madanaketucarita (MKC) is unique in several aspects. Though written during the 18th century, the society and culture it represents get transposed back by at least ten centuries. The sweet Vaidarbhi style adopted in the play and its remarkable similarity with the BA make it appear like a play belonging to the 7th or 8th century. It is probably out of modesty that the poet expresses his doubt whether his play can be called a Prahasana at all, in the epilogue.1 But MKC not only satisfies most of the theoretical rules of the Prahasana, but also excels many of the earlier Prahasnas in the choice of the theme and structure. MKC is a one-act play with a well-knit plot and delectable blend of rasas. The language is free from coarseness and vulgarity. The main sentiment is, of course, hasya which is evoked mainly through the ridicule of the licentious life led by a Buddhist monk. But unlike the other later Prahasa- nas (between 12th and 19th centuries) the play does not just stop with the criticism of the wayward life led by the pseudo- religious man ; it also brings out how the monk is reformed at the end. The hasya in MKC is not just the cheap slap-stick comedy but is aroused by really humourous situations. The hāsya in MKC is gentle and dignified. Hence it would be reason- able to include MKC in the suddha class of Prahasana.

4.4.1. The Author

Rāmapāņivāda hails from Kerala and belongs to the 18th century. He is a prolific writer in both Samskrt and Prākrt. The Usaniruddha2 and Kamsavaho3 are his full-fledged Prākrt Kavyas. Ramapanivada has shown his mastery over the Prakrt language by writing a commentary on the Prakrt sūtras of Vara- ruci.4 His contributions to Samskrt range from Mahākāvyas to stotra literature. He has two Mahākāvyas to his credit- the Raghaviya5 in twenty cantos and the Visnuvilasa6 in eight

1 Cf. 'prahasanalakşaņaleśaih sprstam cet prahasanābhidhām labhatām no cet punaranyadidam vinodanam pāņivādasya ' ª Pub. Adyar Library and Research Centre, Madras, 1943. 8 Ed. Dr. A. N. Upadhye, Kolahpur, 1940, and Motilal Banasidass, 1966. Pub. Adyar, 1946. Pub. University Manuscripts Library, Trivandrum, 1942. Pub. Ibid., 1951.

146: PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURĖ

cantos. In the field of drama, he has contributed the 'Sītārā- ghava ',1 a nātaka and two vīthīs, Candrikāvīthī2 and Līlāva- tivithi3 and also a campū, the Bhagavatacampū4. His mastery over music is revealed by his works, Gītārāma, a nrtyaprabandha, Sivagīti, a musical lyric on the lines of the Gitagovinda and Talaprastāra, a work dealing with musical beats (tāla)5.

It is clear from the references he makes to a number of kings and feudal lords in his works, that Rāmapāņivāda moved from place to place in search of recognition and patronage. Rāma- pāņivāda was a disciple of one Nārāyana Bhattatiri whom he refers to with reverence, in his works.6 The poet also refers to his native village, Mangalagräma7 in some of his works. There is a bitter controversy among the Kerala scholars on the question of the identification of Rāmapanivāda with the well-known Malayalam poet Kuñcan Nambiar. But the arguments against the identifi- cation of the two poets seem to carry more weight.8

Madanaketucarita

Dramatis Personae Sütradhära, the stage manager. Pāripārśvika, his assistant. King Madanaketu, King of the Simhala country. Queen Śrngāramañjarī. Candralekhā, a gaņikā from the Karnata country. Vișņumitra, a Buddhist monk. Anangalekhā, a gaņikā Šivadāsa, a Yogin. Others in the cast : Female attendants, Candanikā, Jayantika messenger Jambhaka, male attendant Kāmbilyaka, a Kāñcukīya,

1 Govt. Oriental MSS. Lib., Madras. D. No. 12721 and R. No. 5135. ª- Bulletin of the Ramavarma Research Inst. No. 3, pp. 1-14, 1934, published. 8 Pub. University Manuscript Library, Trivandrum, No. 14, 1948. 4 Ibid. " Ref. in 'a Critical study of Sanskrit Dramas by Kerala Authors' by S. Subramanya Iyer, unpublished thesis submitted to Kerala University, 1971. In MKC the poet refers to his teacher in śls. 2-4 in the epilogue. MKC, p. 2, Ed. University . MSS. Lib., Trivandrum, 1948. The references to page numbers of the MKC in this dissertation are from this edition. only. 8 See Dr. K. K. Raja, Contribution of Kerala to Sanskrit Literature, p. 186.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 147

Anangalekha's mother and Prince Madanavarman, the younger brother of King Madanaketu.

4.4.2. The plot of the Madanaketucarita Vişnumitra, a Buddhist monk is deeply in love with a gaņikā Anangalekha by name. With a view to test the will power of the monk, the Queen arranges for a secret meeting between the two in the royal garden. The monk makes amorous advances towards the girl and is caught red-handed by the girl's mother who drags the monk to the royal court under charges of attempted rape. King Madanaketu promises to inquire into the matter.

Meanwhile, a Yogin, Sivadasa by name, who has been sent by the King's younger brother Prince Madanavarman, arrives on the scene. Sivadasa demonstrates his yogic power by pro- curing for the King his sweetheart Candralekhā, a ganikā from tne distant Karnata country. The jealous Queen is also pacified by him. He then temporarily abandons his body and enters into the body of Anangalekha, who had died due to serpent-bite. Directed by the soul of Śivadāsa from inside, the gaņikā beging to behave differently. She solicits the Buddhist monk in the open court unmindful of the presence of the King and his consorts. Her amorous advances put everybody to shame. The monk himself retreats and is disgusted with the lust of women. Meanwhile the body of Sivadasa is brought to the court. As the King and his Queens express their shock and as the monk laments over his death, Sivadāsa witnesses all this from inside the body of Anangalekha. The Buddhist monk resolves to eschew worldly desires and take to religious pilgrimage. Being convinced that he is reformed, Śivadāsa feels that his mission is complete, enters into his own body and revives Anangalekhā too.

4.4.3. Character Study 4.4.3.1. Śivadāsa The only true Yogin other than the one in BA, in the whole range of Prahasana literature is Śivadāsa of MKC. He seems to be a Kāpālika by faith and he pronounces his staunch belief in his religion which justifies his name too i.e., Sivadāsa-servant or devotee of Śiva.

148 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

सद्य:कृत्तन् मुण्डकुण्डलधर प्शुक्लास्थिमाला वलीं बिभ्राणो धवलश्मशानभसितप्रोद्भासिना वक्षसा। पूर्ण ब्रह्मशिर:कपालचषकं पाणो सुराया दधत् स्वच्छन्दं विहरन्नसौ विजयते देवो महाभेरवः ॥ (śl. 16)

He is a truly detached soul as is evident from his advice to the monk Vişnumitra.

क्वासो संसारसिन्धोस्सुतरणतरणिर्योगिनामाश्रमस्ते क्वामी निर्वाणचन्द्रोदयबहुलनिशा: केवलं वेशनार्यः । कल्याणं कामयेथा: परिचिनु च सभामुज्ज्वलां सज्जनानां तीर्थस्नायी दुराशाकलुषितमधुना मानसं वा पुनीहि॥ (śl. 60)

Sivadāsa is held in high esteem by all the characters in the play. They are mere pawns in his hands and act according to his will. They all look forward to him for the fulfilment of their aspirations. Prince Madanavarman requests him to reform the Buddhist monk Visnuvarman. King Madanaketu expresses his desire to obtain Candralekhā, the gaņikā from the Karņāta country, and she is immediately brought forth before him by his yogic power. He rescues the monk from the clutches of Anangalekha's mother. He then helps the King overcome the wrath of the Queen for his affair with the Karnāta-ganikā. In short, there is nothing that is impossible for him. The King says,' .... yadasya sarvādbhutanidheḥ śivadāsasya sakāśāt sarvam sambhāvyata eva' (p. 15). The Buddhist monk too expresses his surprise at the all-pervading influence of the Yogin.

अहो महानुभाव: खलु शिवदासः । अनेन- प्रत्यक्ष-दूष्ट-निजवल्लभ-दुर्नयापि देवी तथा नयविदा गमिता प्रसादम्। नीरन्ध्रसंतमस्र-संव्रियमाणमूर्ति: सन्ध्या यथा शरदि केरववल्लभेन ।। (śl. 35)

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 149

The Yogin himself proudly asserts that he would produce any desired object in a minute. 'asmin brahmāņdakhaņda' .... etc. (śl. 120) Śivadasa possesses miraculous yogic powers. He can read the thoughts of others. He is skilled in the art of ' parakāya- praveśa' and can revive the dead. But he employs his talents with purpose. The Candralekha-episode which he stages helps to win the confidence of the King. The Buddhist monk too requests him to win the love of the ganikā Anangalekhā for him. Sivadasa first advises the monk to shun lustful thoughts which are unbecoming of a religious man. It is only when mere verbal advice does not produce the desired result that the Yogin decides to infuse his soul into the body of Anangalekhā and make her act in a lustful manner which brings in a sense of remorse in the mind of the Buddhist monk. The Parakāyapravesa helps the Yogin assess the opinion of others about his own self when his lifeless body is brought to the court. The Buddhist monk bewails thus, 'hā mahopakārin, hā mama sanmārgopadeśadeśika, hā nikhilayogavidyānidhe, hā niskāraņavatsala, kvāsi ? dehi me prativacanam' (p. 48). The King too is overcome with grief at the sudden demise of his benefactor and pays glowing tributes to him. स्वार्थं सन्त्यजतः परार्थ-घटन-व्यापार-निष्ठस्य ते कष्टं निष्ठुरमीदृशं कृतवता दैवेन किं दुष्करम्। कल्याणिन् शिवदास वासवपुरे तत्तादृशैरद्भुतः देवानामपि सम्मदं प्रबलयन् किञ्चित् प्रतीक्षस्व नः ॥ (śl. 103) 4.4.3.2. The heroine of the play We have three young women in MKC who stake the claim for heroineship of the play. Queen Śrngāramañjarī, Candralekhā, the harlot from the Karnata country and Anangalekhā. The queen has a very little role to play. She raises objections to the King's love for Candralekha at first but submits to the request of Sivadāsa and accepts Candralekhā as the co-wife. The main motive of introducing the character of Candralekha is to demon- strate the yogic power of Sivadasa and she has only a minor role in the play. But Anangalekh i has a much wider role, Sho is 4

150 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

very beautiful girl. Her bewitching beauty captivates the heart of even religious mendicants. It is only Anangalekhā who is used as an instrument by Sivadāsa to reform the Buddhist monk. Hence it is reasonable to assign the role of the heroine only to Anangalekha. Even the Yogin is appreciative of her beauty, ' api kuśalam asya yogināmapi manovikārajanakasya arīrasya ?' (p. 27). She joins hands with Sivadäsa in exposing the degraded nature of the monk Visnumitra. She even advises the monk not to bring discredit to his religious order.

मदनविलासविरुद्धं चिरकालोतपन्नपुण्यपरिपाकम्। एतमाश्रमसारं मा मम स्पर्शेन दूषय ॥ (śl. 50)

When the monk makes advances unmindful of her warnings, she bursts out, 'uttistha dustavațuka, uttiștha kimadyāpi durabhi- lāșam na muñcasi ?' (p. 29) She later pacifies the monk at the instance of Sivadāsa. She proclaims the trade secret of her pro- fession.

अनुरागपरीक्षणोचितानि प्रथमं चाटुशतानि दशयन्ति। अथ बाहुलताभ्यां कण्ठनालं परिगृह्धन्ति यूनामस्मादृश्यः । (śl. 56)

The next time when we meet Anangalekha, she is infused with the soul of Sivadasa (after her death by the snake-bite) who directs her speech, action etc., from inside. Among others it is the Buddhist monk who is elated at her revival.

निर्वाणाप्यनिलेन दीपकलिका सद्य: स्वयं दीप्यते राहोर्वक्त्रमुपेयुषी शशिकला भूयः समुन्मीलति। संप्लुष्टापि समुद्धिनत्ति सहसा दावांग्निना मालती सर्पेणा हृतजीवितापि सुदती सञ्जीविताभ्येत्यसौ ।। (śl. 72)

When the revived Anangalekha directed by the soul of Sivadāsa from inside, makes amorous advances towards the monk, the King enjoys the fun for sometime. But when she crosses the limits of modesty, he condemns her, 'ah kulate apehì tāvat'

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PAAHASANAS 151

(p. 41). The queen too becomes angry and requests him to take action on her. The Buddhist monk gets disgusted with the lust for women and becomes ashamed of his past. actions. When Śivadasa abandons Anangalekha's body and again revives her with her own soul, she behaves normally. She is shocked to hear the 'queen's charge, 'prvam punah strījana-viruddham bahu prala- pantyā tvayā ciram kadarthitāsmi' (p. 52). With fear she asks, "atha kaya tatha parlapitam ?' (p. 53). She asserts that she had been fast asleep for a long time. When Sivadasa explains what had happened, she heaves a long sigh of relief. Being convinced of her innocence, the queen compliments her, 'anaparāddhā khalu eșā tapasivinī Anangalekhā' (p. 55).

4.4.4.3. Vişnumitra

Vișnumitra belongs to the same class of Buddhist monks who figure in the earlier Prahasanas, having a false outer robe and amorous inner inclinations. His love for the harlot Anangalekha is revealed in the Prastāvana itself. In the Viskambhaka, he appears describing his love-lorn condition. He is fully aware that what he does is against the norms prescribed for monks. He says,

'अहो नु खलु विषमो मम संसारभार: ; कुत :- वसान: काषायं वसनमपिधानं रतिपतिः दधानस्तां चित्ते चकितहरिणीशाबनयनाम्। वहन् पाणो दण्डं विषयशफरीजालवलिशं परीरम्भाशंसी कथमपि नयाम्येष दिवसान्। (s1.7)

In one of his weaker moments, he goes to the extent of molesting the harlot. For this offence he is dragged to the court of King Madanaketu by the harlot's mother. His guilt being proved he stands condemned in the open court. Still desire lingers in his mind. The Candralekhā episode arouses hope in his mind and he turns to Sivadāsa for the fulfilment of his wish. His hypocrisy' is exposed by Sivadāsa as he hesitates to accept

152 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

the liquor offered to him, 'ko'yam evam parivrājakadharmā- dhikārī-

'anangalekhādhara-śīdhupāne samutsukastvam kila kāmalolaḥ' (ś1. 39)

As Anangalekha appears there, at the instance of Sivadāsa, he falls flat at her feet and begs for her love, forgetting his stature as a monk. But he is enraged at her when she despises him. He calls her pumścali' and curses womanhood as a whole.

निम्नं क्वाप्युन्नतं क्वाप्यतिकृशमपरत्नान्यतोऽत्यन्तपीनं सावज्ञं स्त्रीति योगी विधिरकृत यथाप्राप्तमङ्गं यदासाम्। मूढास्तन्नाम नाभिस्तनमुदरनितम्बं च चारुत्वपक्षे निक्षिप्तं मन्यते चेदिह घुणलिपिषु व्यस्त एवावमान: ।। (āl. 54)

Even the announcement of the noon time reminds him only of the matutional love sports of the lovers. Still he feels that he should not abandon the noon time rites. It is only when Anańgalekhā, infused with soul of Sivadāsa, exhibits extreme lust that the monk gets disgusted with the ways of women and decides to mend his way of life and become a true monk. He observes,

वाराङ्गनाजनविलासपलालजालविप्लोषकर्मणि कृशानुशिखायते या। सा योगवृत्तिरतिवृत्तरजस्तमस्का निर्वाणवर्त्मघटनाय ममानुकूला॥ (śl. 98)

His aim now would be to visit holy places and spend the rest of his life peacefully.

पुण्यानां पुलिनस्थलानि सरितां जुष्टानि वैखानसे: कान्ताराण्युपशान्तसत्त्वकलहप्रस्तावरम्याणि च। नित्यावर्तितवेदशास्त्रमुखरब्रह्माणि देवालयान् आसेवेमहि जीवशेषनिगलच्छेदाय मोदाय च।। (61, 114)

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 153

4.4.4. Other important characters in the play

Madanaketu whose name the play bears, is the King of the Simhala country. His rule extended beyond the shores, right upto the Kalinga country in India where he has installed his younger brother Madanavarman as his representative ruler. He is a hero of the ' dhiralalita ' type. He has high regard for his wife Śrngāramañjarī, but is also in love with the gaņikā Candra- lekha from the Karnata country. He shows great reverence for the Yogin Sivadasa. He scrupulously maintained justice in his country as is evident from the Visnumitra-episode.

Queen Śrngāramañjarī is the prototype of the queens we come across in plays like the Mālavikāgnimitra and Ratnāvalī. She is devoted to her husband and cannot tolerate his love being shared by another lady. She is jealous of Candralekhā and is angry at the King's action but is later reconciled to the situation at the intervention of Sivadāsa and treats Candralekha as her co-wife. She is totally displeased with the degraded life led by the Buddhist monk and decides to draw the attention of the King to his atrocities. Modest as she is, she becomes enraged at the outrageous behaviour of the ganikā Anangalekhā (under the influence of Sivadasa's soul) and resolves to punish the sensuous girl. When the whole plot of Sivadāsa is unfolded, she becomes apologetic and even calls the ganika a 'tapasvini'.

Candralekhā the ganikā from the Karnāta country has only a minor role to play. She is introduced in the play mainly to demonstrate the yogic powers of Sivadāsa. Prince Madana- varman though not appearing on the stage, has a vital role to play in the proceedings since it is he who sends Sivadāsa to the court of King Madanaketu.

4.4.5. Literary merits of the play

Ramapanivada shows an amazing command of language- both in Samskrt and in Präkrt and high dramatic skills, which are rarely found combined in the poets of his times. His verses are lucid, spontaneous and full of vigour. The narration is straight and free from confusion inspite of the introduction of change of

154 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

souls. His descriptive powers, power of observation and depic- tion of human nature and tendencies, delineation of sentiments and the effective use of the Alankāras-all combine to make him one of the gifted dramatists in Samskrt literature. The employment of successive metaphors in the description of the evening is appealing.

नीरन्ध्रध्वान्तदन्तावलहरिनखरश्रेणय: पद्मवाटी- सद्मान्तस्सुप्तमत्तभ्रमरकुलवधूसाधुबोधप्रदीपाः । पूर्वाशावेशनारीमुखलिखितपरिस्पष्टसिन्दूररेखा: केकीशोकार्णवोर्वानलविपुळशिखा भान्ति भानोमयूखाः ॥ (śl. 10)

'The sun's rays are beautiful and sharp as the nails of the lion of light pouncing on the black elephant of darkness. The rays are like the waking lamps (bodhapradipas) for the princesses of female bees sleeping inside the palaces of the closed lotus. They are like the streaks of 'tilaka" mark (sindūra) on the forehead of the harlots in the forms of Eastern direction. They are again the shooting flames of the fire from the ocean of grief of the "cakravāka" birds.' The poet is an adept in the description of the charms of women. For the lover his sweetheart is the most beautiful girl in the three worlds. With her charms she waters and nourishes the tree of the pride of Madana in the heart of the lover. The aspiration (of love) has drawn her picture on the canvas of the lover's heart. From her body have been created the sandal, the moon, the gentle breeze and the like which pierce the vitals.

संवेय भुवनकसुन्दरितमा कन्दर्पदर्पद्रुमं सिञ्चन्ती सुषमामृतेन वपुषश्चित्ताङ्कणे माद्शाम्। यामेवालिखदन्तरङ्गफलके सङ्कल्पशिल्पी यथा पूर्वं चन्दनचन्द्रमन्दपवना मर्माविधो निर्मिता: ।। (śl. 27) Some of the observations of the poet on the nature of women are noteworthy. Afflictions caused by women are to be removed by women only. Submarine fire is to be quenched by the same sea-water.

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 155

स्त्रीमूल स्योपतापस्य स्त्रिय एव प्रतिक्रिया। वह्निश्च वह्निमूलस्येत्यामनन्ति मनीषिणः ।। (śl. 65)

It is impossible to read the mind of women. They never express their love openly.

अपि विशन्ति कृशानुशिखावलीम् अपि लिहन्ति महासिलतामुखम्। अपि गरं निगिरन्ति न कामिषु प्रकटयन्ति मनो वनिताजना: ।। (ś1.66) On the ' ganikadharma ' the poet says :

भवत्वक्ष्णा काणो भवतु च जराशुष्कवदनः पदा खञ्जी वास्तु व्रणविचितगात्रो भवतु वा। जटी वा मुण्डी वा भवतु खुरणा वा किमु गिरा यतो वित्तापत्ति: स खलु गणिकानां प्रियतमः ॥ (śl. 45)

From any point of view, the nectar from the lips of women is superior to the nectar that was got from the milky ocean. Since the big snake was used as a rope for churning the milky ocean, (some) drops of poison would definitely have polluted that nectar and since the Mandara mountain was used as the base it (the nectar) would have been spoiled by the particles of the mountain ores fallen due to friction.

अ जिह्मगमुखोद्गलद्गरलबिन्दुसन्दूषितं तदेतदपयः पयोनिलयफेनसम्मिश्रितम्। अमन्दरपरिस्फुरद्विविध-धातु-धूम्रीकृतं मनोज्ञमधरामृतं विजयते कुरङ्गीदृशाम् । (śl. 96)

There are still people in the world who go all out to help their friends out of compassion without absolutely any selfish motive.

156 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

निर्व्याजनिर्मलधियां विधुरेषु मन्ये वीताभिसन्धिकणिकः करुणानुषङ्ग: । किं चातका विदधते हितमम्बुदेभ्यः सन्तर्पयन्ति किममून्न हि ते पयोभिः ॥ (śl. 111)

4.4.6. Hāsya in MKC

It is mainly the śrngāra-ābhāsa arising out of the Buddhist monk's love for the ganika that contributes to the comic element of the play. The scene where the monk, caught unawares by the Queen's trap, makes amorous advances towards the girl and is dragged to the court by the harlot's mother is quite amusing. Sivadāsa's tricks to infatuate the monk, with Anangalekha showing signs of love and feigned anger alternately in order to expose his weaknesses and the curious behaviour of Anangalekha under the influence of Sivadasa's soul are some of the other comic scenes in the play. There is a sarcasm in the remark of the indignant Queen when she sees the King embracing Candralekhā, 'mā khalu mā khalu vyālībhayena candanarasān muñca, kaņțaka- bhayena ketakīmadhūlikām vā' (p. 20).

4.4.7. Prahasana elements and Vithyangas in the play

The King's sarcastic proclamation on coming to know of the degraded life led by the Buddhist monk and Sivadāsa's appreci- ation of the proclamation is an instance of the Prahasana element 'pralāpa '.

ये नाम केचन तपोनिधयो वसन्ति संसारधममपहाय मदीयराज्ये। ते सर्व एव मदिरामनिशं पिबन्तो मच्छासनेन गणिकासदनं भजन्तु ॥ (śl, 40)

अहो महाराज तव प्रभावः प्रजासुखोत्पादनतत्परोऽयम् । पूर्वेषु को नाम समानवृत्तिरेवंविधं शासनमुच्चकार।। (s1. 41)

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 157

The humorous explanation of the significance of the string of beads, the stick and the yellow robe of the Buddhist monk may be cited as an instance of the Prahasana element ' upapatti'.

अक्षस्रजा गणयतीव गुणांस्त्वदीयान् दण्डं च पञ्जशरशासनवद् दधाति। काषायमावहति रागमिवैष मूतं धूर्ते किमेनमनु ते वलते न चेतः ॥ (śl. 47)

Another instance of the same element can be found in the angry remark of the monk on the shapely curves of women.1 The fear of the monk that his secret affairs might have reached the ear of the King, may be cited as an illustration of the element 'bhayam '.

ममायमर्थः प्रायेण राजगोचरमेष्यति। नदीनामम्भसामोघ: सिन्धुं नाप्राप्य तिष्ठति ॥ (śl. 12)

There are a number of instances of the element 'anrtam'. The ceți addresses the monk thus, 'yogīśvaraih yusmābhiḥ kasya na prayojanam bhavati ?' (p. 4) Śivadāsa's praise of the liquor may be cited as another instance of 'anrtam'.

पीयूषेण समं पुरा विमर्थिताद् दुग्धाम्बुधेरुत्थितम् तत्तादूङ्मदिराभिधं मदपदं किञ्चित् पदार्थान्तरम् । (śl. 38)

4.4.8. Rasas other than hāsya in the play

The rasa that figures prominently apart from hāsya in MKC is śrngara, scope for which is afforded in the Candralekha-episode.2 There is an element of 'adbhuta' when the ganika from the distant Karņāta country is produced by Śivadāsa by his yogic

1 MKC, śl. 54. See above p. 152. ª Cf. MKC, śl. 27. See above p. 154.

158 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

power1 and also on two or three occasions when the dead are revived much to the surprise of the onlookers.2 In the scene where the King and the monk lament over what they think to be the death of Sivadasa, there is genuine ' karuņa '.

4.4.9. Alankāras A number of the popular Alankāras have been employed in MKC. Rūpaka seems to be the favourite figure of speech of the poet. There are at least 22 instances of rūpaka in the play. The verse 'saiveyam bhuvanaikasundaritamā ... ' is an out- standing example.4 The verse on the sunset already referred. to5 is another instance of rūpaka in the play. In another verse the two consorts of the King are fancied as two gems set in one and the same golden plaque.

भिन्नाकरप्रभवमन्यतुलाविहीनम् धन्योत्तरैरपि दुरापमहो महार्घम् । रत्नद्वयं तदिदमेकसुवर्णपिण्डे यत्नं विना विनिहितं विहिताभिसन्धि॥। (śl. 67)

'Upamā' too figures prominently. The Buddhist monk is surprised to see the queen leave off her anger and smile at once when pacified by Sivadäsa. The twilight sky though enveloped by darkness for a moment in winter, is again made bright by the lord of lilies (the moon).6 We have 'nidarsanā' in- कामं तया खलु बलादवधीरितोऽहं रागस्तु सुभ्रुवि तथाप्यतिजुम्भते मे। धिक्कुट्टिनीं यदियमेव हि तां निरुन्धे दोषो नियन्तुरिह दुष्यति यत्करेणुः । (śl. 23)

1 MKC, śl. 26. a -Ibid., pp. 35-36. 8 Ibid., pp. 48-49. Ibid., śl. 27. See above p. 154. 5 Ibid., śl. 10. See above p. 154. 6 Ibid., śl. 35. See above p. 148.

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 159

The lover has to bear the responsibility for the anger of his beloved in the same way as the mahout becomes responsible for the abnormal behaviour of his female elephant.

Though conscious of infidelity to his wife the king cannot refrain from loving the harlot Candralekha. A drstanta is offered in this context.

व्यालीभयेन मलयाचलकन्दरस्थं को वा प्रतीरतरुसारमपाकरोति। (śl. 31)

The Buddhist monk gets disgusted with Anangalekhā and regrets that he had been foolishly trying to elicit her love. He had been thus foolishly trying to pluck out the sharp tooth from the mouth of a li oness.

सिंहीदंष्ट्राशलाकां सपदि करतलेनाजिहीर्षामि मोहात्। (śl. 52)

Even stubborn men are rendered soft by the charms of women. Even a stone (the Candrakānta) is made to ooze water by the moon.

पुरुषान् परुषानपि स्वभावान् म्रदिमान गणयन्ति नार्य एव। ननु दीधितयस्तुषारभानोः स्वयमेव द्रवयन्ति चन्द्रकान्तान् ॥ (śl. 55) We have beautiful svabhävokti in the following verse.

केतकीकुसुमगर्भसंभूतां माधुरीजितसुधामधूलिकाम्। कण्टकावलिपरिक्षतोऽपि सन्नष मुञ्चति कृती मधुव्रतः ॥ (ś1. 32)

An instance of ' malarupaka ' is found in the following verse where the Buddhist monk expresses surprise at the revival of Anan- galekhā.

160 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LĪTERATURE

निर्वाणाप्यनिलेन दीपकलिका सद्यः स्वयं दीप्यते राहोर्वक्त्रमुपेयुषी शशिकला भूयः समुन्मीलति। संप्लुष्टापि समुद्धिनत्ति सहसा दावाग्निना मालती सर्पेणाहतजीवितापि सुदती सञ्जीविताभ्येत्यसौ ।। (śl. 72)

Though almost put out by the wind, the flame of the lamp flickers. Though devoured by 'rahu' for sometime the moon emerges with full splendour. Though scorched by fire the jasmine starts sprouting. Though snatched of her life by the serpent, she is now revived !

There are quite a few apt 'arthantaranyasas' in the play. Justifying the fact that there is merit even in the works of modern poets, the Sutradhara says, 'Do not the stars shine though flooded by the moonlight ?'

ये गृह्न्ति गुणानणूनपि कवे: काव्येषु नव्येष्वपि प्रायो नो गणयन्ति दोषनिवहं ते नाम सन्तः किल। बालोऽप्यात्मकृतिप्रकाशनविधौ शक्नोति तेषां पुरो दीप्ति विन्दति किन्न चन्द्रमहसा मग्नोऽपि तारागण: ।। (śl. 4)

Being informed that he is to meet the Queen the monk fears that the news of his illicit love affair might have reached the ears of the King. The gushing waters of the river do never fail to reach the ocean.1

4.4.10. Metres

MKC is one of the longest Prahasanas with 120 slokas. The poet has a flair for longer metres ; there are 31 ślokas in ' śārdūla- vikrīdita' and 9 in 'sragdharā' metres contrasted with only 6 in the popular Anustubh. Other metres employed by the poet are Vasantatilakā (14 ślokas), Śikhariņī (7), Mālinī (6), Upajāti (5), Mandākrāntā (4), Svāgatā (4), Āryā, Rathoddhatā, Śālinī, Prthvi and Aupacchandasika (3 ślokas each). We have two

1 MKC, śl. 12. See above p. 157.

THE ŚUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 161

verses each in Hariņi, Praharsiņī and Vamśastha and one each in Vaitālīya, Drutavilambita and Upendravajrā.

4.4.11. Prākrt in MKC

As per convention all the lower characters and women speak in Prākrt. But the servant-maid Candanika resoris to Samskrt while describing Candralekhā1. The gaņikā Anangalekhā, infused by the soul of Sivadasa continues to speak in Prakrt but there are occasional lapses.2 The Buddhist monks usually speak in Prākrt (as in the Mattavilāsa, Latakamelaka and other Prahasanas), but the monk Visnumitra in MKC speaks in Samskrt throughout. The Pariparsvika in the prologue, the messenger Jambhaka and the Pratīhāra Kambilyaka speak in Samskrt only. Being an authority in Prakrt himself the poet has composed eleven verses in Prākrt also.3

4.4.12. Dramatic technique in MKC

MKC fares well even when compared with an excellent piece like the Bhagavadajjukiya. In BA, there is simultaneous exchange of souls which may cause some confusion when being staged, and it has necessitated the introduction of another character viz., the Yamapurusa. Rāmapāņivāda has avoided these difficulties by introducing the change of soul one at a time. The ganikā is first killed by the snake-bite and her body is brought to the court Śivadāsa who had already left the court on some pretext, keeps his body on a tree top and ensouls the body of Anangalekhā. His body is also brought to the court after sometime. Later he leaves the body of the ganika and enters into his own. The girl drops dead now. But she is revived by the Yogin at the request of the King and others. In BA, the ganikā is to act like the Yogin and vice versa but in MKC we do not face this problem. The girl remains her own self with the exception that she appears to be more sensuous and gives expression to her feelings. This technique adopted by the poet is definitely an improvement over a similar scene in BA.

1 Cf. śl. 43. 2 For example, śls. 95-97. 3 Ślokas 50, 56, 78, 84, 86-88, 90, 92, 101, 108.

162 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURĖ

The 'svagata' technique used in many places in the play helps the audience know the thoughts of the different characters on important turn of events. For instance, it is only from the 'svagata ' speech of Sivadāsa that we come to know of the role of the prince Madanavarman in the play. The 'janāntika' is also helpful for Sivadāsa to instruct people on the line of action, as for instance in the place where the ganikā Anangalekhā in- fatuates the Buddhist monk with her feigned love and anger.

4.4.12.1. Nāndī

The Nändil in MKC not only serves the purpose of benedi- ction, but it also indicates the main rasa in the play i.e., hasya and it has a reference to the moon (in the word śaśiśekhara) as per convention. Pärvati's friend tells her that she is not going to anoint her breasts with 'kastūri' any more since it is going to be polluted by the ashes (due to Siva's embrace) very often. The embarassed Parvatī casts a bashful glance at the moon-crested lord (Siva).

4.4.12.2. The Prologue

The prologue is carried out by the sutradhāra and his associate The very first verse2 in the prologue suggests the presence of a gaņikā in the play. We are further informed that the play is staged in connection with the 'yatra' festival of Śri Ranganātha. the presiding deity at Mangalagrāma. The pāripārśvika then expresses doubt whether a new composition would be accepted by the audience. The sūtradhāra allays his fears saying that great men would appreciate a play after duly considering its merits and demerits irrespective of its being modern or old.3 At the end of their conversation, Visnumitra, the Buddhist monk, is introduced through the 'prayogātisaya ' method."

1 MKC, śl. 1. ª Cf. MKC, śl. 2. 'yogini vā bhogini vā rogiņi vā vittade virāgiņi vā 1 sādhāraņapravrttir vidagdha-gaņikājano jayati 11 ª Ibid., śl. 4. See above p. 160. · Ibid., śl. 5, 'parişadam-ārādhayitum prayatethāḥ sarvathā durārādhāml gaņikām anangalekhām bhik urasau vișņumitra iva l1

THE SUDDHA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS: 163

4.4.12.3. Vişkambhaka

The one point where MKC deviates from theory is the Vis- kambhaka. Praveśaka and Viskambhaka are prohibited in a Prahasana.1 The Viskambhaka has been introduced for the purpose of bringing out one side of the character of the Buddhist monk viz., his lustful passion for the ganikā Anangalekhā. We are also informed through the Viskambhaka that the Queen wanted to meet the monk privately in the royal garden, the inten- tion of which the audience and not the monk as informed later, is to test the integrity of the monk. The monk misbehaves towards the girl and is dragged to the court by the harlot's mother seeking justice. By the introduction of the Viskambhaka, it has been possible for the poet to confine himself to just one act.

4.4.12.4. Prakari

Another noteworthy feature of MKC is that it has a 'Prakari' (a secondary narrative), in the Candralekhā-episode. Praha- sanas generally do not have 'patāka' or 'prakarī' since the main part of the play itself is, usually, very short. The 'prakari' in MKC adds variety to the plot and the rasa, which makes the play all the more interesting. It also helps to stage the demonstration of the yogic powers of Sivadasa. It is by witnessing the Candralekha-episode that the Buddhist monk begins to take confidence in the Yogin and looks forward to him for fulfilment of his ambition, and later remembering the advice, resolves to lead a reformed life.

4.4.12.5. Epilogue

Another peculiarity of MKC is that it has an epilogue.2 In the first verse of the epilogue already referred to, the poet expresses his doubt whether his work can be called a Prahasana at all. In the other three verses the poet offers glowing tributes to his precepter, Śri Nārāyaņa.

1 See above p. 43. 2 See above p. 145.

164 PRAHASANA IN. SANSKRIT LITERATURE

4.4.13. The influence of the Bhagadadjjukiya on MKC Even a cursory glance at the plot of the two plays reveals the extent to which the BA has influenced the MKC. The following similarities may be noted. (i) Both plays are fit to be included under the śuddha class of Prahasana. (ii) The exchange of souls-parakāyapraveśa, is employed in both. (iii) The first śloka in both the plays is addressed to Lord Śiva (while the first śloka of MKC is the conventional Nāndi, in BA, the first śloka in the text is preceded by the stage direction ' nāndyante tataḥ praviśati sūtradhāraḥ). (iv) The introduction of the main character in both the plays is made through the dramatic device known as 'prayogātiśaya'. (v) The ' bija' in both the plays is identical, that is, the uplift- ment of the corrupt religious man. (vi) Supernatural element plays an important role in both the plays. (vii) In addition to häsya which is the main sentiment, there is scope for śrngāra in both the plays. (viii) Death scene is introduced in both the plays. (ix) The incidents of both the plays last for a day. Time analysis in BA has already been discussed.1 In the Viskambhaka of MKC the bhiksu says, 'sāvaśesa iva me prābhātiko vidhiḥ' (p. 5). By the time the Candralekha-episode is over, it is midday and the bhiksu feels that he should not ignore the midday bath at any cost, 'sarvathā madhyahna-snanavidhiḥ na langhanīyaḥ' (p. 32). Though there is no other reference to the time factor in the play, there is reason to suppose that the further incidents last till the evening. (x) The turning point in both the plays is the snake-bite. This is brought about by the Yamapurusa and ivadāsa in BA and MKC respectively.

1 See above p. 96.

THB SUDDHA TYPB OF PRAHASANAS 165

(xi) In both the plays the Yogins play a prominent role. Both are detached ascetics, skilled in yogic practices. Inci- dentally these two are the only specimens of 'bhagavatas' in the whole range of the Prahasana literature. Perhaps the Nātya- śāstra recommends only such characters in a śuddha type of Prahasana.1

(xii) The heroines in both the plays are courtezans.

Though thus Ramapanivada is very much indebted to the author of the Bhagavadajjukiya for the plot of his work, he shows remarkably original poetic skill and dramatic technique. It is all the more praiseworthy on the part of the author to have given us a refreshingly new type of Prahasana at a time when obscenity and base religious quarrels came to be identified with the Praha- sanas. Rāmapāņivāda's Madanaketucarita thus occupies a very significant place in the later Prahasana literature.

1 See above p. 40.

CHAPTER V

THE SAMKĪRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS

A. THE WELL KNOWN PRAHASANAS

The Samkirna type of Prahasanas

The Latakamelaka

The Nātavāțaprahasana

The Dhūrtasamāgama

The Hāsyārņava

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS

5.0. All the available Prahasanas other than the four discussed in the previous Chapter can be brought under the Samkīrna variety. Here they will be discussed under two groups, viz., (A) The well- known Prahasanas and (B) The minor Prahasanas. The works in each group are arranged chronologically, as it would be easier to observe the transition that has taken place in the outlook of the Prahasana writers through the last seven or eight centuries. Some prominent features common to these Samkīrna Prahasanas are : (i) Most of them have more than one act, (ii) Large number of characters are introduced in them, (iii) Characters are drawn from every stratum of the society, from the King to a barber, (iv) Hāsya introduced in them is rather crude. The comic element is mainly aroused by totally incongruent speech and action the characters exhibit with respect to the profession they hold-foolish kings and ministers, ignorant teachers, impertinent disciples and ill- equipped doctors and Astrologers etc.

The Samkirna Prahasanas show a general degradation of taste in the Prahasana writers. Almost every Prahasana has certain amount of obscenity, this feature being most pronounced in the much later Prahasanas like the Lambodara and the Candānurañjana. Among the available Samkīrņa Prahasanas, Lațakamelaka of Śankhadhara occupies an important place.

A. THE WELL-KNOWN PRAHASANAS

5.1. The Latakamelaka 5.1.0. Lațakamelaka (LM) is the earliest among the Sam- kirņa type of Prahasanas. It is also the earliest among the available two-act Prahasanas. It is evidently one of the most popular Prahasanas as some of its verses are quoted in the works on Samskrt dramaturgy.1 Two of its verses are quoted in the Särngadhara- paddhati.2 Its manuscripts are available in a number of Oriental

1 SD. III. 219-220. 'gurorgiraḥ .... ' (LM, II. 14). ' Cf. Sarngadharapaddhati, 'eșa svargatarangiņī ... ' (LM, I. 38) and *katipayanimeşavartini .. .. ' (LM, I. 9) nos. 3632 & 155 respectively.

170 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Libraries in India and abroad. It was first printed in 1889.1 The present study is based on a more recent edition of the text.2

5.1.1. The author and date of the work The author, Sankhadhara Kaviraja, flourished in the court of King Govindacandra of Kanyakubja during the early part of the 12th Century3. The poet eulogises his patron in glorious terms in the prologue of the play. He refers to some of the ancient villages near Kanauj.4 He also refers to a clan known as 'Rādhīyas'. A class of brāhmaņas who came from South India and settled in Bengal during the reign of King Laksmanasena (1180-1206) was called Radhiya.5 The date of this king may be taken as the upper limit of the date of the poet. The lower limit is Circa 1330 as Sāhityadarpaņa refers to it.6

Dramatis Personae Šūtradhāra. Mithyārāśi, a Brāhmaņa. Danturā, a bawd. Mithyāśukla, another brāhmaņa Madanamanjarī, her daughter Phuńkațamiśra, a Vedāntin. Sabhāsali, a teacher. Vyasanākara, a Buddhist monk Kulavyādhi, his disciple. Jangama, a caturvedin. Jantuketu, a doctor. Sangrāmavisara, the Army General. Jatāsura, a digambara. Viśvāsaghātaka, his friend. Ajñānarāśi, a Kāpālika. Jhankatasāra, a financier.

5.1.2. The Plot The play proper begins with the bawd Dantura boasting of her professional skills in driving her customers out of their wits and extracting maximum benefits from them. Enters now the teacher Sabhasali with his impertinent disciple Kulavyadhi. Dantura welcomes them and introduces her daughter Madana- mañjarī to them. Coming to know that Dantura has a wound in her thigh, Subhäsali suggests that the doctor Jantuketu must be

1 Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay. * Chowkambha, Benaras, 1962. * Keith, Sanskrit Drama, p. 260. · Cf. Intro. Lațakamelaka, Chowkhamba edition, 1962, 5 Ibid. € See f.n. 1 above, p. 169.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 171 called forth immediately. The doctor, a real quack, is noted for his horrible prescriptions. When prescribed by him, even nector becomes poison. Dantura says that a bone has got stuck up in the throat of her daughter. The quack suggests that the bone must be tied to a rope and pulled out and that he had already treated a camel in an identical situation. The girl laughs at the foolishness of the doctor and in this process, the bone is dislodged from her throat. This the doctor claims as his own achieve- ment. When Dantura complains of cataract in her eyes, the doctor suggests that a red hot iron rod be inserted in her anus. Then turning his attention to Madanamañjari, the doctor decides to induce spells of 'Vasikaranamantra' to win her love and leaves the scene.

Next to enter are a digambara by name, Jatāsura and a Kāpālika, by name Ajñanarasi. The latter alleges that his goat was killed by the former. The matter is referred to Sabhasali who delivers the judgement in favour of Ajñānarāsi but a remark made by the former infuriates the Kapalika and both quarrel bitterly for some time. When he has a glimpse of Madanamañjarī the Kāpālika regrets that he had wasted his time in vain quarrel. But quarrel erupts again as both Sabhāsali and Ajñānarāśi stake a claim over the girl. The announcement of the nightfall saves the situation and all these people are asked to leave. The first act called 'lajjāvikraya' (sale of modesty) comes to an end here.

The second act opens with the entry of the Army Chief, Sangrāmavisara (Battle-scare) accompanied by his friend Viśvāsa- ghataka (Faith-killer). The army chief has a notorious record of ' battle achievements'. Many more rogues enter one after the other-the financier Jhankatasāra, the Brāhmaņa Mithyāśukla, the Vedantin Phunkatamiśra and the Buddhist monk Vyasanākara. The last two quarrel over the relative superiority of their respective faiths. Now the Digambara becomes interested in the old lady Dantura and wants to get married to her. Dantura too agrees to his proposal. All others have fun at the expense of the bride and bridegroom. A priest is also summoned to conduct the marriage. The verses recited by the priest portend only ' amangala' for the couple. At the conclusion of the marriage, the priest demands 'daksiņā' from the bridegroom who gives only some cowries and this enrages the priest. They start fighting over this

172 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

issue. The play ends with Sabhäsali describing the gentle breeze that is congenial to the secret meeting of lovers, which may be taken as indicating his bright prospects of meeting Madanamañjari at the appointed place.

5.1.3. Hāsya in Lațakamelaka

The hāsya in Latakamelaka is evoked mainly through the characters and their topsy turvy behaviour. The opening speech of Dantura about her customers and the introduction of characters from the 'nepathya' with particular reference to their vices give us an idea, in advance, about the speciality of each character.

Topping the list of the 'assemblage of rogues' in Sabhāsali, the teacher belonging to the ' vamacara ' sect of the Tantric school. His wife, Kalahapriya, true to her name, is always at war with him, Himself a patient of cataract, he has been frequenting the harlots since he got disgusted with his wife who has lost her charms due to old age. His action elicits sarcastic admiration from Dantura. 'yuktamidam yuşmākam mahāpanditānām '.1 He is described as 'dāmbhikacakravartin ', 'mahāhavapātin' and 'parāpakāra- vyasanaikanisthah'. Though posing himself as a teacher he exposes his ignorance every now and then. When asked to mediate between the Digambara and Ajñānarāśi, he proudly accepts the offer. Ajñānarāśi epxloits his ignorance and asks whether he would be an offender if he kills a goat thinking it to be a calf. According to Sabhasali, this is an unintentional killing and hence is not an offence. He delivers the judgement in favour of Ajñanaraśi. But a sarcastic remark made by him about Ajñānarāśi infuriates the latter and the two start throwing slings at each other, which makes Danturā remark, 'yuşmābhiḥ lajjā kutra vikrītā ? '2

The shameless teacher immediately replies saying ' adyaiva hatțe mahājanapuratah suśīlādevyā suvarņadāmnā krītā.'8 Age has not bedimmed his lust and his open expression of love for

1 LM, p. 13. The above passage may serve as an instance of the Prahasana element ' anrtam '. 2 LM, p. 23. $ LM, p. 23.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 173

Madanamañjari is not liked by the latter who condemns him forcefully, resorting to Sanskrit,

आयास्यति भवतोऽयं विनयपरस्तादृगनुरागः। वन्धयासुतहृदयगता मालेयं गगनकुसुमानाम्।। (1. 17)

When the Digambara wants to get married to the old Dantura, Sabhasali, humorously remarks that the bridegroom exhibits all the symptoms of death. He also suggests that their nuptial bedding should be so arranged that even if they die due to exhaustion, their cremation can be performed there itself.

Danturā is a typical mother harlot. She zealously guards her daughter Madanamañjari and cashes in on her. She waits for her customers, muttering the 'vasikaranamantra '. All other charac- ters show great regard for her. But her figure worn out by age is a source of mockery for her visitors. Her eyes have sunk in and are affected by cataract, the cheeks have caved in and the breasts have fallen. Due to the act of biting her lovers during her own lovemaking, her teeth have become protruding and hence she is appropriately called ' Danturā '.

अन्तर्निमग्नं नयनद्वयेन क्वचित्प्रयातं नवयोवनेन। भग्नी कपोलौ पतितं कुचाभ्यां मन्ये भयान्मन्मथसायकानाम् ।। (I. 14) and, भुजंगदंशव्यसनाकुलाया दन्ता बहिर्गा इव दन्तुरायाः । बन्धानुसन्धानपरा यदीया पाशोपमा वल्गति कर्णपाली । (I, 15)

She never hesitates to put inconvenient questions to her customers and extract information from them. She very cleverly handles her customers, enquiring about their personal life, cracking jokes now and then at their expense and pitting them against one another. Her marriage with the Digambara is the climax of the play.

174 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LĪTERATURE

The doctor Jantuketu is a funny character. He himself proudly declares that his presence on earth has rendered even Yama jobless.

व्याधयो मदुपचारलालिता मत्प्रयुक्तममृतं विषं भवेत् । कि यमेन सरुजां किमौषधैर्- जीवहर्तरि पुरःस्थिते मयि ॥ (I. 22)

He curses the practice in the village according to which the doctor must carry his dead patients to the cemetery. That is why he has stopped attending to the elephants and has become a child specia- list, since it is much easier to carry the dead children. But the doctor is ruthless in collecting fees even from his dead patients.1 The doctor is notorious for his topsy turvy prescriptions. For phlegm trouble the throat must be burnt; for fever caused by indigestion, heavy diet with plenty of ghee and milk must be given and for an eye disease, it must be rubbed with caustic substances- these are some of the prescriptions of the doctor.2

His prescription for the cataract in the eye is equally funny.

चक्षूरोगे समुत्पन्ने तप्तफालं गुदे न्यसेत्। तदा नेत्रोद्गवां पीडां मनसापि न संस्मरेत्॥

अर्कक्षीरं वटक्षीरं स्नुहीक्षीरं तथैव च। (I. 25)

अञ्जनं तिलमात्रेण पर्वतोऽपि न दृश्यते॥ (I. 26)

The 'learned' doctor maintains that his prescriptions are based on the ' carakasamhita'. The ' carakamata' according to him is;

यस्य कस्य तरोर्मूलं येन केनापि पोषयेत्। यस्मै कस्मै प्रदातव्यं यद्वा तद्वा भविष्यति ॥ (I. 23)

When Sabhäsali teases him by asking whether he (the doctor) was responsible for the loud lamentation heard in the village in the

1 LM, I. 24. 2 See Ibid., I. 21.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 175

morning, the doctor retaliates by saying that probably Sabhāsali had gone there for blessing somebody (which always has an adverse effect). But Sabhäsali denies that he had gone for any ' svastya- yana'. His disciple has a dig at both of them when he says, 'If both of you had not gone there, then how could the merchant's son have died ? '1 The army General has, indeed, notable military achievements to his credit. When Dantura asks him what he would do if he were to be given a horse by the king, he unhesitantly replies, 'sangrāme tadeva āruhya palāyanam vidheyam', which elicits the admiration of Madanamañjari thus, 'etaireva caritaih sakala-yuvati-vallabhā yuyam'2 His sources of revenue are equally ridiculous.

वातालीकृतचटकै: सूकरविड्भिश्च मृतकवस्त्रैश्च। पवनानीतदलैरपि विक्रीतैः किं न धनलाभः । (II. 6)

When he proudly asks his friend Viśvāsaghātaka (Faith-killer), to read out the glory of his village, 'nissantāna-grāma ' (childless village), the friend reveals the secret that the village no more belongs to him 'tasya grāmasya varāțikā dyūtasambandhena mayaiva grhītā. anyat punaradāya nivedayatu. '3 True to his name, Viśvāsaghātaka tries to strike a deal with Danturā, according to which the two would share a golden 'kalaśa' owned by the General and neck him out.

The pandit Phunkatamiśra is a learned scholar in his own way

गुरोगिर: पञ्चदिनान्युपास्य वेदान्तशास्त्राणि दिनत्रयं च। अमी समाघ्रातवितर्कवादाः समागताः फुङ्कटमिश्रपादाः ॥ (II. 14)

Mithyasukla claims himself to be the follower of the Pūrvamīmāmsā school, and proudly declares that the gods were bodily present in the sacrifice performed by him. It must be noted here that the

1 LM, p. 18. 2 Ibid., p. 30. 3 Ibid., p. 32.

176 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

old school of the Purvamimamsa does not believe in the existence of gods as such.

The digambara Jaina monk shows scant respect for his own religion, by offering the golden image of the Arhan (which is very sacred to the Jains) as fee for enjoying the harlot. After all he has been changing his religion very often, without any deep convictions,

पुनस्त्निदण्डः पुनरेकदण्ड: पुनः पुनर्वञ्चकतामुपेतः । तपस्वितामेत्य जटासुरोऽयं नानोऽभवद्वञ्चकचक्र्वर्ती।। (I. 36)

The guru-sisya concept has no meaning at all as far as the Jains are concerned, according to Sabhasali, since everybody is equally foolish. उभावप्यश्रुतग्रन्थावुभावपि जडात्मको। अहो मोहस्य माहात्म्यं यदेक: शिष्यतां गतः ॥ (I. 37)

The religious quarrel between the Buddhist and the Jaina monks is again humorous.1

दिगम्बरः -अरे रे, भिक्षुक, दूर गच्छ, असदृशजातिस्पर्शदूषितोऽसि। व्यसनाकर: -धिङमूर्ख, जातिरेव नास्ति। किञ्च अस्मन्मते क्षणिकाः सर्वे भावाः न हि आत्मा स्थायीति। तन्नः कुत्र रजकीदूषणम् । दिगम्बरः -तत्कि दत्तो दोषः उपपन्नोऽस्ति न वा? व्यसनाकर: -विनाशशीला भावा जायन्ते। दिगम्बर: -अरे रे भिक्षुक, उत्पत्तिक्षणो, विनाशक्षण इति परस्पराविरुद्धम् । तद्दिन्न उत्पत्तिक्षण इति भिन्नो विनाशक्षण इति। सभासतिः -(सहासम्) शृणोति श्रुतिहीनोऽपि जातिहीनोऽपि जातिना। स्वीकृतक्षणभङ्गोऽपि जेतुमन्यं समीहते॥। (II. 26)

1 LM, pp. 44-45.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 177

Pronouncement of most inauspicious words on an asuspicious occasion is another farcical element in the play. When a newly born baby is brought to him, Sabhasali quotes the rules of ' pollu- tion' (aśauca) arising out of the death of a child.

आदन्तजननात्सद्य आचूडान्नशिकी क्रिया। त्रिरात्रमा व्रतादेशाइदशरात्रमतः परम् ॥1 (I. 35)

When Dantura and the Digambara get married, the priest blesses the couple thus :

दोषाकरमुखीमेनां दन्तुरां प्राप्य चण्डिकाम् । भज त्वं शूलिन: कान्ति श्मशानाश्रमवासिनः ।। (II. 32)

Likewise when the bridegroom makes the conventional 'request' (yācanā) for the bride, Sabhāali quotes the Mahābhārata śloka out of context.

वेपथुर्मलिनं वक्त्ं दीना दृग्गद्गदःस्वरः। मरणे यानि चिह्नानि तानि चिह्नानि याचके।।2 (II. 30)

For the 'blessing' of the couple (svastyayana) the priest chooses the Gītā ślokas 'jatasya hi dhruvo mttyuh .... etc. ' The time fixed for the marriage itself is ' jyesthānaksatra in dhanurlagna' which spells widowhood for the bride, as pointed out by Sabhāsali. But the priest is not concerned about it. 'What is wrong if widowhood occurs in old age ?' he asks. Then Sabhasali suggests that their nuptial bedding should be so arranged that the crematory rites may also be performed there itself without delay, if the bride or the bridegroom were to die due to exhaustion.

5.1.4. Literary merits of the Latakamelaka

Śankhadhara has shown considerable poetic skill in this short play though his talents do not find scope in a full measure in the

1 Q. in Com. ' Medhätithi ' on Manu, p. 506, Pub. Gurumandala Grantha māla : 5, Clive Road, Calcutta-1. 3 Q. in Subhāsitarathnabhāņdākāra, p. 76, śl. 1.

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playform he has chosen. Nevertheless the poet does express some lofty ideas. In this transitory world where birth, old age and death always pose a threat, the true relative of the poets is their own fame which lasts till the end of the epochs, says the author :

कतिपयनिमेषवर्तिनि जन्मजरामरणविह्वले जगति। कल्पान्तकोटिबन्धुः स्फुरति कवीनां यशः प्रसार: ॥1 (I. 9)

The heroine standing on the terrace, is a source of attraction for both the terrestrial and celestial beings, observes one of the charac- ters. The former lift their eyes upwards and the latter, downwards, to have a glimpse of her.2 The poet does not lag behind in descri- bing Nature.

अय मुपसर्पति मन्दश्चन्दनवनपावनः पवनः।। (I. 10)

In another beautiful verse, the poet likens the moon rising from the celestial Ganges in the form of the sky, to a silver pot, to a swan, to a white lotus, to a mass of white foam to an earring made of crystal. 3

The rūpaka alamkāra where the lover's heart is identified with a deer is note-worthy.

नेत्रानन्दभुवः प्रमोदवसतेरस्या: कुरङ्गीदृश- स्तन्वङ्गयाः स्तनशलमूलविलसन्मुक्तालतापाशितः । विस्तीर्णेजघनस्थलीपरिसरे व्यामोहलीलाभर- भ्रान्तस्वान्तकुरङ्ग यास्यसि कुतःपञचेषुबाणादितः ।। (I. 33)

1 This verse reminds us of Dandin's words, 'kāvyam kalpāntarasthāyi jāyeta bhuvanatrayam.' ' LM, II. 15. 8 Ibid., I. 38.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 179

The following verse involving the 'sandehālamkāra' is quite interesting.

किं नेत्रयोरमृतर्वातरियं विधातु- राद्ा किमद्भुतशरीरविधानलेखा। संसारसारमहह त्रिजगत्पवित्रं तद्रत्नमेतदुपसर्पति पङ्कजाक्षी। (IJ. 18)

There is 'atisayokti' in the statement that when seen by the charming heroine, the Cupid would become a target of his own arrows. दृष्टश्चेदनया कुपत्नविषमैः संधानबन्धाकुलै: कि न स्यान्मदनोऽपि पुद्गितशरर्व्यावृत्य लक्ष्यीकृतः । (I. 19)

In another verse, the poet fancies that the heroine is superior to Laksmī who resides in the milky ocean all the time (and hence does not know the charms of the earthly pleasure). She is superior to Pärvatī too as the latter cannot even have the pleasure of embra- cing or kissing her husband (since Ganga, is looking at her all the time.). उपहसति पक्ष्मलाक्षी लक्ष्म्या गभीरजलघिजलवासम् । आलिङ्गनपरिचुम्बनरहितं गौर्या: सौभाग्यम्॥ (छाया) (II.4)

The upama in the following verse where a man who does not harm others is compared to the bellows of a blacksmith, is worth noting.

परोपकारशून्यो यः क्षणार्धमपि तिष्ठति। स लोहकारभस्त्रेव श्वसन्नपि न जीवति॥ (II. 12) The poet is fond of 'anuprasa' which comes naturally to him, as in : आनन्दकारि मदनज्वरदर्पहारि पीयूषपङ्कपरिहासरसानुकारि। प्रेमप्रसारि परमाभ्युदयानुकारि वामभ्रुवामहह किं न मनोविकारि॥ (I. 16)

180 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

5.1.5. Dramatic technique

There are three ' nandi' ślokas in the play, all of which deal with the 'sambhoga-śrngāra' of Lord Siva and Pārvatī. There is also a reference to the moon, as per convention, in the first śloka. We have a pointer to the main rasa in the play, viz., hasya, in the second śloka.

There is something special about the prologue of Latakamelaka. It is a full monologue piece spoken by the Sūtradhāra, using ' ākāśabhāșita ', in the ' bhāņa ' style.

Mention is made of certain musical instruments like Dindima, Gomukha, Jhilli, Mrdanga etc., in the prologue.

Sankhadhara has employed novel methods of dramatic technique in his play. In her opening speech, Dantura introduces all the characters in the play. A verse recited from 'nepathya' before the entry of each character on the stage for the first time, brings out some of his chief characteristics. Sabhāsali, for instance, is introduced with the verse, 'vamāgamācāravidām varisthah ... etc. (I. 13) There are some undramatic entries of characters too. Sabhasali requests Kulavyadhi to call forth the doctor, Jantuketu and immediately enters the doctor, without notice. Similarly there is no stage direction preceding the entry of Jhankatasāra.

5.1.6. Texts quoted in the Latakamelaka :

The Brāhmana, Mithyasukla laments that he had ignored sage Vyasa's advice on the transient nature of the charms of women. The śloka that is indirectly referred to, is most probably the one quoted by Anandavardhana, in his Dhvanyāloka,

सत्यं मनोरमा रामा: सत्यं रम्या विभूतयः । किन्तु मत्ताङ्गनापाङ्ग भङ्गलोलं हि जीवितम् ॥1

The poet quotes two other ślokas from the Mahabharata. The one 'vepathurmalinam'2 of Vyasa is found in the Subhāsitaratna

1 Dhvanyāloka, III, 30-31. * Sec. p. 177, f.n. 2.

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 181

bhāndakāara and the other one 'Jātasya hi dhruvo mrtyuḥ ... ' is from the Bhagavadgīt ā.1

The poet quotes a Prakrt verse from an anonymous source. (bhaņītam ca kenāpi)

दुट्टभुअङ्गो जो णियगहलज्जयि दुट्टसिण्षो जो दानविवज्जयि। स कुरूपो जो हिअये ण रुच्चयि पत्तरकठिनो जो निट्टुतं वच्चयि॥ (I. 12)

5.1.7. The influence of Latakamelaka on later Prahasanas

Lațakamelaka has influenced a large number of later Praha- sanas, noteworthy among them being, the Hasyarnava and the Dhūrtasamāgama. Bandhura in Hāsyarnava is modelled on Danturā. The quacks Vyādhisindhu (Hāsyārnava), Yamānuja (of Adbhutataranga), and Rogarāśi (of Subhagānanda) are modelled on Jantukatu. On the model of Kulayyadhi, we have impertinent disciples in Kalahānkura (Hāsyārņava) and Durācāra (Dhūrtasamāgama) Sabhāsali is the fore-runner for his counterparts Viśvabhaņda (Hāsyārņava), Viśvanagara (Dhūrtasmāgama) and host of such hypocritic teachers in a number of prahasanas. The theme and content of latter Prahasanas dealt with in the following pages will show to what extent Latakamelaka has inspired and influenced them.

5.2., THE NĀȚAVĀȚA PRAHASANA

5.2.0. The date of Nātavāta prahasana is uncertain. That it must be quite an early work, is indicated by the close similarity of its style with that of the Latakamelaka. The style of Prākrt seems to be archaic and certain dialectical differences are shown in the Präkrt spoken by the characters, A large Inumber of

1 II. 27.

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characters representing different religious sects is introduced in this play. A gosāyi samnyāsin, a śākteya and a female ascetic are introduced for the first time. The extensive usage of Prakrt is another noteworthy feature of this play. In any case this work does not seem to be earlier than 14th Century A.D. Probably the play belongs to the early Vijayanagara period. There is no hint of the splendour and pomp of the later Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagara empire was still in its early phase of development during the 14th Century and there were probably many feudal lords like the one we come across in the. play, viz., Nidrāluthakkura. The mention of 'varāha', the insignia of the Vijayanagara kings and the 'hunnas' (gold coins) significant. Thd gold coins used as a medium of exchange during the Vijayanagara period were called 'hunnas'. (Origin : Kanarese, meaning gold, corresponding to the Tamil word ' ponnu '). Another significant point is the presence of a 'tailanga ' (a Telugu man) in the play.

The author, Yadunandana, belongs to the Sarasvata family and was the son of Vasudeva Cayani as known from the prologue. He does not give any other information about himself in the play.

The present study of Natavata is based on the only printed edition of the text available.1 A few words must be said about this edition. There are certain inevitable mistakes in the Sanskrit part but it looks as though no attention has been paid to the Prākrt portion at all. The case suffixes are separated from the words and are juxtaposed with the next word, with the result that many of the sentences convey little or no sense. Thus 'ramajanīe (ye) vālavallaho mam odhīredi' is wrongly rendered as 'rāmajaņī evālavalla homam odhūredi' (chāya : rāmajanyāh bālavallabhaḥ mām avadhirayet.) The play has not attracted the attention of scholars so far and only brief references have been made in the books on Sanskrit drama and dramaturgy.2 A detailed analy- sis of the play is presented here for the first time.

1 Nāțavāta prahasana, Ed. N.S. Press, Bombay, 1888. ª (i) HCSL, p. 700. (ii) Schuler, Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama, p. 74. (iii) D, R, Mankad, Types of Sanskrit Drama, p. 63 ff.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 183

Dramatis Personae (Main Characters)

Vigra, a Kālāmukha. Gatakrama, a śaivite. Rāvutta, the royal cousin. Nidrāluțhakkura, a fedual lord. Dhanānanda, a Vaișnava. Mālinī, Vigra's companion. Mithyāsarvasva, a Gosāyī. Madanaduti, a female ascetic Bhūtipriya, a śaivite Rāmajanī

5.2.1. The Plot

The play has two acts but there is very little connection between the two with regard to the incidents narrated. One or two charac- ters mentioned in the first act, make their appearance in the second act.

In the beginning of the first act, Madanaduti, a female ascetic, refers to the spring festival that is taking place in the town. Gaņikās and Nāgarakas are seen everywhere, engaged in drinking bouts. She is awaiting one Vigra.

Enters now Vigra, the Kālāmukha, and his companion, Mālinī. Vigra is so fully drunk that he searches for Malini though she is nearby. He blames the royal cousin, Ravutta for his bad habits. Enters now Rävutta and the conversation between him and Vigra is quite amusing.

Now Vigra wants to demonstrate the Kālāmukha form of worshipping the female organ. With the co-operation of Malini, the 'puja' is performed and the 'prasada' in the form of the liquor from the 'pūjākalaśa' is offered to the Rāvutta. Vigra then extols the greatness of Bhairava and suggests that Ravutta should join their sect.

Meanwhile, Dhanananda, a vaisnava and a boyhood friend of the Ravutta enters along with a lady, Ramajani by name. Dhanananda accuses Vigra and Malinī of indoctinizing his good friend Ravutta with their sectarian beliefs. The Kālāmukha and his companion depart without a word. Ravutta appreciates the beauty of Ramajanī and wanis to win her love but feels that he must take steps in that direction some time later and deparis,

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Dhanananda now summons a Gosāyi priest, Mithyāsāgara, since he wants to arrange for Rāmajanī's ' mantradīkșā'. Before that, he wants to know about the attainments of Mithyasagara, who eloquently glorifies his parentage.

अस्माकं जननी वेश्या पितास्माकं द्विजोत्तम: । अहं पुनर्निजगुणर्व्यासः सर्वोत्तमः स्मृतः ॥

His ' pravara ' is equally praiseworthy. (I. 18)

'nirmula-nissantana-nirvamseti triparvara-mațavatagotram '. Dhanananda is satisfied with the credentials of his 'acara' and asks him to call forth the priests for the function. The priests arrive and perform the ' homa ' by chanting the following ' mantra '. अकटो विकटश्चव कुन्तीपुत्रो विनायक:। उदिते लड्काद्वारे सर्वलोक नमोडस्तुते।। स्वाहा॥ इति। (I. 21A)

When the function concludes, poor Mithyasāgara gets only a few cowries as fee for his services. Dhanānanda wants to compenstate it by imprinting the vaisnava 'mudras' on his body free of cost. The imprinting of the mudras with red hot iron emblems is too much to bear for the old man, who falls down unconscious. Bhūtipriya, supposed to be a specialist in herbal medicine is called forth to attend on him. He comes there along with his friend Gatakrama. Bhūtipriya administers the narcotic drug, 'vijayā' and praises its effects. औत्सुक्याय विलोचनाञ्चलगता लोल्याय हस्तस्थिता खेदच्छेदकृते मुखान्तिकगता शैत्याय वक्षोगता। कि ब्रूम: परिणामतो जठरगा निर्मृष्टनानाभ्रम ब्रह्मानन्दपदाय सास्तु विजया देवी जगज्जित्वरी।। (I. 31) अपि च, लज्जा गच्छति दूरतो धृतिरपि प्रायः परिम्लायति स्वातन्त्र्यं परिहीयते कुलगता कीतिः समुत्सादति। भूम्ना हास उदीहते बहुविधा वाचालता जुम्भते वैचित्यं पुनरेधते तनुभृतामामूलिकासेवनात्॥ (I. 32)

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS .185

Gatakrama is enomoured of the beauty of Rāmajani and tells her that she must abandon the company of Dhanananda since the sect to which he belongs, viz., the vaisnava, is a täntric sect and hence 'avaidika'. The application of ' vibhūti' alone is sacred and so is the śaiva cult. Bhūtipriya appreciates his view and sets forth, what he has understood, to be the path sacred to the śaivites.

रविवारे तु सम्प्राप्ते विद्वांसमपि भोजयेत् । वेश्यामलङ्कृतां कृत्वा तस्य पुण्यफलं शृणु ।। दिव्यं विमानमारुह्य शिवलोके महीयते॥ (I. 37)

Then we have a long discussion on the practices and ' sampradayas' of different cults, between Bhūtipriya, Gatakrama and Madana- dūtī.

Now Dhanananda, who had himself tasted the ' vijaya', com- plains of giddiness. Gatakrama says that the ' vrātyabhisak ' must be summoned. The 'vratyabhisak' arrives along with his friend Mithyasarvasva, who is to help him in Astrological calculations. The 'vratyabhisak ' is happy that he has got a female patient in Ramajanī, who is till reeling under the effect of 'vijaya'. He says,

तरुणीं सरुजं दृष्टवा हृष्यति वैद्यः सिरा: स्पृशति। यावन्नो कुचयुगलीं स्पृशति न तावत्कृतोपायः । (I. 41) He proudly declares that even as he reads the pulse of a patient Yama gets ready to accomplish his own task. (the patient is sure to die.) When just glanced by the doctor, the patient is drawn forcibly by the attendants of Yama.

सिरानेन धृता यस्य शिरस्तस्य च मृत्युना । यो दृष्टः स समकृष्टो बलाच्छमनकिङ्करैः॥ (I. 42) He then prescribes a mixture of five plants which he calls herbs but which are actually poisonous creepers.

Now it is Mithyasarvasva's turn to betray his own ignorance. The Astrologer has fixed a date for a function at Nidrāluthakkura's house, What he considers to be an auspicious day is actually a

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most inauspicious day with the conjunction of unfavourable plane- tary position.1 Mithyäsarvasva is attracted by the charm of Ramajanī and feels that she will become alright by the mere touch of his hand just as a creeper withered by the sun's heat regains its freshness by the moonlight.2 .vīrunnidāghakalitā tuhi- nāmśukarādiva.' Dhanānanda does not like his idea and warns him of serious consequences since he is a disciple of one Kāntānnda. whose teachings he sets forth thus.

मृदुवासः परिधेयं निद्रातव्यं सुखेन भोक्तव्यम्। सेवा निधुवनलीला संफुल्लेन्दीवराक्षीणाम् ।। (I. 51) अनुदिनसुगन्धितलाभ्यङ्गो रङ्गावलोकश्च। करणीया जनचर्चा यस्मात् तस्माद्वनं ग्राह्यम्।। (İ. 52)

Madanadūtī intervenes and brings about a compromise by saying that Ramajani may be honoured by all assembled there since she cannot be satisfied by just one man. All the rogues feel happy at this. But Madunaduti warns that the police are patrolling the area and that they must disperse at once. The first act ends here.

ACT II

Nidrāluthakkura, the feudal lord, wants to perform a 'yajña ' for the welfare of his people. Kantananda is to be the chief priest. Many people attend the function. One of them, Pisunabhatta, blesses the 'yajamana' in a peculiar fashion.

रहसि ध्रियतां साधुस्तव गेहे च वाणिका। म्रियतां वसते बुद्धिरस्तु तद्वनलोलुपा ।। (Sic) (II. 3)

Nidralu welcome the guests and explains why the Agnihotrins are so called.

न लभन्ते गृहे यस्य भोक्तुं यस्य निशागमे। वह्नो जुज्वति तद्वेश्म तस्मादेतेऽग्निहोत्रिणः । (II. 4)

1 See Nāțavāta, I. 46 and 47. ª Įbid., I. 48,

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 187

Enters now Krsnānanda and offers 100 'rūpyakas' to Nidrālu for getting rid of his enemy, a Telugu Brahmana. After his departure, the Telugu man enters and offers 300 ' rūpyakas' as a fee to kill Krsnānanda. Nidrālu promises both that he would accomplish their task and gets 400 ' rūpyakas ' altogether. He proudly declares that he has become successful in life by such deceitful means only. A 'karatakaśrotriya' who is among the assemblage, blesses Nidrālu thus ;

पितामहस्त्वत्पिता च यत्र याती नरेश्वर। तस्मिनलोके सहामात्यः सापत्यस्त्वं सुखी भव ॥ (II. 5A)

He then appreciates Nidralu's way of life and says that a life of lust alone is suitable for the Kali age. Then Nidrālu visits the 'aśrama ' of his priest Kāntānanda and submits that he had not met him for a long time. The priest says that he had been engrossed in gambling for a long time. A few more people arrive on the scene. Two of the visitors, Gatakrama and Unmada exchange greetings. Unmada says tht he has been busy with studies. Asked what he has learnt so far, he lists out many non-existing texts like 'paurāpavādaśāstra'. Gatakrama then turns to Piśunabhatta who comes from his native village and enquires about the welfare of his family there. Pisunabhatta informs him that his wife has passed away due to the grief of sudden demise of her son Kulāngāra. The double shock is too unbearable for Gatakrama who laments for a long time remembering the ' exemplary ' qualities of his wife and son.

को द्यूतकेलीव्यसनी गृहोपस्कारतस्करः । वाराङ्गना-रसवशो मामहो नन्दयिष्यति ।।

पादाघातं शिरस्यथ का करिष्यति मेऽधुना । (II. 9)

आघ्रास्यामि मुखं कस्या: पूतिगन्धि मुखं ननु। (II. 10)

Piśunabhatta then narrates how Gatakrama's son died. In order to repay the debts incurred in gambling, he stole gold coins from the royal treasury, got caught in the process and was sentenced to death. Gatakrama laments that his wife is fortunate since she

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followed her illustrious son (in death). Unmada consoles him by saying, 'daivamanukūlam te, yato vadanti 'ekākī nihsprhah śānta ' iti '.

Now Nidraluthakkura calls forth the waiting suitors and orders Prāmśu and Jālma to enquire into their cases and pronounce a judgement. The Judges themselves have dubious background. Jälma is sad that the illegal son born to his wife and the village chief, is indisposed. The enquiry begins now. A vaisnava lady reports that she was publicly raped by the bhujanga in broad daylight. The bhujanga maintains that there was nothing wrong since the woman is his own daughter-in-law. He says,

फलोद्गमे भूर्हाणां वा एक: फलमश्नुते। अस्माभिर्वधिता एते न भोग्या: केन हेतुना।। (II. 13)

The judge appreciates his stand, acquits him of the charge and even presents him with some gold coins. Some more cases are brought before the Judges and in each case, the guilty justify their stand and get released. A murderer maintains that he has been only helping human souls get rid of the bondage of their bodies.

पञ्जरबन्धे भग्ने तद्गतपक्षी विमुच्यते दुःखात्। भग्ने शरीरबन्धेऽस्माभिविहगःसुखं चरति ।। (II. 14)

Unmada recommends that each of these people must be honoured with suitable presents and Nidrāluthakkura too approves his idea. The suitors receive gifts and depart happily. The play comes to an end with the usual Bharatavākya.

5.2.2. Criticism

The play possesses certain peculiarities. The prologue is completely a one-man show as in the Bhana, performed by the Sūtradhāra. In this respect it resembles the Latakamelaka. Another peculiarity is the 'Prastavana' at the beginning of the second act, which is evidently a violation of the dramaturgical rules since 'prastāvanā' should appear only in the beginning of the first act. There are certain undramatic passages in the

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 189

play. Thus we have the stage-direction, 'tatah praviśati vrātyaḥ samithyasarvasvah', but Mithyasarvasva does not actually appear on the stage along with vratya. He makes his appearance on the stage only when summoned by the Vratyabhisak later.

5.3. THE DHŪRTASAMĀGAMA PRAHASANA

5.3.1. Dhūrtasamāgama of Jyotirīśvara is a popular Prahasana from the point of view of the number of editions it has gone through. It has been printed at least five times so far1 and also has been translated into French and Itali an2 The present study is based on Lassen's edition of text. 3 Dhurtasamagama has been analysed by Wilson,3A, Konov3B, and Keith3C.

The author, Jyotirīśvara is considered to be the 'pitāmaha' of the ' Maithila ' literature. His ' Varņaratnākara ' and ' Dhūrta- samagama' are the first works in this vernacular. In addition to the Sanskrit version of ' Dhurtasamagama ' the poet has two other works in Sanskrit to his credit, 'Pañcasāyaka' and ' Rangaśekhara', both of which deal with 'Kamasastra'.4 In the prologue of ' Dhurtasamāgama ', the author gives the names of his grandfather and father as Rameśvara and Dhireśvara respectively. He was patronised by King Harasimha (1296-1324 A.D.).5 This Hara- simha came in the lineage of Nānyadeva, the Karnātaka King who conquered and settled in Mithila. The poet describes his patron as the ' crest jewel of the Karnatas and a destroyer of the armies of Sultan.6 The Sultan referred to here has been identified

1 See Dr. S. S. Janaki, 'Two farces from East India', Sanskrit Ranga Annual, Vol. VII. (i) Lassen, 'Anthologria Sanskritica', 1838. (ii) Chappeller. ' Gurupūjākaumudi ', Jena, Germany, 1883. (iii) from Bombay. (iv) from Calcutta. (v) Dr. Jayakanth Miśra, Maithila Sahitya Samiti Granthamālā, No. 6, Allahabad, 1960. (vi) Analysed by Sylvain Levi, p. 232-233. ª Schuyler, Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama. 3 Text with Dr. S. S. Janaki, curator, K.S.R. Institute, Madras-4. 3a The Theatre of the Hindus, II. 408. 3b Indian Drama, p. 186 ff. 3c Sanskrit Drama, p. 261. Dr. Jayakanth Misra, History of Maithila Literature, Allahabad, 1949, Vol. I. p. 119. 5 Ibid, p 32 Dhürtasamāgama, I. 3.

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with Ghiyasuddhin Tughlak, who in 1324 A.D. marched from Delhi towards Bengal through Trihut.1 It is evident that the Dhūrtasamāgana was composed after 1324 A.D.2

In the prologue of the play, the author describes himself as the venerable teacher of King Harasimha. The title 'kaviśekhara ' was probably conferred on him by his patron. He further says that he was well-versed in music and has mastered several languages and dialects. He was a devotee of Lord Siva. He was a liberal donor and honoured Brahmana poets and the needy.3 He states that he could compose, in a day, 400 ślokas, full of Rasa and Alamkāra.

Dramatis Personae

Sūtradhāra Națī Viśvanagara, the teacher Durācāra, Viśvanagar's disciple. Mrtangāra, the merchant Asajjātimiśra, the mediator. Bandhuvañcaka, Asajjāti's Mūlanāśaka, the barber disciple Anangasenā, another gaņikā. Suratapriyā, a gaņikā.

5.3.2. The plot

Viśvanagara, the vaișnava teacher, is a man of dubious background and sensuous character. In the beginning of the play proper, Viśvanagara is seen conversing with his disciple Durācāra (Bad conduct), who looks rather jaded. On being enquired by his teacher, the student reveals that he has seen a harlot by name Anangasenā in the morning and had been affiicted by love fever since then. The teacher says that he too has been in love with a harlot, Surata- priya. The two approach the house of a miserly merchant, Mrtāngāra by name, seeking 'biksa'. Mrtangāra evades them giving one reason or other. The two get disgusted and resort to the house of Suratapriya, who readily offers to prepare a long

1 Manohan Chakravarti, Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. XI, p. 412.

Annual VII. 2 D. S. S. Janaki, 'Two farces from East India.' Samskrta Ranga,

3 Dhūrtasamagāma, 1. 6.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 191

list of dishes suggested by the teacher. Duracara does not want to waste his time till the dishes are got ready and wants to meet the harlot Anangasena. The teacher too approves his idea whole heartedly. In Anangasena's house both the teacher and the student claim the hand of the harlot and a bitter quarrel erupts between them. Anangasena intervenes and suggests that the matter be referred to Asajjatimiśra. The first Act comes to an end here.

In the beginning of the second Act, Asajjatimisra and his pupil Bandhuvañcaka are seen discussing about the merits of sexual pleasure and stolen wealth. Viśvanagara, Durācāra and Ananga- sena enter now and the case is presented before Asajjatimiśra. The clever Asajjati quashes the claims of both the parties and claims the harlot for himself as he had seen her first in his dream. Meanwhile Bandhuvañcaka drags the girl aside and tells her that he is more qualified than others to be her partner. Finding that they have no chance there, Visvanagara and Duracāra decide to go back to Suratapriya's house and depart. After their departure enters the barber, Mūlanaśaka who demands money from Ananga- sena for the services he rendered to her ealier. Anangasenā directs him to Asajjäti who asks the barber to cut his nails. The barber demands the fee in advance since he is not sure whether his client would survive after being attended to by him. Asajjāti gives him a narcotic drug 'bhang' as fee. Being satisfied, the barber binds the hands and feet of Assajjati and in the process of cutting his nails, inflicts deep wounds in his body. Asajjāti com- plains of severe pain and loses his consciousness. Fearing that his client is dead, the barber flees. Bandhuvancaka unfetters him and Asajjati proudly declares that he has achieved his objective by fraudulent means and that the beautiful Anangasena is in his possession now. The play comes to end with the usual Bharata- vākya.

5.3.3. Hsya in Dhūrtasamāgama

As is usual in a Prahasana of this type, the 'śrngārābhāsá' arising out of the old and so called religious men indulging in amorous acts is the chief source of hasya. A new type of character introduced in the play, is the miser Mrtāngāra. He makes no secret of his intentions.

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व्ययशील: कुबेरोऽपि कामं याति दरिद्रतां। अपि प्राणाः प्रदातव्या नाथिभ्यो धनिकैर्धनम् ॥ (I. 20)

Since philonthropy, a noble quality, is presented here as 'dosa ', this verse may illustrate the Vithyanga, 'mrdava'. The scene where Mrtangāra and Viśvanagara try to outwit each other is quite amusing. Having been informed that Viśvanagara would like to dine in his house the miser offers an excuse that he has been polluted by the ' asauca' arising out of the birth of a child to the female attendant related to the brother of the lady living next door. Viśvanagara says that being a monk he will not be affected by the 'sūtakadosa' and quotes a text ;

न वायु: स्पर्शदोषेण नाग्निर्दहनकर्मणा। नापो मूत्रपुरीषाभ्यां नान्नदोषेण मस्करी ॥ (I. 22)

The undaunted Mrtangara offers another excuse now. He has incurred heavy loss in business due to famine and debts, and so breakfast has been removed from the daily routine.

अनावृष्टया कृषिर्नष्टा राष्ट्रभङ्गादृणादिकम्। वाणिज्यमल्पलाभेन प्रातराशस्य का कथा। (I. 23)

Duracara gets angry at this and blames the Goddess of Wealth for favouring only the underserving. Mrtangara himself then suggests that they may approach Suratapriya and puts an end to further argument on this matter. The humorous conversation between these three may serve as an illustration for the Prahasana element 'vyahāra '.

The glutton that he is, Viśvanagara has no restriction in his diet. For his bhiksā, he just wants ' meat, beans, gourd, vegetables, chillies, fish and peas-all blended together and cooked tastefully and also pancakes, thick milk, ghee, curd, butter milk, fresh bananas and sugar ! Being enamoured of the ganikā, Anangasenā, he feels that by the mere glimpse of her he had attained the fruit of

THB SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 193

all his long penances.1 When Anangasena points out the impro- priety of his act and says that the harlots are only after money, the hypocrite with pretended 'vairāgya', says, 'samnyasīnām asmākam kuto arthasampattiḥ tadasmaccharīreņa yathāsukham viniyogaḥ krityatām.'2 The teacher, Asajjātimiśra, is no less corrupt. By his vast experience in the worldly affairs, he had found out.

तैलोक्ये भोजनं श्रेष्ठं ततोऽपि सुरतोत्सवः। भोजनं वास्तु वा मास्तु जीवनं सुरतं विना ॥ (II.1)

He has a fitting disciple in Bandhuvañcaka, who also declares that cheating others of their wealth and gambling are the only pleasant things in life.3 Asajjati's praise of the 'Indrasana' drug may be cited as an instance of the Prahasana element 'anrtam'. निद्राकरं दोषविनाशहेतुः क्षुधाकरं बुद्धिविकासकश्च । इन्द्राशनं कामबलानुकूलं लब्धं मया दैववशादिदानीम् ॥ (II. 4) 5.3.4. Poetic merits of the work

Within the framework of the flimsy theme of Dhūrtasamāgama, the poet tries to reveal his talents. The second nāndi śloka describes that Siva's eyes blossomed on seeing Parvati's lotus face. On seeing her breasts, his glances put forth bunches and falling at her hips, they became enlarged and so on. वक्त्राम्भोरुहि विस्मिता: स्तबकिता वक्षोरुहिस्फारिताः क्षोणीसीमनि गुम्फिताश्चरणयोरक्ष्णोः पुनर्विस्तृताः । पार्वत्या: प्रतिगातचित्रगतयस्तन्वन्तु भद्राणि वः विद्धस्यान्तिकपुष्पसायकशरैरीशस्य दुग्भक्तयः । (1. 2) The 'upama' comparing the poct's fame to the rays of the moon, is quite appealing.

1 Dhūrtasamāgama, I. 32. Vīthyanga, 'prapañca '. This may serve as an illustration of the

2 Ibid., I. bet. 33 and 34. 3 Ibid., II. 3.

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कर्पूरन्ति सुधाद्रवन्ति कमलाहासन्ति हंसन्ति च प्रालेयन्ति हिमालयन्ति करलासारन्ति हारन्ति च।

शीतांशो: किरणच्छटा इव जयन्त्येतहिं तत्कीर्तयः । (I. 5)

For the lover, his lady love appears everywhere, painted in the sky, as it were, engraved in the directions, reflected in the eyes, tied tight in the mind and appearing like a bee for the lotus-heart. But he does not know where exactly she is.

आकाशे लिखितेव दिक्षु खचितेवाकीर्णरूपेव च दृक्पक्ष्मप्रतिबिम्बितेव मनसि श्लिष्टेव बद्धेव च। सा मच्चित्तसरोव्हे मधुकरीवात्यन्तभावोत्तरी कान्ता कान्तविलासवासवसति: क्वास्तीति न ज्ञायते॥ (I. 17)

Another noteworthy feature of Dhūrtasamāgama is that the Maithila version contains twenty beautiful songs in between dialogues.1 The songs show unmistakable influence of Jayadeva's Gitagovinda. The Raga and the Tala of the songs have also been fixed by the poet himself. The 'mudra' of the poet viz., 'jotika' is inserted in each of these songs. The songs may very well suit the 'lasya' dance that may be introduced in the course of the play. These songs corroborate the poet's statement in the prologue that he is 'sakala-sangīta-viśesa-vidyotana '. One such song is given below. चलसरोज सुन्दरनयने मामनुकम्पय शशिवदने राजमरालविहितगमने (चल .. ... )

रतिपति हुतवहशमने बिसलतिका-मृदुभुजयुगले कामकलामयरसकुशले कामनिधनकल शपयोधरे सङ्गतमुनिजन-मनमनोहरे विश्वनगरमिह भजनमिते कविशेखर जोतिक भणिते॥2

1 See Dr. S. S. Janaki, ' Two farces from East India ', Samsktta Ranga Annual. 2 15th song. Viśvanagara describes Anangasenā, in this song.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 195

5.4. THE HĀSYĀRŅAVA PRAHASANA

5.4.0. Hāsyārņava (Hās) of Jagadīśvara is another popular Prahasana. It has been printed four times so far.1 The following account is based on the latest edition of the text. Wilson,2, Keith3 and Dey4, have analysed this work. Sten Konov5 and Mankad® have also given on account of this play.

5.4.1. The Author

The author of the play, Jagadīśvara Bhattācārya, seems to have hailed from Bengal. Seven Manuscripts of this work are available in the Asiatic Society of Bengal Library and the Sanskrit College Library, Calcutta .? The first three editions of this text were also printed at Calcutta. The oldest manuscripts of this work date back to 1783 A.D.8

Dramatis Personae

Sūtradhāra. Mithyarnava, a Brahmana. Națī Sadhuhimsaka, the Police Chief. Anayasindhu, the King. Mahāyatrika, the Astrologer. Kumativarmā, his minister. Madanāndhamiśra, another teacher. Viśvabhaņda a teacher. Kulāla, his disciple. Kalahānkura, his disciple. Mahānindakācārya, a paņdit. Vyadhisindhu, the doctor. Bandhura, a bawd. Raktakallola, the barber. Mrgānkalekhā, her daughter. Raņajambūka, the Army Chief

1 (i) Calcutta, 1835. (ii) Calcutta, 1872. (iii) Calcutta, 1913, Ed. by Tarkalamkara Bhattacharya. (iv) Chowkamba Publications, Benaras, 1963. º H. H. Wilson, The threatre of the Hindus, vol. II (1836), p. 408. 8 Keith, Sanskrit Drama, p. 261-262. Aso Sylvain Levi, p. 233-234. 4 S. K. Day, Poona Orientalist, vol. VII, 1942-1943. 5 Sten Konov, Indian Drama, p. 186 ff. € D. R. Mankad, Types of Sanskirt Drama. 7 Cf. Dr. S. S. Janaki, Two Farces from East India, Sanskrit Ranga Annual 8 Descriptive Catalogue of RASB, vol. II. No. 5359.

196 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRĪT LĪTERATURE

5.4.2. The Plot The play opens with two nāndi ślokas, both of which refer to the sambhoga śrngara of Lord Siva and Pārvatī. In the prologue, the sutradhära appears on the stage and makes references to the poet and his talents. Then we have a description of the spring season (Vasanta) followed by a reference to King Anayasindhu who appears in the beginning of the play proper.

King Anayasindhu (Ocean of misrule) regrets that he had long forsaken his duties as head of state due to his indulgence in plea- sures. Finding that his court hall is not spacious enough to conduct his assembly meet he resorts to the house of Bandhura, a bawd, under the advice from his minister, Kumati (Evil intellect). He learns that his own preceptor Viśvabhanda (Hypocrite of the Universe) is to come there shortly for baptising Bandhura's daughter Mrgankalekha into the erotic art. The teacher arrives there promptly followed by his disciple, Kalahānkura, (Strife-spruter) and falls in love with Mrgankalekha. Being informed that Bandhura is indisposed, the King calls for his doctor, Vyādhi- sindhu (Ocean of diseases), who is a quack. His medicine can kill even Mārkandeya. Next to enter is a barber, Raktakallola (Blood-surge) whose customers hardly survive after being attended to by him. A customer who had been severely wounded by him, brings his case before the assembly. But the minister Kumati, pronounces the judgment in favour of the offender. There are some more entrants like Mithyārnava (Ocean of untruth), the Police Chief Sadhuhimsaka, (Oppressor of the Good) Rana Jambuka the army Commander, (Battle fox) and the Astrologer Mahāyātrika, each of whom is a misfit for his profession. Viśva- nagara and his disciple clash for Mrgānkalekhā. Bandhura stops their quarrel saying that the Purohita, Madanāndhamiśra (Lust- Blind) who is to perform a 'homa ' in her house the next day would settle their case. The first Act comes to an end at this point.

The second act opens with the entry of Madanandhamiśra with his disciple Kulāla, into Bandhura's house. There is a brief quarrel between Madanandha and Viśvanagara as both try to outwit each other by composing ślokas on Śrī. Krsna. Being informed by Bandhura that he must perform 'kandarpa home' in her

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 197

house, the purohita tells her that he must first give some instructions to Mrgānkalekhā in private. This conceded, he takes the girl to a room nearby, and enjoys her. This arouses the jealousy of others ; the two old rogues agree that both of them may marry the young Mrgankalekha. The two young fellows, Kalahankura and Kulāla, in order to overcome their disappointment, propose to marry the old lady, Bandhura, who is elated at the prospect of having two young husbands. The two young disciples plan to enjoy Mrgangalekha during the day time when their teachers would be out for alms. A priest, Mahānindakācarya is called forth to perform the marriage of Mrgankalekha with the two old men first. When the priest demands his fee in advance, the two teachers ask him to wait for four years. Saying that the bride must remain in his custody till then Mahanindaka drags away Mrgankalekhā. The play comes to an end with the words of Mahanindaka who is elated at his success.

5.4.3. Hásya in the Play

Hasya is evoked mainly through the characters in this play. King Anayasindhuis reduced to a state of a comedian on account of his topsy turvy speeches and action. Dignity and decency are qualities unknown to him. By entering Bandhura's house he feels he has attained, 'tīrthasata-paryatana-punyam'.1 The efforts of his misrule in his country are very well brougt out by the introductory verse at the commencement of the play proper.

नीतिर्भीतिमती दिगन्तमभजत् क्षिप्रं समं साधुभि- धूर्तानां पटुतापरं परधनाकृष्टं न केषां मनः । कान्ता कस्य बलान्न केन रमिता राज्ये यदीयेऽधुना तस्य क्षोणिपतेः समागतिरिह स्थातुं न युक्तं प्रिये । (I. 10)

When he starts out for his ' pauraparicarya ' people appear with empty vessels (instead of the ' pūrnakumbha') and throw the husk of paddy on his head (instead of the rice flakes).2 His chief spy

1 This false praise may illustrate the Prahasena element ' anrtam'. º Hās. I. 9.

198 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITĖRATURE

informs him that everything has become topsy turvy in the state ever since the King stopped attending to his royal duties.

नारीणां नयनेऽञ्जनं न जघने सिन्दूरता मुण्डिते सीमन्ते न च नूपुरी पदयुगे यावोऽपि नैवेक्षणे। वक्षोजे मणिमञ्जरी न चरणे काञची कटौ नाधरे चेत्थं वेषविपर्ययः प्रतिगृहं दृष्टः सकष्टं मया ॥ (I. 12)

Normal acts like men being attached to their own wives, are great offences in the kingdom of this monarch (I. 11) and he resolves to punish the offenders. Since just acts are presented as defects in the two verses quoted above (I 11 and 12) they serve as instances of the Vīthyanga, 'mrdava '.

Fearing that Bandhura might ask for some favour, he seeks the advice of his minister Kumati who, of course, lets him down very badly, by saying, 'nikhile jagati mahāpātakino bhavanta eva, tat sarvān vihāya te śirasi bhavisyati vajrapātah '1 and then suggests that the king must pronounce total submission to the old lady and undergo fasting for three days before her. The king accordingly falls flat at her feet and asks for her blessings. King Anayasindhu is very proud of his palace and the rampart. Since the ceiling has fallen apart in his palace, there is the advantage of seeing the moon and the stars directly at night. The king and the queen have to keep vigil throughout the night since there is the danger of the walls collapsing any moment. Since the whole building is infested with snakes in pursuit of the frogs, one must always keep the snake charm handy.2 His queen is the most beautiful lady in all the worlds and it needs a thousand mouths to describe her beauty, says the minister.

दर्शेन्दुतु ल्यवदनाञ्जनपुञ्जगौरी मार्जारचारुनयना घटपीनमध्या। प्रोत्तुङ्गपीनकुच चुम्बितना भिदेशा त्रैलोक्यमोहवसतिः खलु कामिनी सा॥ 3

1 Hās. I. bet. sl. 14 and 15, p. 15, 2 Ibid., I. 42. a Įbid., I, 43,

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 199

The minister, Kumativarma, gives the following suggestion to the king, when informed that the capital is attacked by enemies, ' deva, sainyam susajjīkrtya prathamato mama raksaņam vidheyam tato devyāh, tataḥ prāsādasya ca. '1 When a citizen complains that the barber used a hook for cutting his nails and that it has got stuck up in his eyes, the minister pronounces the judgment that the citizen must pay the barber the cost of the hook. The Police Chief of the kingdom is very happy that he is relieved of his responsibilities, when the capital is taken over by the thieves. He feels that he is now free to resort to harlots. Ranajambūka, the Army Chief, has an enviable military record. He faints on seeing anything red, thinking it to be blood. सदो दत्तमलक्तकं पदयुगे दृष्ट्वाङगनाया रतो रक्त-भ्रान्तिवशाद्दयेन सुतरां ग्लानेन्द्रियो मेदिनीम्। पश्यन् दर्शनिशा तमिश्रनिकरच्छन्नामिवांशां तथा मूच्छयं भुविका कथा समरतो रक्तास्य सक्तद्विषाम् ॥ (I. 44) The chief 'purohīta', Viśvabhanda, is the foremost among the rogues दिनोपवासी तु निशामिषाशी जटाधर: सन् कुलटाभिलाषी। अयं कषायाम्बर चारुदण्ड: शठाग्रणीः सर्पति विश्वभण्डः ।। (I. 17)

His 'reputation' as teacher is brought out by himself thus, 'asmā- kam mandiram adhyāpanaśūnyam eva vartate '.2 Fully aware of his lustful acts Bandhura blesses him thus, 'putra, madanasamudra- santaranam bhavatu.'3 Being disgusted with his pesterings, the heroine complains, 'mātaḥ eșaḥ vrddhaśārdūla iva galita-nakha- daşano jarā-jīrņa-panjaraḥ atihatavrīdaḥ aharnisam mam vidambayati '4 The ardent disciple, with a dig at his own teacher, chides her, ' Wicked girl, how dare you insult my teacher by saying that he does not have 'lajja'. Even to-day he lies naked on the

1 Hās, p. 44. 2 Ibid., p. 25. 8 Ibid., p. 20. * Ibid., p. 26.

200 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

lap of his mother, full of 'lajja'1 Viśvabhnda is fully aware of his ageing body and unageing desires.

शुक्लत्वं जरसा कचेषु दशना: शीर्णा विशीर्णातनु- स्तंमिथ्यं नयने श्रुती न च वचोलब्धिः श्लथत्वं पले। अस्माकं तु कथं तथापि विलसद्वाराङ्गनालिङ्गन- व्यामोहाय मनः सदैव चलते चित्रं चरित्रं विधेः॥ (I. 40)

Though a 'purohita', he does not perform correctly even the expiation rites. The conversation between him and Mithyāsukla brings out his ignorance in this field.2

He stoops down to the level of fighting with his own disciple for the sake of the ganika. Then he strikes a compromise with Mada- nandhamiśra that they both may get married to Mrgānkalekha. He justifies his stand by quoting Draupadi's example.3

His disciple, Kalahankura, has a peculiar way of pronouncing the ' asirvacana'. This is how the King Anayasindhu is welcomed.

शत्रोरवृ द्विभिरयोवृद्धिर्वृद्धिर्व्याधे ऋणनसाम् । दुर्गतेर्दुमतेर्वद्धिः सन्तु ते सप्तवृद्धयः ॥ (I. 21)

The doctor too gets a similar welcome.4 It is for the sake of Dan- tura that the doctor is called forth. But Kalahankura attributes the wrong diseases to the wrong person and asks for cure. Then correcting himself he reports that it is Bandhura who needs treatment but again attributes wrong disease to her. 'hum smrtam, mahā- vaidya, surata-samara-vimardanāt muņda-pīdāturā bandhurā, tadatra kim karotu ?'5 He vies with his teacher to win the love of Mrgānkalekhā. But he does not lag behind his teacher in choosing a partner. He decides to share the old Bandhura with Kulāla. The two plan to enjoy Mrgānakalekhā during day-time when their teachers would be out for collecting alms.

1 Hās. p. 26. 2 Ibid., pp. 42-43. 3 Ibid., II. 19. 4 Ibid., I. 33. 5 Ibid., p. 35.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 20.1

The quack doctor, Vyadhisindhu is another comic character in the play. His prescriptions are sure to send a man to cemetery. He prescribes piercing the eye with a red hot iron for stomach upsets, drinking of the boiling oil for rheumatism, chopping of legs for elephantiasis etc.,1 True to his name, he is an abode of all diseases himself. His legs are swollen and oozing pus and blood. He is a tuberculosis patient and goes on coughing.2 He proudly declares that when treated by him even Markandeya will not survive.

वैद्योऽहं व्याधिवर्गाणामाश्रयोप्ययशोनिधिः । मया चिकित्सितः सद्यो मार्कण्डेयो न जीवति।। (I. 31) सवोषधानि तिष्ठन्तु चिकित्साऽपि च तिष्ठतु। मम दर्शनतो रोगी किल प्राणविमुच्यते।। (I. 32)

The arrangements for the funeral must be got ready before this doctor is called upon to attend on his patient.3

The barber Raktakallola too contributes to the humour in the play. He boasts that when he takes up his razor, people lose faith in their lives. When he finishes his job, the entire body of his customer will be besmeared with surging blood.4 He will tie the hands and feet of his customers if they begin to cry. When he cuts the nails, they never grow again.

The Astrologer is no less comical. He is named ' Mahāyātrika ' suggesting that the 'auspicious' time fixed by him will result in 'mahāyātra' i.e. death of the persons concerned. He starts his astrological calculations, facing the southern direction which itself is inauspicious. He betrays his ignorance of astrology by his absurd and incorrect planetary calculations.5 What the astro- loger suggests as most auspicious time for the King's departure for the battle viz, the morning of a Saturday falling on a full moon day with 'śrāvaņa' and 'vrścikalagna', portends only total

1 Hās. I. 28. 2 Ibid., I. 30. s Ibid., I. 35. 4 Ibid., I. 38. 5 Ibid., I. 45.

202 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURĖ

destruction. When asked to prescribe an auspicious day for marriage, he says ,

यत्र कुत्नापि लग्ने च वासरे यस्य कस्यचित्। यत्र कुत्रापि नक्षत्रे यद्वा तद्वा विधीयताम्॥ (II. 28)

The priest Mahānindakācārya, too contributes to the farcical element of the play by his peculiar ' asīrvacanas' :

शमशानानलदग्धोऽसि परित्यक्तोऽसि बान्धवैः । इदं नीरमिदं क्षीरं स्नात्वा पीत्वा सुखी भव।। (पुनर्दूर्वाक्षतां आदाय) (II. 30) मरणं प्राणिनां नित्यं जीवनं स्वप्नवद् भुवि। भवन्द्िरिति विज्ञाय कर्तव्या नाव शोचना ।। (पुनरुत्थाय उच्चैः) (II. 31) पितृकाननमेदिन्यां महाशय्यानुशायिभिः । सुचिरं स्थीयतां नित्यं महानिद्रावलम्बिभिः ।। (II. 32)

5.4.4. Poetic merits of the work

Jagadīśvara has shown considerable poetic skill and originality in his small play. Some of his observations are striking, as for instance, 'युक्तं भस्मपुञ्जे सारमेयावस्थानम्।' (p. 34)

'न हि जलोकसां अङ्गे जलोकानां गतिः' (p. 43)

'जीर्णमार्जारं कञ्चिकया प्रतारयितुं न शक्यते' (p. 70)

'अन्यस्य पुण्येन किमन्यः पूतो भवति?' (p. 74)

There is force of emotion in Kalahankura's statement when he laments that the young ganikā is to be married to the two old men,

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 203

इदं पुनरेकं परमं दुःखम्, सा त्रिभुवनमोहिनी वृद्धाभ्यां परिणेतव्या, न हि मालतीमाला वानरहस्तगता शोभते, न हि कस्तूरिकागुणग्रामं कुग्रामिनो जानन्ति, न हि गलितयौवनाया: वक्षस्थले मौक्तिकमाला शोभते। (p. 76)

The heroine, Mrgankalekha affords scope for the poet's descrip- tive powers, as for instance,

अस्या धामसरोवरे भुजविषे वक्तारविन्दे भ्रम- न्नेत्नभ्रूभ्रमरे सुयीवनजले कस्तूरिकापङ्किले। वक्षोज-प्रतिकुम्भिकुम्भदलन-क्रोधादुपेत्य द्रुतं मग्नश्चित्तमतङ्गजः कथमसावुत्थाय निर्यास्यति ॥

स्वादितं सुदशनच्छदसीधु नामरविधुरबुद्धिभिरस्याः । (I. 16)

य द्विधुन्तुदमुखादवशिष्टः पीयते प्रमुदितैर्हरिणाङ्क: ।। ... .(I. 49)

The verse comparing the old lady Bandhura to the rainy season is charming with pun,

प्रलम्बितपयोधरा क्षतरजा विकारास्पदं सदा विगतहंसका तिमिरलुप्ततारारुचिः। तिरस्कृतनिशाकरा गतवया इय बन्धुरा वटो सपदि वीक्ष्यतां जलधरागमश्रीरिव।। (I. 23)

The 'sandehalamkara' in the description of the moonrise is quite interesting.

स्वर्धामामृतपानचारुचषकं किं कामदेवाङ्गना क्रीडाकन्दुक एष किं सुरनदीहिण्डीरपिण्ड: किमु। किं छत्रं स्मरभूपतेः किमु यशःपुञ्जं पुरस्तादिदं चेतः संशयकारकं समुदितं शीतद्युतेर्मण्डलम् ॥ (I. 53)

The sunrise kindles the imagination of the poet in different ways. The sun, having deceived his lady love, the lotus pond, at night, has come back in the morning with a reddish countenance indicative

204 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

of his bashfulness. The lotus pond shows its indignation through fully blown red lotuses. (II. 1)

The inability of the deer of the mind to escape the arrows of the Cupid on the hazardous and uneven terrain of the lady's body set forth in the following verse is comparable to a similar verse in the Latakamelaka. (I. 33).

उत्तुङ्गस्तनशैलदुस्तरमुरो निम्नातिनाभिस्थली भीमं देहवनं स्फुरद्भुजलतं लोमालिजालाकुलम्। व्याधः पञ्चशरः किरत्यतितरांस्तीक्ष्णान् कटाक्षाशुगान् तन्मे ब्रूहि मनः कुरङ्ग शरणं कं साम्प्रतं यास्यसि॥ (II. 9) The quarrel between the two teachers and their attempt to outwit the other by composing ślokas in praise of Śri Krsna, affords full scope for the poet to display poetic talents, and relief to the otherwise stereo-typed theme.

जिह्वेऽनिशं हरिरिति स्मर लोचनं त्वं व्याप्तं विलोकय जगवरिणा समस्तम् । आकणय श्रवण कीर्तिकथा मुरारे र्नारायणं शरणमाश्रय चित्तमुच्चः ॥1 त्रंलोक्यमोलिमुकुटा्धित नीलरत्नं पद्मालयावदनतामरसद्विरेफम्।

कृष्णं सदव मनसा परिचिन्तयामि॥2

1 Hāsyārņava, II. 10. Ibid., II. 11.

B. THE MINOR PRAHASANAS

The Dāmakaprahasana The Gauridigambaraprahasana The Kuhanābhaiksava The Somavallīyogānanda The Kautukaratnākara The Kautukasarvasva The Dhūrtanartaka The Adbhutataranga The Prāsangika The Palāndumandana The Vibudhamohana The Sahrdayananda The Ghrtakulyāvalī The Lambodaraprahasana The Unmattakavikalaśa The Sāndrakutūhala The Dhūrtavidambana The Kukşimbhara bhaiksava The Candānuranjana The Munditaprahasana The Kāleyakutūhala The Subhagananda The Vinodaranga The Hāsyakautūhala The Mithy acaraprahasana The Lokarañjanaprahasana

B. THE MINOR PRAHASANAS

5.5. THE DĀMAKA PRAHASANA

The Damaka Prahasana has aroused a great deal of interest among scholars ever since it was first noticed by M. R. Kavi,1 who atrributed it to Bhasa. There is no mention of the dramatist's name anywhere in the play. Dr. Mankad is of the opinion that it is not a work of Bhasa. He even doubts if this work can be called a Prahasana at all.ª The present estimate of this work is based on the only available printed edition of text.3

The Damaka Prahasana is a very small piece and may not take more than 15 minutes, when staged. There are large scale borrowings in it from Arthasāstra, Svapnavāsavadatta, Karņabhāra and Kumārasambhava. The nāndi śloka itself, is borrowed from the Arthasastra. There is a suggestion of hasya in the prologue which is named 'sthapana'. The sutradhara confuses between the names of the city and the King, (brahmadattangare asmin kāmpilyamahārājasadasi ..... ) which can be noticed in Svapna- vāsavadatta.

The play has three parts, the first part is a monologue where Damaka, a friend of Karna, narrates the difficulties experienced by him in adjusting himself to the new surroundings in Karna's palace. He has now accompanied Karņa to Paraśurāma's hermi- tage. Karna is to learn all the 'astras' from the great master. Damaka could not follow Karna who is on a hunting spree. He says: 'नाहमनुगच्छामि महाराजमिति। मृगपक्षिसंकुलं च एतदरण्यं परिभ्र- मन्नहं बुभुक्षया ओदनमयमिव जीवलोकं पश्यामि। अस्वस्थशरीरश्चास्मि। ..... अहं खलु शृणोमि गन्धं श्रवणाभ्याम्। अन्धकारपूरिताभ्यां नासा- पुटाभ्यां पश्यामि। रैभ्यसगोते ब्रह्मबन्धुरहं यस्य कस्य वा भागिनेयः खलु भीमसेनस्य घटोत्कच इव।'4

1 Paper read at the AIOC, Madras, 1924. ª See Mankad, Types of Sanskrit Drama, p. 63 ff. 8 Motilal Banarsidas, Lahore, 1926. 4 Cf. Mattavilāsa, See above. p. 116 f.n. 4.

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 207

He then turns round to find his bark garment being snatched away by a dog. He chases the dog to recover the dress. Here we have a picturesque description of the hermitage. In one place he says, 'imāśca munikanyakāḥ vrksakān putrakāniva mātaro ghata-stana-prasravanaih vardhayanti. '1

The second part has a very short dialogue between Karna and Paraśurāma (just six lines in all). Karņa expresses his desire to learn archery from Parsurama who accedes to his request after ascertaining from him that he is not a ' ksatriya '.

The third part is a dialogue between two attendants of Karna, Durmukha and Durbuddhi. They discuss about Indra's trick in preventing Karna from continuing his studies under his master and the consequent banishment of Karna by Paraśurāma.

Criticism: The view that the work is by Bhasa can be easily dismissed on the ground that the play shows influence of Kālidāsa. The first part where Damaka finds himself in a similar state as the Vidūșaka in the Abhijñāna śākuntala, reveals traces of humour. There is absolutely no häsya in the other two parts. But the brevity of expression in referring to the whole episode of Karna's banish- ment by his master is praiseworthy.

कृत्तो वज्रमुखेन नाम कृमिणा दैवात्तदूरुद्वये निद्राच्छेदभयादसह्यत गुरोधेर्यात्तदा वेदना। उत्थाय क्षतजाप्लुतः स सहसा रोषानलोद्दीपितः बुध्वा तं च शशाप कालविफलान्यस्ताणि ते सनत्वति ॥

5.6. THE GAURIDIGAMBARA PRAHASANA

The Gaurīdigambara Prahasana has been printed recently with a Hindi commentary 2and the present account of the play is based on this edition.

The author, Sankaramiśra, is a versatile scholar. Apart from the Gauridigambara, he has written two other plays. Krsna- vinodanāțaka and Manobhavaparābhava nāțaka. His other

1 Cf. Kumārasambhava, V. 14. * Ed. by Tarinisa Jha, Chowkhamba, Varanasi, 1969.

208 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

works include the Rasarnava, Durgāțikā, Chandogāhnikoddhāra, Vādivinoda and commentaries on the Vaiśeșikasūtras, the Kusumāñjalī, and the Khandanakhaņdakadya.1 Śankaramiśra hails from the famous village Sarisava2 near Mithila and lived in the 14th century.3 He was patronised by Purusottama Simha, (son of Bhairava Simha) the king of Mithila, referred to in the Rasār- nava.4 The story goes that his father Bhavanātha Miśra who was a great scholar, prayed to Lord Siva and got a son, whom he named 'Śankaramiśra'. It seems that Śankaramiśra composed poems even before he was five years old. Once he surprised the local king with thc following śloka : बालोऽहं जगदानन्द न मे बाला सरस्वती। अपूर्णे पञ्चमे वर्षे वर्णयामि जगत्व्नयम् ।

Being pleased, the king asked him to compose a śloka mixing both the classical and Vedic styles. The boy immediately recited :

चलितश्चकितश्छन्नः प्रयाणे तव भूपते। सहस्रशीर्षा पुरुषः सहस्राक्ष: सहस्रपात् ॥ The Nandi śloka refers to the cosmic dance of Lord Nataraja. In the prologue, the sūtradhära remarks that the poet wrote the play at the instance of his own father. (p. 5) In the opening scene, Nandin and sage Bhrngiriti discuss about the arrangements for the marriage. Himavan's son, Maināka, wants to know the whereabouts of the bridegroom, Siva. Since the marriage is to take place the next day, he has to take the bride- groom to their house in a ceremonial way. Nandin muses within himself on the incongruence of such formalities with regard to his master, स्वामी वस्त्रपरिग्रहेऽपि विमुखः क्षोमैः किमस्मादृशा वृद्धोक्षो यदि वाहनं मम पुनः किं वा फलं डोलया। भस्मैवा(र)ङ्गविलोपनं भगवतः श्रीखण्डपङ्करलं श्लाध्यो हन्त दिगम्बरस्य मिलितः पाणिग्रहाडम्बरः ॥ (śl. 11) 1 Gaurī digambara Prahasana, Introduction, p. 10. 2 Ibid., Introduction, p. 6, (This village has been referred to in a 15th century lyric, ' Bhnrgadāta ' of Gangānanda.) 3 Ibid. Ibid.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 209

Covering up all his doubts, he tells Maināka that his master is engaged in serious discussions with Kubera in his inner apartment. But Siva suddenly appears, fresh from the cemetery, having applied the ash all over his body. Mainaka is shocked to find his would bo brother-in-law in such a condition, उरसि भुजङ्गपङ्क्ति: स्फारफूत्कारघोरा शितिमवति च कण्ठे मुण्डमाला विशाला। ज्वलति महति नेते वीतिहोव: पवित्रः क्वचिदपि जगतीदृग्दृष्टपूर्वो न दृष्टः । (śl. 13) He accuses Nandin that he had lied to him earlier about the qualifi- cations of the bridegroom and decides to leave. Such an ugly personality as Siva does not deserve the hand of his beautiful sister, Pārvatī. He remarks that the sugar candy is never offered to an elephant-' na hi sitā karabhāya nivedyate'. Śiva tries to appease him by pointing out to him his attainments, and how Parvati will be free from worries, if she marries him. गाङ्गं पाथः सुलभमशनं भिक्षया यानमुक्षा वस्त्रापेक्षा मम यदि भवेत् स्यात्तदानीममौष्याः । मुक्ताहार: स्फुरदहिवर: कण्ठ एवाञ्जनश्रीः मामुद्वाह्य क्षितिधरसुता शोचनीया कथं स्यात् ।

शमशाने मत्स्थानं समधिवसतो भङ्गमशनं (śl. 18)

चिताभृति: सेयं परिलसति सोद्वर्तनविधौ। विभूषाहिः कण्ठे विषमनुगतं कज्जलविधी समस्ता सामग्री घटयति भवान्या: परिणये ॥ (śl. 19) These braggings infuriate Mainaka further more and he departs without a word. But Siva is adamant that he would follow him wherever he went and follows him persistently. Nandin hangs his head down in shame saying that he has not seen so far such a farcical 'varayātrā'. Enters Nārada after some time reporting that. Siva took Parvati away with him even before the marriage rites could be finished. How could such an indisciplined man punish his own (Nārada's) father, Brahmā? (Nārada here implies the cutting off of one of the heads of Brahma by Siva). Being requested by Nandi Narada narrates the whole course of the farcical

210 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

marriage of Siva. Even the 'pravara' of the bridegroom could not be pronounced since Siva has neither parents nor grandparents. At the departure of Narada appear two 'pisācas' holding Sumangala, Parvati's friend. Their contention is that since their master has married Parvati, her friend (Sumangala) must marry one of them. On the arrival of the newly wed couple, the 'pisācas' disappear. Now Siva asks Nandin to invite all the gods and arrange for a dance by divine nymphs in connection with his marriage reception. Gauri is happy now that Siva is fully clad in appropriate dress. Siva himself explains the reason for the change in his attitude,

जन्मान्तरप्रणयिनी भवती सती मे दक्षकतो हुतभुजि स्वतनुं जुहाव। तेन त्वदीयविरहा परिहत्य वासो वासो व्यधायि विधुरेण मया चितासु॥ (śl. 33)

The play comes to a close with Siva blessing Parvati, followed by a Bharatavākya. The peculiarity of this Prahasana is that it is the only play in the whole range of Prahasana literature, that has divine characters on its cast. The author is well within the limits of propriety and is cautious enough not to bring discredit to any diety. There is the inevitable influence of Kālidāsa's Kumārasambhava in the play, especially, of the scene in the Vth Canto where the Brahmacarin sets forth the alleged incongruence of Parvati's selection of Siva as her husband. (Compare śl. 14 here and Ku. V, śls. 65-73).

5.7. THE KUHANĀBHAIKȘAVA

The present account of Kuhanābhaiksava of Ayyalunatha is based on the text published in the Malayamaruta1. by Prof. Raghavan. The play has also been analysed by him in the Samskrta Ranga Annual2. The author Ayyalunatha, also known as Tirumalanātha was the son of Bommaganti Gangadhara and is said to have

1978. 2 Malayamaruta, Part IV, Pub. The Rashtriya Samskrt Samsthan, Delhi,

1967, pp. 55-62. See 'Two more old farces', Sanskrta Ranga Annual, No. V. Madras,

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 211

flourished in the court of Singabhupala1 (1381-1421 A.D.), the author of Rasārņavasudhākara.

The Nāndi śloka invokes the blessings of Lord Nārāyana. In the prologue, the Sütradhära and his wife discuss the fate of their daughter who had been deserted by her husband. They are, however, consoled by a lady soothsayer (vipraśnikā) who had assured them that the separated couple would be united soon in the spring season.

The main character of the play is a recluse, Ātmayoni who, ignoring his erstwhile love Sankarakauśikī, loves another dancing girl, Candrarekhā. He engages his pupil Dāmodara for bringing Candrarekha to his Math secretly without the knowledge of one Ahmed Khan who has been keeping her under his custody. Śańkarakauśikī who is sore about the teacher's act, decides to put on the appearance of Himmir Khan, a servant of Ahmed Khan, and threaten the monk of grave consequences if he casts his eyes on Candrarekhā.

Enter then, the teacher, who is in a love lorn condition and his pupil Govinda, into a garden. Candrarekhā and her friend also come to the same garden for collecting flowers. They meet the monk there and offer their salutations to him. After preliminary enquiries, the teacher expresses his desire to enjoy the company of the girl. The girl simply smiles at the plight of the monk and turns back. But Ätmayoni, under the pretext of helping her collect flowers from hig er branches, lifts her up and enjoys the pleasure of touching her limbs. On seeing a monkey on one of the branches, the girl cries aloud and embraces the monk in fear. The monk's happiness is spoiled by the sudden entry of Jharat Khan, a servant of Ahmed Khan, on hearing the distress cry of Candrarekha. Atmayoni hides himself behind a bush and his disciple climbs a tree top. The Musalman, volunteers to drive the monkey away and asks the two girls to go to the Krsna temple nearby. He then goes about beating every bush in search of the monkey and one such stroke hits the teacher hard on his face.

1967, pp. 55-62. 1 See 'Two more old farces', Samskrita Ranga Annual, No. V, Madras,

212 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

.Following an announcement that the monkey has been caught, the Musalman leaves the scene. The teacher and the student come out of their hiding places. The teacher complains that he had been badly stung by the bees that were aroused by Jharat Khan's search and the pupil says that he was bitten by the forest-ants. Even as the two begin to take stock of the situation, Sankarakausikī enters in the disguise of Himmir Khan and intimidates the monk for coveting Candrarekha. The teacher and the pupil defy her and attack her with stones, clubs and shoes. Unable to put up with this onslaught, Śankarakauśikī leaves the scene. Her gait arouses the suspicion of the teacher and the disciple.

Govinda then promises to fetch the other student Dāmodara and goes to Candrarekha's house. Damodara informs Govinda of his strategy by which the teacher can have the company of the harlot. Accordingly the teacher comes there in the disguise of Kaumudikā, Candrarekha's friend. But Ahmed Khan also comes there and he mistakes the monk to be Candrarekha herself and embraces him tightly. Being demanded by him, the disguised monk has to dance. Now Damodara saves the situation by announcing thus from his hiding place : ' Well done, Ahmed Khan ! You are enjoying the company of Kaumudikā. Our mistress is sore about it and has gone to her inner apartment out of anger !' Rea- lising his fault Ahmed Khan feels that he must approach Candra- rekha after her anger has subsided and leaves the scene. Mean- while Candrarekhā who is informed about the trick played by the teacher and his disciples comes out of her house to meet the monk. As instructed by the disciples, she proceeds to the garden house where the monk is anxiously waiting for her. The play ends with a description of the monk and the harlot coming out of the garden house with visible signs of love-making.

As seen above, from the summary of the play, there is not much of originality either in the theme or in the manner in which the farcical elements are introduced. The only novelty in the play is the introduction of Musalman characters. .

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 213

5.8. THE SOMAVALLĪYOGĀNANDA

The Somavalliyogananda of Arunagirinatha had been printed once in 1895.1 But since the printed edition could not be procured, a manuscript from Mysore2 has been used for the present study. The play has been analysed in great detail by Prof. Raghavan in Samskrta Ranga Annual.3 The author, Arunagirinatha,. was patronised by the famous Vijayanagara King, Immadi Devaraya, (1422-40 A.D.). The author was well known for his forceful poetry and earned the titles, Dindima Kavisārvabhauma and Birudakavipitamaha. The other works of Arunagirinatha are the Rāmābhyudaya Kāvya and Mahānātaka-kīrtisudhānidhi.4

The leading characters of the play are, Yogānanda, a recluse, and Somavalli, a housewife. The pseudo monk's attempts to win her love forms the main theme of the play.

In the opening scene the monk is seen discussing with his disciple the means of enticing Somavalli. He is not sure whether his love would be reciprocated by her since she is already married to one Madhavabhatta. His attention now is drawn to the number of visitors he has. Persons belonging to several walks of life consult Yogananda for solution to their problems. In the case of the Jain or the Kapalika ascetic, it is with regard to their illicit love affair with ganikas or housewives. In the case of householders, the main problem they face is the elopement of their wives with somebody else.

At noon, the monk proceeds to a garden along with his disciple. As expected, Somavalli arrives there. There is an interesting conversation between them in which the topics pertaining to ' kāmaśāstra' are cleverly clothed in indirect language referring to certain technical terms of different Sastras. Before they depart,

1 Arsha Library, Vizagptnam, 1895. # Oriental Institute, Mysore, No. 2155. As many as five manuscripts of the work are available, two in Madras, and one each in Tanjore, Mysore and India Office Library, London. Dr. V. Raghavan, ' Two more old farces', Sanskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. V. Madras, 1967. Cf. Ibid.

214 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

they devise a plan to flee the town at the dead of night in disguised forms. But their disguised forms pose problems for themselves in identifying each other. Their attempt to flee the town is finally thwarted by the nig it police squad who wind them up and produce them before the king. The king simply laughs over the matter and recommends that the monk should give up his ascetic life and marry Somavallī. -. Though the poet has not handled any novel theme, he has provided some realistic and humorous descriptions in this Prahasana. This is how an early morning scene is described :

काका मज्जनमाचरन्ति पयसि व्याधुतपक्षाञ्चला: श्वानो वर्ष्म धुवन्त्यमी च भसिताकीणं प्रसुप्तोत्थित: etc.

The play, however, suffers from the usual defect found in the Prahasanas, viz., vulgarity.

5.9. THE KAUTUKA-RATNĀKARA

Kautuka-ratnakara prahasana belongs to the 16th Century. The author, Kavitārkika, was the chaplain of Laksmaņa Māņikya- deva of Bhūluyā (in Naokāli district of Bengal). The work does not seem to have been printed yet though it has been noticed by scholars like Sten Konov1, Keith2 and S. K. Dey.3

The plot4 : King Duritārnava becomes unconscious on coming to know that the Queen had been kidnapped by somebody, inspite of the Police Chief, Suśiläntaka, sleeping by her side. Being re- stored to normalcy, the king intends to hold, in consultation with his minister, Kumatipuñja, the Spring Festival, in which a barlot would represent the queen. The royal priest, Ācārakālakūta, too falls in love with the same harlot, but she simply raises him up- wards and throws upon the ground which causes the bleeding of his nose. The doctor, Vyadhivardhaka, is called upon to attend

1 Indian Drama, p. 186 ff. 2 Sanskrit Drama, p. 262-263. 3 Poona Orientalist, Vol. VII, p. 155. Based on Konov's version.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 215

on him. The preceptor is now accused of having seduced the queen and is pronounced guilty, but finally all the troubles become resolved in the celebration of the Spring Festival. Other characters in the cast are Asubhacintaka, the Astrologer ; Pracandasepha, the overseer of the harem; Samarakatara, the Army General; Ajitendriya, a teacher and Kapatavesadhārin, a Brāhmaņa.

5.10. THE KAUTUKA SARVASVA

Kautukasarvasva of Gopīnātha Cakravartin is one of the popular Prahasanas. Not much is known about the author and date of this work. It is likely that this work was modelled on Kautukaratnā- kara belonging to the 16th Century. On the basis of this assump- tion this work may be assigned to the late 16th Century or 17th Century. Keith1 gives reference to a printed edition. of the work but it could not be procured for study. Wilson was the first to analyse Kautukasarvasva2 followed by Capeller3, Keith4 and S. K. De.5 Given below is a brief summary of the play.6 The hero of the play is a licentious king, Kalivatsala, who is given to every kind of vice. Dharma has no place in his kingdom. The rogues are encouraged and the virtuous are made to suffer. The king tortures a pious Brahmana, Satyacāra who finds that everything is wrong in the state, even the people being cowardly, servile and fault finding. The king has his usual retinue. The Army General uses his sword only for cleaving the butter and trembles at the approach of a mosquito. The priest justifies his misconduct by referring to the immoralities recounted in the Puranas. Prohibition of the enjoyment of the worldly pleasures is the result of the old monks' incapacity to enjoy them. The king proclaims free love but gets entangled in an affair with a harlot. He is summoned back to the queen which so annoys the harlot that everybody in the court go about appeasing her. In order to please her, the king banishes all the Brahmanas from his country since they alone are responsible for the framing of impracticable moral codes like fidelity.

1 Bd. by Ramachandra Tarkalamkara, Calcutta, 1828-See Keith, p. 262. 3 Wilson, The Theatre of the Hindus, Vol. II, p. 410. 3 Gurupūjākaumudī, Leipzig, 1896, p. 59. * Sanskrit Drama, p. 262. 5 Poona Orientalist, No. VII, p. 154 Based on Keith's account.

216 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

5.11. THE DHŪRTANARTAKA PRAHASANA

The Dhurtanartaka was first edited in 18281. H. H. Wilson2 was the first scholar to analyse this work. Sten Konov, Keith and S. K. Dey have given more or less the same account given by Wilson. The present study of the work is based on the photostat copy of a MS. from Bodleian Library, London.3

The author, Samaraja Dīksita, is a well-known figure in the field of poetics,4 his main contribution being ' Śrngārāmrtalaharī '.5 He belongs to the 17th Century6 and was patronised by Ānandarāya the chief Administrator of Bundelkhand. Samarāja has also composed 'Tripurasundarī-mānasa-pūjana-stotra'7 and ' Śrīdā- macarita '8 a play in five acts. In the prologue of Dhūrtanartaka, the author mentions that he is the son of Narahari Bindupurandara and that he has mastered ' Tarka ' and ' Sahitya '.

The play opens with a Nändi śloka invoking the blessings of Śrī Krsna. Śrī Krsna poses as an ascetic in the midst of the Gopīs. One of the girls jokingly remarks that an ascetic need not have a silken garment and drags it and others enjoy the fun.

The hero of the play is a saivite monk Mūdheśvara belonging to the 'vamacara' sect. He is deeply in love with the dancing girl, Vasantavallī. His disciples Jagadvañcaka and Mukhara enquire about his love affair and he obliges them after extracting a promise from them that they would not divulge the secret to anybody.

Enters now Krsnānanda, a vaisnava, with his disciples. He boasts of his mastery of different sastras and says that a host of disciples always throngs at his doorstep for instructions.

1 Ed. Ramachandra Tarkalamkara, Calcutta, 1828. 2 The Theatre of the Hindus, ii, p. 407. 3 Lent to the present writer by Dr. S. S. Janaki, K.S.R. Institute, Madras-4. History of Sanskrit Poetics, Firms KLM Ltd., Calcutta, 1976, p. 311: 5 Kāvyamālā Gucchak, xiv. 8 HCSL, p. 680, para. 757. 7 Kāvyamālā Gucchak, ix. 8 CC, II. 63 : III. 142.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 217

यव नशू द्रकुलाल कुविन्दको दटकृषीवल गोल कशोण्डिकाः। अगणितगणिकाः परिलम्भिताः श्रवणमूलजपान्निजशिष्यताम्॥ (I .- 21)

A trivial argument rakes up quarrel between Pāpa, the disciple of Krsnananda and Mukhara and each tries to establish that his own teacher is the best and in the process proclaim several licentious acts of their teachers. The teacher first scolds his disciple for letting out the secret but himself narrates his experiences at length to Krsnānanda. Krsnānanda reveals that he too is in love with a gaņikā, Padmavanitā. After Krsņānanda's departure, Mūdheś- vara and his disciples proceed to the Math of Sunthakācārya and witness a dance performance of Vasantavalli there. Then Śunthakācārya asks Mūdheśvara to arrange the articles of worship for his 'pūjā'. Several types of food forbidden for religious men, like fish and meat are also asked to be got ready.

The second act opens with a description of the sunset and the advent of night. Mūdheśvara is worried that his beloved has not turned up yet. The teacher bids his disciples to bring his sweetheart there at any cost since the love fever is unbearable for him. Jagadvañcaka meets Vasantavallī in advance and advises that she must ignore the old teacher and accept himself as her companion. Meanwhile, Mudheśvara comes there and both the teacher and student quarrel over the claim for the girl. This brings the police to the scene and all of them are produced before King Papacara. The King himself is attracted by the girl and wants to set her free. A minister, a Purohita and a Vidūsaka are also introduced into the plot without much purpose. Vasantavalli is finally given away in marriage to Müdheśvara, who is acknowledged as a rogue among the rogues.

It is quite evident that Dhurtanartaka follows the beaten track of Prahasanas, and there is no novelty either in theme or in charac- terisation. The play is further marred by long and tedious des- criptions lacking in literary value.

218 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

5.12-17. THE PRAHASANAS OF HARIJIVANAMIŚRA

The Prahasanas of Harijivanamiśra were first brought to light by Prof. Kunhan Raja and Sri Madhavakrishna Sarma.1 The Adbhutataranga, Prāsangika, Ghrtakulyāvalī, Palāņdumaņdana, Vibudhamohana and Sahrdayananda are housed in the Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner. These Prahasanas have been analysed in great detail by Dr. George Artola and Prof. Raghavan.2 In order to avoid repetition, only a brief account of these prahasanas is given below, followed by an exposition of the hasya-rasa therein. Harijīvanamiśra's contribution to the Prahasana literature is significant. He is the only dramatist to have composed six praha- sanas. He was patronised by King Rāma Simha I (Circa. 1635-89) of Ambar, who was an ally of the Moghul Emperor Aurengazib.3 The present study of two of the six prahasanas, the Palandu- mandana and the Vibudhamohana, is based on the text published by Prof. Raghavan in the 'Malayamaruta' (1963 and 1966); a study of the remaining texts is based on transcript copies from the Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner.

5.12. Adbhutataranga

The Adbhutataranga has three acts which have no common action between them. In fact the three acts may be considered as three independent Prahasanas. The only common feature between the three acts is that the scene of action is the same in all of them, viz., the court hall of king.

Act I: There is not much of a novelty in the nature of the characters in this act. We have a foolish king, Madanangavikrama, a hypocritical Vaisnava Brāhmaņa-Gaudarasamiśra, a 'purohita', Vidhavāvidhvamsaka who always creates confusion in explaining the 'smrti' texts, the notorious royal physician-Yamanuja and a few more characters of this sort.

1 See The Adyar Library Bulletin, No. XV, 1951, pp. 68-71. 2 Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. IV, Madras, with the exception of acts II and III of Adbhutataranga and the whole of Ghrtakulyāvali. 3 See Dr. G. Artola, Harijivana Miśra and his short Sanskrit plays, Samskrt Ranga Annual, Vol. IV.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 219

In the opening scene the king enters the court hall and is greeted by Gaudarasamiśra thus 'prārabdhakarmņī vighnamastu'. The king becomes angry and announces that he will be punished for his offence. He requests Vidhavāvidhvamsaka to suggest a suitable punishment. The latter suggests that the vaisnava must take the bed with his wife (Vidhavavidhvamsaka's wife) since he himself has become incapable of satisfying her due to his pile complaint. The anger of the king now turns towards the royal physician Yamanuja who has neglected the royal priest. The king orders that the doctor too must undergo a similar punishment, that he too must satisfy the purohita's wife. Meanwhile the Vidūșaka dressed as a woman, impersonates Vidhavāvidhvamsaka's wife and enters the bedroom along with Yamanuja. The king knows of Vidusaka's trick and is satisfied that his incompetent physician is summarily punished.

Act II : The second act has very little action. The scene is again the king's court. It is reported that one Vajrāntahkaraņa is in love with a girl, Pumprānadhākinī. But she has an affair with her own cousin. Vajrantahkarana has actually seen tbeir love making and has fainted. One of those assembled. Paraduhkhānkura is asked to help him recover. Many more characters appear. The king finally announces that he would bring Pumprānadhākinī to his own harem-thus putting an end to the conflicting claims over her by the others.

Act III : An ascetic, Vaisņavāgamanirmūlaka is a licentious man and is always surrounded by harlots. For him, the ' alingana ' of ladies is the 'snana' and the 'cumbana', the 'acamana'. He spoils young girls under the pretext of 'mantradīksā'. Another Brāhmana, Sistāvistakotpātana Bhattācārya who is jealous of him, reports the matter to the king. The king calls forth the judge Smartagartabhattācārya to enquire into the case. Coming to know that Śistāvistakotpātanabhattācārya does not have children Smärtagarta offers to raise issues for him through his (Siștā ..... 's) wife. Śișta .... becomes enraged at this and the two begin to fight. Meanwhile Vaisnavāgamanirmūlaka comes along with his retinue of girls and requests the king that the girls be attached to the harem since he has become impotent. The

220 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

king is happy at this. Some more farcical scenes like this take place. When. Vaisnavagamanirmulaka and one of the girls faint due to exhaustion, they are mistaken to be dead and arrangements are made for their funeral. A priest and a barber are called forth. For the ceremony known as ' vrsotsarga ', (branding the bulls. and letting them loose) connected with the funeral, the king suggests tbat the two Bhattacaryas who are fat like bulls must be branded and paraded in the streets. The Bhattacaryas suggest that the priest is more qualified than themselves for such a treatment and fighting erupts again and it becomes a free for all. Meanwhile Vaisnavāgama nirmūlaka and the girl regain their consciousness and get up, thus caling off further arguments on the funeral.

5.13. Prāsangika

King Pratapapankti wants to listen to scholarly discussions on the Vedas and the smrtis and the scholars are summoned. One of the scholar, Prakrstadeva and his wife Prakrtipriya are very particular about adding the suffix 'pra' before each word since it gives the sense of 'the best'. The other scholar Keralabhatta is averse to this practice and quarrel erup s between the two. Some more characters are introduced. The husband and a former lover of a lady quarrel over the true parentage of her son. To make matters worse, a monkey enters the court and creates confusion. The only noteworthy feature of the play is the ingenious way the poet has used the suffix 'pra' before each word uttered by Prakrstadeva, resulting in certain round-about expressions, for e.g., 'priye pratihatam te apratimangalam khalu'. The Nāndī śloka itself indicates the predominance of this feature throughout the play.

प्रीतिस्ते प्रभवेत प्रमोदविधिना प्रोद्यत्प्रजापालने प्राजापत्यगुरो: प्रयोगचतुरप्रायस्य हि प्राज्ञता। प्रद्योतप्रकरप्रतापतरण: प्रव्यक्तरङ्गस्य च प्रमृष्टा: प्रतिपक्षिण: प्रतिदिशं प्रायो भवेयुभुवि ।।

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 221

5.14. Palāndumandano

Palandumandana is easily the best among the Prahasanas of Harijivanamiara.1 The names of the characters in this play indicate the vegetables or eatables they are fond of. The play is named after the main character Palandumandana, a Brahmana, who has a craze for onion (palandu), though it is prohibited for a Brähmana.2 The other characters are Lasunapanta (fond of garlic) and Pūrņapolikā (fond of Poli, a sweetmeat). All these and some more people assemble in the house of Lingojibhatta who is celebrating his nuptial ceremony with his second wife Ciñca. The Bengali Brahmanas critisize the South Indian Brahmanas for their preference to the prohibited vegetables like onion and garlic. The South Indians in turn find fault with the Bengali's fondness for fish-eating. The dispute turns violent and the police arrive in time to restore peace. The South Indians cleverly put the whole blame on the Bengalis who are taken into custody by the police. The disturbed Lingojibhatta postpones the 'garbhādhāna' ceremony and the guests leave the house disappointed. In addition to this main theme, there is also a funny account of the love affair of the old Laśunapanta with a young girl.

5.15 Vibudhamohana

Vibudhamohana is written by the poet more for demonstrating his knowledge of the different sastras than for the sake of humour. The names of the characters themselves indicate the branch of Sāstra they have specialised in (e.g. Tarkakarkaśa, Sānkhyānanda, Pātañjalanātha and Vaiseșikabhattācārya). The story is about the difficulties experienced by a scholar, Sakalāgamācārya in meet- ing the expenses of the marriage of his daughter, Sāhityamala. Her six brothers headed by Tarkakarkaśa try to impress the king by the display of their scholarship and win rewards so that they

Ranga, Madras. 1 Adapted for the stage by Dr. Raghavan, put on boards by the Samskrita

.2 Cf. Manu V. 5; लशुनं गृञ्जनं चंव पलाण्डुं कवकानि च। अभक्ष्याणि द्विजातीनां.

222 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

can arrange for the marriage of their sister. But it is the prospec- tive bridegroom, Akhandānanda who impresses the king most by his knowledge of the Alamkārasāstra. The king promises to meet the entire expenditure of his marriage with Sāhityamālā. A noteworthy feature of this play is that a number of 'Subhāsitas ' drawn from various sources like the Mahabhārata, the Hitopadesa, Ratnavalī, Malatīmadhava and the Nalacampu, are quoted in the prologue and elsewhere in the play.

5.16. The Salrdayānanda

The Sahrdayananda is replete with concepts of Alamkārasastra which seems to be the favourite subject of the poet. The names of the characters themselves are significant-Ālamkārika, Abhidhā, Laksaņā, Vyañjanā, Rasapratibandhaka etc. There is neither story value nor any worthwhile farcical element in the play. The later part of the play is marred by obscene passages and action.

5.17. The Ghrtakulyāvalī

The manuscript of this work is incomplete and badly damaged and hence we are not in a position to know even the full summary of the play. From the available portion it is known that the scene is laid in the house of a Brāhmana, Ghrtakulāyākuśala who along with his wife, Patiśīlā, is performing a 'Prāyaścitta'. Many people are invited for the function. Finding that the available money may not be sufficient to cover the ' daksina' expenses, the house holder decides to distribute cowries instead. When even the cowries are in short supply, it is decided that one cowrie should be shared by four people and this irates the invitees which results in bitter quarrel.

Hāsya in Harijīvanamiśra's plays : There is a stamp of origi- nality in the hasya depicted by Harijīvanamisra. It is not the stereotype comedy of a monk's love affairs that we come across in his plays. There is variety and freshness in his approach. There is, for instance, a parody on the Upanisadic style, in the Palāņdumaņdana.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 223

'सूषको वे प्रजापतिरासीत्। तस्य द्वो दन्तावास्ताम्। दन्तेन दन्तेन बिलं करोति, भाण्डं स्फोटयति, हवींषि भक्षयति, यजमानः प्रहरति, चूञ्चूशन्दं करोति, यजमानं स्वर्ग लोकं गमयति।'

According to one of the characters, Laśunapanta (in Palandumandana), even gods and demons add garlic to their food in order to make it palatable. The gods draw nectar from the moon only because it resembles the garlic in colour. The tamarind soup is not relishable at all without the garlic. If there is no sun where is the merit for the moon ?

'तिमिरवधधुरीण उष्णरश्मिः यदि न भवेदिह कोऽस्ति शीतरश्मिः ।'

The merits of the garlic are nicely summed up in the verse :

'अये लशुनपेटिके सकलदुःखसन्त्रोटिके महापथसुघोटिके परमपापसम्मोटिके। सुगन्धहततोटिके परमसिद्धसच्छोटिके प्रसीद परमेश्वरि क्षुधिततृप्तिसद्रोटिके ।।'

The doctor Yamanuja in Adbhutataranga always appears with a blazing log of wood in his hand (suggesting that his treatment would assure the cremation of his patients). He finds fault with the doctors who attempt to cure their patients. He, being a practical man, would rather help his patients attain salvation.

लोका मूढधियो विमूढवचसि प्रामाण्यमेवंविधं कृत्वा दीनजनं गतार्थमपि तं सञ्जीवयन्त्येव हि। अस्माकं तु परम्पराजितमिदं सर्वस्वरूपं फल दृङ्मात्रेण विमुक्तिमेव करवाण्येवंविधं निश्चितम्।।

Some of Harijivanamiśra's observations are noteworthy.

'हर्म्योपरि स्थितानां काकानां कथं हम्यं भवति?' (प्रासङ्गिकप्रहसन) 'न अनृतात् परं पातक, परन्तु अनृतं विना न सांसारिक कञ्चिदपि।' (सहृदयानन्द-Act II)

224 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The Rüpaka in the following verse is interesting :

'साहित्यमपि कान्ताया: कान्तदृष्टेः महाञ्जनम् । रसराशी निमग्नानां व्यञ्जना जीवनायते।। (सहृदयानन्द-Act II)

Taken as a whole, the six plays do not contain much of literary value but the variety in the farcical style is refreshing. Thus we bave a farce in the royal court '(Adbhutataranga), in the house of an ordinary householder (Palandumandan .) and an allegorical one (Sahrdayananda). The author seems to be well informed in different branches of śastras, though Alamkāra appears to be his favourite. Another feature of his plays is the apt names given for the characters though sometimes there are long names. like Vākyārthaparibhrasta, Šistāvistakotpāțana Bhattācārya, Vaișņa- vāgamanirmūlaka and Jagaccarmadandamundasphoțikā. It is painful to note that for all his scholarship and fine sense of humour, Harijīvanamiśra has not raised his prabasanas above the tend ncy of vulgarity which became a regular feature of medieval prahasana literature.

5.18-19. VEŃKATEŚVARA KAVI AND HIS TWO PRAHASANAS

A number of works have been preserved under the names Venkateśa and Venkateśvara. The Lambodara and Unmattakavi- kalaśa Prahasanas seem to have been composed by one and the same author as there is much similarity with respect to the style and subject matter. The author of these two Prahasanas will hence- forth be referred to as Venkateśvara for the sake of uniformity. Venkateśvara seems to have earned the title 'Kālidāsa' from his admirers. The Mysore edition of Lambodaraprahasana gives the title of the poet on its title page, ' śrīvenkateśvarāparanāmadheya kālidāsamahākavikrtam .. .'.1 In the manuscript libraries in Madras, Mysore and Tanjore, this Prahasana is preserved

• Lambodaraprahasana, pub. Vidyatarangini Press, Mysore, 1890.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 225

under several names-Lambodaraprahasana1, Venkateśaprahasana2, Kālidasaprahasana3, and Bhanuprabandha4, which has led to some confusion among scholars regarding the exact number of Prahasanas written by Venkateśvara5. There is a clue to the date of the author in the colophon of two manuscripts of this work6 (preserved under the name ' Bhanuprabandha '). It says,

'आनन्दवल्लीदेव्याः करुणारसेन दुराकटाक्षोमिः। भोसलकुलमणिदीपं सुखयतु शाहाधिपं नित्यम् ॥' (Sic)

It is quite probable that Venkateśvara was a court poet of King Shahaji of Tanjore (1684-1710). The historical campū, Bhosalavamśavali7, was probably written by him in order to honour his patron. Three dramas, Rāghavānanda, Nīlāpariņaya and Sabhāpativilāsa are also attributed to Venkateśvara8. The present study of Lambodaraprahasana is based on the Mysore edition of the text and the four manuscripts from Tanjore.

5.18. THE LAMBODARAPRAHASANA

This play owes its popularity to its pornographic value. Obscenity is noticed in almost all the Prahasanas right from Lațakamelaka in some degree or other. But Lambodaraprahasana surpasses them all in vulgarity.

1 The manuscript on which the Mysore edition is based, See also Aufrecht's Catalogus Catalogorum, Vol. I. p. 542. 3 See Descriptive Catalogue of Madras Govt. Oriental Manuscript Library, Vol. XXI, No. 8525. 3 See Aufrecht, Vol. I, p. 99 and p. 104, under the name Kāśīdāsaprahasana. 4 Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjore, nos. B. 5304, B5305, B5308 and B10660. · For instance Dr. Artola says, 'Venkateśvara has contributed three Prahasanas'. See the article by Dr. Artola, Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. IV. M. Krishanamachariar identifies Lambodaraprahasana with kavikalaśa, which is incorrect. See HCSL, p. 661. Unmatta-

· Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Library, Nos. B5304 and B5305.

No. 3287. 7 Descriptive Catalogue of the Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Library, Vol. VII

8 See HCSL, p. 661.

226 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Vakranāsa, a monk, is deeply in love with a dancing girl, Grdhrī. 'He has fitting disciples in Jambuka and Kāsara. From the con- versation between them in the opening scene, it is learnt that Kasara's wife has eloped with one Dirghadanta, a friend of Vakranāsa. Kāsara is not worried about this since he is after another girl Alābūstanī. Coming to know that Grdhri is likely to come to a garden after her dance performance in the royal court, Vakranāsa proceeds there. But the king who is also in love with the girl comes to the same garden and becomes enraged at the monk's illicit love affair. The punishment is that the monk should be dressed as a monkey and paraded in the streets of the city. When brought to his own house, in the monkey dress, Vakranāsa finds that his wife, Nipunika, has an affair with his own disciple, Jambuka. When his mask is removed, Nipunikā exclaims; कर्मणा वानर एष वेषेणापि कृतस्तथा। मामुज्झित्वा गतो गृधीं यद्राज्ञा बहुमानितः ।

The disgusted Vakranāsa resolves to leave the kingdom and proceed to some other place where he hopes to win the favour of the ruler of that area by the display of his scholarship. With that money he hopes to get Grdhri and thereby achieve his life's ambi- tion. For the time being he decides to share his wife with his disciple, Jambuka. He would not condemn him for his offence since ' yo hi bhuktavantam prati brūyāt mā bhunkthā iti kim tena krtam syāt.' The play has the usual Bharatavakya, at the end.

5.19. The Unmattakavikalaśa The poet gives some more information about himself in the prologue of this play. He was the son of one Dharmarāja and belonged to the Manalur village on the banks of the Kāveri. He was an authority in the six 'darsanas ' and was proficient in six languages. Unmattakavikalaśa was probably his first work and is less vulgar. Encouraged by the reception it had, he would have written the Lambodara. The present account of the Unmatta- kavikalaśa is based on the transcript copies of the manuscripts preserved in the Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal Library.1 ..

1 D4627-28.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 227

The adhama hero of the play is Kavikalaśa, a poet-cum-teacher.

'दौर्जन्यस्य तपःफलं सुचरितस्योत्पातकेतुः कले- रावृत्तिर्दुरितिस्य गर्भसदनं मोहस्य काण्ठा परा। तृष्णाया: परदेवतान्तगिरां सीमा खलश्रेयसां आस्थानं कलशस्स एष कविरित्यायाति मायानिधि: ।।'

In the opening scene Kavikalaśa expresses his fear to his disciple, that be might be in for some trouble since he had seen some bad omens. The disciple asserts that these omens signify nothing but death, and that he need not worry. The teacher then asks him to find out whether he can get some money from somebody to meet the expenses for the day. The student tells him that there is none who is likely to advance him money since he has not cleared the previous loans to them. After all it is his motto that the borrowed money should never be returned.

'ऋणं गृह्ाति निःशङ्कं न भूयस्तत् प्रयच्छति। कलशस्य कवेरेतत् व्रतमारभ्य जन्मनः ॥'

Then the teacher and the disciple take an early morning walk and describe the scenes, witnessed by them-the merchant and the customers negotiating the price of articles, the paurānikas đis- coursing for an audience of widows, the luxurious life led by the mādhavasamnyasins, a fight between two heads of Maths, a bhagavata being dragged to the court by the police for molesting a widow in the temple Mandapa under the pretext of giving her 'mantradīksā' and a few more scenes like this.

Kavikalaśa is then caught by some moneylenders. With, a smiling face be informs them that there is good news for them and presents each one of them with a string of beads. The king has presented him with a village and he would clear their loans soon. Being pleased the moneylenders depart. The next to appear is a Brähmana asking Kavikalaśa whether he saw his wife going that wav. It seems that his wife has eloped with his tenant. Kavikalaśa promises to restore her to him by the power of his 'Kāmakalāvidyā' and extracts a handsome amount from him. Then the teacher and the student enter the house of a barlot and Kavikalaśa enjoys her under the pretext of curing her of some ailment.

228 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The teacher and the student then proceed to a merchant's house for ' bhiksa'. But the merchant wants to evade him and so hides himself at the backyard. The unsuspecting Kavikalasa enters the house and immediately the merchant comes out shouting 'Thief ! Thief !. ' One of the people who rushes to his help is a Pathan who has lent money to Kavikalasa. The Pathan catches hold of his client and demands money from him. As the two begin to fight, the police arrive on the scene and take both of them to the king. The king who is already aware of the licentious lif : led by the teacher simply laughs at the sorry figure cut by him. He clears Kavikalaśa's debts to the Pathän perhaps with the idea that his act of generosity might bring in good sense in him and help him improve his conduct.

5.20. THE SĀNDRAKUTŪHALA OF KRSŅADATTA

The Sandrakutūhala is a four act play and though the poet calls it a Prahasana it is doubtful whether it dese ves to be called so. Only the fourth act shows some signs of Prabasana elements and the other acts have little or no dramatic action. The play has beer noticed by Peterson1, Aufrecht2 and Sten Konov3. The present account of the pley is based on the transcript of a manuscript available in the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Library.4

The author has given a detailed account of himself in the colo- phon of the work. He was the son of Sadārāma and Ānandadevi. He belonged to the village of Tramatiya in the Vajjada district in Mithila. Schuyler assigns him to the first part of 17th century5. The other works of the author are, Purañjanacarita,6 a drama in five acts based on the Bhāgavata and a Prakarana, Kuvalayāśvīya7 in seven acts. In his Rādhārashasyakāvya, he deals with the love

1 Peterson, III, 359, 397. 2 CC, I. 707. 3 Indian Drama, p. 186ff. Descriptive Catalogue of BORI, D, XIV. 238-No. 365 of 1884-86. 5 Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama, p. 63. Cf. HCSL, p. 661-662 : CC. I. 339. The date of the poet is given as early 18th century in HCSL. 7 Ibid. and CC. I. 113.

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 229

story of Śri Krsna and Radha, in 22 cantos and it is accompanied by his own commentary. His Gitaganapati is styled on the model of Gitagovinda. He has also written a commentary10 on the Gītagovinda.

The author seems to be an ardent devotee of Śri Krsna as is evident from the nature of the works mentioned above. Even in the Prahasana the poet has sung in praise of Sri Krsna in the whole of the first act and part of the second act too.Sandrakutūhala shows an interesting account of the transition of values of human life represented by four sets of fathers and sons. Thus the first act stresses the value of the 'bhakti cult', the second act, that of literary pleasure and the third act speaks of the value of a closely knit family life and conjugal love. The fourth act touches on the weaknesses of human beings and the degraded nature of certain sections of the society.

The play opens with three nandi ślokas, all dedicated to Sri Krsna. In the course of the conversation between the Sutradhāra and the nati, mention is made of the poet's patron, Dharmavarman, who was probably the ruler of a petty kingdom.

In the first act the poet brings out the efficacy of ' krsna-bhakti ' through a conversation between two characters, Padmākara and his son Sukhakara. The father answers to the queries of his son stressing the importance of the 'bhaktimārga', the means of obtaining Sri Krsna's grace, the path that leads to his proximity, of the guidelines for 'dhyana' and on how one should employ the limbs of his body in the service of the Lord. In between there are beautiful descriptions of Brndāvana, Govardhanagiri, Gokula- grama and the banks of the Yamuna where the Lord sports. The poet also recounts the playful acts of the child Krsna in the house of Yasoda. The poet laments that people foolishly bring about their own downfall by engaging themselves in 'narastuti ' and by running after the mundane pleasures without realising that devotion to Śri Krsna alone can save them from the ills of the worldy life.

8 See HCSL. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid.

230 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The second act is mainly devoted to the display of talents of the poet . in different .poeticgymnastics like the 'anuloma- pratiloma' technique, verse with just two letters, verse with a single letter, 'pādādiyamaka ', 'pratipadayamaka ', 'pratipādānta- yamaka ', the 'chatrabandha', the 'vyajanabandha' etc. Ksapākara asks his father Prabhākara to compese verses in praise of diff :rent deities like Lord Śiva, Pārvatī, Gaņeśa, Śrī Krsna, Nrsimha, Śrī Rama and the holy Ganges and the father obliges with an array of ślokas in different styles mentioned above.

The third act is in the form of a conversation between Divākara and his son Guhakara. The main point of discussion is about feminine charm. Divākara recounts the happy youthful days he spent in the company of his wife and upholds the superiority of the bliss of conjugal love over other walks of life.

It is actually in the fourth act that the Prahasana begins. In the opening scene, Dosākara and his son Sudhākara enter discussing the means of earning a livelihood. The father bids his son to go to the king's court and win his favour by the show of his scholarsip. The son complains that only 'natas' and 'vitas ' are favoured by the kings but not real scholars. Dosākara is sad at the state of affairs. Then follows an intermediary scene wherein Sudhākara's brother Sūcivaktra appears and narrates how he won the favour of a king by flattering him.

The next scene is laid in the court hall of King Śyamamukha. His chief priest Kutumbakuthāra enters and greets the king in a peculiar fashion. He also blesses the king that he may live long with his son Nīlapāda,

'सर्वदाटनसञ्जल्पं शयनाशनकर्मसु। युवयो: साहचर्यं स्याद्यथा मूत्रपुरीषयोः ॥'

After some discussion on the propriety of this simile, the king announces that his son is going to be married to the daughter of Gotraghātin, Karkaśā by name. The attainments of the bridegroom and the bride are described by the king himself thus :

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 231

अह्मपि बरुडोडस्मि स्त्री च चाण्डालपुत्री यवनयभनजातो बांलको नीलपादः । रजकसंदनपुष्टो भिल्लकर्वर्ततेऽदः प्रकृतिरिह कुले मे निर्मले का परीक्षा ।। (Sic.) माता यस्या: पुलिन्दी नट इति जनक: कथ्यते नाममातं जाता या चर्मका यत् स्वजनविरहिता वेश्यया पालिता या। कीतां दुभिक्षकाले सदसि च जगृहे गोत्रधाती ततो यां तस्यां का वा परीक्षा हयुभयकुलमहाशुद्धियुक्ताऽस्ति कन्या।।

Kutumbakuthāra laughs and remarks 'aho ratnam kāñcanena sangatam.' He then informs the king that a scholar by name Kulakalanka is waiting outside. The king calls forth Dosākara and requests him to test the scholarship of the pandit. Dosākara puts forth certain knotty arithmetical problems in the form of ' prahelikās ' and says that the problems can be solved if one is proficient in the Līlāvatī siddhanta. The foolish Kulakalanka makes no attempt to solve the problems but says he is acquainted with one Lilavati whom he has enjoyed previously.

The king then says that the horoscopes of the bridegroom and bride must be placed before the elders. Kulakalanka suggests a suitable time thus,

आयातु द्राक भर्तृहोनाऽनपत्या नारी धृत्वा भस्मपूर्णमञ्जलिभ्याम्। सन्ध्याकाले जन्मपत्रो सभायां संशोधार्थ कन्यकाया वरस्य ॥(Sic.)

The king then expresses his wish that his son should get five sons in course of time, and the learned scholar says that he would definitely get ' pañcatva ', which means death.

सूनुरुद्वाह्य कन्यकामिमाम् । पञ्चत्वं प्राप्स्यते नूनं नाव कार्या विचारण।

The king then asks Kulakalanka to fix a date for the marriage and he chooses an 'amavasya ' day falling on a Saturday with ' jyestha naksatra' which is most inauspicious for marriage. The king then asks about the things to be got ready for the marriage and the priest starts the list with sesamum seeds which have no place in a marriage but are used only for a funeral ceremony. In the meantime the bride's party arrives. Just before the marriage it is decided to

232 PRA HASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

test the potency of the bride and the bridegroom. When the test is conducted it is found that both have defects in their genetal organs and so it is decided that there is no disparity between them. The marriage is conducted duly. The 'pravara' of both the families as proclaimed by the priests at the time of the marriage is quite amusing. Then comes the 'svastivacana' which is equally funny. मृत्युर्जन्मवतां वीर देहेन सह जायते। अद्य वा श्वो शतान्ते वा मृत्युवे प्राणिनां ध्रुवः ।।

At the conclusion of the marriage the priests ask the king for 'daksiņā', but the king says that the opportunity they had in witnessing the 'potency ' test of the bride and bridegroom must be regarded as their 'daksiņā'. Dosākara gets disgusted with the proceedings and departs saying that being in the company of the rogues itself is a sin and with this the play ends.

5.21. THE DHŪRTAVIDAMBANA OF AMAREŚVARA

A good Prahasana as Dhurtavidambana has somehow eluded the attention of scholars and it has not been printed so far. The work has not been analysed so far in any book on Sanskrit Drama. It has been referred to by Aufrecht1, Schyuler2, Sten Konov3, and Krishnamachariar4. Only two manuscripts of this work are available, one in B.O.R.I.5 and the other in R.A.S.B.6 The present account of the play, which is attempted here for the first time, is based on the former one, wihch is dated 1832 A.D.

In the prologue of the work the author traces the genealogy of his family. He was the king of Brahmapura and belonged to Kaśyapagotra. He was a descendant of Gajeśvara. Gajeśvara's son Dharmesvara conquered the Utkala King Nrsimhadeva. His

1 CC, I. 272. 2 See Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama, p. 69 : the author's name is given here is ' Maheśvara '. 3 Indian Drama p. 186-88. 4 HCSL, p. 699. 5 Descriptive Catalogue of BORI, No. D XIV, 86, No. 510 of 1891-95. € Descriptive Catalogue of RASB, VII. 5339.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 233

son Dhyāneśvara was also a poet and wrote nātakas, prakaraņas and a vyāyoga. His son, Amareśvara, the author of Dhurtavidambana, was well versed in archery and other martial arts, besides being a poet. The date of the author is uncertain. If anything can be conjectured form the style of the work, the author may be assigned to the 18th century.

The Dhūrtavidambana : The plot revolves around a poverty- stricken foolish king, Prajñaneśvara and his equally foolish queen, ministers and other retinue. The king keeps postponing the marriage of his only daughter Muktāvatī, since his treasury is completely empty and he is not in a position to offer even the minimum dowry for the bridegroom. In order to hush up his bankruptcy, he sets an impossible task for prospective bridegrooms that this daughter would be given in marriage only to a man who retrieves the Princess's pearl necklace lost in the ocean.

In the opening scene, the king enters his court room and appre- ciates its beautiful structure. His chief priest, Jibvāsamvalana, who is, true to his name, a glutton, intervenes and says that there is no use in the courtroom unless it is made up of jaggery. He complains that he has been virtually starving for the past two days since his maid servant has not been bringing the left over food from the palace. He also justifies the act of partaking the food brought by the servant maid, which according to him, has been sanctioned by Manu himself.

उच्छिष्टं श्वपचस्पृष्टमन्नं शुनकदूषितम् । दासीसंपर्कमात्रेण शुद्धयतीत्यब्रवीन्मनु: ।

According to him 'parannabhojana ' has nothing equal to it.

न तादृग्रज्यसम्पत्ती न तादक् पुत्रसम्भवे। परान्नभोजने यादक सुखं विप्रस्य जायते।। प्रभाते भोजनं स्नानं मध्याह्ने भोजनं जपः । सायाह्न भोजनं सन्ध्या निशीथे भोजनं तपः ।

He also complains that the consumer articles are in short supply and the shops have been closed down for want of commodities. The king is worried that he may not get enough foodstuff for his own family. The minister, Premakantaka allays his fears by saying

234 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

that such a situation may not arise since there has been a mass exodus of people from the town due to the non-availability of essential commodities. ·

The minister then informs the king that Prince Ratitilaka from the neighbouring kingdom has come to their town along with his friend Lohajanghama. He has seen Muktavati and has fallen in love with her. He has also retrieved the pearl necklace from the sea and has sent it to the king through his friend Lohajanghama. The king wants to dissuade the prince under some pretext or other. He employs a jeweller, Punjīcoraka to verify the weight of the recovered necklace. The jeweller has instructions to steal a few pearls from the necklace and show that it falls short of the expected weight, upon which the king will reject the marriage proposal of his daughter. But his plan fails as Lohjanghama finds out the truth and takes the jeweller to task. Others too join in the quarrel and it becomes a free for all. The minister, the purohita and the jeweller are all after the pearls and the angry Lohajanghama snatches away the necklace. Now the purohit resorts to a different tactics. He says that the Princess is not fit for marriage since there is some defect in her horoscope. He would rather offer his own daughter (to Prince Ratitilaka) whose accomplishments are far superior to those of the Princess.

ब हुलपञ चदशीन्दुनिभं मुखं शिशिरपद्मदलोपममीक्षणम् ctc.

After Lohajanghama's departure, the king feels sorry that if the marriage were to be celebrated with the available resources, he would become a total bankrupt. The only hope in the form of the pearl necklace is also lost. He is consoled by the minister who assures him that he would take steps to stop the marriage at any cost and even if it is celebrated, he would separate the couple. He is after all 'Premakantaka ' and he has the assistance of the royal priest and Pūnjīcoraka.

The second act opens with Prince Ratitilaka and his friend Lohajanghama on the scene. The prince laments that he has forgotten everything about his own kingdom ever since he enter- tained love for Princess Muktavati. The king and his company are utterly foolish and it is very difficult to satisfy them. But he is prepared to make any sacrifice for the sake of his sweetheart.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 235

Now the king and his company arrive along with Muktāvati. The king asks the Purohita to fix a suitable time for the marriage. The Purohita, as per the earlier arrangement, purposely chooses that very same day which happens to be inauspicious. Then the minister and the priest clamour for the cotton cloth to be presented by the king and there is a brief quarrel between them. The king intervenes and orders them to stop their quarrel, and make arrange- ments for the marriage. The priest reads the funeral 'mantras ' and the bridegroom denounces him as a 'brahamanapasada '. The Prince is appalled at the foolishness of the people around him and feels that Princess Muktavati is the only exception.

दुग्धपयोधी जातं यद्वत्सुधया समं विषं घोरम्। .अन्याऽम्तलतिकेयं तद्वज्जाता विषक्षेते ।।

Now it is evident that the king wants to postpone the nuptials as long as possible since he does not have anything to present to his daughter as she goes away with her husband.

Knowing this fully well, Prince Ratitilaka devises a plan in consultation with his beloved and friends. Meanwhile at the palace, the king asks the minister to break the marriage. The minister accuses the Princess of spoiling the name of her family by her illicit love affairs, and makes sure that her husband also hears this news. The minister then ays that he is prepared to perform aay 'prāyaścitta' for the blemish that has befallen the royal family. The royal priest suggests death as the ' prāyaścitta '. After some humorous exchanges it is agreed that the sin arising out of the Princess's act must be divided equally among the four, the king, the queen, the minister and the priest. Meanwhile it is reported that Prince Ratitilaka is dead. The king and his company feel happy that their false propaganda has produced the desired effect and each one takes credit for the success of the plan. Jihvāsamvalana is happy that he has got an opportunity of taking the 'sraddhabhojana', and demands that the Princess should perform the 'śraddha' at once. Prince Ratitilaka, who is not actually dead, comes now in the disguise of a brāhmana ' śraddhabhoktā', and the pincess appears in the guise of Lohajanghama. The priest is enraged at the appearance of a rival ' bhoktā ' and after a brief quarrel the Prince and the Princess make good their escap>. Lohajanghama appears in the disguise of

236 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Muktāvatī. After a small incident which is rather obscene the king hears a tumult in the harem. Lohajanghama has dropped the Princess's dress and has escaped. But the foolish people in the harem think that the Princess had been killed by some unknown demon and go about weeping. Lohajanghama then joins his friend who is waiting elsewhere along with Muktavati. The Prince thanks his friend profusely for his great help and expresses bis joy at the success of his plan. The play comes to an end with the usual bharatavākya.

With most of the later Prahasanas dealing with the degraded life led by pseudo-religious men, the ' Dhūrtavidambana ' presents a refreshing contrast with a new theme. The hasya in the play is evoked mainly through the characters, viz., the foolish king and his counsel. Dhūrtavidambana is probably one of the very few Prahasanas which are fit to be staged. Unlike most of the later Prahasanas, the farcical element is presented with a fairly good story value. The style is simple and lucid.

5.22. THE KUKSIMBHARABHAIKSAVA PRAHASANA

Three manuscripts of Kuksimbharabhaiksava Prahasana are available in the Oriental Research Institute, Mysore1. Among them the one in the Grantha script is well preserved and is largely depended on for the present write up of the play ; the other two have also been useful in fixing the correct reading.

The author, Venkappiah2, was a well known figure during the days of Hyder Ali in Mysore. He started his life in a small way as a clerk in the Mysore Administration. After Krishnaraja Wodayar came to power in 1734, Venkappiah gained prominence and became the Pradhan of the Mysore State. Under the next king Nañjarāja Wodayar too, he held various posts. His sphere of influence ex- tended to almost every field. He even fought a war against the

1 (i) No. P. 2773-Palm leaf-Grantha, (ii) No. SB-192-Paper-Devanagari, (iii) No. SB. 342-Paper-Kannada. For a detailed account of the play, refer ' An eighteenth century farce from Karnataka ' The Mysore Orientalist, Vol. XI, 1978, by the present writer. 2 On Venkappiah's life and works, see M. P. Sastry, Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Vol, xxxi, Bangalore, July, 1940.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 237

Marattas in 1771 and successfully negotiated for a peaceful settle- ment. When Hyder Ali came to power, Venkappiah suffered a set-back in his life. He was stripped of his titles and was trans- ferred to a distant corner of the state on depromotion. He died a sad man.

In spite of his hectic political activity, Venkappiah sparkles as a prolific writer of merit. He has contributed to every branch of Rūpaka excepting the nātaka and the prakarana. His other works include Sudhājharī, a prose work, Kuśalavacampū, Alamkāra- maņidarpaņa, Jagannatha-Vijayakāvya, and Hanumat Satakam, besides a number of works in Kannada.

Opening his work with an interesting śloka on Śrī Krsna's role in the Arjuna-S Ibhadra episode, the author traces the origin of hasya to three Puranic episodes. The play has a Viskambha which is generally prohibited in a Prahasana according to Viśvanātha.1

Kuksimbhara, a Buddhist monk, is deeply in love with a harlot, Kāmakalikā, who is zealously guarded by a foreigner, Śrgālakapi- dhana. The monk's erst while love, Kurkuri, comes to know of this and wants to wreak vengeance on him. She disguises herself as the foreigner, suddenly appears before the monk and takes him to task for coveting Kāmakalika. Meanwhile the real Śrgālakapi- dhäna arrives on the scene and seeing that he is impersonated by somebody, becomes angry and beats up the disguised Kurkurī. Recognising her from her voice, Kuksimbhara goes for her help. Knowing from Kurkurī that the bhiksu is aspiring for Kāmakalikā, the foreigner severely thrashes Kuksimbhara and departs. Mean- while one of his disciples who had been sent earlier to fetch Kāmakalikā, succeeds in bringing her there. The girl is surprised that even a monk is enamoured of her and so, readily offers herself to him. The teacher is happy at the obtainment of ' gurudaksinā' from his disciple and confers the lordship of his Matb on bim.

Within the framework of this main theme are included a number of incidents to enhance the comic effect of the play. The way the Buddhist monk solves the disputes between men of different reli- gious sects is amusing. A Lingāyata, a Kāpālika, a Kālāmukba,

1 See SD., VI. 264-265.

238 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

a Jaina, and a Carvaka are all swamped by the Buddhist monk summarily. His disciples Jambuka and Bhallūka prove a fitting second fiddle. One such situation may be given here as a sample case.

Two foreigners enter quarrelling with each other over the relative superiority of the enjoyment of another's wife and that of a harlot. The first one says that the ' parastrigamana ' is free from the worry of veneral diseases. The other one argues thst in 'parastrīgamana ', there is constant worry about the arrival of the lawful husband. The first one retorts by saying that in resorting to the harlots, there is loss of money and health. Kuksimbhara intervenes and brings about a compromise by saying that there is merit in both 'parastrīgamana' and 'panyastrīgamana'. They are the two ways of knowing the Ultimate (paramārtha).

पण्यस्त्रीति परस्त्ीति पन्था एव परं द्विधा। परमार्थविदां तत्न परानन्दः प्रयोजनम् ॥

Bhalluka finds fault with the teaching of his master. According to him both 'panyastrīgamana ' and 'parastrīgamana' are defec- tive. Enjoyment of the servant maid is the best way since it does not involve any expenditure and is free from the worry of the diseases and the lawful husband or the mistress of the harlot-house. The foreigners appreciate his stand and depart.

The play is replete with good similes, as in,

यथा सुगन्धः पिहितेऽपि तूर्ण पलाण्डुगन्धः प्रसरींसरीति। तथा बहिर्गच्छति गूढवार्ता विरुद्धधर्माश्रयिणां जनानाम् ॥

There is novelty in the nature of characters introduced. For instance the Europeans referred to as 'pāścātyas' or 'hūņas' in the play are introduced as characters probably for the first time in a Sanskrit play. The play is fairly long and employs almost all the well known methods of evoking hasya. The play can be made suitable for stage by removing certain unnecessary scenes.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 239

5.23. THE CANDĀNURAÑJANAM

Caņdānurañjana of Ghanaśyāma is another Prahasana abounding in vulgarity. Ghanaśyāma was the son of Kamakā and Kasī Mahesvara of Mauna Bharghava family. He had two wives, Sundari and Kamalā, both of whom were scholars in Sanskrit and composed a Commentary on Viddhasālabhañjikā in emu- lation of their husband. Besides being a poet, Ghanasy .. ma was a skilled politician too. He was the minister of King Tukhoji of Tanjore (1728-1735). Ghanaśyāma was a prolific writer. He wrote 64 works in Sanskrit, 20 in Präkrt and 25 in other dialects.1 His works include commentaries on Sākuntala, Uttararāmacarita, Veņīsamhāra, Bhojacampū. Kādambarī and Viddhasālabhanjikā. The present work, Candanurañjana, of course, does not bring him much credit. The plot2 : After the formal Nandi, three libertines, Mārjāra, Barkara and Karnaka go on narrating their own experiences with women. A Digambara also enters and joins them in criticising the people they come across, in a vulgar language. Granthaśiśna, another libertine, joins the lot. Märjara and others then see the followers of Madhva and Ramanuja coming to a tank for bath and resort to vulgar descriptions. So is the case with a Gosvamin who is charged with lecturing to widows only on the glory of God. Two others by name Vakraśiśna Bhatta and Takracorāvadhānin come there, reading extracts from a profane text called Mehanaprayoga. Enter then a grammarian, Nijastrītyagin and a logician, Para- strīgamin using vulgar language in the guise of sastriac terminology. Then enter a doctor, Vakradanta and a śrotriya Bhagnadanta with their topsy turvy professional jargon. A poet Tātajātakavi is also introduced to fill the bill. Marjara now recollects that he has to send a girl to an old man by name, Dīrghasephas whose wife is fond of other men. He plans to send Barkara, his friend, dressed as a woman to the old man. The old man really thinks Barkara to be a woman. Then follows a description of the evening. The play ends here abruptly.

1. For further details on Ghanaśyāma, See HCSL, 248. About Damaruka, another interesting work of Ghanaśyāma, see General Introduction. 3 The Present account of the play is based on the transcript copy of a MS. of the work from Tanjore. (No. 4629. See Tanjore VIII. 3620).

240 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

On the whole, it has to be pointed out that there is nothing significant in this play, excepting that the author has a knack of introudcing vulgarity in almost all passages and even in the names of the characters.

5.24. THE MUNDITA PRAHASANA

The Mundita Prahasana of Sivajyotirvid belongs to the 19th Century. The present account of the work is based on a manu- script. preserved in the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Library, Poona.1

Plot : Gandakīdāsa, a pseudo Vaișņava ascetic, is deeply in love with Lilavati, a lady belonging to the Jain merchant com- munity. His daily prayer consists of nothing but an appeal to Śrī Krsna to fulfil his wish, namely, to have Līlāvatī. कृष्णावतारे किल गोपकन्या: सहस्रशः कामितवानसि त्वम् । स्वेच्छामयत्वान्मम तामथैकां त्वद्धक्तियुक्तस्य न किं ददासि। (I. 8)

He would rather stop praying to Krsna who gives only ' mukti'. Who wants ' mukti 'which is bereft of both pleasure and pain and which may have to be compared to the 'ajagalastana'?

अविदित सुखदुःखं निर्गुणं वस्तु किञ्चि- ज्जडमतिरिह कश्चिन्मोक्ष इत्याचचक्षे। मम तु मतमनङ्गममेरतारुण्यघूणं- न्मदकलमदिराक्षीनीविमोक्षो हि मोक्षः ।। (I. 11)

Sages of yore, themselves enjoying pleasure of life, prescribed stringent rules for fellow ascetics. A virulent ascetic like Gandakīdasa need not follow them. He then decides to seek the help of Vitthali, his erstwhile sweetheart and a female ascetic, in winning the love of Līlāvati.

In the beginning of the second act, the ascetic is seen anxiously waiting for Vitthali. She brings the happy news that she would

1 No. 83 of A 1883-84, BORI library.

THE SAMKIRNA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 241

get Lilavati there, under some pretext or other. Gandakidasa's happiness is marred by the unwarranted entry of his elder brother Haridasa, another degraded monk living at Benares. With great difficulty he disposes off Haridasa. But the latter grows suspicious and hides himself in the garden at the backyard of the Math to watch the movements of his brother. Vitthali and Lilavati arrive after some time and offer their salutations to the teacher. Vitthali requests Gandakīdasa to initiate Lilavatī by which she would become spiritually strong. The teacher sends Lilavati to the Math-pond for an ablution preparatory to the 'mantradīksa' ceremony, and enjoys the bathing scene from a vantage point. When the girl is ready for the ' mantradiksa', he convinces her that he must first worship the deity presiding over each limb of her body. The girl is slowly stripped of her dress. The hesitant Lilavati is deceived by the cunning talks of Gandakīdasa, who misquotes some texts to vindicate his stand. He then takes her to his private garden resort for a fuller course of ' dīksā'.

The third act opens with the appearance of a Jaina monk, Bhadanta, who is the family priest of Lilavati. He is worried about the absence of Lilavati at the congregation that day and suspects some foul play. He straightaway comes to Gandakidasa's Math and surmises that the rogue had already spoiled the innocent girl. Finding that he cannot outwit Bhadanta who exposes all his weaknesses, Gandakīdāsa surrenders to him and requests him to prescribe a suitable time for his departure from the town. The clever monk who suspects that he might elope with the girl, sug- gests the third part of the night for the purpose, hoping that they would be wound up by the night Police squad.

Just as Gandakīdasa heaves a long sigh of relief at the departure of the Jaina monk, enters Haridāsa professing to know every act of his brother. He wants to blackmail Gandakidasa that he would report the matter to the king if he is not allowed to enjoy Lilāvati. The clever Gandakidasa pacifies him offering some other obscene concessions, and sends him away. Lilavati is sent home now and is asked to be ready to elope with him at the dead of night. The two prepare to escape as planned but are caught by the Police who had been alerted by the Jain monk. The king too arrives there and enquires into the matter. The king's aide suggests Gandakīdāsa and Līlāvatī be made to sit on a donkey and par

242 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

in the streets of the city. The undaunted Gandakidasa pleads guilty and cuts some obscene joke. According to him, it is a man's bounden duty to give sexual pleasure to a woman and that it is equivalent to ' Īśvarapūjā'.

येन केन प्रकारेण यस्य कस्यापि देहिनः । सन्तोषं जनयेत्प्राज्ञस्तदेवेश्वरपूजनम् ।।

He further says, (III. 19)

स्मरातां विह्वलां दीनां यो न कामयते स्त्नियम्। भ्रूणहा स तु विज्ञेय इति मनुनाप्ययं धर्मोऽङणीकृतः । (Sic.) (III. 20)

The king now asks Lilavati what she would like to do now. She says that she would rather live with the monk since she would not be accepted by her community anymore. In a lighter vein, the king orders that the monk should carry the girl on his shoulders and dance and the latter gladly agrees to undergo this punishment. As he dances, he sings in praise of the king in Dandaka meter. The play comes to an end with the usual Bharatavakya.

Now for the literary merits of the play, there are quite a few verses which are appealing for their poctic fancy. When Brahma created Lilavati's face, his lotus seat began to shrink and he was in a flx. A lump of charming material intended originally for the thin waist was left behind and in utter confusion he made it into two balls and fixed them on her chest.

जानीमो वयमेणशाबनयनामध्यं कृशं वीक्ष्य तं पुष्टि कर्तुमथो धृतं करयुगे गोलद्वयं वेधसा। एतस्या मुखचन्द्रकान्तिनिवहात संकोचिते स्वासने पद्मे तच्चलचित्तवृत्तिवशतो भ्रान्त्या हृदि स्थापितम् ॥ (II. 12)

The limbs of the heroine are fancied as the nine planets in the following verse.

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 243

भास्वन्म खेन्दुकृतमङगलमादधाना सौम्याकृतिर्गुरुपयोधरभारनम्रा। काव्यं धिया मृदु शनैश्चरपादपझ्मा वेणी तमश्चयवती स्मरकेतुयष्टिः ।। (II. 13)

Some of the observations of the poet are noteworthy for their humour, for instance, 'अप्राप्तशाल्योदनस्य कोद्रवा अपि बहुमता भवन्ति' (I. bet 25 and 26) and अपमानं पुरस्कृत्य मानं कृत्वा तु पृष्ठतः । स्वकार्यं साधयेत्प्राज्ञ: कार्यधवसो हि मूर्खता ॥ (III. 6)

The ślokas in the Dandaka meter towards the end of the play are quite pleasing for their sound and sense. To quote just one instance, जय श्रीमहाराज विख्यातकीर्ति- प्रतापैः परिक्षिप्तरात्रीशभानो । विभूषामणीनां रुचा भासितान्त- दिशामण्डल श्रीशभक्ताग्रवर्तिन् ।। (III. 23)

5.25. THE KĀLEYAKUTŪHALA OF BHARADVĀJA

The Kaleyakutuhala probably bolongs to the 19th century. Not much is known about the author. The work was first edited in 1882, in the Kāvyetihāsa samgraha-Vol. 5, from Poona. It was again edited in 1960, from Japan1 (Edn. by Y. Ojihara, Kyoto, 1960). The present account however, is based on the transcript copy of a manuscript2 from the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Library, Poona. The play opens with a nandi śloka dedicated to Goddess Pārvati. After a conventional prologue, the main character of the play,

1 Cf. NCC, Vol. IV, p. 81. 2 Cf. D. XIV, 58, BORI Descriptive Catalogue, No. 116 of 1875-76.

244 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Viratisāgara enters the scene. The pseudo monk boasts of his powers to hold a sway over his disciples and devotees alike. He now awaits his devotees, largely the womenfolk, who are dis- cussing among themselves how they have cheated people in their household and brought valuable presents for their preceptor. Enter now the ladies and offer their salutations to Viratisagara. He correctly diagnoses the problem of one of them, Hemalatā, whose husband has, of late, become indifferent towards her since she has not borne him a child yet. The teacher asks the girl to enter his private room for ' mantra-upadesa ' which alone can solve her problem. Obviously Viratisagara has planned to enjoy the girl under the pretext of 'mantradīksa' but the presence of other waiting devotees for the 'tirtha-prasada' upsets his plan. The teacher says that she may have to wait and Hemalatā takes leave of him.

Enters now Anangasenā, the regular female companion of Viratisagara. She entertains the monk with a Veena recital. A Buddha-bhiksu, who is equally corrupt as Viratisāgara, and a boyhood friend of his, arrives now and reports that he had seen a girl in the house of a merchant the previous day and fell in love with her. He seeks Viratisāgara's advice on how to get her. Viratisāgara asks him to reveal his 'kuladharma' first and the bhiksu too obliges him by saying,

मन्त्रो न तन्त्रं न च किमपि ज्ञानं ध्यानं च नो कोऽपि गुरुप्रसादः। मद्यं पिबामो महिलां रमयामो मोक्षं च याम: कुलमार्गलाभः।।

He also quotes the famous Karpūramañjarī verse, 'raņdā caņdā .. . etc. ', and further says,

मुक्ति भणन्ति हरिब्रह्ममुखा हि देवा: ध्यानेन वेदपठनेन क्रतुक्रियाभिः । एकेन केवलमुमादयितेन दृष्टो मोक्षं समं सुरतकेलिसुरारसाभ्याम्।

Viratisāgara then requests Anangasena to act on behalf of the monk and carry his love message to his beloved. She refuses but the

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 245

bhiksu persuades her. The angry girl slaps him on his face. Reel- ing under the blow, the bhiksu catches hold of Sadānanda, Virati- sāgara's disciple, and embraces him tightly mistaking him to be his beloved. Anangasena punches some more blows on him and brings him back to his senses. The monk feels ashamed for his acts. Being then advised by Viratisagara not to get involved in love affairs but to pursue his religious life sincerely, the Buddhist monk departs.

Next to enter is a merchant by name Kinnaradasa who is worried about his childlessness. Viratisagara advises him to send his wife to the Math for ' mantradīksa ' and asks him to pay a fee of 10,000 gold coins. The merchant agrees and departs.

Enter now Tandyāyana and his impertinent son. The son complains to Viratisagara that his father always beats him up for some trivial reason and asks him whether his (Viratisagara's) devotees receive only such instructions at the Math. The father reports that the boy is negligent in studies. The boy, on the other hand, feels that he has already completed his course of study and is now ready for marriage. The father complains that the boy coughs throughout the night and disturbs him while making love to his wif :. Viratisagara advises the father to be more considerate towards his son. He advises the boy to be more obedient towards his father and then sends them away.

Following an announcement from the 'nepathya', the king and his retinuc arrive at the Math. Tne king offers some gold coins at the feet of the teacher. The monk then blesses the king and asks him the purpose of his visit. Tne minister reports that the king has ben pining for a son for a long time. Viratisagara, as before asks the king to send his queen to the Math for ' mantradīksā'. As the bards announce the advent of ' sandhya', the king and his company take leave of the teacher and Viratisāgara himself rises for the evening worship. The play comes to an end with the usual Bharatavākya.

246 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

5.26. THE SUBHAGĀNANDA

The Subhagānanda1 seems to be a very late work, probably belonging to the 19th Century. The author, Govinda Śrīvatasanka of the Gautama gotra was a native of Kashmir and was the son of Vāsudeva and Mahāmbikā.

The main characther of the play is as usual a 'yati ', Kāmāraņya (Forest of Lust), by name. His illicit love affair with a mendicant laay, Kandūlakaccha has resulted in the latter's pregnancy. But what worries Kāmāranya is that he is not in a position to arrange for the 'Pumsavana Simanta ' function. In his confused state, he goes to a garden and mistakes a she-bear sitting on a tree, to be his beloved and goes to embrace it. The bear pounces on him, badly mauls him and runs away leaving Kāmāranya unconscious. His disciple who happens to come there brings him back to his consciousness.

On the way to a temple nearby, they meet many people,-a Jaina monk, a paurāņika by name Bhattaśrgāla, a doctor by name Rogarāśi, and finally Kaņdūlakacchā herself. One Bhatțarudra enters and narrates how he was duped by a monk who ran away with his wfe. On a closer examination, he identifles Kāmāranya as that monk and Kandūlakaccha as his own wife. As they quarrel, a police officer comes there and orders all of them to proceed to the king's court. Bhattarudra complains to the king that Kamaranya has abducted his wife. The chief judge, Ustrāsya, is called upon to deliver the judgement. Ustrāsya quotes some unknown texts like the 'Ulukasmrti' and announces that since the lady has already entered the 'samnyasasrama' she cannot go back to the 'grhasthasrama' once again and live with Bhattarudra. The disappointed Bhattarudra leaves the scene.

Bhattaśrgālaka then advises the king that he must arrange for the ' simanta' function of the two ascetics since otherwise the king will incur sin. Then Kāmāranya requests that since he is a yati the 'simanta' must be performed in strict secrecy. The king

1 The present account of the work is based on a single manuscript available in the Tanjore Saraswathi Mahal Library, No. D. 4641.

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 247

agrees and orders his minister that the following announcement must be made in the city :

अस्यां कण्डलकच्छायां कामारण्येन योगिना। स्वयमुत्पादितो गर्भः निजाश्रमविभूतये ॥ अयं रहस्यव्यापारो न प्रकाश्य: कथञ्चन। अन्यथा मृतिदण्डे वः स्यातां भूपालशासनात् ॥

Kāmāranya is satisfled and the king orders the minister to expedite the arrangments of the ' simanta ' function. An astrologer is called forth who, as usual, fixes an inauspicious time for the func- tion. A priest arrives and pronounces peculiar ' asīs'. Now one of the invitees, a lady by name Varnagāminī, is afflicted by hunger and feels that she cannot wait till the function is over. She acts as though she is possessed by a spirit and shouts at the top of her voice. Kamāranya, out of fear, asks what 'aparadha ' has been committed by him. The lady says that the presiding deity of the town has not been propitiated by the offer of food articles. She then exhausts all the sweetmeats got ready for the function and departs. With the pronouncement of a farcical ' blessing', the priest concludes the function :

' sarve grahah samavagrahah tadasubhasthanaphaladāh nāśakāriņo bhavantu'.

All the invitees say 'tathastu' and bless the couple by throwing ' aksatas '.

There is a good number of humorous situations and verses in the play. The bear-episode, the conversation between Kandūla- kaccha and her friend in the course of which the latter extracts the truth from the former that she is pregnant, the peculiar descrip- tions of the doctor, the way Bhattarudra is deceived by the antics of the police officer, the farcical 'simanta' function- contribute to the comic effect of the play. This is how the doctor, Rogarāśi is ridiculed :

यत्र यत्र जनता विरला स्यात्, यत्र यत्र कुपिता अपि रोगा:। यत्र यत्र मृतयो बहुसंख्यास्तत् तत्न हि तवैव चिकित्सा ॥

248 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

The king is no less comical. He is described thus :

निर्यद्दूषिकनेत्रलीनमशकामुत्सारयन्नादिनो अत्यस्तेन करद्वयेन वपुषा ग्राम्यं हसन् सूकरम्। आशागर्दभनिःस्वनैर्मुखरयन् भल्लूकवक्त्रः सभा- वेद्यामुल्लसति प्रजापतिरसी युक्तैर्जनैः सेवितः । (Sic.)

He addresses his minister thus :

अयि स्वर्गाङगभरो मे त्वयि विन्यस्त एव हि। वधवां मे जनयापत्यमवशोऽहमितः परम् ॥

The minister replies :

यद्येवं हन्त यन्त्राध: पतितेमूषकोऽस्म्यहं ततः पक्षोऽस्तु पर्यङ्के पूर्वस्ते मयि तूत्तरः ।

The union of Kāmāranya and Kandūlakacchā is extolled thus-

मासोपवासिनी श्रेष्ठा विश्वस्तानां व्रतित्वतः । यतिनस्तत्र गर्भश्चेत् इक्षो: फलमुदीरितम् ॥

This is how Kandūlakaccha is decorated for her 'simanta' function, गर्भभाजनसंवीतां एकनेत्रार्पिताञ्जनाम् । लाक्षारससमालिप्तश्यामाननपयोधराम्।। सुधामक्षीगैरिकादिबिन्दुभिश्चित्रिताननाम्। नासावसरसूत्ाग्रलम्बमानवराटिकाम्।।

The description of Kamaranya when he gets ready for the function is equally funny :

नीलाम्बरपरीधान: कण्ठे बद्धकपर्दिकः । सारमेयसिरातन्तुनिर्मितब्रह्मसूत्रभृत्।।

THE SAMKĪRŅA TYPE OF PRAHASANAS 249

5.27. THE VINODARAŃGA

The present account of the Vinodaranga of Sundaradeva is based on the microfilm copy of a manuscript available in the India Office Library, London.1 The date of the work is unknown.

The main character is a priest, Dhūrtāvatamsa, who is in love with Ragamañjari, the daughter of Lunthakopādhyaya. In the opening scene, Dhürtävatamsa expresses to his disciple, his wish to meet her. Enters new Kalahavrata, Dhurtavatamsa's wife. Being provoked by the student, the irate lady beats up both the teacher and the disciple and drives them away. On their way they meet Ragamañjarī who sympathises with the teacher for the blows he received from his wife and offers to serve him a sumptuous dinner with meat, fish, onions, garlick and all other prohibited stuff. Enters now a doctor, Vaidyapāśa who boasts that when treated by him, his patients would become guests of Vaivasvatapuri (of Yama). Many characters appear now, a saivite, a vaisnavite, a madhva and others. All these people proceed to the house of one Vinodaranga, who is celebrating her 'prathama rtu' (puberty). Many people are assembled there and quarrels erupt. The first act ends here.

The scene of the second act is laid in the court of a local king who is celebrating the 'garbhadhana' (nuptials) ceremony of one of his gaņikās. Scholars in Vyākaraņa, Vedānta, Mīmāmsā and Nyāya discuss the epistemology of their respective faiths (pramāna and prameya). As is usual in a Prahasana an astrologer fixes the most inauspicious time for the function. A digambara samnyāsin is given the first chance to share the bed with the harlot. Dhūrtavatamsa who acts as the chief priest demands a fitting daksina for his services and takes Rāgamañjarī as the fee and departs happily.

1 Skt. MSS. No. K. 7424. See also Aufrecht I. p. 577.

250 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

5.28. THE HĀSYAKAUTŪHALA PRAHASANA

A manuscript of the Hasyakautuhala Prahasana is housed in the Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner1. The author Vitthalakrsna hails from Gokula of the Telugu country, acording to the prologue of the play. He seems to have earned the title 'Vidyāvāgīsa '. He was patronised by King Sujanasimha, son of Paharsimha and probably was a ruler of a petty state in Rajasthan during the 18th or 19th century.

The two-act play deals with a funny account of several rogues and the presentation of their cases before a foolish king, Dhrtarāstra who has an equally foolish minister in Andhabuddhi. The silly nature of the complaints brought before the king and the peculiar punishments meted out to the offernders by the king and the minister contribute to the comic effect of the play. Sometimes men found guilty turn out to be innocent people. One novelty in the play is that the Sutradhara has a role in the main play itself and the Bharatavakya is also pronounced by him.

5.29. THE MITHYĀCĀRA PRAHASANA

The Mithyacaraprahasana2 of Vaidyanatha follows the beaten track of the earlier prahasanas. We have a corrupt monk Mithyacara3 who is in the love with a young widow, a foolish doctor Pranahara, a pseudo philosopher Prajñāndha Daņdī, an ill-equipped astrologer Naksatrasūcī, and ignorant teacher

1 No. 3183. A transcript copy of this manuscript is used for the present account. 2 The present account is based on the Xerox copy of the MS of this

455.) Prahasana obtained from Bombay University Library. (See also Affrecht I,

3 His philosophy is set forth thus. मिष्टान्नभोजनमनुक्रकमलभ्यवामा- डिण्डीरपुञ्जविशदश्च विशालतत्यः । सौधा: सुधाकरकर्णकलिता वलक्षा: पुष्पैरिदं गुरुपदं भुवि नागरीणाम् ।। (Sic.)

THE SAMKIRŅA TYPE OF PRASANANAS 251

Kutharabhatta, and a few more people of this sort1. A farcical marriage between one Panditammanya and his widowed cousin also finds place in the play. All the ingredients of a farcical marriage like the choice of an inauspicious time for marriage (it happens to be an eclipse-day),a peculiar presentation (asmin kanyāpradhānasamaye sahasragrāma-bhiksātanāya tubhyamaham sampradade), the inauspicious 'svastivacana' (acrireņaiya randā bhavatu iyam), the arrangement of the crematory bed alongside the nuptial bed, the quarrel for ' daksina' and the priest eventually taking way the bride as fee-are inevitably found in this two-act play. The literary value of this Prahasana is almost nil.

5.30. THE LOKARAÑJANA PRAHASANA

The following summary of the Lokarañjanaprahasana of Śrīnivāsācārya is based on two incomplete manuscripts available in tbe Oriental Research Institute, Mysore2.

Two Lingāyata samnyāsins, Siddhalingadeva and Kuhanācāra enter the house of a lady Sivadatta for bhiksa and begin to quarrel since each one of them suspects that the other might forcibly enjoy her in his absence. Siddhalinga finally suggests that they both may share her. Meanwhile Sivadatta's husband Gaurīpāda enters the house suddenly and Siddhalinga alone succeeds in finding a hiding place. Kunhanācara is caught and produced in the court by Gauripada. At his departure, Siddhalinga comes out of the hiding place and persuades Sivadatta to elope with him. In order

1 The doctor boasts thus : रोगाभिभूते ममौषधस्य प्रभावतः प्राणिति नैव कश्चित् । उपेक्षते चेच्छमनः कदाचित् परन्त्वहं प्राणहरो हि तस्य ।। The Philosopher says : शास्त्रं कणादमुनिनिर्मितमस्ति किञ्चित् प्राभाकरश्च मम कर्णपुटे कदापि। नैवागतः श्रुतिप्थं प्रति शास्त्रमल्पं कल्यं करोति किल दीक्षितकौमुदीयम् । The astrolger prescribes the day of an eclipse as suitable for marriage. According to the teacher, taking the narcotic drugs, taking liquor, eating meat and deceiving others by uttering falsehoold are the four Vedas. 2 (i) No. SP. 946, (ii) P. 1196.

252 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

to avoid the suspicion of the neighbours, he dresses himself as a woman and both of them leave the house.

Danger comes now in the form of a drunken Musalman, Hammir Khan, who mistakes Siddhalinga to be a lady and wants to enjoy him forcibly. Being not satisfied he demands that the younger girl who accompanied him (Sivadatta) must be produced before him at once. Since she had already run to a safer place as advised by Siddhalinga, he appcases the Musalman by pointing out to a harlot, Durbhaga, who comes that way. Hammir Khan forcibly enjoys her and leaves the scene. The lady then takes Siddhalinga to task and beats him up heavily. Meanwhile the police come there searching for a thief who robbed a merchant. Observing Siddhalinga's disguised form they mistake him to be the thief and take him to the court. Kuhanacara who is already there greets Siddhalinga with obvious glee. The play breaks off here.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

Having thus surveyed the origin and development of the Prahasana literature from several aspects, we may note in conclusion that though the beginning was very interesting and promising, the tempo of Prahasanas had been slowly lost in course of time. The sublimity of thought and style and testraint, witnessed in the Bhagavadajjukīya and a few other works of this class slowly and inevitably gave place to decadence in diction and decency. The decline in the taste of the Prahasana writers reflects the trend of the society for which they composed. Though the poets cannot altogether be blamed for what they gave us, since very often they are found to cater to the needs of the society in which they live, the tendency to overdo things should be attributed to them only The criticism of men in high offices, respectable professions and orders of life, like kings, priests, ascetics and doctors, though started originally with all good intentions of mending the ways of erring men and educating the society against the exploitation by evil men and women, has been over-done in later Prahasanas. Prahasana has thus become an excuse for a writer to criticise very often in unparliamentary language, religious sects, personalities and practices which are not acceptable to him. Such works must have had a limited appeal only even in the days of their composition ; and much more so now, when in a secular society like ours, all religious and linguistic barriers are broken, or are in the process of being snapped, if not completely wiped out. Thus if a poet is really serious, he can reform the society by his thought- provoking theme, sobre language and original approach. No one can prevent him from doing so. Thus even in a late period we have the Madanaketucarita of Rāmapānivāda upholding the high traditions of Prahasana. One salient feature of the Prahasanas from the 7th Century to the modern times is that they reveal, in some form or other, the social and cultural life of certain sections of the Indian society during different periods of history. It is also partly true that some of the Prahasanas need not be seriously taken as projecting different cultural and social conditions.

254 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Some of the Prahasanas are novel and original in their general set up and characterisation. Thus the Kuhanabhaiksava and the Lokarañjana have introduced Musalmans in their cast and the Kuksimbharabhaiksava has two Europeans. The Gaurīdigambara is unique in that it has only divine beings in its cast. There was thus, scope for innovations in the Prahasanas, though many of the later writers allowed themselves to be swayed away by the irresis- tible temptation to imitate the popular prahasanas colourlessly.

As for the practical aspect of the stage-worthiness, it may be pointed out that barring a few stereo-typed pieces of the later times, several of the Prahasanas can be staged. There is evidence that the Bhagavadajjukiya and the Mattavilasa have been quite popular with the Kerala stage from very early times. The Hāsayacūdāmaņi and the Madanaketucarita have been staged evon in recent times. The samkirna type of Prahasanas can also be staged by removing some of the objectionable passages. Several of the 20th Century Prahasanas, which have been listed in the Appendix, were speci- fically written for the stage. The Prahasana allows itself to be easily staged becuse of its shortness, being confined to just one or two acts. While long Nātakas and Prakaranas are presented only in parts, short and humorous plays will have a better reception on the present day stage. It may be stated that Prahasana may be a very effective means of popularising Sanskrit among the general public, especially the younger generation.

Prahasanas in Sanskrit thus form an important and interesting field of study. The account presented in the foregoing chapters is representative but not exhaustive. Several aspects of the Prahasanas can still be studied in detail with advantage. For instance, a comparative study of the Sanskrit Prahasanas with those of the Indian vernaculars, and the Farce in English and other European languages could be quite interesting and rewarding. A comparison of the Prahasana with the Bhäna in Sanskrit itself, in terms of their interaction and influence could again be another field of study. The present account, it is hoped, may kindle interst among scholars to undertake such pursuits with advantage and conviction.

APPENDIX-A

A LIST OF NON-AVAILABLE SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS

1. ĀNANDAKOȘA (Anon.) Probable date : 14th Century or earlier. Reference : Rasārņavasudhakara, Ed. TSS, 1916, pp. 40, 41, 50, 291-295.

2. BRHATSUBHADRAKA (Anon.)

Probable date : 14th Century or earlier. Reference : Rasarnavasudhakara. (According to M. Krishnamachariar, H.C.S.L., p. 699.)

3. DEVADURGATI

Author : Rammoy Vidyābhūșaņa. Probably date : 18th Century. Edition : Calcutta, 1884. Reference HCSL, p. 700, Sten Konov, p. 186 f.

4. DHŪRTACARITA (Anon.)

Probable date : 14th Century or earlier. Reference : Sāhitya Darpaņa, Ch. VI, bet. śls. 265- 267.

5. HĀSYARATNĀKARA (Anon.)

Reference : M. Krishnamachariar (See HCSL, p. 699) says that the work is referred to in Daśarūpaka but it could not be traced in the available cditions of the text.

6. HĀSYASĀGARA

Author Ramananda. Probable date : 17th Century. Reference : Sāgarikā, Sanskrit Journal, Vol. XV, p. 186.

256 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

7. HRDAYAVINODA Author : Kavipaņdita. Probable date : 18th or 19th Century. Reference : Peter Peterson, 1031, CC. II. 234, Schuyler, p. 62.

8. KALIKELI (Anon.) Probable date : 12th Century or earlier. Reference : Bhavaprakāśana, Ed. G.O.S., p. 247.

9. KANDARPAKELI (Anon.) Probable date : 14th Century or erlier. Reference : Sāhityadarpana, Ch. VI, bet, śls. 265- 267.

10. PAYODHIMATHANA (Anon.) Probable date : 14th Century or earlier. Reference : Rasārņavasudh ākara, III. 264.

11. PĀȘAŅDAVIŅAMBANA (Anon.) Probable date : 18th or 19th Century. Reference : CC. I, 336 ; Schuyler, p. 73.

12. SAIRANDHRIKĀ (Anon. ) Probable date : 12th Century or earlier. Reference : Bhāvaprakāśana, Ed. G.O.S., p. 247.

13. SĀGARAKAUMUDĪ (Anon.) Probable date : 12th Century or earlier. Reference : Bhāvaprakāśana, p. 247.

14. ŚAŚIVILĀSA (Anon.) Probable date : 13th Century or earlier. Reference : Nāțakalakșaņaratnakosa, Ed. Chow- kamba, 1972, p. 276.

APPENDIX-B

TWENTIETH CENTURY SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS

A number of Prahasanas have been written by contemporary writers in the present Century. Original and creative writing marks the beginning of the new era in Prahasana Literature. New themes and ideas have replaced some of the old conventions and norms. The association of the Prahasana with the ridiculing of the degraded life led by pseudo-religious men has been severed for its own good. Vulgarity which pervades the medieval Prahasanas is happily absent, almost totally, in the modern Prahasanas. In short, twentieth Century Prahasanas show a welcome change in the outlook of the Prahasana writers. A noteworthy feature of these Prahasanas is that most of them have been written specifically for the stage and some of them have been staged more than once.

Day to day problems of the common man and social evils are touched upon in the modern Prahasanas. We have, for instance, the dowry problem in the Ubhayarupakam and the theme of widow- rehabilitation in the Camunda Prahasana. Some of the Prahasanas have novel themes, as for instance, Srngāranāradiyam (change of sex) and Manoharam Dinam (students clamouring for a holiday). Allegorical themes have also been taken up, on the model of Sahrdayananda of Harijīvanamisra (See above 222) Dr. Raghavan's Vimukti is an attempt in this direction. Some of he modern Prahasanas are translations and adaptations of English or French Farces (for eg. Vaidyabandhu).

The hero of a modern Prahasana is not necessarily an adhama character. We have modern young men with progressive ideas as heroes (as in Ubhayarūpakam). Divine characters also figure in some of the Prahasanas. Historical figures like Hitler, Mussolini and Stalin too appear in one of the Prahasanas (viz., Candatandvam.). There are, of course, conventional Prahasana characters like the gluttons, fake doctors and ill-equipped purohitas.

In the field of dramatic technique too, inevitable changes have taken place. Präkrt is almost totally dispensed with and there is

258 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

increasing tendency among the modern playwrights to use the local vernaculars.1 Not much attention is paid to 'prastāvanā' 'viskambhaka ' etc. There is an increasing tendency to divide the plays into Acts and scenes on the model of Western plays.

The language in modern Prahasanas has undergone slight changes so as to suit the needs of the modern times. New words and phrases have been coined to denote Telephone, Radio, Train, newspaper and the like.

Both conventional and modern techniques are adopted for arousing hasya. We have, for instance, a glutton, giving out a long list of eatables. liked by him (Kaundinya in Kaundinya Prahasana) which is evidently an influence of Dhūrtasamāgama (See above p. 174). There is then the old style of misquoting and misinterpreting well known sayings and rules of scriptures. 'Ekah svādu na bhuñjīta', according to a glutton, means that he must take a large number of sweets and not just one.

There is a parody on the famous song of Sadasivabrahamendra, in

चिन्ता नास्ति किल तेषां चिन्ता नास्ति किल परगृहभोजनपरितुष्टानां नित्यातिथ्योत्सवनिष्ठानां। (चिन्ता ..: ) (कोण्डिन्यप्रहसन)

Humorous similes are also employed to evoke hasya, for eg.,. माषापूप: सुहृदिव शठः क्लेशदायी विपाके साधारण्यात परिचित इवानादरस्सक्तुर्पिष्टे। अस्त्युद्वेगो मधुरविकृतिष्वाप्तवाक्येषु यद्वत् सेवाक्लेशो रसविधुरता शष्कुलीदुष्प्रबन्धे।। (कोण्डिन्यप्रहसन) This is how an irate lady angrily replies when asked why her husband is delaying, ' rātrau bandhanabhrasto mahisah kutra gata iti kena śakyam vaktum ?' (Cāmundaprahasana). For one of the

. 4 Cf. Usha Satyavrat, 'Sanskrit Dramas of Twentieth Century '. Intro- duction.

APPENDIX 259

characters who is not interested in listening to the Puranic discourses, 'ślokāḥ śokatvamāgatāh' has become a fact. Wrong pronunciation of words or wrong splitting of 'sandhi' is another source of hasya, for eg., भवाङ्कुरङ्गे यतमं के वल्य फलदायकम्। न मामि माम कैशानपादपं केरु हंपरम्॥ instead of भवाङ्कुरं गेयतमं केवल्यंफलदायकम् । नमामि मामकैशानपादपंकेरुहं परम् ॥। (लीलाविलासप्रहसन)

Thus we find a happy blend of both convention and originality in the modern Prahasanas and they are a significant contribution to the Prahasana literature at large. . A. bibliographical account of some of these Prahasanas is given below.

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY: OF TWENTIETH CENTURY PRAHASANAS

1. Anukūlagalahastakam1 by Vishnupada .Bhattacarya, pub. Manjūsā, 8. Bhūpendra Bose Avenue, Calcutta-4, 1959. Theme : Divyendrasundara telephones to his . friend Yaminīkanta but gets a wrong number. The person at the other end, a girl by name, Yaminī wants to play a practical joke on the caller. As a result, Divyendrasundara goes to her house in Ranchi and is mistaken to be a thief and arrested by the servants in the absence of their mistress. When she comes to know of this, Yamini apologises to him and at the suggestion of a friend, agrees to become his life- partner. 2. Candatāndavam2 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha, pub. Calcutta Oriental Press Limited, 9, Panchanan Ghosh Lane, Calcutta-9, 1953.

1 Vide. 'A Bibliography of Modern Sanskrit plays ' by Dr. C. S. Sundaram and Dr. V. Raghavan, Samskrta Ranga Annual, Volume III, Madras. * Vide, Ibid.

260 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Theme : This is on the horrors of World War II, introduc- ing Hitler, Mussolini, Stalin and other European leaders on its cast. Allegorical characters like Greed, Anger and Violence are also featured. 3. Caura-Cāturīyam1 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha, pub. Samskrta Sāhitya Parisad, Raja Dinendra Street, Calcutta-4, 1951. Theme : This play deals with how cheats and thieves thrive on the common man. 4. Cāmundaprahasanam2 by K. L. Vyasaraya Sastri, pub. K. V. Ramakrishna Rao, Madras, 1937. Theme : This is on how a village hypocrite Camunda, who hates a widow for growing long hair and for going to London (for her higher studies in Medicine), becomes repentent on coming to know of her noble qualities. 5. Cipitaka Carvana3 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha, pub. Manjūșā, 1959. Theme : This deals with the nature of the misers. 6. Daridradurdaivam4 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha, pub. Samskrta Sāhitya Parișad, Calcutta-4, 1968. Theme : The evils of greed and jealousy are dealt with in this play. A greedy man, though blessed by an Angel with a desire-yielding dice, brings his own downfall because of jealousy for others. 7. Dhruvāvatāra5 by Skanda Sankara Khot, pub. Kamala Khot, Dhanatolika, Nagpur. Theme : Depicts how the present day boys have funny ideas about legendary flgures like Dhruva. 8. Hā Hanta Sarade6 : by Skanda Sankara Knot, pub. Kamala Khot, Nagpur.

1 Vide, Smskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III. 2 See Sāgarikā, Samskrta Journal, Vol. XVI-i, p. 76. Vide, Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III. 4 See Sāgarikā, Vol. XVI-i, p. 39. 5 Cf. Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III. Cf. Ibid.

APPENDIX 261

Theme : Deals with the difficulties faced by scholars married to illiterate women. 9. Kaundinya Prahasana1 by Y. Mahalinga Sastri, pub. by the author, Madras, 1930. Theme : A farcical episode of how a gluttonous Brahmana cheats householders and dines at their cost. 10. Kāñcanamālā2: by Surendra Mohana Pancatirtha, pub. Manjūșā, 1955. Theme : This deals with how a woman, greedy after gold, finally realises the futility of money. 11. Kşutakşemīya3 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha, pub. Manjūșa, 1956. Theme : A niggard who has amassed much wealtb by blackmarketing and other underhand dealings outwits even Yama in the other world and obtains a fresh lease of life. . 12. Līlāvilāsaprahasana4 by K. L. Vyasaraya Sastri, pub· Subramanya Vadyar and sons, Kalpati, Palghat, Kerala. Theme : Deals with how certain parents want to wash their hands off their daughter by getting her married to somebody without looking into the attainments of the bridegroom. 13. Manoharam Dinam5 by A. R. Hebare, Samskrta Sahitya Parisad, 1941. Theme : Concerns with how school boys try to get a holiday declared by the Headmaster. 14. Manikāňcanasamanvayah6 by Vishnupada Bhattacharya. Theme : Deals with the exploits of two rogues. 15. Navodhā vadhūh varaśca7 by Pattabhiram Sastri of Calcutta University.

1 Cf. Usha Satyavrat, Twentieth Century Sanskrit Dramas, p. 175. ' Cf. Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III. Ibid. See Usha Satyavrat, Delhi UniversityJournal, Vol. II, 1973. Cf. Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III. :* See Sāgarīkā, XVI-i, p. 113. 7 Ibid., p. 196.

262 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LIERATURE

Theme : The nuptials of a newly wedded couple is delayed due to various reasons. At last when it takes place the husband is shocked to find that his wife is a eunuch. 16. Nātye ca dakşā vayam1: by Kshirasagara. Theme : The stage director of drama troupe arranges for a performance of Vikramorvasīya. But he is faced with numerous problems. When the situation becomes utterly hopeless, he prays to the presiding diety of drama to save him. 17. Rāga-virāga2 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha, pub. Samskrta Pratibhā, Sāhitya Academy, New Delhi, 1959. Theme : Deals with how a king who is averse to music banishes all those who sing from his country and how he is reformed on hearing the captivating music of a couple. 18. Svargīyaprahasana3 by Cattópadyaya. Theme : Describes an imaginary situation on how there is clamour for power even among gods in heaven. 19. Śrngāranāradīyam4 by Y. Mahalinga Sastri, pub. by the author, Madras, 1956. Theme : Based on the Puranic story of change of sex of Nārada. 20. Tīrthayātrāprahasana5 by Ramkuber Malaviya, Benaras. Theme : Describe the funny experiences of people going on a pilgrimage. 21. Ubhayarupakam6 by Y. Mahalinga Sastri pub. the author, Madras, 1962. Theme : A villager wants to get his college educated: son married to illiterate daugher of a wealthy man, for a huge dowry. The boy, however, is interested in one of his qwn

1 See Sāgarikā, Vol. XVI-i, p. 205. 2 Cf. Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III. 3 See Sāgarīkā, XVI-i, p. 68. See Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III and ' Twentieth Century Sanskrit Drama' by Usha Satyavrat. 5 See Sāgarikā, XVI, ii, p. 203. Ubhayarūpakam, See Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol: III and also: Usha Satyavrat's 'Twentieth Century Sanskrit Dramas'. P. 179.

APPENDIX 263

class mates. The farcical element of the play is best revealed in the scene where the passage 'To be or not to be ', of Shakespeare's Hamlet is mistaken to be a suicide letter left by the boy. All ends well when the actual letter left by the boy is traced. 22. Vaidya-bandhuh1 by Prof. V. S. Venkataraghavachariar, No. 1, Station Road, Tambaram Sanatorium, Madras. Theme : This is adapted from Molieres' 'The physician in spite of himself', dealing with the eccentricities of a quack doctor. 23. Vana-bhojanam2 by Srijiva Nyayatirtha. Theme : Six boys go on an excursion to the woods nearby and prepare their lunch there. On hearing some peculiar noise, the boys mistake it to be that of a tiger and run away. One of the boys, who is the cause of the mischief, comes in the disguise of a samnyasin in the evening and eats away the delicious dishes. 24. Vimuktih3 by Dr. V. Rahavan, pub. Samakrya Pratibhā. Vol. JV, pt. i. Theme : An allegorical play describing how a brāhamna succeeds in bringing his quarrelsome wife, wagabond sons and others, under his control. The allegory is in the identi- fication of the brahmana with the soul, his six sons with the six sense organs (including the 'manas ') his wife with 'nature ' and his mother-in-law with the 'maya', ilusion. His ultimate success indicates the lib ration of the soul from the wordly bondages. 25. Vivāha-vidambana4 by Srijiva Nyayatīrtha, pub. Samskrta Pratibhā. Theme : A one act farce dealing with an old man's craving to look young and vigorous and to get married with the

1 Cyclostyled copy of the play ' Vaidya-bandhuh ' is available with the author. 2 Vanabhojanam, See Sāgarikā, Vol. XVI, i. 'p. 40. 3 On Vimuktih, see Usha Satyvrat's 'Twentieth Century Sanskrit Plays', p. 194 f. 4 Cf. Samskrta Ranga Annual, Vol. III.

264 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

help of a broker. in the end, his plans are foiled by the broker himself. 26. Vestana-vyāyoga1 by Virendrakumara Bhattacharya pub. Samskrta Sāhitya Perișad, Calcutta-4, 1971. Theme : Deals with the Gherao and the difficulties faced by the employers and employees in the process.

1 See Sāgarīkā, Vol. XXV-i. D. 72.

APPENDIX-C

PRAHASANAS IN OTHER INDIAN LANGUAGES

Prahasanas are of very late origin in the Indian vernaculars, and the earlier ones among them are clearly influenced by the Sanskrit Prahasanas. In Hindi for instance, we have a 19th century Prahasana named Andher-Nahari (Dark City) by Bharatendu Harischandra.1 The hero of the play, a foolish king, Caupattarāja by name, is a replica of King Anayasindhu of Hasyarnava. One of his subjects complains that his goat is killed by the collapse of the wall of the neighbour's house. The neighbour puts the blame on the mason who built his house; the mason blames his assistant and so on. The charge finally falls on the Kothwal (a petty officer) who is sentenced to death by hanging. But when the executioners report to the King that the noose is too big for the lean Kothwal, the King orders his men to get hold of anyone in the city whose neck fits in the noose. The soldiers catch hold of an innocent young student and are about to hang him. The teacher of the student, an ascetic, arrives along with another disciple of his and volunteers to hang himself in lieu of his student. Meantime the King comes there. The ascetic teacher tells the king that he, along with his two disciples would like to be hanged that very day, since one who dies that day would directly go to Vaikuntha. The minister, the Kothwal and every- body else clamour to get hanged now. But the King silences them all and says that being the first citizen, he alone would get hanged and go to Vaikuntha. So saying, he goes to the gallows.

Vaidiki Himsā Himsā Bhavati is another play by the same author.2 The title itself is in Sanskrit and a number of quotations from the Smrtis and other texts are found in the body of the play.

1 See Bharatendu Granthavali. Vol. I. Ed. Vrajaratnadass, Banaras, 1950, p. 355. Ibid., p. 70.

266 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

King Grdhrarāja feels like eating a very delicious fish and his purohita also joins him. Being asked how he could take fish, being a brahman, the purohita replies :

केचिद् वदन्त्यमृतमस्ति सुरालयेषु केचिद् वदन्ति वनिताधर पल्लवेषु। ब्रूमो वयं सकलशास्त्रविचारदक्षा: जम्बीरनीरपरिपूरितमत्स्यखण्डे।।

He also quotes 'pañca pañcanakhah bhaksyāh' in support. The King then orders that a big bali of goats and birds be made at a sacrifice to be held the next day in his palace. The purohita is overjoyed at the prospect of his having a sumptuous feast.

Enters then a Bengali Vaisnava announcing :

पतिहीना तु या नारी पत्नीहीनस्तु यः पुमान्। उभाभ्यां षण्डरण्डाभ्यां न दोषो मनुरब्रवीत् ।।

Among the several persons that attend the yajña is a Vidūsaka. He tells the Vedantin that he being a 'Be-Dantin' (one without teeth), cannot relish the meat served on the occasion. The Bengali maintains that fish-eating is not prohibited in scriptures. The king and his minister extol liquor, explaining the Gīta passage ' madyājī mām namaskuru' as ' madya-ājī', instead of ' mad-yājī '. The next scene is laid in the court of Yama, God of Death where the King and his retinue are seen. Citragupta lists their misdeeds and they misquote scriptural passages profusely to justify their own deeds while on earth.

These comedy-oriented plays of Bharatendu Harischandra are actually called Prahasanas. Apart from these there is a large number of humorous short plays in Hindi. Farcical element is e vident in a number of modern Hindi plays. .... The Prahasanas of Rajasekhara Bose are very popular in con- temporary Bengali literature. The farce 'Virinci Baba' for instance, deals with the atrocities of a hypocrite in the guise of a saint. There is another farce by the same author, the Cikitsā Saughat, in which a middle-aged bachelor millionaire is troubled by an unknown malady. No doctor could cure him. Ultimately

APPENDIX 267

a lady doctor diagnoses the case and prescribes that he needs a partner of life. She herself offers to marry him.

In the Marathi literature also Prahasanas are later in origin. In one Prahasana a few Brahmanas including a Station Master pose as very orthodox people. They however, stealthily open an unclaimed railway parcel and eat up the sweets therein. Later some Harijans come there and claim that parcel as theirs. The parcel contained the left-over sweets of a grand dinner held in the Nizam's palace at Hyderabad, sent to them by their relative employed in the palace. The so-called orthodox people simply shake off their heads and refuse to believe in what they heard.

Stage drama had a revival during the 20th century in Tamil Nadu. Farcical plays have a good reception on the present day stage. For example, the 'Honeymoon Couple' (English title) is a modern farce about a middle-aged man forcing his wife to make a honeymoon trip, several years after their marriage.

The era of Prahasanas in Telugu was started in the 19th century by Kandukūri Vīreśalingam Pantulu, who has to his credit nearly 50 Prahasanas. These plays deal with contemporary social evils like child-marriage, dowry, licentiousness and drunkenness. His Lokottara Vivāhamu and Kanyāśulkamu depict how a young girl is married to a dying rich old man by her greedy parents. His Kautakavardhani points out another social evil, viz., debauchery. His Veśyāprahasanamu also belongs to this category. His Vinodatarangini stresses the need of widow-remarriage.

Cilakamarti Laksmīnarasimham, another prolific writer with about 70 prahasanas to his credit, touches similar social problems in his plays. His Varakatnam is on the evil of paying a heavy dowry to the bridegroom. Other Prahasana writers in lelugu include Pānugaņți Lakșmīnarasimha Rao, Bhamidipāți Kāmeśvara Rao and Vețūri Prabhakara sastrī, the last of whom translated the

268 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Sanskrit prahasanas Bhagavadajjukīya and Mattavilāsa into Telugu. * * * *

Prahasana is not totally unknown to Kannada literature, the earliest one being the Vivāhaprahasana of Iggappa Heggadeya. As in Telugu, the Prahasana in Kannada is also used as a means of social reformation.

In Kerala, where Sanskrit Prahasanas like the Bhagavadajjukīya and Mattavilasa were popularly staged, the influence of Sanskrit Prahasana is quite evident. For instance, the Hāsyacūdāmaņi appeared in Malayalam under the title ' Kapatakeli'. A number of farces mark the modern Malayalam literature.

It is thus clear that prahasana in both the North and South Indian languages is very late in origin. They bear influences of the Sanskrit Prahasanas and to some extent, the farce of English language and literature. They were written for the stage, with a definite motive of bringing out the ugly and dark side of human life in contemporary society. They go a long way in eradicating the social evils, ushering in a freer social order, carrying conviction to the masses that witness them on the stage, or read them in print.

APPENDIX-D

THE FARCE IN ENGLISH LITERATURE

A farce is usually considered to be a boisterous comedy involving ludicrous action and dialogue.1 In its most elementary form it is found in the gestures and tricks of the circus clown and the baffoonery of the pantomime, which provoke ready laughter among the greatest number of people.2 The plot in a farce depends upon a carefully exploited situation rather than upon character development.3 The purpose of the farce is to evoke simple hearty laughter. To do so it commonly employs highly exaggerated or caricatured character types, put them into improbable and ludicrous situations and makes free use of broad verbal humour and physical horseplay.4 The physicality of farce may not always qualify as humorous, but it is always anti-romantic, a kind of parody of the solemn idealization that is involved in romantic notions of love or strife.5

ORIGIN OF FARCE IN ENGLISH LITERATURE

Comedy was the general term referring to the farce and other types of humour, in the early European literature. Aristotle in his 'De Poetica ' defines comedy thus, 'comedy is an imitation of an action that is ludicrous and defective of adequate magnitude in language variously embellished, the several kinds of embellish- ment being severally used in different parts of the play carried on by agents, as in the form of narrative, through pleasure and laughter for its mother.' This may be compared with the definition of prahasana by Bharata.

1A Dictionary of literary terms, by Harry Shaw. 'Dictionary of world literary terms by Joseph T. Shipley. 3 A Dictionary of literary terms, by Harry Shaw. 4 A glossary of literary terms, Ed. M. H. Abrahams. 5 Margery M. Morgan, ' The Shavian Playground ', p. 34.

270 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

'Comedy', according to some, is derived from 'Komos'. Ancient Greeks used to sing ' Komos songs ' in honour of a Greek deity by name Dioninosus. hese songs might have been the early form of comedy. Butcher, who commented on 'De Poetica ', offers the following explanation. 'Comedy is an imitation of character of a lower type, not however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a sub-division of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive '.

It may be relevant to note here the views of George Meridith on comedy. (An essay on comedy and the uses of the comic spirit '-Westminister. Constable, 1897). 'Comedy lifts women to a station offering them free play for their wit, as they usually show it when they have it, on the side of sound sense. The higher the comedy, the more prominent the part they enjoy in it '. This may be compared with Bharata's view that hasya is more appealing to the women (and chilaren too.)

Three stages are recognised in the development of comedy in Greek literature. (i) Old comedy which was poignant, (ii) Middle comedy which Aristotle had in his view and which might have been the earliest form of farce and (iii) New comedies which paved the way for what are now understood to be 'comedies' referring to happy ending plays as contrasted with the Tragedies. Aristotle mentions Epicharmus, Phormus and Crates as authors of comedies.

Roman authors like Plautus and Terence also wrote comedies, following the Greeks. Early English comedies are modelled on the works of these playwrights. The first comedy in English. is 'Ralphroister doister.' The Shakespearean comedies1 of the Elizabethan era are of course, quite popular. These plays were termed 'comedy of Humours' contrasted with 'Comedy of Manners ' which became popular later. It is the 'Comedy of Manners ' which gave rise the farce in English literature. There are farcical elements in the comedies of Dryden2, Wilson,3 and

1 Shakespear's ' Comedy of Errors' may fill in as an excellent specimen of Farce, without being designated so. 2 For instance, ' The wide Gallant '. a ' Marriage of the Devil'.

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Mrs. Behn.1 The tremendous popularity of Moliere's French Farces2 influenced the English playwrights during 17th century. Thus Farce is rather a forced development in the History of English Drama.

The Farce had its heyday during the 18th century (especially in later half). Some of the best Farces belong to the period 1750- 1800. 'The majority of the Farces during this period deal with characters cast in the Johnsonian mould but others are of the intrigue type and in some we catch a glimpse of the manners style. A few are sentimental.3 Arthur Murphy was an important writer of Farce during this period. Sheriden's 'ST. Patrick's day' is also a Farce.

The Farce maintained its popularity during the early 19th century too. Of course, the Farces of this period were made to order. Not much of ingenuity. is seen in the plays of this period.4 Much was left to the actors who were to interpret infarcical element in the plays. The language was rough in the stylistic sense. Puns of the broadest kind obviously made their appeal. Important writers of Farce during this period are-Charles Dance (The Dark lady of the sonnets etc.), Mrs Pennyfarthing (Each for himself etc.), Douglas Jerrold (More frightened than hurt etc.) and J. M. Morton (He has contributed more than 30 Farces). A short scene from 'The Dark Lady of the sonnets ' may be quoted here to illustrate the farcical element in English farces. Alphonse : The questions that I wish to ask are of so delicate a nature that I hardly know where to begin. Sangfroid : At the beginning, I shoula say. Alphonse : Yes, I know ; but that's the difficulty. Sangfroid : Then try the middle, or the end. You have no time to spare and in another scene. Alphonse : Any communication you have to make to her now, must go through me.

1' A new way to play an old game '. 2 Moliere's 'The physician in spite of himself' as also been adapted into Sanskrit in recent times see p. 263, No. 22 above. ' Allardyce Nicholl, 'A History of English Drama', Vol. III, p. 188 ff. 4 Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 121.

272 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Sangfroid : Must it ? Then I have a favourite sword I wish to send her. Would you like that to go through you ? We have a foolish King in 'The Peri who loved a prince ', on the lines of the kings we come across in Sanskrit Prahasanas. Man : Long live Emperor. Emperor : Silence, villains ! stow it ! We'll not live long, unless we like-you know it. It is not for your plebeian throats to give orders to us how long you'd have us live. (They all prostrate themselves before him) Sons of burnt fathers ! What means that position ? How dare you tumble down without permission ?

(They rise abruptly and stand bold upright in a line) Now by my pigtail ! by my father's nails, By the imperial dragon's sacred scales My mind's so tossed about, so hurried, flurried Bothered, perplexed, annoyed, insulted, worried, etc.

Yes, stay, I'd best first tell you what's the matter.

What happened to Sanskrit Prahasanas of the later times, happened to the late English farces of the 19th century. 'The farces of this time have not much to offer us of real intrinsic merit. Some are written in a sprightly style ; but even the best display a certain mechanical structure. Most of them were written for low-comedy actors who could 'put across ' almost anything and consequently there is generally evident, a carelessness on the part of the authors both as regards plot and form. Old themes are constantly being refurnished and stock situations occur with irri- tating frequency. We may say that neither in regard to literary form nor to inventiveness did their farces bring anything of per- manent worth to the theatre '.1

It may be interesting to note, in this context, some instances of farcical elements from the relatively unknown Cninese literature belonging to 13-14th centuries. We have, for instance, a Buddhist

1946. 1 Werner Klean, 'English Farce-(1800-1900)-Die English Farce' Bern, A number of 20th century playwrights have written comical and satirical plays without designating them farces. Bernard Shaw's 'Doctor's Dilemma' is a play closer to the style of Farce.

APPENDIX 273

monk, Hui-Ming in the play Hsi-hsiang-chi, who scorns at the strict rules laid for monks, in the same way as the monk of Mattavilasa.

'I can't talk about tracts and scriptures, Too lazy to join in meditation I take forbidden knife and temper it.'

In an anonymous novel, Shui-hu-chunan, one Lu Ta becomes a monk and resides in a monastry on Wu-Tai Mountain. He does not like the strictures of the monastery. He sneaks out one day from the monastery and goes to an inn and demands meat and liquor. Though the Innkeeper points out that he, being a monk, should not take to meat and wine, the monk insists on both being served to him.2 It is quite probable that the Farces and farcical elements in other forms of literature were used by the poets effectively to educate people on the atrocities of certain unscrupulous elements in the religious orders, in medieval China, as it was done in India during this period.

2 See Bruce E. Carpenter, 'The Mark of laughter : Satirie in 13th and 14th century Chinese literature', Bulletin of Tezukayama Univ. No. XIII. Nare, Japan.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I. SANSKRIT PRAHASANAS

1. ADBHUTATARAŃGA OF HARIJĪVANAMIŚRA, Ms from Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner.

2. BHAGAVADAJJUKĪYA OF BODHĀYANAKAVI, Edn. Anujan Achan, Cochin, 1925.

3. CAŅDĀNURAÑJANA OF GHANAŚYĀMA, Ms from Tanjore.

4. DĀMAKAPRAHASANA (ANON.), Edn. Punjab Sanskrit Series, Motilal Banarsidass, 1926.

5. DHŪRTANARTAKA OF SĀMARĀJA DĪKȘITA, Ms from Bodleian Library, London. 6. DHŪRTASAMĀGAMA OF JYOTIRĪŚVARA, Photostat Copy of the edition by Lassen, 1838.

6. DHURTAVIDAMBANA OF AMAREŚVARA, Copy of Ms from BORI, Poona.

7. GHRTAKULYĀVALĪ OF HARIJĪVANAMIŚRA, Copy of Ms from Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner.

8. GAURĪDIGAMBARAPRAHASANA OF ŚAŃKARAMIŚRA, Edn. Chowkhamba, 1969.

9. HĀSYACŪDĀMAŅI OF AMĀTYA VATSARĀJA, Edn. in Rūpakaştaka, G.O.S., No. 8, 1918.

10. HĀSYAKAUTŪHALA OF VIȚȚALAKRSŅA, Copy of Ms from Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner.

11. HĀSYĀRŅAVA OF JAGADĪŚVARA, Edn. Chowkhamba, 1963.

12. KĀLEYAKAUTŪHALA OF BHARADVĀJA, Copy of Ms from BORI Library, Poona.

13. KUHANĀBHAIKȘAVA OF TIRUMALANÂTHA Printed in Malayamāruta, Rashtriya Samskrit Samasthan, Delhi, 1978.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 275

15. LAMBODARAPRAHASANA OF VEŃKATEŚVARA, Edn. Vidya- tarangini Press, Mysore, 1890.

16. LATAKAMELAKA OF ŚANKHADHARA, Edn. Chowkhamba, 1962.

17. LOKARAÑJANAPRAHASANA OF ŚRĪNIVĀSĀCĀRYA, Copy of Ms from Oriental Research Institute, Mysore. 18. MADANAKETUCARITA OF RĀMAPĀŅIVĀDA, Edn. University Manuscripts Library, Trivandrum, 1948. 19. MATTAVILASAPRAHASANA OF MAHENDRAPALLAVA, Edn. N. P. Unni, College Book House, Trivandrum, 1974.

18. MITHYĀCĀRA OF VAIDYANĀTHA, Xerox Copy of Ms from Bombay University Manuscripts Library, Bombay. 21. MUŅDITAPRAHASANA OF ŚIVAJYOTIRVID, Copy of Ms from BORI Library, Poona.

19. NĀTAVĀȚAPRAHASANA OF YADUNANDANA, Edn. N:S. Press, Bombay, 1888.

20. PALĀŅDUMAŅDANA OF HARIJĪVANAMIŚRA, Printed in Malayamāruta, Vol. III, Rashtriya Samsktt Samsthan, Delhi. 24. PRĀSAŃGIKA OF HARIJĪVANAMIŚRA, Copy of Ms from Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner,

21. SAHRDAYĀNANDA OF HARIJĪVANAMIŚRA, Copy of Ms from Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner.

22. SĀNDRAKUTŪHALA OF KRSŅADATTA, Copy of Ms from BORI Library, Poona. 27. SOMAVALLIYOGĀNANDA OF ARUŅAGIRINĀTHA, Copy of Ms from Oriental Research Institute, Mysore. 28. SUBHAGĀNANDA OF VĀSUDEVAKAVĪNDRA (Šrīvatsānka), Copy of Ms from Sarasvati Mahal Library, Tanjore.

23. UNMATTAKAVIKALAŚA OF VEŃKATEŚVARA, Copy of Ms from Sarasvati Mahal Library, Tanjore. 30. VIBUDHAMOHANA OF HARIJIVANAMISRA, Printed in Malayamāruta, Vol. I.

24. VINODARANGA OF SUNDARADEVA, Copy of Ms from India Office Library, London,

276 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

II. BOOKS IN SANSKRIT

ABHINAVABHĀRATI OF ABHINAVAGUPTA, Edn. along with the Nāțyaśāstra, G.O.S., Vols. I-IV, 1926-34.

ARTHASĀSTRA OF KAUȚALYA, Vol. I & II, Motilal Banarsidass, Lahore, 1923-24.

ATHARVA VEDA, in 4 Vols., Bombay Sanskrit Series, 1895-98. No. 54, Poona 1951.

BHAGAVADGITĀ, Ānandāśrama Press, Poona, 1896.

BHĀSANĀȚAKACAKRA, ed. C. R. Devadar, Poona Oriental Series No. 54. Poona, 1951.

BHĀVAPRAKĀŚANA, OF SĀRADĀTANAYA, Edn. G.O.S., No. 45, Baroda, 1930

BRHADĀRAŅYAKA UPANIȘHAD, Edn. Ramakrishna Math., Madras, 1968.

CHĀNDOGYA UPANIȘAD, R. K. Mutt, Madras, 1956.

DAŚARŪPAKA OF DHANAÑJAYA, (i) Edn. Parab, N.S. Press, Bombay, 1941. (ii) with English Translation, C.O. Haas, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, 1962. (iii) Edn. Hall, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1865. DHVANYĀLOKA OF ANANDAVARDHANA, Edn. Dr. K. Krishna- murthy, Karnatak University, Dharvar, 1974.

KAMSAVAHO OF RĀMAPĀŅIVĀDA, Edn. Dr. A. N. Upadhya, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1963.

KĀMASŪTRA OF VĀTSYĀYANA, Edn. Chowkhamba, 1964.

KARPŪRAMAÑJARI OF RĀJAŚEKHARA, Edn. Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1963.

KATHOPANISAD, Edn. R. K. Mutt, Madras, 1916.

KĀLIDĀSA'S WORKS, (Works of Kālidāsa), Vol. I, (Dramas), Edn. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1977 (Trans. C. R. Devadhar).

KĀVYAPRAKĀSA OF MAMMATA, Edn. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1966. KĀVYĀNUŚĀSANA OF HEMĄCANDRA, Edn. Kāvyamālā-71, N.S. Press, Bombay, 1934.

KAUŞĪTAKI UPANISAD, Edn. N.S. Press, Bombay, 1948. KIRĀTĀRJUNĪYA OF BHĀRAVI, Edn. N.S. Press, Bombay, 1917.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 277

KUMĀRASAMBHAVA OF KĀLIDĀSA, Cantos I-VIII, Edn. Kale, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi. LĪLĀVATI VĪTHĪ OF RĀMAPĀNIVĀDA, Edn. University Manuscripts Library, Trivandrum, 1948.

. MANAVADHARMASOTRA, J. Jolly Trubner & Co., London, 1887. MĀLATĪMĀDHAVA OF BHAVABHŪTI, Edn. M. R. Kale, Motilal Banarsi- dass, 1967.

MRCCHAKAȚIKA OF SŪDRAKA, Edn. M. R. Kale, Motilal Banarsidass, 1972.

MUŅŅAKA UPANIȘAD Edn., R. K. Mutt, Madras, 1949-50.

NAIŞADHAM, OF ŚRIHARȘA, Edn. Haridass Sanskrit Series, No. 205 Benares, 1954. NĀGĀNANDA OF KING HARȘA, Edn. Balamanorama Press, Madras, 1967. NĀȚAKA CANDRIKĀ OF RŪPA GOSVĀMIN, Edn. Chowkhamba, 1964. NĀȚAKALAKȘAŅARATNAKOŚA OF SAGARANANDIN, F.dn. Chowkhamba, 1972.

NĀȚYADARPAŅA OF RĀMACANDRA AND GUŅACANDRA, Edn, G.O.S., No. 48, 1928. NĀȚYASĀSTRA OF BHARATAMUNI, Edns. (i) Kāvyamālā-42, N.S. press, 1942. (ii) G.O.S. in 4 Volumes, 1926-34. (iii) Kāsī Sanskrit Seires, 1929. (iv) Manmohan Ghosh, Manisha Granthalaya Calcutta-12, 1967. PRABODHACANDRODAYA OF KRSŅAMĪŚRA, Edn. Motilal Banarsi dass, 1971.

PRATĀPARUDRĪYA OF VIDYĀNĀTHA, Ed. Dr. V. Raghavan, Madras.

PRĀKRTAPRAKĀŚIKĀ, OF VARARUCI, Adyar Library, Madras, 1946. PRIYADARŚIKĀ OF KING HARSA, Edn. Motilal Banarsidass, 1977.

RASAGAŃGADHARA OF JAGANNĀTHA PAŅŅITA, in 3 Volumes. Chowkhamba, 1969.

RASĀRNAVASUDHĀKARA OF ŚIŃGABHŪPĀLA, Edn. TSS. No. L. 1961.

RAGHUVAMŚA OF KĀLIDĀSA, Ed. N.S. Press, Bombay, 1904. RATNĀVALI OF KING HARȘA, Edn. Balamanorama, Madras, 1938.

RG VEDA, The, Edn. Max Mueller, India Office, London, 1849-74. SAHITYADARPAŅA OF VISVANĀTHA, Edn. Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1977.

278 · PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

SUBHĀȘITĀVALĪ OF VALLABHADEVA, Edn. Govt. Central Book depot, Bombay, 1886.

SATAPATHA BRĀHMAŅA, Edn. Motilal Banarsidass, Lahore, 1926.

ŚRŃGĀRAPRAKĀSA OF BHOJA, Edn. G. R. Josyer, Coronation Press, Mysore-4, 1963. (Vols. I-II). .

TĀNDYA BRĀHMANA, Edn. Chowkamba, Benaras, 1935-36. UTTARARĀMACARITA OF BHAVABHŪTI, Edn. Motilal Banarsidass, 1971 (Trans., Notes etc., P.V. Kane). VEDĀNTAPARIBHĀȘĀ OF DHARMARĀJĀDHVARINDRA, Ed. Adyar Library Series, No. 34, Madras, 1942.

VENĪSAMHĀRA OF BHAȚȚANĀRĀYANA, Edn. M. R. Kale, Motilal Banarsidass, 1977.

YAŚASTILAKACAMPŪ OF SOMADEVA, Vols, I-II, N.S. Press, Bombay, 1901-03,

III. BOOKS IN ENGLISH AND OTHER LANGUAGES

BHANA AS A PLAYFORM: Unpublished Thesis of Dr. S. S. Janaki, Director, The Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Madras. BHĀRATENDU GRANTHĀVALI (in Hindi) Vol. I. Ed. Vrajaratnadass Benares, 1950.

BHĀSA-A STUDY : by A. S. P. Ayyar, M.L.J. Press, Madras, 1942.

BHOJA'S ŚRŃGĀRAPRAKĀŚA : by Dr. V. Raghvan, 7, Srikrishnapurm St., Madras-14. 1978 (Revised edition) : 1st Edn. 1963.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SANSKRIT DRAMA: by Montgomery Schuyler. Columbia Univ. Press, 1906.

CATALOGUS CATALOGORUM Vols. I-III : by Aufraecht. CONTRIBUTION OF KERALA TO SANSKRIT LITERATURE: by Dr. K Kunjunni Raja, published by the University of Madras, 1958.

CRITICAL STUDY OF SANSKRIT DRAMAS BY KERALA AUTHORS : by S: Subrahmanya Iyer, Unpublished Thesis, Kerala University, 1971.

DHVANI THEORY IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE: by Mukunda ... Madhava Sarma, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Benares, 1968. DICTIONARY OF LITERARY FORMS : by Harry.Shaw, M.C. Graw Book Company, U.S.A., 1972.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 279

DICTIONARY OF WORLD LITERARY TERMS : by Joseph T. Shipley George Allen and Unwin Ltd., Ruskin House, London.

DRAMA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE : by R. V. Jagirdar, Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1947.

EPIGRAPHICA INDICA, Vol. IV.

GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS : by M. H. Abraham, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, United States of America.

HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE : by M. Krishna- machariar, Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, 1974.

HISTORY OF DHARMAŚĀSTRA : by P. V. Kane, B.O.R.I., Poona, 1930-68.

HISTORY OF ENGLISH DRAMA: by Allardyce Nicoll, Cambridge, England (Vol. I-IV). HISORY OF INDIA: K. A. Nilakanthasastri, Oxford University Press, Madras, 1958.

HISTORY OF PROSTITUTION IN INDIA : by Sinha and Basu. Ed. The Bengal Social Hygiene Association, Calcutta, 1933. Vol. I.

HISTORY OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE (Classical Period) : S. N. Dasgupta and S. K. De, Calcutta, 1947.

HISTORY OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE : A. B. Keith, Oxford University Press, 1973 (Revised Edition).

HISTORY OF SANSKRIT POETICS : by S. K. De, Firma KLM Limited, Calcutta, 1976.

HISTORY OF SANSKRIT POETICS : by P. V. Kane, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1971.

INDIA AS SEEN IN THE KUȚȚANĪMATA OF DĀMODARAGUPTA; by Aaya Mitra Sastri, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1975.

INDIAN DRAMA: by Sten Konov (Translated), General Printers and Publishers Ltd., Calcutta-13.

INDIAN KĀVYA LITERATURE : by A. K. Warder, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, Vol. I-III.

INTRODUCTION TO PRĀKRT : by A. C. Woolner, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1975.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF MRCCHAKAȚIKA: by Dr. G. V. Deyasthali, Poona Oriental Book Housc, Poona, 1951.

JAGANNĀTHA PAŅDITA-A STUDY: by V. A. Ramaswamy Sastri, . Annamalai University Series, 1942.

280 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRITYLITERATURE

LAWS AND PRACTICE OF SANSKRIT DRAMA: by S. N. Sastri. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Banares, 1971, Vol. I.

NEW CATALOGUS CATALOGORUM, Vols. I-X, Madras University. NUMBER OF RASAS : by Dr. V. Raghavan, Adyar Library Publications, 1940.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE AESTHETIC PLEASURE: by P. Panchapagesa Sastri, Annamalai University, 1940,

PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE ALL INDIA ORIENTAL CONFERENCE

SANSKRIT DRAMA: by G. K. Bhat, Karnataka University Publications, Dharwar, 1975.

SANSKRIT DRAMA : by A. B. Keith, Oxford University Press, 1959. SANSKRIT DRAMA AND DRAMATISTS : by K. P. Kulkarni Poona, 1927. SANSKRIT DRAMA, ITS ORIGIN AND DECLINE: by I. Sekhar, R. J. Bill, Leiden, 1960. SHAVIAN PLAYGROUND : by Margery Morgan, Methuen and Co. Ltd., London. SILAPPADIGARAM (Tamil) Pub. Saiva Siddhanta Society, Tirunelveli, 1970. SOCIAL PLAY IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE: by Dr. V. Raghavan, Reprint from Indian Institute of World Culture, Bangalore-4. SOUTH INDIA INSCRIPTIONS, Madras, 1923 Vol. I.

STUDIES IN SANSKRIT LITERARY HISTORY : by P. K. Gode, Poona, 1953.

STUDIES IN THE NĀȚYAŠĀSTRA : by G. M. Tarlekar, Motilal Banarsidass, 1975.

STUDIES IN SANSKRIT DRAMATIC CRITICISM : by T. G. Mainkar Motilal Banarsidass, 1971.

STUDIES IN SOME CONCEPTS OF ALAMKĀRA ŚĀSTRA: by Dr. V. Raghavan, Adyar Library, 1942. SURVEY OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE: by Dr. C. Kunhan Raja, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1962. TANTRAS-STUDIES ON THEIR RELIGION AND LITERATURE : by Cintaharan Cakravarti, Punthi Pustaka Bhandar, Calcutta, 1963.

THEATRE OF THE HINDUS : by H. H. Wilson, Vol. I & II, London, 1871. THEATRE OF THE HINDUS : by H. H. Wilson and others. Susil Gupta Ltd., Calcutta, 1955.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 281

THEORIES OF RASA AND DHVANI : by Dr. A. Sankaran. University of Madras Publication, 1973.

TWENTIETH CENTURY SANSKRIT DRAMAS : by Dr. Usha Satyavrat; Meherchand Lachmandas, Delhi, 1971.

TYPES OF SANSKRIT DRAMA: by D. R. Mankad; Urmi Prakasan Mandir, Denso Hall, Karachi, 1936.

VIDŪŞAKA IN THEORY AND PRACTICE: by J. T. Parikh, Sarvajanik Education Society, Surat, 1953.

IV. RESEARCH JOURNALS

ADYAR LIBRARY BULLETIN, MADRAS, VOL. XV. 1951.

ANNALS OF BHANDARKAR ORIENTAL RESEARCH, POONA, VOL. XXII.

BHĀRATIYA VIDYĀ, BHARATIYA VIDYA BHAVAN, BOMBAY.

BULLETIN OF TEZUKAYAMA UNIVERSITY, NARE, JAPAN, VOL. 13

BHARATA MANISHA QUARTERLY, VARANASI.

INDIAN HISTORICAL QUARTERLY, VOLS. III, VII.

JOURNAL OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL, CALCUTTA.

JOURNAL OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY, BOMBAY.

JOURNAL OF BIHAR RESEARCH SOCIETY, VOL. XXXIX.

JOURNAL OF BIHAR AND ORISSA RESEARCH SOCIETY, MARCH- JUNE, 1924. '

JOURNAL OF GANGANATHA JHA RESEARCH INSTITUTE, ALLAHABAD.

JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, M.S. UNIVERSITY, BARODA :

JOURNAL OF ORIENTAL RESEARCH, KUPPUSWAMY SASTRI RESEARCH INSTITUTE, MADRAS, VOLS. VI, VII.

JOURNAL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF BOMBAY.

JOURNAL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF DELHI, VOL. II.

JOURNAL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF POONA.

282 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRITLITERATURE

OUR HERITAGE, SANSKRIT COLLEGE, CALCUTTA, VOL. III.

POONA ORIENTALIST, VOL. VII.

PRĀCĪ JYOTIS, KURUKSHETRA UNIVERSITY, KURUKSHETRA.

SĀGARIKĀ, SAGAR UNIVERSITY, VOL. V.

SAMSKRTA RAŃGA ANNUAL, VOLS. I-VII.

THE MYSORE ORIENTALIST.

VIŚVESWARĀNANDA INDOLOGICÅL QUARTERLY,

ABBREVIATIONS USED

ABORI Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. AIOC All India Oriental Conference. AV Atharva Veda

BP Bhāvaprakāśana

Br. Upa. Brhadāraņyaka Upanișad. Capeller Capeller's resume in Gurupūjākaumudī, Leipzig. CC Catalogus Catalogorum of Aufrecht. CSS Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Benares.

DR Daśarūpaka. GOS Gaekwad's Oriental Series. HCSL History of Classical Sanskrit Literature by M. Krishna- machariar. IO India Office Library, London. JOR Journal of Oriental Research, Madras.

Keith Sanskrit Drama by A. B. Keith.

KM Kāvyamālā Series.

Konov Konov's ' Indian Drama '.

KS Kāvyānuśāsana of Hemachandra.

NC Nāțakacandrikā of Rūpagosvāmin.

NCC New Catalogus Cetalogorum. NLRK Nāțaka Lakșaņa Ratnakośa.

NS Nāţyaśāstra.

RS Rasārņavasudhākara.

SB atapatha Brāhmaņa.

Schyuler Montgomery Schuyler's ' Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama'. SD Sāhityadarpaņa. Śr.Pra. Śṛṅgāraprakāśa.

TB Tāņdya Brâhmaņa. TSS · Trivandrum Sanskrit Series.

Index of Sanskrit Verses and Passages quoted in the book

अकटो (NV) 184 अप्राप्त (MP) 243 अक्षस्रजा (MKC) 157 अयं (BA) 86 अचिरेणैव (Mith.) 251 अयि (Subha) 248 अजिह्मग (MKC) 155 अजिह्यंः (MV) 112 अयुक्तं (BA) 89 अये (RS) 47 अत्र नारभटी (SD) 43 अत्न स्त्रीबाल (Abhi. Bha 42, 44.) अये लशुनपेटिके (PM) 223

अथ कया (MKC) 151 अरे रे भिक्षुक (LM) 176

अथ हास्यो (NS) 18 अर्कक्षीरं (LM) 174

अथोच्यते (Sr. Pra. 24) अचिष्मन्ति (ND) 55 (RS) 26

अद्येव (LM) 172 अलभमान: (Ha. Cu.) 137

अनङगलेखा (MKC) 151 अवलगितं (RS) 45

अनपराद्धा (MKC) 151 अवस्कन्द (RS) 46

अनावृष्टया (DS) 192 अविदित (MP) 240

अनुदिन (NV) 186 अविद्यायां (Mund) 97

अनुराग (MKC) 150 असत्य (RS) 49

अनृतं (RS) 48 असद्भूतं (DR) 51

अनोचिस्य (SD) 23 असम्बद्ध (DR) 55

अनोचित्यात् (Dhv.) 23 अस्तं गतो (BA) 93

अन्तर्निमग्नं (LM) 173 अस्ति (Chh.) 100

अन्तवन्त (BG) 97 अस्थि (Manu) 97

अन्यस्य (Has.) 202 अस्माकं जननी (NV) 184

अन्यार्थ (DR) 56 अस्माक (Has.) 199

अन्योन्य (SD) 53 अस्मिन् कन्या (Mith.) 251

अपमान (MP) 243 अस्मिन् ब्रह्माण्ड (MKC) 149

अपि (Pur.) 99 अस्य (Prabhavati) 53

अपि कुशलं (MKC) 150 अस्यां (Subha) 247

अपि विशन्ति (MKC) 155 अस्या: (Has.) 203 अहमपि (SK) 231

286 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

अहे (Ha. Cu.) 135 उपहस्तति (LM) 179 महो उपाध्यायस्य (Has) 140 उपाध्याय, तवैवाहं (Ha. Cu.) 137 अहो कापालिक (Prabh.) 46 महो दर्शनीयानि (MV) 113 उपाध्याय, बहुसंख्यया (Ha. Cu.) 138

अहो नु खलु (MKC) 151 उपाध्याय, सुष्ठु (Ha. Cu.) 137

अहो महानुभाव: (MKC) 148 उभावपि (LM) 176

अहो महाराज (MKC) 156 ऋणं (UK) 227

अहो ललितरूपा (MV) 111 एक: (Kau) 258

आ एष (BA) 96 एक एव (Abhi. Bha.) 15

आकाशे (DS) 194 एको यत्र (SD) 43 एतेन (Abhi. Bha.) 24 आ: कुलटे (MKC) 150 एतेरेव (LM) 175 आगच्छ (BA) 92 आत्मस्थः (NS) 21 एवं (Kaus.) 99 एष खलु (BA) 86, 95 आदन्त (LM) 177 एष भगवान् (BA) 87 आनन्दकारि (LM) 179 आनन्दवल्ली (VP) 225 एष स्वर्गतरङ्गणी (LM) 169 एषा (MV) 115 आ मम (MV) 114 आयातु (SK) 231 कतिपय (LM) 169, 178

आयास्यति (LM) 173 कनक (KS) 22

आलोक्य (Ha. Cu.) 139 करुणो नाम (NS) 28

आवासो (Prabh.) 124 कर्पूरन्ति (DS) 194 कर्मणा (VP) 226 आहार (BA) 88 ओत्सुक्याय (NV) 184 कर्मात्मा (BA) 98 कल्याणं (Ha. Cu.) 141 इच्छामि (BA) 90 काका (SY) 214 इदं पुनरेकं (Has.) 203 इमाश्च (DP) 207 कापुरुष (NS) 39 कामं (MKC) 158 इय गेहे (URC) 54 उच्छिष्टं (DV) 233 कामुकादि (DR) 42 काव्यं (KD) 178 उत्तुङ्ग (Has.) 204 काव्यस्य 3 उत्सृष्टिकाङ्क (Abhi. Bha.) 42 उद्घात्यक (DR) 50 काव्येषु 3

उद्भिम (MV) 113, 119 का श्लाध्या (Pand.) 51 किमकारणं (Ha. Cu.) 138 उन्मुच्य (Ha. Cu.) 134 उपपत्ति: (RS) 47 किं नेत्रयो: (LM) 179 किं भणसि (Mrc.) 33

INDEX OF SANSKRIT VERSES AND PASSAGES QUOTED 287 कि मां (Ha. Cu.) 137 किं वाग्भि: (Ha. Cu.) 133 जातस्य (BG) 177, 181

कुण्डल (BA) 93 जानीमो (MP) 242 जिह्े (Has.) 204 कुतश्चिदपि (MV) 113 जीर्णमार्जारं (Has.) 202 कुतो दण्ड: (RS) 46 ज्ञातं (Ha. Cu.) 137 कृतानुकरणं (NS) 3 ज्ञानमूलं (BA) 99 कृत्तो (Has.) 207 ततः प्रविशति (NV) 189 कृष्णावतारे (MP) 240 तत्कथं (Ha. Cu.) 136 केचित् 266 तत्पदं (RS) 47 केतकी (MKC) 159 तत् पुनः (SD) 43 को द्यूत (NV) 187 तथापि 72 कोऽयं (MKC) 152 तदा (BP) 22 कोण्डिन्य (Ha. Cu.) 138 तद्यथेह (Chh. VIII 1.6) 100 कम (Bal.) 55 तद्वत् (DR) 42 क्वचिद्धर्म: (NS) 4 तद्विषये (Abhi. Bha.) 44 क्वासौ (MKC) 148 तरुणीं (NV) 185 खपवन (NS) 85 तस्माच्छास्व्रं (BG) 99 गणिका नाम (Mrc.) 33 तस्मात् (BA) 95 गण्ड: (DR) 53 तस्य ग्रामस्य (LM) 175 गर्भ (Subha) 248 तस्योष्ठ (NS) 19 गाङ्गं (GDP) 209 तानि (BG) 100 गीत (NS) 40 तां (MV) 114 गुरोगिर: (LM) 169, 175 तां योगमिति (Kath.) 99 गूढार्थ (DR) 50 तिमिर (PM) 223 चक्षू रोगे (LM) 174 तिरोहित: (MV) 110 चलसरोज (DS) 194 तीर्थ (Has.) 197 चलित: (GDP) 208 तेन (BA) 94 चिन्ताचुम्बित (Ha. Cu.) 133 तेषां (Abhi. Bha.) 44 चिन्ता नास्ति (Kau) 258 त्रीणि (BA) 86 जटाजिन (BP) 22; त्रैलोक्ये (DS) 193 जन्मान्तर (GDP) 210 त्वां पातु (MV) 79, 94 जयश्री (MP) 243 दर्शेन्दु (Has.) 198 जरा (Ha. Cu.) 135 जात (Chalitarama) 54 दास्या: पुत्रः (BA) 89 दिनोपवासी (Has.) 199

288 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

दुग्ध (DV) 235 नाटके (NS) 41 दुट्ट 181 नाटयं भावानुकीर्तनं (NS) 3 दूराकर्षन (Abhi. Bha.) 23 नाटयं भिन्नरुचे: (Mal.) 4 दृष्टश्चेत् (LM) 179 नानाभाव (NS) 3 देव (Has.) 199 नानाराष्ट्र (BA) 93 देहो (BA) 86, 97 नान्दन्ते 72, 94, 118, 123 दैवं (NV) 188 दोषा (DR) 56 नारीणां (Has.) 198 नास्त्यसाध्यं (Ha. Cu.) 136 दोषाकर (LM) 177 नाहं (DP) 206 दौर्जन्यस्य (UK) 227 निखिले (Has.) 198 द्विविधश्च (NS) 19 निद्राकर (DS) 193 द्विसन्धि (NS) 40 निम्नं (MKC) 152 धर्म: (MV) 111 निर्द्वन्द्वो (BG) 99 विङ्मूर्ख (Ha. Cu.) 136 निर्यद् (Subha) 248 ध्यानमेतत् (BA) 100 निर्वाणा (MKC) 150, 160 न अनृतात् (Sah.) 223 निर्व्याज (MKC) 156 न तज्ज्ञानं (NS) 3 नीति: (Has.) 197 न तथा (Ha. Cu.) 139 नीरन्ध्र (MKC) 154 न तादक् (DV) 233 नीलाम्बर (Subha) 248 ननु (MV) 115 नृत्यन् (MV) 122 न पुरीयं (RS) 48 नृपति (Ha. Ca.) I43 न प्राप्नुवन्ति (Pada.) 27 नेत्रानन्द (LM) 178 नमस्ते (Ha. Cu.) 140 नैव (BA) 85 न मामको (BA) 87 न्यस्त (BA) 98 न लभन्ते (NV) 186 पञच (MB) 266 न वायु: (DS) 192 पञचप्राण (AB) 98 नष्टाश्व (RS) 49 पञ्जर (NV) 188 न हि जलौकसां (Has.) 202 न हि प्रतिज्ञामात्ेण (MV) 113 पण्यस्त्रीति (Kuk.) 238 पतिहीना (RS) 49 न हि रसादृते (NS) 15 न हि लोकोपकार (MV) 114 पतिहीना 266

न हि सिता (GDP) 209 परिषदं (MKC) 162 परिषदियं (Ha. Cu.) 142 नाटकान्तं 3 परोपकार (LM) 179

INDEX OF SANSKRIT VERSES AND PASSAGES QUOTED 289

पल्लव (MV) 119 पाखण्डि (DR) 42 ब्रह्मदत्त (DP) 206

पाणो (KS) 21 भ अवं (MV) 121

पादाघातं (NV) 187 भगवत् (NS) 38

पितामह (NV) 187 भगवन् अद्य (Ha. Cu.) 140

पितृकानन (Has) 202 भगवन्, भगवती (MV) 111

पीयूषेण (MKC) 157 भगवान् (BA) 88

पुण्यानां (MKC) 152 भवत्वक्ष्णा (MKC) 155 भवाङ्कुर (Lila.) 259 पुत्र (Has.) 199 भाण इव (NS) 68 पुनस्त्रिदण्ड: (LM) 176 भाषावेष (MV) 114, 118 पुरुषान् (MKC) 159 पूर्व पुनः (MKC) 151 भास्वान् (MP) 243 भिक्षो (Subha.) 31 पूर्व (RS) 45 भिक्षो (SD) 53 पेया सुरा (MV) 109, 110, 116, 123 भिन्नाकर (MKC) 158 भूजगं (LM) 173 प्रज्ञा (MV) 119 प्रणय (Din) 102 भेदा: (NS) 41 भो भिक्षो (MV) 117 प्रत्यक्ष (MKC) 148 भो वयस्य (Sr. Pra.) 50 प्रत्यक्षे (MV) 114 मत्तविलास (MV) 118 प्रत्यङ्क (Pras.) 55 मदन (MKC) 150 प्रलम्बित (Has.) 203 प्रलाप: (RS) 49 मद्भ्रू (Ha. Cu.) 134

प्रहसनं (NS) 38 मनोजाति (S .. Pra.) 50

प्रहसनलक्षण (MKC) 145 मन्त्रो (Kal.) 244 मन्वादयो (RS) 49 प्रहंसने (Ava.) 42 ममायं (MKC) 157 प्रहसनेन (ND) 45 मरणं (Has.) 202 प्रारब्ध (AT) 219 प्रियाभै: (DR) 52 मा खलु (MKC) 156 मात: (Has.) 199 प्रिये (MV) 116, 117 मा तावत् (Mal.) 56 प्रोतिस्ते (Pra.) 220 माता यस्या: (SK) 231 फलोदुगमे (NV) 183 मारति: (Raghu.) 83 बहुल (DV) 234 माषापूप: (Kau.) 258 बालातपेन (RS) 48 मासोपवासिनी (Subha) 248 बालोऽहं (GDP) 208 मिथ्या (MV) 115

290 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

मिष्टान्न (Mith.) 250 रण्डा (Kar.) 48, 51, 57 मुक्ति (Kal.) 244 रण्डा: (Prabh.) 124 मुखकमलं (LM) 178 रवि (Ha. Cu.) 135 मूषको (PM) 223 रविवारे (NV) 185 मृगतृष्णाम्भसि 30 रसोक्तस्य (DR) 54 मृग: पाशान् (Ha. Cu.) 142 रात्रो (Cam.) 258 मृत्यु: (SK) 232 रामजनी (NV) 182 मृदुवास: (NV) 186 रूपकं (DR) 7 यततो (BG) 100 रोगाभिभूते (Mith.) 251 यत्र कुत्ापि (Has.) 202 रोमाऊ्चो (BA) 86 यत्र यत् (Subha) 247 लज्जा (NV) 184 यत्रान्यस्मिन् (Sr. Pra.) 51 लशुनं (PM) 221 यथा (Kuk.) 238 लोका (AT) 223 यथोक्तं (BA) 102 लोकोत्तराणि (Abhi. Bha) 24 यदि (Ha. Cu.) 135 वक्त (DS) 193 यद्यदाचरति (BG) 98 यद्येवं (Subha) 248 वत्स (URC) 34

यवन (DNP) 217 वत्स, पारावत (Ha. Cu.) 136 वयस्य (Rat.) 33 यस्य कस्य (LM) 174 वसान: (MKC) 151 यानि (RS) 45 वस्तु (RS) 48 युक्तं (Has.) 202 वाक्केली (SD) 52 युक्तमिदं (LM) 172 वाणीं (Abhi.) 52 युञ्जन्नेवं (BG) 98 वाताली (LM) 175 युष्माभि: (LM) 172 वामनो (NS) 62 ये गृह्हन्ति (MKC) 160 वामागम (LM) 180 ये तु (Abhi. Bha.) 44 येन केन (MP) 242 वाराङ्गना (MKC) 152

ये नाम (MKC) 156 विकृतन्तु (SD) 43

यं: (RC) 82 विद्वानसौ (Abhi.) 52

योगस्थ: (BG) 97 विधू मे 98

योगिनि (MKC) 162 विभाव (NS) 15

योगीश्वरैः (MKC) 157 विरोध: (MV) 112

योऽजरो (BA) 86 विविक्त (Mrc.) 26 वीथी (NS) 40 रक्तैव (DR) 42 वीथ्यङ्ग (NS) 39

INDEX OF SANSKRIT VERSES AND PASSAGES QUOTED 291

वीरुन् (NV) 186 : वेदान्तेभ्यो (MV) 110 सद्य: (MKC) 148

वेदो (Manu.) 99 सदो (Has.) 199

वेपथुर्मलिनं (M. Bh.) 177, 180 सन्त: (ND) 56

वेश्या (NS) 39 सपल्लवैः (BA) 90

वेश्याभवने (Kam.) 104 सम्यगाह (Ha. Cu.) 135 सवं (BA) 100 वेश्यानां (Kam.) 62 सर्वथा (MKC) 164 वैद्योऽहं (Has.) 201 सर्वदा (SK) 230 व्यञ्जनानि (MB) 30 सर्वे (Subha) 247 व्यभिचारिणश्च (NS) 19 सर्वोषधानि (Has.) 201 व्ययशील: (DS) 192 संरम्भं (Raghu.) 23 व्याधयो (LM) 174 साक्षात् (RS) 46 व्याली (MKC) 159 साधु (Ha. Cu.) 131 व्यास (Insc.) 78, 82 सावशेष (MKC) 164 व्याहार: (RS) 46 साहित्यमपि (Sahr) 224 शत्रु (MV) 119, 124 सिरानेन (NV) 185 शत्रो: (Has.) 200 सिंही (MKC) 159 शास्त्रं (Mith.) 251 सुखदुःखे (BG) 98 शुक्लत्वं (Has.) 200 सुखेषु (BA) 97 शुद्धं (Abhi. Bha.) 44 सूनु: (SK) 231 शृङ्गाराद्धि (NS) 22, 24 संवेयं (MKC) 154, 158 शृङ्गारानु (NS) 22 सोपहासा (DR) 54 श्ृङ्गारे (Dhv.) 96 स्त्रीनीच (NS) 20, 41 शृङ्गारो नाम (NS) 28 स्त्रीमूल (MKC) 155 इमशान (Has.) 202 स्मरार्ता (MP) 242 श्मशाने (GDP) 209 स्मितं (NS) 20 श्रीतात (RG) 19 स्मृतं (RS) 48 श्रीहर्षो (Rat.) 142 स्रस्तांसो (Sak) 113 श्रुतिसाम्यात् (DR) 51 स्वकर्म (BA) 100 सखि (Rat.) 51 स्वर्धाम (Has.) 203 सङग्रामे (LM) 175 स्वादितं (Has.) 203 सत्यं (M. Bh.) 180 स्वामी (GDP) 208

292 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

स्वार्थं (MKC) 149 स्वीकृत: (Ha. Cu.) 134 हास्यप्रधान (Suk.) 79 हास्यो नाम (NS) 27 हर्म्योपरि (Pra) 223 हा धिक (BA) 87 हा हतास्मि (MV) 117

हा महोपकारिन् (MKC) 149 हितोपदेश (NS)4

हास्यकृत् (BP) 62 हुं स्मृतं (Has.) 200 हेमकुम्भ (RS) 48

GENERAL INDEX

Abhidha 222 alaukika 18 abhidhā 65 Alexander 5 abhidhāyakatva 16 allegorical 224 Abhijñānaśākuntala 8, 32, 59, -Characters 260 113, 143, 207, 239 -play 221, 263 Abhinavabhārati 15, 23, 24, 42, -- themes 257 44,65 All India Drama Festival 78 Abhinavagupta 16, 17, 21, 23, All India Oriental Conference 24, 41, 43, 44, 65, 70 101,206 Abhirāmarāghava 52, 59 allusions 122 abhivyakti 17 Āļwārs 126 Abrahams, M. H. 269 Amareśvara 232, 233 Acharya, V. S. V. 263 Amber 218 acts 7-10, 43, 67, 95, 141 āmukha 41, 120 adaptation,-s, 78, 263 Anandakoșa 45, 47, 48, 59, 255 adbhuta 22, 25, 67, 90, 157 Ānandarāya 216 Adbhutataranga 67, 181, 218, Anandavardhana 96, 180 223 Anańgalekhā 146-153, 156, 159, adhama 65, 143, 144, 257 161, 162, 163 adhibalam 53 Anańgasenā 190 ādhikārika 95 anaucitya 23, 24 Agnihotrins 186 Anayasindhu 70, 195-204 Ahmed Khan 211 Andher nagarī 265 Aitareya Brāhmaņa 29, 30 ańga,-s 68 Ajñānarāśi 64, 170 ańgavikāra 64 Akaruņaḥ 79, 80, 107 Angel 260 akālavātāvalī 33 anityatva 90, 97 ākāśabhāșita 8, 10, 71, 180 Ańka 7, 10, 38, 41, 59, 68 Akhandānanda 222 Annals of BORI 20 ālambanavibhāva 15, 19 anrtam 48, 57, 89, 114, 140, alamkāra,-s 15, 17, 18, 25, 34, 157, 172, 193, 197 90, 113, 114, 158, 190 antarātman 98 Alamkāramaņidarpana 237 Alamkāraśāstra 65, 222, 224 antarlāpa 54, 55

Ālamkārika 222 anubhāva,-s 15, 18, 19, 24 -ābhāsa 23

294 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Anujan Achan 78, 82 134, 140, 169, 185, 195, 196, anukrti 26 201, 215, 247, 249, 250, 251 Anukūlagalahastakam 259 āsvāda 17 anuloma 230 Aśvaghosa 31 anumāna 16 Atharva Veda 4, 29 anumāpya-anumāpaka bhāva 16 atihasitam 20, 21, 57 anumiti 16 atimāna 79, 80 anuprāsa 114, 179 atiśayokti 179 Anup Sanskrit Library 218, 250 Atmabodha 98 anustubh 90, 114, 160 ātman 18, 87 apahasitam 20, 57 ārabhațī 4, 8, 9, 40, 43, 118 ātma tattva 87 Ātmayoni 211 ārambha 95, 118 Aufrecht 225, 228, 232, 249, 250 Arhan 176 Aurangazeb 218 Aristotle 269, 270 avalagita 45, 46, 57, 89, 115 Arjuna 122, 237 Army General 170, 171, 175, avalagitam 51, 57, 116, 140 Avaloka 25, 50, 51, 53, 54, 68 195, 199, 215 Avanibhājana 107, 118 artha 7, 19 Avantisundarīkathā 123 arthāntaranyāsa 160 Arthaśāstra 122, 206 āvaraņa 18

Artola, George 218, 225 avaskanda 46, 57

Aruņagirinātha 213 avastha 95

āryā 90, 114, 160 avasyandita 54, 57

Asajjātimiśra 190 avidyā 18 Avimāraka Carita 32 asańgatā 97 axioms 113 asatpralāpa 55, 57, 116 Ayyālunātha 210 āśauca 177, 192 ascetic,-s-tism 9, 40, 44, 46, 65 - Bādarāyaņa 82 81, 84, 87, 98, 102, 109, 182, bahirlāpa 54, 55 253, 265 Bālacarita 32 Asiatic Society 195 Bālarāmāyana 55 āsīnapāțhya 69 bali 266 āśīrvacana 200, 202 Bāņa 32 Aśokavana 30 Bandhurā 70, 181, 195 āśrama 103, 187 Bandhuvañcaka 190 Aştādhyāyī 5 Banerji Shastri 78 aștapadī 94 barber 190, 191, 195, 196, 199 astra 206 201, 220 Astrology, -ger, -gical 103, 133, Barnett 105

GENERAL INDEX 295

Basu 63 Baudhāyana 82 Bharata 4, 15, 19-28, 37-43,

bawd 170, 196 49, 67, 70, 80, 83, 128, 269, 270 Behn, Mrs. 270 Bharatavākya 72. 80, 83, 86, 109, Benaras 241 120, 126, 132, 188, 191, 210, benediction 94 226, 242, 245, 250 Bengal, -i 170, 190, 195, 221, 266 Bhāratendu Hariścandra 265, Bernard Shaw 272 266 Bhagavadajjukīya 9, 60, 61, 65, bhāratī,-vrtti 4, 8, 10, 40, 41, 118 67, 73, 77, 78-105, 108, 123, Bhāravi 128 127, 143, 144, 145, 161, 164, Bhāsa 5, 9, 10, 32, 34, 59, 82, 165, 253, 254, 268 92, 94, 121, 122, 123, 206 -authorship 78 Bhattacarya, V. 264 -character study 85 Bhattalollața 16 -commentary 101, 102 Bhattanāyaka 16, 17 -date 82 bhāva, -s 15 -dramatic technique 93 Bhavabhūti 34, 92 -- influence of other works 97 bhāvakatvavyāpāra 16 -its influence on later works Bhavanath miśra 208 101 bhāvanāvyāpāra 17 -literary merits 88 Bhāvaprakāśana 22, 23, 25, 62, -philosophical ideas 90 256 -plot 84 Bhāvārthadīpikā 102 -social conditions 102 bhaya 20, 25, 26 -style 92 bhayam 48, 87, 157 Bhagavadgītā 82, 97-100. 177, bhayānaka 22, 25 187, 266 bhiksā 98, 111, 125, 190. 192, bhagavān 60, 85, 143 228, 251 Bhāgavata 128, 132, 133, 165, bhiksu 109, 117, 125, 244. 245 227 Bhīmasena 122 Bhāgavata Campū 146 Bhoja 24, 50 Bhairava 122, 183 Bhojacampū 237 bhakti, -cult 126, 229 Bhoja's Śr. Pra. 24, 25, 41, 50 Bhāņa 7, 8, 37, 41, 58, 59, 68, bhojakatvavyāpāra 16 70, 71, 127, 180, 188 bhojya bhojaka bhāva 17 Bhandarkar ORI 228, 232, 240, Bhosalavamśāvalī 225 243, 254 Bhrngadūta 208 bhang 191 Bhrngiriți 208 Bhānuprabandha 225 bhujangas 63, 70, 71, 188 Bharadvāja 243 bhukti 17

296 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Bhūtipriya 183, 188 Candatāndavam 257, 259 bībhatsa 22, 24, 25, 29 Candralekhā 146-164 Bibliography of Sanskrit Drama Candrikāvīthī 146 182, 189, 225, 232 Capeller 189, 215 Bidāla 64 Carakasamhita 174 Bidālaka 64 Carpenter, Bruce 273 bīja 95, 118, 164 Cārudatta 32, 59, 122 Bikaner 218, 250 Cārvāka 237 bodha 118 carvaņā 17 Bodhāyana kavi 78, 82, 102 Catologus catologorum 216, 225, Bommaganți Gangādhara 210 228, 232, 256 Brahmā 110, 122, 209, 242 Cattopādhyāya 262 Brahmacārin 210 Caturbhāņī 8, 59, 77 Brāhmaņa, -s, 9, 32, 40, 43, Caupatțarājā 265 - 44, 62, 86, 99, 103, 104, 170, Caura cāturika 260 190, 195, 214, 218, 221, 222, cețas 63 235, 261, 267 cețis 63 Brahmasūtras 82 chalam 52, 140 Bṛhadāranyaka Upanișad 30 Chalitarāma 54, 59 Brhadāranyaka bhāsya vārtika 30 Chalukya 127 Brhaspati 33 Chandoghani 208 Brhatsubhadraka 255 Chāndogya Upanișad 90 Brndāvana 229 charity 91 Buddha 31, 88, 111, 115, 117 chastity 91 Buddhism, -st, 31, 60, 61, 81, chatrabandha 230 83, 87, 89, 101, 103, 108, chāyā 66, 102 110, 117, 120, 123, 125, 126 Chāyānāțaka 6 Buddhist monk 109, 111, 112, China, -nese 272, 273 115, 116, 122, 145, 147, 148, Chitannavasal 106 149, 150, 151, 153, 156, 157, Cikitsā sanghat 266 158, 161, 162, 163, 170, 176, Cintaharan Cakravarti 60 237, 238, 245, 273 Cipitaka Carvana 260 Bundelkhand 216 Citragupta 266 Butcher 270 Citraphalaka 33, 51 citta 25 Caitanya 18 cittanispandata 18 Cākyars 121 Comedy 269, 270 Cāmunda Prahasana 257, 258, Comedy of Errors 270 260 Comedy of Humours 270 Candānurañjana 66, 72, 169, 239 Comedy of Manners 270

GENERAL INDEX 297

Comic Characters 28, 201 dharma 8, 19, 20 Comic, -effect, -element 66, 81, Dharmavarman 229 114, 116, 141, 142, 156, 169 Dharmeśvara 232 Cosmic dance 208 Dhīreśvara 189 Courtesan 62, 165 dhīrodātta 8 Cowries 184, 222 dhīrodhata 8 Crates 270 dhīralalita 8, 153 Cupid 179, 204 dhīraśanta 8 Dhīrghadanta 64 dakşiņā 138, 171, 222, 232, 249, Dhīrghaśepha 64 251 dhruvā 142 dakşiņācāra 60 Dhruvāvatāra 260 Dalavanur 106, 120 dhūmavelā 112, 120 Dāmaka, -Prahasana 206 Dhūrtacarita 43, 255 Damaruka 239 Dhūrtanartaka 144, 215 Damayanti 32 Dhūrtasamāgama 67, 69, 70, 73, dance, -ing 71, 102, 113, 118, 181, 189-194, 258 121, 194, 210, 217 Dhūrtavidambana 232, 233 Dance,. Charles 271 Dhūrtavițasamvāda 8, 59 daņdaka 242, 243 Dhvanyāloka 23, 96, 180 Dandin 178 dhy ana 100, 222 Danturā 43, 66, 71, 170-181 Dhyāneśvara 233 Dardarā 41, 70 dialects 69 Daridra durdaivam 260 Dictionary of literary terms 269 Dark lady of the Sonnets 271 Dictionary of World Literary Darśanas 226 terms 269 Daśakumāracarita 32 digambara 60, 123, 170, 171, Daśarūpaka 7-10, 25, 38, 40, 42, 239, 249 49-56, 68, 73, 255 Dima 8, 9, 38, 60, 68, 70, death scene 81, 164 127, 128 deformities 26, 62 diņdima 71, 180 Delhi 190 Diņdimakavi sārvabhauma 213 denoument 95 Dinmātrapradarśinī 101 De Politica 269, 270 diologue, -s 4, 7, 29, 52, 53, Devadurgati 255 59, 66,77, 102, 142, 194, 206 Devasomā 65, 108-112, 117-121 Dioninosus 270 Dey, S. K. 18, 31, 214-216 dīpti 25 Dhanananda 183-188 disciple 92, 95, 169, 170, 195, 196 Dhanañjaya 41-43 Divākara 230 Dhanika 42 divine characters 210, 257

298 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

divinities 28 emancipation 69, 91, 98 doctor, -s 61, 84, 86, 93, 101, embodied soul 91 104, 169, 170, 171, 174, 180, English drama 271 195, 196, 200, 201, 214, 219, English Farce 257, 272 239, 247, 250, 251, 253, 257 Epics, -legends 5, 6, 30 Doctor's dilemma 272 Epicharmus 270 Dośākara 230 Epicurean 109 double entendre 32 Epigraphia Indica 106 dowry 257, 262 Drama 3, 4, 37, 65, 69, 77, 86, epilogue 145, 163 episode 7, 37, 40, 42, 58, 122 92, 93, 102, 145, 146 erotic art 196 dramatic art 37 eternal consciousness 8 dramatic artifices 4 ethics 91 dramatic irony 53 eunuchs 9, 40, 262 dramatic performance 1103 European leaders 260 dramatic technique 93, 117, 141, European literature 269 161, 165, 180, 257 Europeans 64, 238, 254 dramaturgy, -gical 1, 3, 7, 41, expiation rites 200 37, 41, 80-83, 93-95, 128, 110, 169, 182, 188 fallacies 30 Draupadīs vayamvara 24, 200 farce 81, 224, 254, 268, 273 Dravidians 6 Farce in English literature 269 drsțānta 159 Farcical element 202, 266, 271, drśya 95 273 druti 25 fatigue 15 Dryden 270 fiancee 113, 115, 116 duality 91 financier 170 Durācāra 181, 190, 191 five elements 91 Durgāțīkā 208 five samdhis 7, 8, 10 Duritārņava 208 French 189 Duryodhana 31 French farces 257, 271 dūşana 46 funeral 201 Dușyanta 16 dvandvanāśana 99 gadgadavāk 49, 57, 89, 116 dyūtakarasamvāhakānka 33, 59 Gajeśvara 232 Gambler hymn 29 Each for himself 271 gambling 88, 187, 193 Ekāmranātha temple 109, 125 Gaņadāsa 56 ekapātrahārya 68 gaņda 53 Elizabethan era 270 Gandhamādana 108

GENERAL INDEX 299

Gandharvas 9 goșthī (pānagosthī) 88, 104, Ganeśa 141, 230 143 Gangānanda 208 Gosvāmi 239 Gānga 124, 141 Govardhanagiri 229 Gangā, Ganges, 71, 178, 179, Govindacandra 170 230 Govindaśrīvatsānka 246 gaņīkā, -s 42, 43, 47. 62, 63, 65, grammar, gramatical 81 66, 84-90. 95, 96, 101, 102, grāmya 25 104, 110, 131, 143, 144, 147, grdhra-gomāyu episode 31, 58 148, 153, 156, 157, 162, 183, Greeks 270 190, 192, 200, 213 Greek drama 5 garbhādāna 221, 249 grhasthāśrama 246 garbhasamdhi 95 Guhākara 230 garbhasrava 104 guņa 17 garden 93 garlic 221, 223 Guņabhara 119

Gatakrama 183, 230 gurukula 103

gāthā 33 Gauri 210 haetera 70, 71

Gauri digambara Prahasana 71, Hā hanta śarade 260

207, 254 Hall 7 Hamlet 263 gestures 4 Ghanaśyāma 239 Hanuman 30

Ghatotkaca 122 Hanūmat śataka 237

gherao 264 Harappa 6

Ghiyasuddhin Tughlak 190 Harasimha 189

Ghosh 3, 39 Har Dutt Śarma 20

Ghṛtakulyāvalī 218, 222 Harijans 267

Gitagaņapati 229 Harijīvanamiśra 64, 65, 218,

Gītagovinda 146, 194 221-224, 257

Gītārāma 146 Hariścandra 30

Glossary of literary terms 269 harlot 8, 42, 46, 138, 149, 151, glutton, -s 192, 257, 258 156, 172, 173, 176, 190, 193, Goddess of wealth 192 214, 215 gods 9, 262 Harşa, King 33, 34 Gokulagrāma 229 hāsa 18, 20, 21, 27 gomukha 71, 180 hasitam 20, 57 Gopinātha Cakravartin 215 hāsya 8, 9, 11, 18, 19, 22-34, gopis 216 41, 42, 57, 59, 64-68, 71, gosāyī 182, 183 88-90, 113, 115, 118, 139,

300 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

142, 145, 156, 164, 169, 172, History of Pallavas 106 180, 191, 197, 206, 218, 222, History of Prostitution in India 258, 259 63 -abhãsa 24 History of Sanskrit Poetics 15, -ātmastha 19, 21, 22, 67 18, 216 -bhayahāsya 25 History of Tamil Nadu 126 -colour 28 Hitler 257, 260 -divinity 28 Hitopadeśa 72, 222 -parastha 19, 21, 67 Honeymoon Couple 267 -position among other Rasas Hortel 105 25 Hrdaya vinoda 256 -prāya 57 Hsi-hscang-chi 273 -śṛngārahāsya 25 Hui Ming 273 -śuddhahāsya 25 humour 27-34, 56, 57, 58, 104, Hāsyacūdāmaņi 64-71, 73, 101, 201 127-144, 254, 268 hunna 182 Hāsyakautūhala 250 Hyderabad 267 Hāsyaratnākara 255 Hyder Ali 236, 237 Hāsyārnava 61, 63, 67, 70-73, 181, 195-204 Iggappa Heggadayya 268 Hāsyasāgara 255 lhāmrga7, 10, 38, 59, 127, 128 Hebare 261 imagery 93 Hemacandra 39 Immadi Devaraya 213 Herambha 71 India 144, 153, 170, 273 hermitages 103 Indian Drama 5, 6, 189, 214, hero 8, 10, 15, 23, 42, 62, 65, 228, 237 85, 109, 143, 144, 153, 257 Indian History Congress 73, 78 hcroine 8, 10, 15, 23, 65, 69, Indian Philosophy 79 90, 110, 143, 149, 165, 178, 203 Indian vernaculars 254 Hieun-Tsung 125 India Office Library 249 Himavān 208 Indra 58, 79, 119, 122, 207 Himmir Khan 211, 212 Indracārumaņi 79 Hindi 265, 266 Indrāņī 58 Hindu, -ism, -monk, -religion Indranīlamņi 79 103, 120, 122, 125 Indrasenā 193 Historical Characters 257 Indravajrā 90, 114 History of Classical Sanskrit literature 82, 83, 182, 216, Inscription 78, 82, 107 Instruments 70, 180 225, 228, 229, 232, 239, 255 Īśvaradatta 59 History of English Drama 271 Italian 189

GENERAL INDEX 301

Jagadīśvara 195 Kādambarī 32, 239 Jagannātha Carita 237 Kadambas 124 Jagannatha Pandita 16, 18 kaiśikīvrtti 4, 8-10, 25, 40, 118 Jagannātha Paņdita, -a study kākadantaparīkșā 30 18, 19 kakşyāvibhāga 69 Jaina, -ism 31, 60, 106, 123, Kalahānkura 181, 195 125, 126, 176, 212, 213, 237, Kalākaraņdaka 68, 101, 128, 240, 241 130, 132, 134, 136, 139, 141, Jalhaņa 79 142, 144 Jambuka 64 Kālāmukha 73, 183, 237 Janaki, S. S. 69, 189, 190, 194, Kalāñjara 127 195, 216 Kāleyakautūhala 144, 243, 245 janāntika 69, 162 Kālidāsa 4, 31, 32, 34, 59, 82, Jangama 170-181 83, 92, 207, 210, 224 Jantuketu 170-181 Kālidāsaprahasana 225 Japan 273 Kalikeli 256 jaraddravida dhārmika 32 Kalińga 153. Jātaka 31 Kalyāņasangandhikā 122 Jațāsura 170 kāma 8, 19 jāțharāgni 93 kāmasaciva 62, 213 Jayadeva 194 kāmaśāstra 63, 189 Jayakanth Miśra 189 kāmasūtra 62, 104 jealousy 91 Kāmeśvara Rao 267 Jerrold, Douglas 271 Kamsavaho 145 Jhankațasāra 170-181 Kanarese 182 Jharat Khan 210, 211 Kāñcanamālā 261 Jhilli 70, 71, 180 Kāñcī 109, 110, 111, 113, 118, Jñānarāśi 64, 65, 127-144 120, 124, 125 Johnsonian 271 Kañcī Pillar 107 Josyer 51 kandarpa homa 196 Jotika 194 Kandarpakeli 43, 256 Journal of (JBORS) 78 Kane, P. V. 15 Journal of (JBRS) 26, 27 kanīyas theatre 70 Journal of (JOR) 38, 41, 82, 83, Kannada 237, 268 105 Kanyākubja 170 Judge 188 Kanyāśulkamu 267 jugupsā 26 Kāpālī 118, 122 junction 7 Kāpālika,-s 60, 65, 73, 81, 108- jyeștha theatre 70 125, 141, 142, 144, 147, 170- Jyotirīśvara 189 181, 213, 237

302 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURĖ

Kapatakeli 66, 128-144 Keith 5, 6, 10, 105, 121, 127, Kapatakeli Prahasana 268 141, 170, 189, 195, 214, 216 karațakaśrotriya 187 Kerala 72, 73, 81, 96, 101, 105, karmātman 87, 91, 98 121, 145, 146, 268 Karņa 206, 207 kevali, -jñāna 64, 129, 130 Karņabhāra 206 -pustaka 133, 134, 137 Karņaroga 104 -vidyā 138 Karnāța, -ka 147, 149, 153, Khandanakhaņdakadya 208 157, 189 Kharapata 122, 123 Karņīsuta 123 King, -s 33, 61, 81, 94, 102, Karpūracarita 127 143, 146, 169, 195-206, 214, Karpūraka 127 215, 217-221, 230-235, 241- Karpūramañjari 10, 48 51, 57, 251, 262, 265, 266, 272 59, 244 Kirāta 122 karuņa 10, 22, 24, 25, 38, 67, Kirātārjunīya 32, 127, 128 68,158 Klean, Werner 272 kārya 65, 95, 118 Kohala 65 kāșāyavastra 131 Kokila 128-139 Kashmir 246 Konow, Sten 5, 6, 189, 195, kasturī 71, 162 214, 216, 228, 232, 255 kathā literature 123 Kothwal 265 Kathopanișad 99 krodha 19, 20 kaula 60 Kṛpākara 230 Kauņdinya 128-141 Krsņa 22, 196, 204, 216, 229, Kauņdinya Prahasana 258, 261 230, 237, 240 Kauțilya 122 Krșnadatta 228 Kautuka Ratnākara 214 Krșnamacharya, M. 82, 83, 105, Kautaka Sarvasva 215 225, 232, 255

Kautuka Vardhani 267 Krşņamiśra 122, 123

Kaveri 226 Krşņarāja Wodayar 236

Kavi, M. R. 206 Krsnavinoda nā taka 207

Kavipaņdita 256 Kșapaņaka 46, 60

kavisamaya 29 Kşīrasāgara 262

Kaviśekhara 190 kşobha 25

Kavitārkika 214 Kşutakşemīya 261

kāvyalińga 115 Kubera 119, 209

Kāvyānušāsana 22, 23, 25, 39 Kūdiyāțțakrama 78 kūdiyāțțam 72, 78, 105, 121, 122 Kāvyaprakāśa 25 Kāvyetihāsasamgraha 243 Kuhanābhaik șava 64, 144, 210, 254

GENERAL INDEX 303

Kukşimbhara 122 lāsya 4, 68, 69, 236, 237 Kukşimbhara-bhaikşava 64, 70, lāsyānga 96 72, 122, 144, 236-238, 254 lāsyaprayoga 56 Kulāla 195 Latakamelaka 9, 43, 61, 64, 65, Kulaśekharavarman 121 71-73, 127, 141, 143, 169-181, Kulațā 62 188, 204, 225 Kulavyādhi 170-181 laughter 20, 26, 27, 115 Kumāra 55 laukika ānanda 17 Kumārasambhava 24, 31, 122, Lava 54 206, 210 Laws and practice of Sanskrit Kumativarman 195-204 Drama 10 kumbhadāsī 62 Levi, Sylvan 189 Kumbhakarņa 30 Līlāvatī 231, 241, 242 Kumbhīlaka 33 Līlāvatī vithī 146 Kuñcan Nambyar 146 Līlāvilāsa prahasana 261 Kunhan Raja 218 Lingāyata 237, 251 Kuppuswami Sastry 82 liquor, -shop 108-111, 113, 115, Kuśa 54 116, 120, 152, 157, 183, 273 Kuśalavacampū 237 Lockwood, Michael 78, 79, 107 Kusumāñjali 208 lokadharmi 69 Kūttambalam 121 Lokarañjana Prahasana 251-254 Kuvalayāśvīya 228 Lokottara vivāhamu 267 London 260 lajjā 199, 200 lunatic 108, 109, 115-117 lakșaņa 37, 80 lakşaņā 65, 222 Lu-Ta 273

Lakșmaņa 34, 57 Madanadūtī 183 Lakşmaņa Māņikyadeva 214 Madanaketu 146, 147, 148, 151, Lakşmaņasena, King 170 153 Lakşmī 128, 179 Madanaketu Carita 60, 67, 70- Lakşmīnarasimham 267 73, 77, 101, 123, 145-165, Laksmīnarasimha -Rao 267 253, 254 lakşya 37 Madanamañjari 66, 170-181 Lambavrsaņa 64 Madanāndhamiśra 195 Lambodaraprahasana 66, 71, 72, Madanasundari 68, 101, 128-144 169, 224, 225 Madanavarman 146, 147, 148, lāngalirasa 132, 136, 138 153 language 258 Madhavakrishna Sarma 218 Lassen 189 Madhukarikā 84 Lasunapantah 65, 221, 223 Madhva 239

304 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Madhyama theatre 70 mandākrāntā 160 Madhyama Vyayoga 9 Maņdodarī 30 Madras 79, 224, 225 Mangalagrāma 146, 162 Magadhī 121 Mañikāņcanasamanavah 261 Mahabalipuram 106 Mankad 105, 182, 195, 206 Mahabhairava 60 Manmatha 115 Mahābhārata, The 6, 31, 58, 180, Manmohan Chakravarthy 190 222 Manobhava Parābhava nāțaka -sabhaparva 31 207 -śāntiparva 31 Manoharan dinam 257 Mahābhāsya 5, 30 mantradīkșā 184, 219, 227, 214, Mahākāvya 145 244 Mahalingasastri, Y. 261, 262 Manu, Mānava 96, 99, 177, Mahānāțakakīrti sudhānidhi 213 221, 233 Mahānindaka 195 Marathi 267 Mahārāstrī Prākrt 67 Mardala 70 Mahāvīracarita 34 Mārjāraḥ 64 Mahāyātrika 198 Mārkaņdeya 201 Mahendravadi 106 Marriage of the Devil 270 Mahendravarma Pallava 77-81, māth 70, 141, 211, 227, 241, 245 105-108, 111, 119-126 mattavilāsa 107, 118 Maheśvara 232 Mattavilāsa Prahasana 61, 65, 72 Maināka 208, 209 73, 77-83, 94, 101, 105-126, Maithila 69, 189, 194 127, 143, 206, 254, 268, 273, Maitreya 33 -Alamkāras 114 Makaranda 34 -Character study 109 mālārūpaka 159 -Commentaries 121 - Mālatikā vīthī 50, 59 -Dramatic Technique 127 Mālatīmādhava 34, 72, 222 -Episodes etc. 122 Mālavikā 33, 56 -Hasya 115 Mālavikāgnimitra 4, 33, 56, 59, -Literary merits 113 62,153 Mālavya 262 -plot 108

Malayalam 121, 146, 268 -Prahasana Elements and

Malayamāruta 210, 218 Vīthyangas 116

mālinī 90, 114, 160, 183 -Prākrt 121

Māmandur inscription 78, 82, -Society 124

83, 105, 106 -stage worthiness 121

Maņalur 226 Māya 115

Mandagappattu 106, 107 māyā 263 mayasabha 31

GENERAL INDEX 305

Medhātithi 177 medhāvin 137, 140 Mrtāngāra 190

medicine, -nal 89, 104, 184 Mūdheśvara 216

meditation 91, 133 mudras 184, 194

mehanaprayoga 239 mukhasamdhi 8, 10, 41, 95, 118 Muktāvatī 233, 236 merchant 190, 228 Meridith, George 270 mukti 240

metre, -s 90, 113, 160 Mūladeva 123

mīmāmsā 249 Mūlanāśaka 190

mime, -s 6 Mundaka Upanishad 96

mimic art 5, 7 Mundita Prahasana 67, 144, 240

Mimic plays 6 Murāri 34

minister, -s 169, 195, 214, 217, Murphy, Arthur 271

233, 234, 235, 265, 266 music 4, 102, 119, 146, 190

Mithila 189, 208, 228 Mussolini 257, 260

Mithyācāra Prahasana 250 Mysore 213, 224, 225, 236, 251

Mithyārāśi 170-181 Nāgānanda 33, 96 Mithyārņava 195 nāgaraka, -s 61, 62, 88, 104, Mithyasarvasva 183-188 144, 183 Mizhavu 121 Nāgasena 108, 111 Mohammedans, Musalmans 63, Naișadha 32, 66 211, 212, 252, 254 Nala 32 Mohenjedaro 6 Nalacampū 72, 222 mokșa 19, 20 nālikā 54 Moliere 263, 271 Namakkal 106 monastries 103, 125, 273 Nambiyars 121 monk, -s 24, 46, 60, 62, 65, 103, Nanda 31 109, 117, 123, 131, 138, 145, nāndī 10, 71, 79, 80, 94, 118, 147, 150-152, 211-215, 244 141, 142, 162, 164, 180, 193, 246,250 196, 206-211, 222, 229, 239, Monologue, -play 8, 59, 68, 180, 243 206 Nandin 208 More freightened than hurt 271 Nanjaraja Wodayar 236 Morgan, Margary 269 Nānyadeva 189 Morton, J. M. 271 Nanyars 121 Mṛcchakatika 8, 26, 33, 59 Nārada 32, 209, 210, 262 mrdańga 41, 70, 71, 180 Narasimhadeva 232 mrdava 56, 116, 192, 198 Narasimha varma Pallava 106 Mrgānkalekhā 67, 195-204 narastuti 229

306 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Nārāyaņa 211 niggard 261 Nārāyaņa Bhatțatiri 102, 146, Nijastrītyāgi śāstrin 65 163 Nilakaņtha 122 Nārāyaņīya 102 Nīlakaņțhayāțrā 142 narcotic 184 Nilāpariņaya 225 narma 25 nirvahaņa sandhi 10, 41, 95, -garbha 25 118 -source of hasya 25 nișpatti 16, 18 -sphota 25 Nrsimha 230 -sphuñja 25 nrtta 118 nața 5, 230 nrtyaprabandha 146 nāțaka 5, 7, 34, 37, 38, 41, 45, nuptials 249 58, 59, 62, 68-71, 94, 146, nyāyaśāstra 113, 249 233, 254 Nāțakalakșana Ratnakoșa 78, Obscene, -nity 169, 222, 225, 236 256 Ojihara 243 Națarāja 142, 208 Oriental Rescarch Institute 251 Nāțavā taprahasana 66, 71, 72, Our heritage 31

181-189 națī 63, 108, 119, 190, 195, 229 Pāda 80

nāțīkā 10, 58, 59, 62, 68 Pādatāditaka 8, 27, 59, 61

nāțya 5 Padmākara 229

Nātyadarpaņa 44, 45, 55, 56 Padmaprābhņtaka 8, 59

nāțyadharmī 69 Paharsimha 250

Nātyaśāstra 3, 4, 7-10, 15-20, Palace 198

22, 27, 28, 38, 40-44, 62, palāńdu 221

68, 69, 70, 73, 94,165 Palāndumandana 64, 218, 221-

Nātye ca daksā vayam 262 223

Navohā vadhūh varaśca 261 Pallava 79, 80, 106, 119, 123

nāyaka 23 Pallavapuram 106, 107

Nāyanmārs 126 paņava 41, 70

nāyikā 23 pāņigrahaņa 115

nepathya 142, 172, 180, 245 Pañcasāyaka 189 Pañcatirtha 261 Newspaper 258 Nicholl, Allardyce 271 Pāņdavānanda 51, 59

nidarśanā 158 Pāņdyas 124 Pāņini 5 nidhana 140 nidhāna 140 pantomime 5

Nidrāluțhakkura 182, 183 Parabhṛtikā 84 paradoxical name 64, 118, 132

GENERAL INDEX 307

parakāyapraveśa 84-86, 101, 149, Physician 104 164 Paramārdideva 127, 142, 144 Physician in spite of himself 263, 271 parasites 7 piśāca 210 Parastrīgamana śāstrin 65 pițakajvara 104 Paraśurāma 206, 207 Plautus 270 Pārāvata 128-139 playforms 94 Paricārikā 62 Police chief 196-199, 204, 241 parihāsa 25 polygomy 125 Parihāsalatā 65 Poona Orientalist 214, 215 Parikh, J. T. 62 Pornography 66, 225 Pāripārśvika 128, 142, 146, 162 Prabhākara 230 parivrājaka 65, 81, 84, 85, 89, Prabhakara Śāstri 267 95, 101, 103, 127, Prabhāvatī 53 parody 258 Prabodha Candrodaya 46, 59, Pārvatī 4, 31, 71, 122, 141, 162, 123, 124 179, 180, 193, 196, 209, 210, Praharșiņi 90 230, 243 Prahasana 7, 8, 11, 37-45, 49, Pāşandavidambana 254 58, 68-73, 78, 104, 117, 123, Pāśupata 60, 108-114, 120, 121, 132, 141, 143-147, 151, 165, 125 169, 181, 189, 191, 206, 210, patākā 42, 95 214, 217, 224, 237, 253, 254, Pātañjalanātha 65, 221 258, 259, 267-269, 272 Patañjali 5, 30 -Acts in 67 Pathan 228 -Āryās 41 Pattabhirama Sastri 261 -Bharatavākya 72 pauraparicaryā 197 -Elements of 45, 48, 58-62, Paurāpavāda śāstra 187 89, 116, 117, 140, 156, Payodhi mathana 256 157, 192, 193, 197 peacock 87, 89 -Elements and the Vithyan- penance 91, 193 Penny farthing, Mrs. 271 gas 57, 67, 140, 156-157 -Characteristics 38 Peri who loved the prince 272 -Characters in 60 Peterson 228, 256 -Hero and Heroine 65 phalāgama 118 -In other Indian Languages Philosopher 250, 251 265 Philosophical ideas 90, 104 -Instrumentation 70 Philosophy 91, 103 -lāsyāngas 68 Phormus 270 -minor works 205. Phuńkata miśra 170-181 -Nāndi 7.1

308 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

-Nātyadharmī and Loka- Prāsangika 218, 220 dharmi 69 Prasannarāghava 55 -non-available works 255 prastāvanā 10, 120, 151, 188, -origin and development 34, 258 37 Pratāparudrīya 25 -Paradoxical names, in 64 Pratijñāyaugandharāyaņa 32 -Prākrt, in 66 pratiloma 230 -Prologue, in 71 pratimukhasamdhi 10 -Rasas, in 67 pravara 184, 210, 232 -Samkīrņa variety 9, 40, 42, praveśaka 10, 32, 42, 118, 163 43, 67, 73, 254 pravrtti 69 -stage worthiness 72 prayogātiśaya 95, 119, 162, 164 -śūddha variety 9, 40, 42, Premābhirāma 10. 43, 67, 73, 101, 118, 126, Priest 214, 233, 253 145, 164 Priyadarśikā 33 -Twentieth Century works Priyamvadā 32 257, 259 -Vikrta variety 9, 40, 42, prologue 41, 59, 60, 68, 71, 78, 80, 81, 94, 95, 102, 103, 105, 67, 127 118, 119, 120,. 124, 125, 141, -Theatrical aspects 70 144, 161, 162, 170, 180, 182, -Theory and practice 37 188, 189, 190, 194, 196, 206, -Vulgarity, in 66 208, 211, 216, 222, 232, 243, prahelikā 231 250 Prakaraņa 7, 8, 34, 37, 38, 40, Prostitutes 63 . 41, 45, 48, 59, 62, 68, 70, pseudo religious 24, 62, 257 94, 233 prakarī 42, 95, 163 pūjā 217

Prakāśavinașțā 63 pūjyapādaḥ 80 Pulakesin 124 prakhyāta 7, 9, 10 Prākrt 66, 67, 81, 101, 102, pumsavana 246-249

107, 121, 122, 144, 145, 161, pun 115, 203, 271

161, 181, 182, 257 purāņa, -nic 122, 127, 237, 259, 262 Prakrtipriyā 220 pralāpa 49,. 117, 156 pūrņakumbha 197

Pramāņa 98, 249 * Pūrņapolikā 65, 221

Pramatha 28 Purohita 196-200, 217, 218, 219,

prapañca 51, 57, 116, 140, 141, Purūravas 32 257, 266

193 Purșottama Simha 208 prāptyāśā 95 purușārthas 8, 19, 20 prarocanā 41 Pūrvamīmāmsa 99, 175, 176

GENERAL INDEX 309

Quack 86, 89, 171, 181, 196, 201 -Sundarakāņda 30, 31 Queen 33, 146-155, 198, 214, -Yuddha kāņda 30 215, 233-235 Rām.śvara 189 Rāmilaka 68, 84, 88, 89, 90, 101 Rādhā 22, 229 Rammoy Vidyābhūșaņa 255 Rādhārahasya 228 rampart 198 Rādhīya 170 Raņajambūka 195 Radio 258 Rańganātha 162 rāga 69, 194 Rangaśekhara 189 Rāgavirāga 262 Rasa 11, 15-17, 24, 25, 42, 89, Raghavan, Dr. V. 10, 24, 38, 90, 190 41, 50, 68, 213, 218, 221, -ābhāsa 23, 26, 67 257, 259, 263 -abhivyaki vāda 16 Rāghavānanda 225 -anumiti vāda 16 Rāghavīya 145 -āsvāda 15 Raghuvamśa 23, 83 -bhuktivāda 16 Raghuvīracarita 82 -pratiti 17 Rāhu 71, 160 -primary and secondary Raja K. K. 146 22-25 rajas 16 -sūtra 15, 17 Rājaśekhara 34 -utpattivāda 15 Rajasekhara Bose 266 -vyañjanā 17 Rajasthan 250 -pradhana rasa 118 rājavihāra 125 -prakrti rasa 24 rāksasas 9 -rañjaka rasa 42 Raktakallola 195 Rasagangādhara 16, 19, 25, 72 Ralphroister doister 270 Rasapratibandhaka 65, 222 Rāma 54, 230 Rasārňava 208 Rāmābhyudaya kāvya 213 Rasārnavasudhākara 20, 25, 45, Ramachandran T. N. 82 52, 94, 211, 255, 256 Ramachandra Tarkalankara Rāșțraķūțas 124 215, 216 rati 19, 20, 28 Rāmajani 183 -ābhāsa 23 Rāmānanda 255 Ratitilaka 234 Rāmānuja 82, 239 Rativilāpa 24 Ramapānivada 77, 101, 145, Ratnāvalī 10, 33, 51, 59, 72, 145, 153, 165, 253 153, 222 Rāmasimha 218 raudra 9, 22, 25, 29, 67, Ramaswami Sastry 18 Rāvaņa 23, 24, 79, 80 Rāmāyana, The 31, 58 Ravipāți Tripurāntaka 10

310: PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Ravutta 183 Śaiva, śaivism, śaivite 79, 106, realism 69 126, 183, 185, 249 recluse 211, 213, 246 Sakalāgamācārya 221 religion, religious men, religious Śakāra 33 sects 67, 83, 111, 112, 142, 145, Šākteyas 60, 182 182, 191, 245, 253 Śākuntala 16, 32 Rg Veda, Rks 4, 7, 29, 33, 58 Šākyabhikșu 81, 115, 117, 118, rhetorics 82 120, 121, 123, 125 Rogarāśi 181, 246, 247 Śākyamata 88 rogue 217 Sāma (Veda) 4, 5 Roman authors 270 śama 20, 90 Royal Asiatic Society 232 sāmānādhikaraņya 16 rucirā 114 Śāmarāja Dīkșita 216 Rudra 79, 80 samavakāra 7, 9, 38, 60, 68, Rukmiņī haraņa 10, 127 127, 128 rūpājīvā 62 samlāpa 94 rūpaka, -s 6, 7, 38, 59-61, 72, sanyāsa 133, 246 94, 127, 237 Samskrta, Sanskrit 67, 82, 101, rūpakālamkāra 114, 158, 178, 107, 121, 144, 145, 173, 182, 224 189,254

Rūpakaşatka 127 Samskrta Ranga 73, 221

rūpyakas 187 Samskrta Ranga Annual 10, 69, 78, 189, 190, 194, 210, 211, Sabhāpativilāsa 225 218, 225, 259-262

Sabhāsali 170-181 Samudramathana 9, 127, 128

Sadāśiva Brahmendra 258 Samvādasūktas 4, 7

sādhanā 95 samyoga 16, 17

Sādhuhimsaka 195 sandeha alamkāra 179

Sāgarakaumudī 256 sandhi 7, 8, 41, 57, 95, 259

Sāgarikā 33, 51 Šāņdilya 80, 83, 84, 86, 88, 89,

Sāgarikā journal 255, 260-264, 94, 101, 103

sāhitya 216 Sāndrakutūhala 67, 228, 229

Sāhityadarpana 7-10, 23, 25, 43, Sangītadhanah 119

52, 53, 67, 73, 170, 255, 256 Sangrāmavisara 170-181 Śańkara 30 Sahityamālā 221, 222 Śankaramiśra 207, 208 Sahrdaya 17, 18 Śańkhadhara 127, 169, 170, 177 Sahrdayānanda 65, 218, 222, 180 257 Sānkhya 80, 88 Sairandhrikā 256 Sānkhyānanda 221

GENERAL INDEX 311

Sankīrņajāti 119 sex change 257, 262 Sanskrit drama 4-7, 15, 59, 65, shadow play 5-7 121, 182, 189, 214, 218 Shahaji 225 Sanskrit Drama Shakespeare 263, 270 -Keith 6, 10, 121, 127 Shavian Playground 269 -Shekhar 6 Shaw, Harry 269 Šānta, śāntābhāsa 24, 90 Sheriden 271 Sārasvata 182 Shipley, Joseph 269 Sarasvatī 52 Shui-hu Chunan 273 Sarasvati Mahal Library 225- Siddhapurușa 94 228, 246 śikșaņa 95 Śārdūlavikrīdita 90, 114, 160 Śīkhariņi 160 Śārikā 33 Silappadikāram 122, 123 Sarma S. N. 10 Śārngadharapaddhati 169 Śilpakārikā 63 Simhabhūpala (Śingabhūpāla) 24 sarpa 80 Śaśavilāsa 256 45, 57, 59, 211

Śāstras 96, 98, 221, 224 Simhala 146, 153

Sastri, C. S. R. 51 Simhavișņu Pallava 106, 119 Similes 90, 230, 238, 258 Sastri, K. L. V. 260, 261 Singavaram 106 Sastri, M. P. 236 Sinha 63 Śatapatha Brāhmana 29, 30 Śiśupālavadha 32 satire 81 śiśu story 30 Śatrumalla 1 20 Sītā 23, 30, 34, 54, 57 sattaka 10, 58, 59, 68 Sītārāghava 146 sattvaguņa 17, 29 Śiva (Lord) 4, 22, 28, 31, 71, sātvatī 4, 8, 9, 40 94, 110, 111, 115, 118, 122, Satyasomā 108-110 127, 141, 162, 164, 180, 190, Saundarananda 31 193, 196, 208-210, 230 Śaurasenī 67, 101, 121, 144 Śivadāsa 146-164 Schuyler 182, 189, 228, 232, Śivagīti 146 256 Sivajyotirvid 240 Scriptures 91, 103, 117, 133, Siyamangalam 106, 107 258 Skanda Shankara Khot 260 seer, -s 91 smitam 20, 57 sclf-control 91 smrti, -S 96, 102, 220, 265 Sengupta, .S 26, 27 social conditions 102, 123 sense organs 100 śoka 20, 28 sex, -y 66, 191 Somadeva 123

312 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Somavalliyōgānanda 144, 213, Stotra 145 214, St. Patricks' Day. 271 song, -s 194 street drama 37 soul 91, 100, 154, 161, 164 Subhadrā 237 South India, -n 82, 170, 122 Subhagān anda 181, 246-248 South India Inscription 78, 106 Subhāșita 222 Spring festival 214 Subhāsitaratna bhāndāgāra 177, śrāddha 234 181 sragdharā 90, 114, 160 Subhāsitāvalī 31 śrāvaņa 201 Subramaniam 126 śresthins 8 sūcya 95 śrgāla 64 Sudhājharī 237 Śrīdāmacarita 216 Sudhākara 229-230 Śri Harsa 66 Šūdraka 33, 34, 59, Śrījīvanyāyatīrtha 259-263 Sujanasimha 250 Śrīnivāsācārya 251 Sūktimuktāvalī 79 Śrī Śańkuka 16 Sukumāra 68, 82 Śṛngāra 7-10, 22-26, 38, 40, 66, Sultan 189 67, 68, 89, 90, 157, 164 Sundaradeva 249 -ābhāsa 23, 24, 89, 140, 156 Sundaram, C. S. 259 191 Supernatural element 164 -anukāra 23 superstition, -s 103, 144 -sambhoga 180, 196 Suratapriyā 190 -vipralamba 24, 25 Sureśvarācārya 30 Śrngāramañjarī 146, 149, 153 Šūrpaņakā 58 Śrngārāmrtalaharī 216 Susańgatā 51 Śrngāranāradīyam 257, 262 sūtakadosa 192 Śrngāraprakāśa 50, 51 sūtra 82

śrotriya 239 Sūtradhāra 5, 52, 55, 62, 70, 71,

śruti 96, 102 84, 85, 94, 101, 108, 118,

stage 69, 72, 94, 95, 121 119, 125, 128, 142, 146, 160,

stage direction 4, 67, 94 162, 170, 180, 188, 190, 195,

stage director 5 196, 208, 211, 229, 250

Stalin 257, 260 Sūyagadańga 31

State of society 103, 124, 144 svabhāvokti 159

Station Master 267 svagata 141, 162

sthāpanā 120, 206 svāgatā 160

sthāyibhāva, -s 15, 17, 19., 20, svajana 87

27, 28, 90 svairiņī 62 Svapnavāsavadattam 32, 206

GENERAL INDEX 313

Svargiyaprahasana 262 Svastivācana 232, 251 Trichur 78, 79, 82, 101

Svastyayana 175, 177 trigatam 51, 52 Trihut 190 Śyāmilaka 59 Trimūrti temple 106

tāla 69, 119, 146, 194 Tripuradāha 127, 128

Tālaprastara 146 Tripurasundarī Mānasapūjā stotra 216 tālayugala 70 Tripuravijaya 9 tamas 16 Troțaka 68 Tamil 107, 182 Tamil Nadu 37 True knowledge 80, 91, 100 Tukhoji 239 tāņdava 4 Tāņdya Brāhmaņa 30 Twentieth Century Sanskrit

Tanjore 224, 225, 239, 246 drama 262, 263

tantra, tāntric 60, 172, 185 Twentieth Century Sanskrit Prahasanas 257-262 tapas 91 tyajana 45, 46 tarka 216 Tarka karkaśa 65, 221 Types of Sanskrit Drama 182, 206 Tarkālamkāra Bhatțācārya 195 Tattvasamāsa 83 Ubhayābhisārikā 8, 59 teacher 92, 169, 170, 190, 195, Ubhayarūpakam 257, 262 250 Uddīpanavibhāva 15, 19 Telephone 258 Udghātyaka 50, 51, 89 Telugu 107, 182, 250, 267, 268 Ullekha 45 Terence 270 Ultimate Reality 91 terukkūttu 37 Ulūkāksa 64 Tezukayama University 273 Unities of Time, Place and Theatre 70, 121 Action 5 Theatre of the Hindus 189, 215, Universalisation 17 216 Universal soul 91 Time Analysis 96, 120 Unmattaka 108, 109, 121 Tīrthayātrāprabandha 262 Unmattakavikalaśa 224, 227 Tirukkazhukundram 106 Unni, K. P. 106, 108, 110, 120, Tirumalanātha 210 121 Tirunāvukkarasar 126 Upahāravarman 32 traditional lore 122 Upahasitam 20 tragedy 5, 270 upajāti 160 Trailokyavarmadeva 127 upamā 90, 158, 179, 193 translations 78 Upanișad, -ic 30, 90, 110, 222 Trichinopoly 106, 107 Upapatti 16, 47, 117, 157

314 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Uparūpakas 10, 94 Varakatanam 267 Upaśruti 133, 144 Vararuci 59, 145 Upendravajrā 90 Urubhańga 10 Varayātrā 209

Ūrmilā 34, 57 varņa 137

Urvaśi 32 Varņagāminī 65

Ușāniruddha 145 Varņaratnākara 189

Usha Satyavrat 258-263 vāsanā 17

Ușțrāsyaḥ 64 Vasantasenā 65, 68, 84-89, 92,

Utkala 232 104

utpādya 8, 10, 59, 95, 118 Vasantatiakā 90, 114, 160,

utpādya utpādaka bhāva 16 vaśikaraņamantra 131, 136,

utsāha 19, 20 138, 139, 141, 144,171, 173

Uttara Rāma Carita 34, 53, 57, vastu 95, 118

59, 102, 239 Vāsudeva cayanī 182 Vatsarāja 9, 10, 77, 127, 128,

Vādivinoda 208 141, 142, 144

vaidarbhi 145 Veda, -s, -ic 33, 122, 208, 220,

Vaidika himsā himsā na bhavati 251

265 Vedānta 30, 90, 117, 249

Vaidya bāndhu 257, 263 Vedānta paribhāșā 100

Vaidyanātha 250 Vedāntins 18, 170, 266

Vaidyaśāstra 86, 89 Veena recital 244

Vaikuņțha 265 Veeresalingam Pantulu 267

vairāgya 90, 138, 193 Veņīsamhāra 8, 239

Vaiśesika sūtras 208 Venkappiah 236-238

Vaiśesika bhattācārya 65, 221 Veńkateśa kavi 224, 225 Vaišika 62 Veńkateśa Prahasana 225 Vaișņava, -s -vite 183, 184, Vernaculars 258 190, 240, 249, 266 Veştana vyāyoga 264 . vākkelī 52, 53, 117 veśyā, -s 63 Vakranāsa 64 Veśyāprahasanamu 267 Vallam 106 vibhāva, -s 15, 17, 18 Vāmācāra 60, 172, 216 -ābhāsa 23, 24 Vamśastha 90, 114, 160 vibhrāntiḥ 48, 53, 141 Vanabhojanam 263 vibhūti 185 Vanajyotsnā 32 Vibudhamohana 65, 72, 218-221 Vandhyā dauhitra smaraņa 30 Viddhas ālabhañjika 239 Vara 94 Vidhih 79, 80, 108 Varāha 182 Vidura 31

GENERAL INDEX 315

Vidūșaka 22, 23, 26, 32, 33, Vivāhavidambana 263 56, 59, 61, 62, 67, 84, 94, 101, Vrātya 189 121, 207, 217, 219, 266 Vigra 183-188 Vrātyabhișak 185, 189 Vrsākapi 58 vihasitam 20 Vijayā 184, 185 Vrtra 122

Vijayanagara 182, 213 Vrtti, -s 8, 41, 59

vikāsa 25, 26 Vṛttikāra 82

Vikramorvaśīya 33, 50, 262 Vulgarity 29, 66, 145, 214, 225,

vikṛta 9 239, 240, 257

viksepa 25 Vyabhicāribhāva, -s 15, 18, 19

Vimarśa samdhi 9 -ābhāsa 23, 24

Vimuktih 257, 263 Vyādhisindhu 181, 195, 196

Vinodaranga 249 Vyāhāra 46, 47, 56-58, 117,

Vinoda tarangiņī 267 140, 192

vipralambha 47 Vyajanabandha 230

vipraśnikā 211 Vyākaraņa 249

Vira 7, 22, 24, 25, 38, 69, vyakti 18

Viratisāgara 219 vyañjanā 65, 222

Viriñci Bābā 266 vyańgya-vyañjaka bhāva 17

Vișkambhaka 10, 43, 72, 118, vyapara 16 151, 163, 164, 237, 258 Vyāsa 180

Vișņu (Lord) 4, 106 Vyasanākara 170-181 Vișņu Bhat 78, 107 Vyāyoga 7, 9, 38, 60, 68, 127, Visņumitra 123, 146, 147, 152, 128, 233

153 Vișņupāda bhattacarya 259, 261 Weber 5

Vişnu vilāsa 145 Western plays 258 vistara 25 Wide Gallant 270 Viśvabhaņda 195 Widow rehabilitation 257 Viśvanagara 190 Wilson 58, 189, 195, 215, 217 Viśvanātha 43, 72, 237 270 Viśvāsaghātaka 170-181 Windisch 5 Vița, -s 8, 59, 61, 127, 230 Winternitz 78, 81 Vithi 7, 10, 37, 41, 50, 58, 146 Wit and humour 61 Vīthyangas 9, 37, 40, 42, 44, Wit, humour and Satire in 49, 50, 57-60, 67, 73, 89, 116, Sanskrit Literature 31 140, 156, 192, 193, 198 Women-their charms 154 Vițțalakrsna 250 World War 260 Vivāhaprahasana 268 Wu-Tai mountain 273

316 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Yadunandana 182 Yaśastilaka 123 Yajamāna 186 Yaśodā 229 Yajña 186 Yajurveda, Yajus 4 Yati 246

Yakşini 47 Yatra festival 162

Yama 17, 41, 185, 261, 266 Yavanaka 5

Yamaka Yavanikā 5

-padādi 230 Yoga 80, 81, 82, 86, 87, 91, 98

-pratipada 230 Yogānanda 213 -pratipadānta 230 Yogic, -knowledge - powers 91, Yamānuja 181, 218, 219, 223 103, 149, 157 Yamapurusa 84, 85, 88, 93, 95, Yogin, -s, 60, 77, 84-91, 94, 95, 101, 161, 164, 96, 98, 101, 143, 147, 148, Yamunā 229 150, 153, 163, 165

ERRATA

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5 and throughout Sten Konow Steń Konov 13 10 Hāsya in Hāsya is 16 30 vyāpāra vyāpārā 18 20 Hāsya Rasa Hasya Rasa 18 f.n. 1 Poetics Poetic 22 6 श्यामा ... श्याम 25 26 Simhabhūpāla Sīmhabhūpāla 26 5 क्रोञ्चरिपोः क्रोञ्जरिपोः 27 13 contributes contribute 27 f.n. 2 प्राप्नुवन्ति प्राप्तवन्ति 37 17 a few few 38 18 the earliest earliest 38 31 विशेषम्3 विशेषम् 38 32 सम्बद्धम्4 सम्बद्धम् 38 f.n. 3 Daśarūpaka Daśasūpaka 39 1 कापुरुष 5 कापुरुष 39 8 संयुक्त सम्युक्तं 40 4 humorous humourous 40 25 prakaraņa prakaraņs 41 11 आगता: आगतः 42 1 रञ्जक रञ्चक

42 22 कञ्चु कि कञ्ज कि 43 23 कञ्चुकि कञ्जुकि 45 11 नाटये नाठये

46 22 द्विवाणां द्वित्रीणां

48 12 मान्मथ मान्मत 48 24 निमीलयति विमीलयति 50 5 व्याहार व्याहारे 51 8 तच्चावलगितं तच्छावलगितं 51 18 प्रपञचो प्रपञ्जो

318 PRAHASANA IN SANSKRIT LITERATURE

Page Line Read For

52 6 किमाज्ञातं किमज्ञातं

54 6 अन्यथा · अन्याथा 54 9 Avaloka Avaloke 55 3 • मञ्जुल मञ्चुल 55 19 कर्बुरान् कर्भुरान् 55 21 क्रोञ्वरिपोः क्रोच्चरिपोः 57 35 vyāhāra vyavahāra 61 23 themselves thamselves 67 33 Muņdita Muņdiat 70 17 haetera hectera 80 5 refers to refers 80 23 seem seam 86 21 रोमाञचो रोमाञ्जो 86 22 श्वासश्च श्वासश्य

87 20 योजजरोऽच्छेघो 93 1 bring brings 94 16 tvām tvam 95 32 and those that and those that the can be

97 15 अस्थिस्थणं अस्थिस्यूणं 98 1 remind reminds 98 19 मत्संस्थां मंत्समस्थ

100 25 एवमेवामुत एवतेवामृत्र 103 10 superstition superstitions 110 22 नः नर - 119 3 udbhinna- udbhinnā 121 27 vidūșaka vidūāșaka 130 30 शैलानां शैलाना 140 21 a medhāvin amedhāvin 145 12 Prahasanas Prahasnas 151 8 pralāpitam parlāpitam 163 31 preceptor, ri ... precepter, Śri ..: 176 25 सभासलि: सभासतिः 177 14 Sabhāsali Sabhāali 177 f.n. 2 bhāņdāgāra bhāņdākāra 181 1 bhāņdāgāra bhāndākāara

ERRATA 319

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181 16 Jantuketu Jantukatu 183 29 indoctrinizing indoctinizing 186 7 Kāntānanda Kāntānnda 186 19 Madanadūti Madunadūtī 186 30 जुह्धति जुज्वति 191 1 Durācāra Durācara · 191 33 ... bhāsa . :. ābhāsá 200 20 Bandhurā Danturā 208 f.n. 2 Bhrūgadūta Bhnragadāta 210 13 दक्षकरतो दक्षत्रतो 214 12 प्रसुप्तोत्थिवा: प्रसुप्तोत्थित: 216 6 Bodleian Library, Bodleian Library, Oxford London 219 2 prārabdhakarmaņi prārabdhakarmņī 221 11 criticise critisize 224 3 रसराशी रसराशो 224 16 tendency tend ncy 228 29 Rādhārahasya ... Rādhārashasya 240 23 Add f.n. for the verse, अविदित ... as : Śṛńgārarasāștaka. Śl. 1; Maha- subhāșita Samgraha. Śl. No. 3343 248 10 पतितो पतिते 251 22 Kuhanācāra Kunhanācāra 258 13 p. 189 p. 174 258 25 साधारण्यात् साधारण्यात 270 f. n. 1 Shakespeare's Shakespear's 273 12 him1 him2 273 17 f.n. 1 f.n. 2 273 17 The Mark of laughter The Mark of laughter in 13th and stairie in 13th and

DR. RAMARATNAM hails from the town of Gobi in the Periyar district of Tamil Nadu. After a brilliant academic career, he joined the faculty of the prestigious Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda College, Madras in 1968. He was awarded the Prince of Wales Medal for proficience in Sanskrit by the University of Madras in 1968. He got his Ph.D. degree far the present work in 1979. He has written, directed and acted in a number of Sanskrit plays presented over the AIR and T.V. He was also awarded the All India Akashwani Certificate of Merit for his pro- duction, 'Amarasandesa' in 1985. He has participated in a number of Conferences at the National and International levels, the latest ones being, the ICANAS at Hamburg in 1986 and the VII World Sanskrit Con- ference in Leiden, Holland in 1987. An erudite scholar, inspiring teacher and a multi-linguist, Dr. Ramaratnam has made a name for himself through his learned articles and lectures on various aspects of Sanskrit Literature and Ancient Indian Culture.

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