1. Reconciling Yogas Haribhadras Views on Yoga Yoga Dristi Samuccaya Christopher Key Chapple Sunny (See Yoga Luminoss)

Reconciling Yogas

Haribhadra's Collection of Views on Yoga

Christopher Key Chapple With a New Translation of Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya by Christopher Key Chapple and John Thomas Casey

RECONCILING

YOGAS

16

4

Eighteenth century Gyanbazi from Rajasthan. Courtesy of Narendra and Rita Parson, Villa Park, California.

RECONCILING

YOGAS

HARIBHADRA'S COLLECTION OF VIEWS ON YOGA

CHRISTOPHER KEY CHAPPLE

With a new translation of Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya

by Christopher Key Chapple and John Thomas Casey

STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK PRESS

Published by STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK PRESS ALBANY

C 2003 State University of New York

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written permission. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publisher.

For information, address State University of New York Press 90 State Street, Suite 700, Albany, NY 12207

Production, Laurie Searl Marketing, Jennifer Giovani

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Chapple, Christopher Key, 1954- Reconciling yogas : Haribhadra's collection of views on yoga / Christopher Key Chapple ; with a new translation of Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya / by Christopher Key Chapple and John Thomas Casey. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7914-5899-7 (alk. paper)-ISBN 0-7914-5900-4 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Haribhadrasūri, 700-770. Yogadrşțisamuccaya. 2. Yoga (Jainism)- Early works to 1800. I. Haribhadrasuri, 700-770. Yogadrstisamuccaya. English. II. Casey, John Thomas. III. Title.

BL1375.H37C43 2003 181'.044-dc21 2003042560

10987654321

to

Maureen Shannon-Chapple

This page intentionally left blank.

Contents

Preface ix

ONE The Life Story of Haribhadra 1

TWO Haribhadra and Patañjali 15

THREE The Vedantin Yoga of Bhagavaddata and the Buddhist Yoga of Bhāskara 39

FOUR Centrality of the Real 53

FIVE Purity in Patañjali and Haribhadra 65

SIX Haribhadra's Critique of Tantric Yoga 75

SEVEN Haribhadra's Sociology of Yoga and Its Culmination 87

Chart Comparing Forms of Yoga in the Yogadrstisamuccaya 97

Yogadrştisamuccaya (A Collection of Views on Yoga) 99

Notes 153

Bibliography 163

Index 167

This page intentionally left blank.

Preface

Haribhadra combines two primary concerns that have sustained and propelled me as a theologian and Yoga practitioner: respect for a plurality of perspectives and respect for personhood. During my very first class on the Bhagavad Gita, which was conducted by members of the International Society of Krishna Conscious- ness at the State University of New York at Buffalo, I was con- cerned and a bit put off by the lecturers' insistence on Lord Krishna's status as the only true transcendent reality. The edge was finally taken off when one of the class leaders took to greet- ing me with Hari Om, rather than Hare Krishna. Shortly there- after, when I became affiliated with Yoga Anand Ashram in Amityville, New York, no deity image could be found: only a solitary flame, symbolic of the light and enlightenment to be revealed through the practice of Yoga. Since that time, I have studied and learned about Christian- ity from Christians, Judaism from Jews, Islam from Muslims, Sikhism from Sikhs, Buddhism from Buddhists, and so forth. However, at the same time, I have learned about Vedānta from Christians, Judaism from secular scholars, and Pure Land Bud- dhism from a Catholic priest. Our circle of friends and acquain- tances in Los Angeles includes overlapping communities of Yoga practitioners from a variety of traditions: Sikh, Kashmir Śaivite, Advaita Vedānta, Hațha, and Raja, among others. Our world also includes Catholic priests and nuns, practicing Jews, and fam- ily members of various religious persuasions, including Sufis, Bud- dhists, Protestants, Catholics, and born-again Christians. Furthermore, to be situated within this amazing and wonderful amalgam of worldviews is not at all peculiar, at least in the part

ix

RECONCILING YOGAS

of the world that we inhabit. Our immediate neighbors to the left are members of Soka Gakkai, a Japanese Buddhist sect; on the right, our neighbors are Jewish; the young man who renovated our house, whose mother grew up here, is an American Sikh; and one long-time devotee of the Hare Krishna movement grew up in the house across the street. Philosophically, how can we comprehend the world that has evolved into its present pluralistic shape? The religious landscape has become complex in ways that have been explored most re- cently by the Pluralism Project at Harvard University and earlier in the studies of American religious diversity by Robert Ellwood of the University of Southern California. One need not be a trained scholar to notice the many mosques and Hindu temples that have joined the ranks of mainline Protestant and Catholic churches and Jewish synagogues that can be found in virtually every American city. But my concern here is more than sociological; it extends to a concern for the development of intercultural understanding. Re- ligions, for millennia, have been a source of individual and group identity that has created both a sense of belonging and a sense of otherness. We are all well acquainted with the violent legacy of religion, which stems from the tendency by religions to make non- coreligionists the "other" and sometimes even to construe the other as being less than human. We need only reflect on the many reli- gious wars fought in times past and the wrenching violence that persists in Ireland, the Middle East, Sri Lanka, and elsewhere. In other, and, to my thinking, more auspicious situations, religion has become a tool not only for self-identity but for understanding and accepting the views of others. The founders of the United States guaranteed religious free- dom for all citizens. In our century, Martin Luther King Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi used Christian and Hindu ideas to forge more open, tolerant societies. Farther back in history, Wang Yang Ming integrated aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism to foster religious and social harmony in China. Thomas Aquinas learned of Greek scholasticism from the Muslims. Akbar synthe- sized Islam with Hinduism, Buddhism, and Christianity to pro- claim a new, all-inclusive state religion, albeit a short-lived one. Guru Nanak, inspired by the poet, Kabir, moved beyond the boundaries of Islam and Hinduism to create Sikhism, and, at an

PREFACE xi

earlier time in India, Jaina philosopher Haribhadra attempted to engage the key ideas of various traditions within the unifying theme of spiritual liberation. His concern to be fair to the views of others while maintaining one's own religious commitment and integrity led me to explore his Yogadrstisamuccaya, a text that exemplifies his method of promoting self-discovery within the parameters of one's tradition without utterly condemning the firmly held beliefs of others. In many ways, this book has emerged from an exploration of models of tolerance in light of plural and sometimes competing perspectives. The other major concern that brought me to this study of the Yogadrstisamuccaya can best be described as respect for personhood. In my two decades of teaching at the university level, I have encountered students who have been, in some way or another, abused by religious authority. Most specifically, women have told me, sometimes in tears and sometimes with a sad, cynical worldliness, that they have been part of a "secret inner circle," granting sexual favors to an otherwise personally disin- terested religious teacher or priest. This problem, which has been widely discussed in the popular journals of both Yoga and Bud- dhism in America and recently highlighted as a problem within Christian churches, crystallized for me in particular when Fred Lenz, a former fellow student at the State University of New York at Stony Brook, committed suicide in 1998. A horrific story came to light about how Fred, who had been a disciple of a New York-based Hindu teacher, used his flamboyant inter- pretation of meditation to gather a huge number of followers, amass millions of dollars, and sleep with hundreds of women. Ultimately, he fell into a deep depression and schemed not only to take his own life but convinced a young woman who had once been a close follower to accompany him in a double sui- cide. She survived, though he drowned off the dock of his estate on Conscience Bay, not far from Stony Brook.1 Needless to say, Fred violated nearly every religious precept possible, including the foundational disciplines of his self-espoused Yoga. He lost his sense of respect for himself and the ability to see other persons as being worthy of respect. Out of concern for those who might be lured to follow a teacher with dubious morals or credentials, I find Haribhadra's

xii RECONCILING YOGAS

Yogadrstisamuccaya a useful and instructive text on the impor- tance of maintaining a moral compass on the spiritual quest. Haribhadra grappled with his own arrogance and developed a philosophy of tolerance and compassion. As we will see, the text describes the various temptations of power and enjoyment that one might encounter on the Yoga path and advises holding true to the principle of nonviolence in all of one's endeavors. I am grateful to several people who helped in the develop- ment of this book. They include Nathmal Tatia, Douglas Renfew Brooks, Hartmut Scharfe, John Cort, Paul Dundas, Phyllis Granoff, Yajneshwar and Sunanda Shastri, Krishnan Chordia, Arindam Chakrabarti, Alex Wayman, Kristi Wiley, Olle Qvarnstrom, Samanis Charitra and Sharda Pragya, Pandit Dhiraj Lal Mehta, Pravin L. Shah, and especially my translation collaborator, John Casey. Earlier versions of select portions of this work appeared in John Cort's edited volume, Open Boundaries, Georg Feuerstein's The Yoga Tradition, and the volume edited by N. K. Wagle and Olle Qvarnstrom, Approaches to Jaina Studies. Dr. Yajneshwar Shastri of Gujarat University read carefully through the manu- script and made important suggestions regarding the translation, which, as he has noted, "conveys the essence of the verses rather than providing a word by word translation." Michael Bennett, Nicole de Picciotto, Virginia Huynh, Antonio Miranda, Marty McGee, Julie Chapple, and Emma Chapple were very helpful with the preparation of the manuscript. I am also grateful to my wife, Maureen Shannon-Chapple, to whom this book is dedi- cated, who carefully read through the manuscript and provided numerous corrections and suggestions.

CHAPTER ONE

The Life Story of Haribhadra

Haribhadra lived in India during a time of great philosophical diversity. The aftermath of the post-Gupta, pre-Islamic era wit- nessed a proliferation of Puranas, the flowering of Saiva and Vaișnava philosophy, early phases of the bhakti devotional move- ment in the south, the dawn of Tantra with a correlating empha- sis on goddess worship, and the ongoing observance of the Vedic sacrificial system. Buddhism and Yoga were both strong pres- ences within India and offered the most direct competition to Jainism, in that all three systems share an emphasis on self-effort in the quest toward spiritual uplift and liberation. In this book we will explore one particular text, the Yogadrstisamuccaya, that high- lights Haribhadra's response to this complex religious landscape. Haribhadra, according to one account, was the son of San- karabhatta and his wife, Gangā, born into the Brahmin caste. He lived either in Brahmapurī or in Citrakūta, which is "identified with Chittor, the capital of Mewar in Rajasthan."1 He eventually became a Jaina monk of the Vidyadhara gaccha, headed by Jinabhata, and he wandered throughout Western India as a mem- ber of the Śvetāmbara order. This brings us to the question: when did Haribhadra live? Traditionally, Jainas have placed his dates from 459 to 529 C.E., which fits within the post-Gupta, pre-Islamic time frame. How- ever, in 1919, Muni Jinavijayaji, a Jaina monk and scholar, published an extensive critique of these dates, noting that Haribhadra had quoted prominent authors who flourished after

1

2 RECONCILING YOGAS

his supposed dates. As a result of this essay, Jaina and Western scholars alike have accepted later dates for Haribhadra, also known as Haribhadrasūri, from 700 to 770 of the Common Era. How- ever, R. Williams contends that, in fact, some of the texts attrib- uted to Haribhadra could have been written in the sixth century and suggests that there were two Haribhadras, with the eighth- century Haribhadra, whom he calls Yākinī-putra, imitating the style of an earlier master.2 Most scholars agree with the assess- ment that Haribhadra lived during the eighth century rather than the sixth, and, although it cannot be denied that various people wrote under the name "Haribhadra," the consensus appears to favor a single Jaina Śvetāmbara author being responsible for at least most of the works attributed to him.3 Due to its discussion of Tantra, it seems that the Yogadrstisamuccaya was written in the eighth century and, if one maintains the theory of two Haribhadras, would have been composed by Haribhadra Yākinī- putra, whose name in fact appears on the colophon. A third Haribhadra lived in the twelfth century and wrote a commentary on Umāsvāti's Praşamaratiprakaraņa.4 Hemacandra's Yogaśāstra (twelfth century) seems informed by Haribhadra's Yoga texts, and Yaśovijaya (seventeenth cen- tury) summarized and expressed renewed interest in Haribhadra's works, particularly on Yoga. His writings continue to be well known in the Śvetāmbara Jaina community. Several traditional authors recorded legendary tales about the life, adventures, misadventures, and work of this prodigious scholar. Phyllis Granoff has summarized the primary stories about or related to Haribhadra, drawing from a variety of works that begin to appear in the twelfth century, including Bhadreśvara's Kahāvali, Sarvarājamuni's commentary on Jinadatta's Ganadharār- dhaśataka, Prabhācandra's Kathākośa (1077 C.E.), a collection of stories known as the Purātanaprabandhasaçgraha, the Prabhā- vakacarita, also attributed to a scholar known as Prabhācandra, but at a later date (1277 C.E.), and Rājaśekarasūri's Prabandhakośa (1349 C.E.) In these stories, two primary themes remain constant: Haribhadra's conversion to Jainism and his conflict with the Buddhists. The first set of stories provides a biographical narrative. In his early years, Haribhadra, a member of the Brahmin caste,

THE LIFE STORY OF HARIBHADRA 3

achieved a great degree of learning. He became quite arrogant about his academic accomplishments and tied a golden plate around his belly to prevent it from bursting from the weight of all his knowledge. In another version, he also carries a "twig from the jambu tree to show to all that there was no one his equal in all of Jambudvīpa, that is, in all the civilized world. He also carried a spade, a net, and a ladder in his desire to seek out creatures living in the earth, in water, and in the ether in order to defeat them with his great learning."5 Thinking he had learned all that could be known, he pro- claimed that if anyone could tell him something new, he would devote his life to the pursuit of it. It so happened that he over- heard a Jaina nun, Yākinī, reciting a verse he could not under- stand. Having been humiliated, he turned first to her and then to her teacher, Jinadatta, for instruction in the Jaina faith, which he then embraced. After a period of study, he was granted the title "Sūri," or teacher, and he began to promulgate Jainism. In sev- eral of his treatises, the colophon or final verse describes him as Yākinī-putra, or Yākinī's son, indicating the influence of this Jaina nun on his life and thought. The second set of stories includes a dramatic and grisly tale of espionage, murder, and revenge. The Prabhāvakacarita of Pra- bhācandra (1277 C.E.) and the Prabandhakośa of Rājaśekharasūri (1349 C.E.) narrate the tragic story of two brothers, Hamsa and Paramahamsa, who are both nephews and students of Haribhadra.6 They go to Mahäbodhi to learn about the teachings of the Bud- dha. The brothers are exposed as spies after uttering an invoca- tion to the Jina when awakened by suspicious Buddhists in the middle of the night. They use umbrellas to float down out of the monastery. Buddhist soldiers catch and kill Hamsa. Paramahamsa takes refuge with King Sūrapāla,7 who proposes a debate be- tween Paramahamsa and the Buddhists. The goddess, Tārā, se- cretly assists the Buddhists. The Jaina goddess, Ambā, advises Paramahamsa about how to trick Tārā by asking her to repeat what she had said the prior day, an impossibility for the gods, who are unable to keep track of time. Though Paramahamsa has won, because the Buddhists cheated, they still clearly intend to kill him. He hides as a laborer who washes clothes and then escapes to rejoin his uncle. As he tells the story to Haribhadra,

4 RECONCILING YOGAS

Paramahamsa dies from the grief that he suffers due to the death of his brother. Haribhadra is outraged. King Sūrapāla arranges a debate between Haribhadra and the Buddhists. One by one, the Buddhists are defeated and sent to their deaths in boiling oil as arranged by the king. Out of great remorse for the killing of so many monks, Haribhadra then composes his many religious trea- tises; according to Rajaśekhara Sūri, each of the 1,440 texts that Haribhadra wrote served as expiation for the 1,440 Buddhists who died. The writings of Haribhadra reflect the conversion story and the story of his nephews in two possible ways. The story of his conversion from Brahmanism to Jainism makes sense in terms of his deep knowledge of Hinduism and the vehemence with which he discusses certain aspects of his former faith. He repeatedly criticizes in particular Vedic sacrifice and Tantric styles of wor- ship. He also ridicules the worship of Krishna, declaring that because of his duplicity in the Mahābhārata war, Krishna resides in Hell. In his philosophical writings, he provides a standard Jaina critique of Upanisadic monism, which will be examined in a later chapter. This attitude of disdain toward Hinduism would make sense in light of the zeal often shown by a convert to a new faith, and it also reflects his intimate familiarity with the philoso- phy and stories of both the Brahmanical sacrificial tradition and the Kşatriya epic tradition of Hinduism. Although the story of the death of his two nephews is shrouded in several layers of historical ambiguity (see notes six and seven), it does provide some psychological texture to explain Haribhadra's motivation for writing so many texts and for being particularly solicitous of the Buddhists. By Haribhadra's time, Buddhism had lost its grip on the public and royal life of India. Many of the Buddha's ideas had been absorbed into the religious language of Hinduism, and in some accounts, Buddha was re- garded as no more than an incarnation of Vișnu. Although many ideas of Jainism, particularly the emphasis on the five vows (non- violence, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual restraint, and non- possession), and the philosophy of karma had been similarly absorbed, primarily into the Yoga schools, Jainism remained distinct from Hinduism and survived, whereas Buddhism disap- peared.8 Although Haribhadra criticizes some of the aspects of

THE LIFE STORY OF HARIBHADRA 5

Buddhist philosophy (most notably the concept of momentari- ness, which will be discussed in a later chapter), he, in several texts, applauds the Buddhists, especially for their ideal of the Bodhisattva, the accomplished Buddhist who postpones his or her own enlightenment in order to help others.

THE WRITINGS OF HARIBHADRA

Even if Haribhadra did not write 1,440 treatises, he was prolific. H. R. Kapadia attributed eighty-seven works to Haribhadra,9 in- cluding several very short pieces. More conservatively, Muni Jinavijaya lists twenty-six Haribhadra texts. Sukh Lal Sanghavi affirms Haribhadra's authorship of forty-seven texts and lists an additional twenty-six titles improbably attributed to Haribhadra.10 He wrote in Prakrit, the language generally used by Jaina scholars, and he was one of the early Jainas to write in Sanskrit, the language generally associated with Brahmins and Mahāyāna Buddhists. Haribhadra's two major Prakrit texts are the Samarāiccakahā, which is a collection of moral fables in novel form, and the Dhūrtākhyāna, which provides a satirical critique of Hindu mythology. The story of Yasodhara first appears in Haribhadra's Samarāiccakahā and was retold in Harişeņa's Brhatkathākośa, a Sanskrit text written in 931, and later in Somadeva's Yaśastilaka, written in 959. The tale merits discussion, because it quintes- sentially conveys key aspects of Jaina doctrine: the sufferings of life from one birth to the next and the consequent search for liberation. In this story, King Yasodhara discovers his beloved principal wife committing adultery. The wife then poisons Yasodhara and his mother, Candramati, while they sacrifice a rooster made of flour to the local goddess. He is reborn as a peacock, and his mother is reborn as a dog. Both end up back in the court as pets of Yaśodhara's son, Yaśomati, who is now king. One day the peacock remembers his former life as king and again sees his former wife making love to the same man. The peacock tries to kill them both, but they wound him and get away. The dog (his former mother) sees the hurting peacock (her former son) and kills it. King Yasomati, annoyed that his dice game has been disturbed, hits the dog (his former grandmother) and kills it.

6 RECONCILING YOGAS

Yaśodhara is then born as a mongoose to a blind female and a lame male, who are unable to care for him. He survives by eating snakes. His mother, reborn as a cobra, engages him in battle. A hyena interrupts their fight and kills them both. Yasodhara is reborn as a fish; his mother is reborn as a crocodile, which is later reborn as a she-goat. The fish lives a while longer and then is caught and fed to his former wife, Queen Amrtamatī, as a result of his former action or karma. He next takes birth as a goat and impregnates his former mother. At the moment of his climax, he is gored by another goat and killed, but he enters her womb as his own son. His former son, King Yasomati, hunts and kills the goat that had once been his grandmother, but he releases and spares the baby goat (his father) from her womb. One day, Yaśomati plans a big sacrifice to the goddess, Kātyāyanī, involv- ing the killing of twenty buffaloes. His mother (Yasodhara's former wife) does not want to eat buffalo meat that day and asks for goat instead. The cook slices some of the backside of the goat, who was once Yasodhara. His former mother had been reborn as a buffalo; both were roasted by the cooks of the court. The last phase of their tale finds both reborn as chickens in a tribal village. Their untouchable keeper, Caņdakarmā, begins to learn about Yoga and meditation. A yogi teaches him about the foundations of Jainism and, during the course of their discus- sions, tells Candakarma about the past lives of the two chickens and how their adherence to princely dharma caused them re- peated suffering. The chickens, having learned of their past tribu- lations, decide to accept the precepts of Jainism. In their joy, they utter a crowing sound. At that moment, Yasodhara's son, Yaśomati, boasts to his wife that he could kill both chickens with a single arrow. Upon their death, Yasodhara and his mother enter the womb of Yasomati's wife and are eventually reborn as twins. Yaśomati continues his cruel ways of hunting until one day he encounters a Jaina sage, whom he urges his hounds to kill. They refuse, and the king has a change of heart. He spares the sage, who in turn tells him the amazing tale of the twin children (Yasomati's father and grandmother) and how their misadven- tures were prompted by the sacrifice of a rooster made of flour. The king embraces the Jaina faith. The twins grow up to be great renouncers. They later convince an entire kingdom to give up

THE LIFE STORY OF HARIBHADRA 7

animal sacrifice and eventually, having taken their final monastic vows, they fast to death and attain a heavenly state, further inspiring their kingdom to widely embrace Jaina practices. The moral of the story, included in the final verses, states: "He who carelessly effects the killing of one living being will wander aim- lessly on the earth through many a rebirth."11 Haribhadra's more philosophical texts were written in San- skrit. In the Anekāntajayapatākā and the Šāstravārtāsamuccaya, Haribhadra demonstrates his wide grasp of numerous sects of both Hinduism and Buddhism. These texts indicate his interest in developing "doxographies" or catalogues that summarize the philosophical positions of others. Phyllis Granoff observes:

Even at his most disputatious, in a text like the Śāstra- vārtāsamuccaya, which is written with the sole intent of refuting rival doctrines, Haribhadra makes clear at the very onset of the text that his motives are not to stir up hatred and dissent, but to enlighten his readers and bring them the benefits of ultimate spiritual peace. Haribhadra's respect for the Buddha is unmistakable when he calls him mahāmuni, "the great sage" and one is left with the general impression that Haribhadra's respect for his Buddhist opponents is unchanged by his philosophical differences with them on specific points.12

Unlike Buddhist and Vedanta summaries, which sometimes tend to exaggerate or misrepresent the positions of rival schools, Haribhadra has proven to be a highly reliable source for learning about the authentic teachings that were promulgated in post-Gupta India. For instance, his Saddarsanasamuccaya, a brief text of eighty-seven verses, is used even today in India and in the United States as a textbook for summarizing the major strands of Indian thought.13 His Astakaprakarana lists eight qualities that can be universally applied to the faithful of any tradition: nonviolence, truth, honesty, chastity, detachment, reverence for a teacher, the act of fasting, and knowledge. Paul Dundas has noted that:

The remarkable scholar Sukhalal Sanghvi, who over- came the handicap of blindness, contracted very early

8 RECONCILING YOGAS

in life to become one of the most incisive of recent interpreters of Jain philosophy, described Haribhadra in a tribute as a samadarshi, "viewing everything on the same level," and his eminence derives not just from the breadth of his intellectual command but from his willingness to articulate more clearly than any of his predecessors the full implications of Jainism's main claim to fame among Indian philosophical systems, the many- pointed doctrine.14

Through his extensive writings, Haribhadra demonstrates his com- mitment to understand and respect the views of others while maintaining his commitment to the core Jaina beliefs in nonvio- lence and the need to purify oneself of the influences of karma.

RESPECTING THE VIEWS OF OTHERS IN THE YOGADRŞȚISAMUCCAYA

Haribhadra's concern for respecting the views of all people of good faith can be seen throughout the Yogadrstisamuccaya (YDS), the shorter of Haribhadra's two Sanskrit texts on Yoga. First of all, he always refers to good action in the most general terms, recommending that people follow the holy books (śāstras) but without specifying which books ought to be followed. He empha- sizes that although one may attain omniscience (sarvajña), each person will remain different and distinct (YDS 103). The content of experience is not shared; rather, the contentlessness of purity, which cannot be quantified in any way, is the only common element within the experience of liberation or omniscience. He uses the metaphor of a king's servants: "Just as a king has many dependents, divided according to whether they are near or far, etc., nonetheless, all of them are his servants" (YDS 107). He states that even though they may have different names, the core, purified essence of the liberated ones remains constant (YDS 108). Although acknowledging differences among those who have achieved liberation, nonetheless he regards all of them to be grounded in a common truth. In a later section of the text (YDS 129-52), Haribhadra emphasizes that truth, though expressed differently, is not essen-

THE LIFE STORY OF HARIBHADRA 9

tially different. Making references to Saivites, Vedāntins, Yogins, and Buddhists, he states:

"Eternal Siva; Highest Brahman; Accomplished Soul, Suchness": With these words one refers to it, though the meaning is one in all the various forms. (YDS 130)

He goes on to state that this highest truth, by whatever name, frees one from rebirth (YDS 131). Demonstrating his commit- ment to a plurality of perspectives, Haribhadra comments that a variety of teachings is needed, because people need to hear things in their own way. Different seeds yield different plants; one can- not expect all things to be the same. He goes on to observe that:

Perhaps the teaching is one but there are various people who hear it. On account of the inconceivable merit it bestows, it shines forth in various ways. (YDS 136)

This sentiment seems to be offered in atonement for the past arrogance that so characterized the Haribhadra of legend. Haribhadra makes a plea for tolerance, writing that "vari- ous perspectives on conduct" can arise (YDS 138), but that these should not be criticized, as one cannot be apprised of all the circumstances (YDS 140). He advocates a stance of reconciliation and insists that it would be horribly improper to refute or revile well-intentioned people:

Hence it is not proper to object to words of reconciliation. Refuting or reviling noble people, it seems, would be worse than cutting one's own tongue. (YDS 141)

He says that even if one disagrees with another person's ideas, one should always strive to be helpful to others. He criticizes the notion that logic alone can set one free, noting that:

10 RECONCILING YOGAS

With effort, even a position inferred through the proper establishment of premises may certainly be approached in another way, being assailed by opponents. (YDS 145)

If the meaning of those things beyond the senses could be known through a statement of reason, then by now it would have been ascertained by the scholars. (YDS 146)

In other words, thoughts alone cannot set one free; in contrast, the arrogance associated with logic and scholarship can be a great impediment to one's liberation. He says that liberation re- quires a loosening of attachment to all things (dharmas), includ- ing argumentation and logic. Haribhadra concludes this section with an appeal to be kind and generous to all people. He writes that:

Even the slightest of pain to others is to be avoided with great effort. Along with this one should strive to be helpful at all times. (YDS 150)

This verse echoes a recurrent theme found in Jaina texts. He then takes on a theme akin to the Bodhisattva ideal of Mahāyāna Buddhism:

Even in regard to those with excessive sin who have been cast down by their own actions, one should have compassion for those beings, according to the logic of this highest dharma. (YDS 152)

According to the example set by Haribhadra, the task of the philosopher and of the Jaina is to extend compassion toward other living beings. Haribhadra epitomized the Jaina commitment to noninter- ference with the life of others, as put forth by the doctrine of nonviolence. He was a convert to Jainism and most likely had a great deal of zeal, to the extent that he wrote scathing satires on

THE LIFE STORY OF HARIBHADRA 11

the Hindu myths he knew so well, and perhaps he sent his own nephews to spy on the Buddhists.15 If we follow the Haribhadra stories told centuries after his death, he seems to have learned from his youthful arrogance and possible violence and developed a philosophical approach that includes being somewhat open to the views of others. John Cort has suggested that the Jainas are not tolerant in the same way as the modern liberal secularists, and certainly Haribhadra unequivocally does not hedge his com- mitment to the core teachings of Jainism, even while competently presenting the views of others.16 However, as Granoff and Dundas have noted, he exhibits a depth of friendliness to non-Jaina views. Granoff notes that: "Haribhadra exhibits a remarkable broad- mindedness in terms of doctrine; in many cases he states clearly that one should not reject a religious teaching if it is true, even if it is found in an opponent's writings; one should instead act with an open mind and be prepared to accept any religious tenet that is in conformity with logic and is correct."17 Haribhadra's statements in the Yogadrstisamuccaya underscore his mission to understand the views of others in an attempt to clarify his own thinking and practice.

THE CONTEXT FOR HARIBHADRA'S STUDIES OF YOGA

Haribhadra's writings on the Yoga tradition provide an eighth- century analysis of Yoga from the Jaina perspective. They pro- vide significant information on the practice of Yoga in post-Gupta India. They also shed light on philosophical aspects of the Jaina tradition and demonstrate the vitality of Jaina intellectual life during this period. The term Yoga is used widely in the religious traditions of India. Although generally associated with either the classical Yoga system of Patañjali (ca. 200 C.E.) or with the later Hatha Yoga tradition, Yoga also is used as a generic description for religious practice in the Bhagavad Gitā, as well as in texts of both Buddhism and Jainism. As Mircea Eliade and other historians of religion have noted, Yoga has roots deep in the protohistory of the Indian subconti- nent. Indus Valley amulets from four or five millennia ago depict what appear to be early yogins. The Rg Veda refers to practitio- ners of exotic ascetic techniques, and by the time of the Upaniads,

12 RECONCILING YOGAS

different forms of Yoga are mentioned in very explicit terms. By the time Patanjali composed his 195 aphorisms on Yoga, entitled the Yoga Sutras, in the early centuries of the Common Era, a common definition for Yoga had been accepted: citta vrtti nirodha, or stilling the fluctuations of the mind. Key to this definition is the term nirodha, a Buddhistic term alluding to the great restraint required to conquer the wandering mind. By the time of Haribhadra, Yoga had gained prominence both as one of the six discrete schools of philosophical Brahman- ism and as a practice followed by devotees of diverse religious paths. The Bhagavad Gītā reflects the diversity of Yoga, pro- claiming several of its forms supreme: Karma Yoga, through which one is detached from the fruits of one's action; Jñana Yoga, the insight meditation practiced by the learned; and Bhakti Yoga, devotion to one's chosen deity, which in the Bhagavad Gītā entails worship of Krishna. In addition to these sanctioned or recognized forms of Yoga, several Tantric schools were popular in the eighth century, including the Kaula school and various Saivite cults. Most scholarship on Yoga has focused on its Hindu mani- festations, as summarized by Mircea Eliade, in his Yoga: Immor- tality and Freedom, and updated with research by Georg Feuerstein and many other scholars. Lengthy bibliographies have been pub- lished on Hindu Yoga. Also, scholarship on Buddhist forms of Yoga has been extensive and includes works by early Buddhologists such as Emile Senart and Louis de la Vallee Poussin and recent scholars, particularly of the Tibetan tradition, such as Jeffrey Hopkins and others. While Jainism, which dates from perhaps as early as the eighth century B.C.E., makes a significant contribution to the In- dian intellectual tradition, it has received far less attention from modern scholars than Hinduism and Jainism. Jaina philosophy and practice have had a profound influence on Indian history. The tradition is thoroughly atheistic in that it refutes any notion of a creator God or an external controlling force. It advances a theory of multiple life forms (jiva) that are trapped within thick coatings of karma. Liberation (kevala) is to be achieved by rid- ding oneself of karma through one's own effort. The earliest surviving Jaina text, the Ācārānga Sūtra (ca. 350 B.C.E.), describes the rigors of asceticism designed to reduce one's karma, which in

THE LIFE STORY OF HARIBHADRA 13

Jainism is described in terms of a physically real, colorful, sticky substance. The Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāti (ca. 400 C.E., as suggested by Yajneshwar Shastri)18 provides a detailed descrip- tion of stages of spiritual advancement (gunasthāna) grounded in the observance of nonviolence (ahimsā). The Jainas work at the dissolution of karma through a highly detailed sequence of spiritual and ethical disciplines and obser- vances, the most familiar of which is the avoidance of violence through a strict vegetarian diet and the adoption of particular lifestyles and occupations that promote harmlessness. Ultimately, the Jaina path leads to a state of perfect solitude (kevala), in which each soul dwells, unfettered by any tinge of karma. These doctrines distinguish Jainism from Hinduism's emphasis on deity worship and monism, as well as from Buddhism's insistence on impermanence and emptiness. Umāsvāti developed extensive descriptions of the Jaina cos- mology, metaphysics, and systems of meditation that entail the extirpation of karma. The Buddhist Abhidharma schools offered similar assessments of the world and the human condition. All three systems, Jaina, Buddhist, and Brahmanical, borrowed key ideas from the Sāmkhya system.19 Haribhadra, aware of these earlier traditions and eager to bring them into discussion with the Jaina traditions of Yoga, developed four or five texts that pertain to the topic of Yoga. Yoga traditions held a particular fascination for Haribhadra. In Yoga he saw a tradition that emphasized practice rather than theory. By exploring various Yoga schools and by reexamining his own Jaina faith within the categories of Yoga, he was able to develop a language of universality that respected his own commit- ment to the highest goal of Jainism (ayoga kevala) while at the same time allowed him to affirm similar goals in other traditions. Haribhadra (or the two Haribhadras) wrote two Yoga texts in Sanskrit, the Yogabindu and the Yogadrstisamuccaya, and two Yoga texts in Prakrit, the Yogaśataka and the Yogavimsikā.20 These books have been translated into English by K. K. Dixit and published through the L. D. Series at the L. D. Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad. Some scholars also mention the Sodaśakaprakarana as a Yoga text, though it appears to deal primarily with sixteen aspects of Jaina worship.21

14 RECONCILING YOGAS

This book will focus on the Yogadrstisamuccaya, with an investigation of its relationship to Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra, its dis- cussion of Buddhist and Vedantin styles of Yoga, its critique of Tantra, and its unique way of emphasizing core ideas of the Jaina tradition.

CHAPTER TWO

Haribhadra and Patañjali

The Yoga system of Patañjali provides the template upon which Haribhadra erects the Yogadrstisamuccaya. Patañjali's system, based on Sāmkhya philosophy, incorporates several key Buddhist practices and aspects of Jaina philosophy. By the time of Haribhadra, it had gained broad respect for its ability to inte- grate a wide array of religious practices without allowing itself to be dismissed as ideological or dogmatic. Specifically, it treads a middle path when it comes to theology. Like classical Sāmkhya, Buddhism, and Jainism, Yoga rejects the notion of a creator and a controller, unlike the more theistic schools of Hinduism. How- ever, it does allow for the presence of a spiritual entity, referred to as Iśvara, defined as a "distinct consciousness (purușa), un- touched by afflictions, actions, fruitions, or their residue" (Yoga Sūtra I:24, hereafter abbreviated as YS). This provides a model for the spiritual aspirant, whose discipline and spiritual path (sādhana) require the purging of afflicted karma (klişta-karma). Like Jainism, Yoga emphasizes the practice of nonviolence (ahimsā) and refers to karma in terms of different colors (leśya in Jainism).

THE YOGA SUTRA OF PATAÑJALI

Patañjali divides his Yoga Sūtra into four parts or Pādas: Absorp- tion (Samādhi), Practice (Sādhana), Powers (Vibhūti), and Aloneness (Kaivalyam). The first section begins with the classic definition of Yoga: "stilling of the mind's fluctuations (citta-vrtti-nirodha)"

15

16 RECONCILING YOGAS

(YS I:2). It then catalogues the five forms of mental activity: cognition, error, imagination, sleep, and memory, noting that these can exist in afflicted or unafflicted states. For the bulk of this chapter, Patañjali lists techniques for overcoming afflictions, including practice and dispassion; concentration on thought, re- flection, bliss, and ego; application of faith, energy, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom (a well-known Buddhist practice); dedi- cation to Iśvara through the chanting of Om; single-mindedness; application of the Brahma-Vihära,1 another well-known Buddhist practice; control of breath; binding of the mind; sorrowless illu- mination; abandonment of attachment; reflection on auspicious dreams; or any meditation, as desired (abhimata-dhyāna). The last section of the first chapter outlines various states of concen- tration that lead ultimately to the dissolution of the seeds of karma (nirbīja-samādhi). The second section of the Yoga Sūtra (Sādhana) outlines two systems of practices, describes the nature of karmic afflic- tion, and summarizes the Sāmkhya philosophical perspective that undergirds Yoga. The first system of Yoga, Kriya Yoga, is said to lead to absorption (samādhi) and consists of austerity (tapas), study (svadhyāya), and dedication to emulating the supreme spiri- tual entity, Iśvara (īśvara-pranidhāna). Haribhadra will introduce his Yogadrstisamuccaya with a similar, though not parallel, three- fold system, which will be discussed in a later chapter. Patañjali then outlines the causes of affliction: ignorance, egotism, attraction, aversion, and the desire to continue living. These afflictions pervade the root of karmic conditioning; Yoga practices seek to diminish them. Summarizing the Sāmkhya sys- tem, he points out that all activity lies in the realm of the three ever-changing qualities of manifest reality, the gunas of illlumination (sattva), passion (rajas), and lethargy (tamas). These three com- prise the seen; through Yoga one seeks to distance oneself from this realm and, through discriminative discernment (viveka-khyāti), establish oneself in the pure consciousness of the seer (drastr). To accomplish this, Patañjali outlines eight component prac- tices of Yoga, the famous Eight Limbs (astanga). Most of the second section is taken up with defining and describing the first five of these eight. The first component, Discipline or Yama, includes five ethical precepts, equivalent to the five primary vows

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 17

of the Jaina tradition: nonviolence (ahimsā), truthfulness (satya), not stealing (asteya), sexual restraint (brahmacarya), and nonpossession (aparigraha). The highest of these five is nonvio- lence, which, echoing themes from the Jaina tradition, Patañjali proclaims constitutes "the Great Vow (mahāvratam) when not limited by birth, place, time, or circumstance on all occasions" (YS II:31). The second component, the Observances or Niyama, includes purity, contentment, and the three facets of Kriya Yoga listed above: austerity, study, and dedication to Iśvara. Descrip- tions of the next three components complete the second chapter: postures (āsana), breath control (prāņāyāma), and inwardness (pratyāhāra). The third section (Vibhūti Pāda) begins with an exposition of the final three components of Eightfold Yoga: concentration (dhāraņā), meditation (dhyāna), and absorption (samādhi). Patañjali refers to these as the "inner limbs" and describes their role in gaining mastery over the mind. Through the collective application of these in a process known as samyama, various powers arise: knowledge of past and future, enhanced language learning capabilities, understanding of past births, clairvoyance, invisibility, premonition of death, great strength, knowledge of inner esoteric physiology (cakras), intuition, radiance, lightness, mastery of the elements, perfection of the body, mastery over the sense organs, and mastery over the creative process. These pow- ers in themselves do not constitute a definitive or even an el- evated religious accomplishment. In fact, Patañjali warns that these can be distractions, a concept that Haribhadra reasserts in the Yogadrstisamuccaya. Only one power yields liberation: the ability to see the difference between the seen (prakrti) and the seer (purusa), which occurs through the refinement of and ongo- ing involvement with illumination (sattva). The fourth (Kaivalyam) section includes a further explana- tion of the Sāmkhya metaphysical system, a discussion of karma that includes reference to the colors of karma, mentioned above, and further clarification of the idea of liberation, noting that in the state of virtuous absorption (dharma megha samādhi), all afflicted action ceases. All propensity for worldly manifestation and involvement comes to an end, grounding the Yoga practitio- ner in the power of higher awareness (citi-śakti).

18 RECONCILING YOGAS

This text of fewer than 200 aphorisms became the standard manual for spirituality throughout India by the early centuries of the Common Era. It was translated into Arabic by the Islamic scholar, Al Biruni, and today it has been translated scores of times into Western languages. For Haribhadra, explaining Jaina Yoga in terms of Patañjali's system provided a means to commu- nicate the Jaina message to a broader audience, probably with an eye to converting others, and it also lent to the Jainas a context for placing their tradition, often derided as extremist, within the broader intellectual spheres of India. As we will see in the next chapter, it was not only Haribhadra who borrowed the eightfold schematic, but, as he notes, two others, a Buddhist and a Vedāntin, also developed systems similar to Patañjali to advance their own versions of the spiritual path. In the next section of this chapter, we explore the structure and contents of the Yogadrstisamuccaya. This will be followed with an analysis of how Haribhadra aligned this text with the widely accepted gradation of Jaina spirituality into fourteen stages (gunasthāna), which, as mentioned above, Haribhadra does with a very light touch.

THE YOGADRŞȚISAMUCCAYA

In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, a Sanskrit text of 228 verses, Haribhadra examines and compares several different schools of Yoga. He aligns Patañjali's eightfold scheme with three others (including one of his own) and also measures each against the traditional Jaina fourteenfold path to liberation. In addition, he describes four different sects of Yogis current at his time and states emphatically that any Yogis who become involved with goddess worship or Tantra run the risk of making no spiritual advancement. While he is both descriptive and critical of the Buddhists' emphasis on impermanence and of Brahmanical mo- nism, Haribhadra provides little detail regarding the actual prac- tice of Yoga in light of traditional Jaina categories such as karma and jīva. Some scholars have tended to emphasize the seeming liber- ality of Haribhadra's attitude toward non-Jaina traditions (cf. Granoff, Dundas). Haribhadra is widely credited with a search

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 19

for and commitment to respecting the views of others. However, upon close examination, this approach is not consistently applied in the Yogadrstisamuccaya. On the one hand, he can be cited as providing a paradigmatic example of the Jaina philosophy of anekānta or "many-sidedness," an approach that acknowledges the complexity and perspectival nature of human thought. How- ever, in actuality, he continually sets up his argument not so much to affirm the wisdom of the Buddhists or the Vedāntins as to demonstrate the incompleteness of these systems. Though he praises other views and states that all forms of Yoga lead to liberation, nonetheless, he does not stray from his insistence on the primary Jaina tenets: karma causes suffering, and yogic dis- ciplines purify one of karma and, hence, alleviate suffering. His gentle way of asserting this most fundamental aspect of Yoga perhaps exhibits a form of tolerance of other views and may be seen as an extension of the fundamental Jaina precept of nonvio- lence (ahimsā). But in other instances, he is quite acerbic in lam- basting those who do not conform to his views, such as the Kula Yogis and those who deny the inherent reality of suffering. The Yogadrstisamuccaya is not divided into chapters, how- ever, after a benedictory verse, similar to the second section of Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra, Haribhadra begins with a threefold analy- sis of styles of Yoga. He then provides an extended eightfold analysis of Yoga. In the middle of this discussion, he engages in a long discourse against what he considers "misguided" Yoga practices. He concludes with a sociological survey of Yoga schools, presumably active during his life, and an appeal to the reader, hoping that his work will help inspire purity of heart in regard to Yoga. The text opens with a benediction, acknowledging a rela- tionship between the Yoga concept of Iśvara and the Jina. In the first section (YDS 2-8), he describes a threefold Yoga: Wishful Yoga, Precept Yoga, and Effort Yoga. As we will see in a later chapter, these correlate to categories of the Tantra tradition that was gaining in popularity in Haribhadra's time. He describes these three phases as successive. The first indicates a desire to enter into the Yoga path. The second signals a willingness to live according to the mandates of religious texts. The third involves persistent resolve to change one's behavior and bring it into

20 RECONCILING YOGAS

TABLE 2.1 The Threefold and Eightfold Yogas of Haribhadra

Sāmarthya Effort Śāstra Precept Icchā Wishful

Patañjali Parā Samādhi Highest Absorption Prabhā Dhyāna Radiant Meditation Kāntā Dhāraņā Pleasing Concentration Sthirā Pratyāhāra Firm Inwardness Dīprā Prāņāyāma Shining Breath Control Balā Āsana Power Postures Tārā Niyama Protector Observances Mitrā Yama Friendly Disciplines

[Christopher Key Chapple]

accordance with the rigors of religious life. This also might cor- respond to the three types of Yoga practitioners mentioned in Patañjali's first chapter: the mild, middling, and intense (see YS I:17) and perhaps to the threefold Jaina practice of insight, knowl- edge, and practice (darśana, jñāna, and cāritra). It does not, however, seem to correlate to Patañjali's triad of austerity, study, and devotion (tapas, svadhyāya, and īśvarapraņidhāna). Haribhadra next presents a thumbnail sketch of Jaina Yoga (YDS 9-11). Alluding to the Tattvārtha Sutra, he speaks of two levels of renunciation. The first involves the renunciation of dharma, not in the sense of the Bhagavad Gitā, where dharma refers to duty

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 21

or law, but in the Buddhist sense, as used in the Abhidharmakośa and in the way dharma is referred to in Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra. Dharmas are constituent factors of reality, including physical objects that manifest in the elements, sensory processes, and one's emotional makeup. In the preliminary phases of Jaina Yoga, one purifies and releases the karma that has conditioned these dharmas. This ulti- mately leads to the state of sayoga kevala, a preliminary state of liberation attained in the thirteenth stage. One begins to accomplish the renunciation of dharmas in the eighth stage (gunasthāna), which will be explained below. The final renunciation, which occurs in the fourteenth stage, entails renouncing the connection itself that holds a person within the physical body. At this stage, one abandons the connection (yoga, here used as a technical term) with the karmas of sensation, life span, name, and caste. This final state, which occurs at the point of death, releases one from rebirth, allowing one to dwell in eternal energy, consciousness, and bliss. Though this sum- mary of Jaina Yoga comprises only three verses, it alludes to the broader theories of Jaina karma theory and indicates the approach to Patañjala Yoga to be taken by Haribhadra, which will be explained more fully below. In the next eight verses (YDS 12-20), Haribhadra introduces his eightfold analysis of Yoga. He lists eight terms that correlate to Patañjali's limbs of Yoga, and then, as he introduces each one in more detail, he relates each phase to the spiritual systems outlined by Bhadanta Bhaskara and Bhagavaddatta. Though these names appear only in the commentary (presumably written by Haribhadra himself), the consistency of their vocabulary and the underlying philosophy of the terms they chose indicate that the former was a Buddhist and the latter a Vedantin, to be discussed later. The terms chosen by Haribhadra to describe his eightfold analysis of Yoga are Friendly (Mitrā), Protector (Tārā), Power (Balā), Shining (Dīprā), Firm (Sthirā), Pleasing (Kāntā), Radiant (Prabhā), and Highest (Parā). Each of these names appears in the feminine gender and resonates with the goddess tradition. Haribhadra lists these in a specific order, beginning with a mild form of Yoga and culminat- ing in the most sublime. For twenty verses (YDS 21-40) he describes the founda- tional practice of Yoga, Friendly, or Mitrā, Yoga. In this expo- sition, he refers to developing respect for and emulation of the

22 RECONCILING YOGAS

wise, and he suggests that this entails the sloughing off of karmic material. For the next eight verses (YDS 41-48) he discusses Protector, or Tārā, Yoga, noting the importance of performing service at this stage. Another seven verses (YDS 49-56) are dedi- cated to Power, or Bala, Yoga, which corresponds to Patañjali's mastery of posture, or āsana. Five verses (YDS 57-64) discuss Shining, or Dīpra, in terms directly parallel to Patañjali's discus- sion of the control of breath in his fourth stage. At this juncture, Haribhadra somewhat changes course. After a brief praise of those persons who listen to truth, devote them- selves to a teacher, and purify their understanding, he enters into a critique of what he considers "false" or "inauthentic" views (YDS 66-85). As will be discussed in a later chapter, he directly criticizes practices generally associated with Tantra, alluding to the goddess, Durga. He coins a philosophical term and its oppo- site: vedasamvedyalavedasamvedya, which can be loosely trans- lated as "that which should be perceived" contrasted to "that which should not be perceived." This bears a stark resemblance to the term avedyavedanīya, which is used in Bhatt's commentary on the Laws of Manu, chapter 10, verse 24, to describe prohib- ited sexual behavior.2 We have translated this term as licentious- ness. His language becomes quite vitriolic in this section, suggesting that those who seek pleasure in the name of spiritual liberation are "rendered stupid by the dust of their sin, and never consider truth" (YDS 82). Having criticized Tantric, or Kula, Yoga, an important and a fairly new rival school, Haribhadra then argues for several verses (YDS 86-97) against the notion that logic and argument can set one free. He again uses a colorful term, kutarka, which translates as a fallacious argument or sophistry to characterize and ridicule the notion that accurate, logical descriptions of the world suffice as true knowledge. He suggests that analogies never bring one close to truth, and that dream knowledge similarly is flawed. For the next several verses (YDS 98-152), Haribhadra ad- dresses a wide range of topics: the importance of following sa- cred texts, doing good action, and cultivating faith; the singular purity of liberation, despite its various descriptions (discussed in the prior chapter); the contrast between worshipping a god for worldly attainment and devoting oneself to a release from re-

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 23

birth; the social benefits of sacrificial work; the inviolability of individual integrity; the relationship between intellect and knowl- edge; the nature of nirvāna; and the need to respect multiple teachings (also discussed in the prior chapter). Having held forth on this variety of topics, Haribhadra states, "We are finished now with our digression" (YDS 153). He returns to a discussion of the remaining four phases of Yoga, starting with Firm Yoga (Sthira). His descriptions here closely resemble the corresponding stage in Patañjali, inwardness (pratyāhāra), which, like the Bhagavad Gitā, emphasizes the maintenance of equanimity and detachment in all one's activities. After nine verses on this topic (YDS 153-161), he turns to Pleasing Yoga (Kāntā), which occupies the niche of concentration (dhāraņā) in Patañjali. These eight verses (YDS 162-169) indicate that a state of great stability has been attained. In verses 170 to 177, Haribhadra describes Radiant Yoga (Prabhā) as a stage of great meditation, likening a Yogin to purified gold (YDS 174). This level corresponds to Patañjali's discussion of meditation (dhyāna). He completes his description of the eight stages with Highest Yoga (Para), referring to it in verses 178 to 186 as the culmination of the process that began with the eighth Jaina stage (apūrvakaraņa guņasthāna). He clearly intends to equate Patañjali's samdhi to the fourteenth Jaina stage of ayoga kevala, mentioned above, at which point all karma disperses. He writes:

It is said that at the time when the clouds of destructive karma are themselves destroyed by the wind of Yoga, that is the escape. Then the glory of singular knowledge is born. (YDS 184)

He refers to this state as "highest nirvāna" and claims that it arises from disjunction (ayoga) from all karma (YDS 186). Four additional discourses complete the text of the Yogadrstisa- muccaya. The first (YDS 187-192) describes the nature of living liberation. The second (YDS 193-197) provides a critique of the philosophy of momentariness found in Sarvāstivādin Buddhism. The third (YDS 198-203) offers arguments against Vedāntin

24 RECONCILING YOGAS

monism. The final section (YDS 204-221) offers a fascinating sociology of Yoga schools, listing five different groups in hierarchi- cal order. As will be explored in the final chapter, he returns to his theme of attempting to subvert the arguments put forward by the Tantrikas. His closing words (YDS 222-228) offer this text to be read by those sincerely interested in the study and practice of Yoga, with the intent of removing impediments that stand in the way of one's blessedness.

THE YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA AND JAINISM

The Yogadrstisamuccaya evokes many themes from the Jaina tra- dition. In the prior chapter, we saw how Haribhadra's method- ology gently approaches the views of others, inspired perhaps by the Jaina ethic of nonviolence and the lessons he learned when in philosophical combat with the Buddhists. In subsequent chapters, we will explore the skillful arguments he advances against the Tantrikas, the Sarvāstivādin Buddhists, and the Vedāntins. In each of these instances he does not overtly employ Jaina argu- ments or rhetoric but reveals what he considers "logical flaws" in each of those respective traditions. In many ways, Haribhadra, in the Yogadrstisamuccaya, seems so relaxed about his Jainism that he seems more like a low Christology Protestant or even a Unitarian than an advocate for Jaina doctrine. Despite the stealth nature of his Jainism, Haribhadra does employ a few key terms that demonstrate his commitment to Jaina faith and his thorough familiarity with the intricacies of Jaina spiritual philosophy. Though he does not rehearse the Jaina requirements for the core practice of nonviolence (ahimsā), such as vegetarianism, wearing a mouth covering (mukhpatti), peri- odic fasting, restriction of movement, and so forth, his generally genial tone and commitment to thinking carefully about the philosophies of rival schools strike the reader of the Yogadrstisa- muccya as particularly Jaina in character. However, particularly in his grouping of the eight aspects of Yoga, he clearly attempts to make a connection between Patañjali's path of spirituality and the Jaina path of purification. Jaina philosophy takes its grounding in its theories of karma. According to the earliest texts of the Jaina tradition, particles of

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 25

karma bind themselves to the soul (jiva) each time one performs an action. The accumulation of these particles causes one to be born again and again within the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The only way to reverse these karmic accretions requires adherence to a strict moral code. The Ācārānga Sūtra, written within a few decades after the death of Mahavīra, the great Jaina teacher who lived at the same time as the Buddha (ca. 450 to 350 B.C.E.), lists five vows: nonviolence (ahimsā), truthfulness (satya), not stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya), and nonpossession (aparigraha). These same exact vows form the first limb of Patañjali's eight- fold Yoga. According to Jainism, the practice of these five vows allows for the expulsion (nirjarā) of karma and advances one toward the state of liberation, referred to in Jainism as kevala, or solitariness. Jainism considers the soul eternal, uncreated, and suffused with energy, consciousness, and bliss. Karma ob- scures its true nature. In the final state of liberation, one aban- dons all karmic connections and dwells thereafter eternally on one's own mountain peak, perpetually surveying with a dispas- sionate eye all the things of the world but without attachment or enticement. The sectarian, textual, and doctrinal history of Jainism is quite long and complicated. Two major groups of Jainas evolved, beginning after a famine (ca. 300 B.C.E.) forced the Jaina commu- nity to leave its homeland in northeast India.3 One group headed to central and south India; it eventually formed the Digambara community. One group headed west, settling in Gujarat and Rajasthan. It came to be known as the Śvetāmbara branch of Jainism, which refers to the white clothing worn by its monks and nuns, as opposed to the Digambara branch, whose more advanced monks wear nothing at all. Though these two groups hold very different views regarding the status of women and do not agree on the authenticity of one another's canons, both ac- cept the writings of the previously mentioned Umāsvāti, an im- portant philosopher who lived in the fifth century. Umāsvāti wrote an important treatise, the Tattvārtha Sūtra, that serves as the basis for Jainism as it is studied and practiced today. From its pages emerge the fourteenfold spiritual path, mentioned above, and careful delineations of the various forms of karma and the rather unique Jaina cosmology.4

26 RECONCILING YOGAS

Haribhadra, as noted earlier, did not employ a great deal of Jaina vocabulary in the Yogadrstisamuccaya, nor did he list the rigorous Jaina practices as found in the Ācāranga Sūtra and other texts. He did, however, attempt to establish a link between his interpretation of Patañjali's eightfold Yoga and the fourteen stages, or gunasthānas, of Jainism. Two terms from the vocabulary of the stages, or gunasthānas, indicate this: the unprecedented (apūrvakarana), which refers to actions that are not conditioned by prior afflictions, and disjunction (ayoga), a technical term that refers to the ridding of all one's karma. Specifically, Haribhadra states that when one moves from Mitrā to Tāra Yoga, his first two phases, then one moves into the apūrvakarana, which is the eighth of the stages, or gunasthānas (verse 39). Earlier he had introduced the concept of unprecedented action (apūrvakarana) when making the distinction between dharma renunciation and yoga renunciation. Dharma renunciation, or leaving behind the patterns of life afflicted and determined by karma, takes place prior to the entry into the eighth stage or gunasthāna (verse 10). This would involve cultivating a lifestyle in accordance with the Jaina vows, which takes place primarily in stages, or gunasthānas, four through seven, which will be explained later. In referring to "Yoga renunciation" (verse 9), Haribhadra does not mean the stoppage of Yoga disciplines. Rather, he is using the term Yoga as a synonym for bandha, the process of binding karma to the soul. As Y. S. Shastri has noted:

The subtle particles of matter which flow into the soul and cause its bondage are called Karma. It is Karma that binds the soul to the body. It is caused by the union (yoga) of the soul with Pudgala (matter).5

While Yoga in Patanjali and related traditions indicates a con- nection with a higher consciousness, the term Yoga in Jainism is used to explain the binding of karma to the soul (jīva). The technical definition of Yoga in Jainism is "physical, mental, and vocal activity," while the goal of Jainism is to sever association with such karmic activity through the cessation of Yoga (yoga- nirodha).6 In the first seven stages, or gunasthānas, as we will see, the karmas are controlling one's behavior. Starting with the phase of unprecedented action (apūrvakaraņa), which is Tārā

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 27

Yoga, one begins the process of suppressing or releasing and dispelling karmas, the substance, or dravya, that Haribhadra refers to in verse 27. The other term from the stage, or gunasthāna, list that Haribhadra employs is ayoga, which first appears in verse eleven (the Yoga of ayoga is declared the highest of Yogas) and later appears in verse 186:

Therein the blessed one quickly attains highest nirvāna through the Yoga of total freedom, the best of Yogas, having accomplished the cessation of the ailment of worldly existence.

This term directly correlates to the name of the fourteenth gunasthāna, which is ayoga kevala, or final liberation from all karma. Hence, if we consider the first of Haribhadra's eight phases to include gunasthānas four through seven, and Haribhadra him- self claims that Tāra Yoga corresponds to the stage of unpreceded action or apūrvakarana, the eighth gunasthāna, and that Parā Yoga corresponds to ayoga kevala, then the intervening stages of Haribhadra's system must correlate to the intervening gunasthānas. (See Table 2.2 for clarification.) The path of purification in Jainism, as explained by Umāsvāti, begins with the fourth stage, the enlightened worldview, or samyak-drsti. In order to understand the first three stages, we must first gain familiarity with the enlightened worldview, as the first three phases take their meaning only in contrast to this transformative experience. Padmanabh S. Jaini writes eloquently about the enlightened worldview:

Consciousness attuned only to actions or the results of actions generates perpetual continuation of the samsaric cycle. Upon the attainment of samyak-darśana, the soul turns away from such concerns; it undergoes a deliberate and mindful reorientation of attention, coming to focus upon nothing but its own nature (svabhāva). The body, the possessions, even the ever-changing psychological states (anger, the passions, pride, self-pity, and so forth), are no longer identified with the self. The functioning of con- sciousness is now characterized as jñāna-cetanā; here, the

28 RECONCILING YOGAS

TABLE 2.2 Haribhadra, Patañjali, and the Guņasthānas

Haribhadra Patañjali Guņasthāna Mitrā (Friendly) Yama (Disciplines) 4-7; insight and ethics

Tārā (Protector) Niyama (Observances) 8; in path, with passions

Balā (Power) Āsana (Postures) 9; with gross passions

Dīprā (Shining) Prāņāyāma (Control 10; with subtle of Breath) passions

Sthirā (Firm) Pratyāhāra 11; no passion, (Detachment) calmed delusion, no omniscience

Kāntā (Pleasing) Dhāraņā 12; no passion, (Concentration) diminished delusion, no omniscience

Prabhā (Radiant) Dhyāna (Meditation) 13; no passion, no delusion; with body

Parā (Highest) Samādhi 14; omniscience, no activity

[Christopher Key Chapple]

individual dwells only upon the innate and pure qualities of the soul, realizing that he is not doing anything in the world beyond simply knowing it. Finally, his awareness of objects no longer generates a tendency to grasp or manipulate them; he remains in the state called antarātman, seeing the self within, thereby greatly increasing his mind- fulness and pure awareness. This highly developed jñāna-

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 29

cetanā will enable him to undertake the pure conduct (samyak-cāritra) necessary to overcome ingrained negative tendencies, tendencies that have persisted since beginningless time. Thus he will attain eventually to the state of constant self-awareness and purity called paramātman, the highest (the liberated) self.7

Through this experience, one ascends from the first stage, the realm of wrong views (mithyā-darsana). In the first stage, the unenlightened view, one is bound by the karmas of igorance and passion. Because of the heaviness of one's karma, one acts in an unconsciousness manner, continually thickening the den- sity of one's bondage. Ascent to the enlightened worldview "renders the gross passions inoperative and generates sufficient energy in the soul to guarantee rapid progress on the path of conduct."8 However, one generally does not stay in the fourth stage longer than forty-eight minutes before falling back to the second or third stage. The second and third stages represent variant forms of back- sliding. In stage two (sāsvādana), one has had a taste (svāda) of the enlightened view, but it has been eclipsed by the reemergence of karmic passions. In the third stage (samyak-mithyātva), one enters into a state of transition either to or from the enlightened worldview. According to Muni Shri Nyayavijayaji, there is an absence of the most intense passions9 but a great deal of vacilla- tion, after which one might descend to the first or second stage or reenter the enlightened view. Nathmal Tatia explains this in terms of pure, semi-pure, and impure "heaps" of karma. If pure karma persists, then one remains in the fourth stage and can advance. If semi-pure karma arises, then one relapses into the third stage. If impure karma arises, then one falls down into the second stage and "gradually falls back to the first stage, deluded world-view."10 In terms of Haribhadra's threefold analysis of Yoga, a per- son in the first four stages would be at the first step, or Icchā Yoga. Even if ignorant, she or he might have heard of the spiri- tual. Once having had the enlightened view, she or he then would perhaps desire to enter into that experience again and, hence, to be within the phase of Wishful Yoga.

30 RECONCILING YOGAS

The fifth, sixth, and seventh stages comprise an important phase of spiritual resolve that arises from the insights gained during the enlightened worldview. In the fifth stage, restraint according to place (deśa-virata), one takes on the vows (vrata) taught by the Jaina faith: nonviolence (ahimsā), truthfulness (satya), not stealing (asteya), sexual restraint (brahmacarya), and nonpossession (aparigraha), which are considered the "house- holder vows." In the sixth stage, total restraint (sarva-virata, or pramatta-samyata), one takes on the more rigorous vows of the monk or nun. In the seventh stage, one enters complete restraint (apramatta-samyata), overcoming the occasional carelessness in the observance of vows evident in the sixth stage. As noted ear- lier, these vows, to varying degrees, allow the control or restraint of karmic impulses. They do not, however, involve the total suppression or release or purging of karma. Hence, Haribhadra considers such people to be at the very first stage of Yoga prac- tice, Friendliness, or Mitra Yoga. For this stage, he lists several activities designed to cultivate the "beginner's mind," including reading books, worship, charity, listening to lectures, studying, and meditating (YDS 28). He also gives great words of encour- agement directed to persons at that level, seeming to indicate that the entry into the path of purification sets the course for success. In terms of Haribhadra's threefold analysis, they would be at the stage of Precept (Sästra) Yoga, following the precepts of the great religious teachings. Haribhadra and Umāsvāti both refer to their next stage (Hari- bhadra's second, Umāsvāti's eighth) as unprecedented action, or apūrvakarana. This rather technical designation refers to the fact that that which had been impure in prior times has been dis- pelled; the former karma no longer maintains its grip but has been loosened and diminished through the adherence to religious precepts. Haribhadra refers to this second phase as Protector, or Tārā, Yoga. He describes Tārā Yoga as "enabling one to over- come excessive fear and wrong action" (YDS 45). Patañjali's equivalent limb, the observances, or niyamas, indicates that one takes up deliberate, positive activities: purity, contentment, aus- terity, study, and dedication to a chosen deity ideal (śauca, samtoșa, tapas, svādhyāya, and īśvara-praņidhāna). Von Glasenapp notes that at this, the eighth stage, or gunasthāna, one has fully entered

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 31

a Śreņi, or spiritual ladder, and that only white Leśya (color of karma) occurs.11 However, two paths can be pursued as one leaves the eighth stage. The first, the Suppression Ladder (upaśama śreni), like the game "Snakes and Ladders," leads one up a couple ladders but then dumps one down into a snake (see frontispiece). It entails the suppression of karma, not its extirpation, and it eventually leads to backsliding. One can ascend along this path to the eleventh stage but then must fall down the snake to stages six, five, four, or two, from which one must start all over again. The second type of unpreceded action, or apūrvakarana, the Elimi- nation Ladder (ksapana śreni), actually sheds off and extirpates karma and brings one permanently higher, without backsliding. Such a practitioner skips over the perilous eleventh-stage snake and heads straight toward the final goal. In the ninth stage (anivrttikarana gunasthāna), one either suppresses or eliminates the secondary passions, listed as sexual feelings (male, female, or mixed), the passions of nonabstinence and partial abstinence, the six quasipassions of "laughter, relish, ennui, grief, fear, and abhorrence," and "flickering anger and pride."12 In Patañjali, this does not seem to make a tidy match, as Patañjali's third limb focuses on postures, or āsana. To the extent that they involve ease and surrender to the infinite, they might be stretched to include rising above the various passions listed; Patañjali writes that this limb, or āsana, is "steadiness and ease, from relaxation of effort and endless unity" (sthira-sukham- āsanam prayatna-śaithilyānanta-samāpattibhyām [YS II:46-47]). Haribhadra describes his third phase of Yoga in terms of Power or Balā Yoga and describes this in terms of qualities of serious- ness, which in fact would correspond to the Jaina conquest of the quasipassions:

Unlike before there is no hastiness in all one's goings and activities. One is committed to devotion and avoids things perishable. (YDS 51)

Patañjali also describes āsana as resulting in "unassailability by opposites" (YS II:48), which, like the verse from Haribhadra, indicates great stability.

32 RECONCILING YOGAS

In the tenth stage (sūkşma-sāmparāya), one works at sup- pressing flickering deceit and greed. In Patañjali, this would cor- respond to prānāyāma, the fourth limb, which again seems like a bit of a mismatch. However, in Haribhadra's descriptions of his Dīprā Yoga, we see that he emphasizes the purifying powers of correct breathing, stating that through this, one attains accurate perception and purified understanding (YDS 65). The highest stage of suppression (upaśama) of karma occurs at the eleventh stage (upaśānta kaşāya). In this, the remaining greed from the tenth stage is eliminated. This stage is required for those who have worked at suppressing karmas, and it will result in falling back into a lower stage, at either the "sixth, fifth, fourth, or to the second stage."13 Patañjali's fifth stage, with- drawal (pratyāhāra), involves a withdrawal from the realm of the senses. Haribhadra names his fifth stage "Firm" or "Sthirā" Yoga:

Thus those who are firm in their discrimination excel at detachment, renouncing obstacles to dharma and exerting genuine effort. (YDS 158)

Haribhadra does not directly indicate that this stage entails back- sliding, though he does allude to illusion and dream (YDS 155, 156) and suggests that anyone who "tries to stop desire through enjoyment" of desire is deluded (YDS 161), hinting that one who has achieved the eleventh stage for gunasthāna, which is his fifth stage, is vulnerable. Those who have genuinely succeeded in eliminating their karmas in stages eight, nine, and ten enter directly into the twelfth stage. This is described by Nathmal Tatia as follows:

Endowed with great karmic purity, the soul at the ninth stage eliminates the following karmas: the eight passions (four non-abstinence, and four partial-abstinence), the hermaphroditic disposition and the female disposition.14 The ascetic then eliminates the six quasi-passions (laugh- ter, relish, ennui, grief, fear, abhorrence) by merging them into the male disposition, and then similarly merges the male disposition in flickering anger, flickering anger in

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 33

flickering pride, flickering pride in flickering deceit, and flickering deceit in flickering greed. Then the soul attenu- ates flickering greed at the tenth stage.15

This accomplishment allows one to leap over the perilous eleventh stage (from which one inevitably slides downward) and ascend to the twelfth stage. Hence, in the twelfth stage, one has climbed the Elimination Ladder (kşapana-śreni) and attained "complete self- restraint with eliminated passions."16 In the words of Padmanabh S. Jaini, "the aspirant will reach kşīna-moha [elimination of delu- sion], permanent disassociation from all the cāritra-mohanīya [de- luded action] karmas and the passions (kaşāya) which they engender."17 For Patañjali, this involves a capacity to direct and focus one's thinking in the stage of concentration (dhāraņā). It also comprises the first of the three great "inner Yogas" through which various powers (siddhis) are attained. Haribhadra's sixth phase, corresponding to Umāsvāti's twelfth stage, or guņasthāna, is Pleas- ing, or Kāntā, Yoga, to which he ascribes an ability to move through worldly illusion without becoming attached. He states:

Just as in seeing the truth behind the illusion of water one's mind is put at ease and one can go forth quickly through, so it is with avoiding obstacles. (YDS 165)

This simile indicates that the barriers to progress have disap- peared, whereas in the prior Yoga, there was an indication of lingering illusions. The thirteenth stage of Jaina spirituality corresponds to the Hindu notion of the Jivan Mukta, or the sage who is liberated while living in the world. Tatia translates this stage (sayoga kevali) as "omniscience with physical activity."18 This is said to occur shortly before one's final separation from the body, and it entails a remarkable phase of expansion and contraction.19 In this phase, one is still connected (yoga) to mind, speech, and body, and one still carries the karmas of sensation, name, family group, and life span. Again, though the fit is not exact, Patañjali refers to his seventh limb as meditation (dhyāna), said to arise when the mind

34 RECONCILING YOGAS

is able to stay fixed for a long period of time, leading to the final phase of samādhi. Haribhadra calls his penultimate stage "Radi- ant," or "Prabha," Yoga, which he describes in terms similar to those employed for the person at the stage of sayoga kevali:

This truly perfect stage allows one to stand unattached in the midst of attachment. The one who follows this great path arrives at the stage of not returning. (YDS 175)

Haribhadra also includes several verses that describe the nature of living liberation, stating that such a person has been liberated from "giving birth without beginning to the cause of various karmas" (YDS 189). The final stage of the Jaina path is referred to as the disem- bodied state of liberation (ayogi kevali), which occurs just prior to death. As expressed by Padmanabh S. Jaini: "At the instance of death (nirvana) itself, the soul is freed forever from the last vestige of samsaric influence; thus it reaches in the very next moment the state of infinite bliss and omniscience called siddha."20 The remain- ing karmas are annihilated and, as described by von Glasenapp,

Relieved of all matter, the soul ascends in a straight line during a samaya (instant) to the summit of the world, as a gourd freed from all filth no longer sinks to the bottom but rises to the surface of the water. High above the Sarvärthasiddhi-heaven, close to the border between world and no-world, lies the magnificent region of Işatprāgbhārā, in a shape like an unfolded sun- shade. Thereto the blessed betake themselves in order to settle down permanently in the uppermost part of it, in Śītā. Without visible shape, bodiless, but a dimension in space (immaterial) of 2/3 of that which they had had dur- ing their last existence, they dwell there thenceforward into all eternity, and enjoy the infinite, incomparable, indestruc- tible supernatural happiness of salvation.21

The final state, the goal of the tradition, has been attained. In terms of Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra, it would correspond to the final

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 35

state of nirbīja samādhi, the culmination of several levels of samādhi, ranging from with form/thought, without form/thought, with re- flection, without reflection, with seed, and finally without seed, at which point all afflictions and fluctuations cease. Haribhadra clearly regards his final Yoga phase, Highest, or Parā, Yoga, to correlate to the fourteenth stage, or gunasthāna, as indicated in the use of the term ayoga, mentioned above, and in his descriptions:

This is the culmination born of the second apūrvakaraņa (that is, the Elimination Ladder). This has the radiance of kevala (perfect knowledge). Freedom from all adversity arises. (YDS 182)

With faults eliminated, omniscient, endowed with the fruits of all that can be accomplished, with things to be done now only for the sake of others, such a one attains the end of Yoga. (YDS 185)

Therein the blessed one quickly attains highest nirvāna, through the Yoga of total freedom, the best of Yogas, having accomplished the cessation of the ailment of worldly existence. (YDS 186)

All karmas have been expelled, and the soul has achieved libera- tion. [See Table 2.3] Haribhadra's eight limbs nicely correspond to the eight high- est stages, or gunasthānas, of Umāsvāti. He has been somewhat less successful in fitting Patañjali's stages into the Jaina scheme, aside from acknowledging the identity of the vratas and the yamas and equating Patañjali's description of nirbīja samādhi to the Jaina stage of ayogi kevala. His own eightfold goddess system follows Patanjali's eight limbs and also correlates to the gunasthāna scheme, eight through fourteen. However, to align the gunasthāna scheme with the Yoga Sutra, it would be far better to look at the stages of samädhi mentioned in the first section of the Yoga Sūtra than to try to align the gunasthanas with the stages of Yoga listed in the second section of the Yoga Sūtra.

36 RECONCILING YOGAS

TABLE 2.3 Spiritual Ascent through the Guņasthāna(s)

14. Ayoga Kevala Total Freedom 13. Sayoga Kevala Remnants of Life Span, Name, Feeling, Family Suppression Ladder (Upasama Śreņi) 12. Kşīņa, Kaşāya Vītarāga No Passion, Diminished Delusion 11. Upaśānta Kaşāya Vītarāga No Passion, Delusion is Pacified (temporarily) 10. Sūkşma Samparāya With Subtle Passions Elimination Ladder (Ksapana Sreņi) 9. Anivrtti Bādara Samparāya With Gross Passions 8. Apūrva Karaņa Action Uninfluenced by Prior Karma 7. Apramatta Samyata Self-Control without Negligence 6. Pramatta Samyata Self-Control with Negligence 5. Deśavirata Samyagdrșți Partial Self-Control through Adherence to Vows ENTER 4. Avirati Samyagdrsți Insight 3. Samyag Mithyādrșți Indifference 2. Sāsvādana Samyagdrșți Downward Inclination 1. Mithyādrșți Ignorance

[Christopher Key Chapple]

In the samādhi pāda, as summarized earlier, Patañjali first outlines the workings of the mind and then lists a variety of practices bringing about the state of yoga, defined as the "sup- pression of fluctuations in the mind" (citta-vrtti-nirodha). This list includes practice and dispassion, the Brahma Vihāra, devo- tion to the Lord of Yoga (Iśvara), and a host of other practices. In terms of the gunasthāna system, these might be equated to the first seven stages: rising above the ignorant view, making a deci-

HARIBHADRA AND PATAÑJALI 37

sion to purify one's life, and establishing oneself in foundational ethical practices. At the conclusion of this list of some twenty or so practices, Patañjali then enters into a systematic discourse on the hierarchy of stages of samādhi. He begins with a description of the core experience of samapatti, moving into a state of clarity between grasper, grasping, and grasped, so that one's conscious- ness, like a clear jewel, becomes transparent (YS I:41). In terms of the gunasthānas, this state would involve fully moving into a transformative spiritual path. In the words of Gurāņi Añjali, "spiritual life begins with samādhi." The next phase is savitarka samādhi, described as concentration with a gross object. In terms of the gunasthänas, this might refer to the ninth stage, defined as "with gross passions." Patañjali next describes nirvitarka, or concentration without a gross object, correlating to the tenth gunasthāna, with subtle passions. On the next level, Patañjali discusses savicāra samādhi, a form of concentration with a subtle object, which could correspond to the eleventh gunasthāna, which, as we saw earlier, holds an important transitional place in Jainism. In Patañjali, this is followed with nirvicāra, an objectless form of subtle concentation that helps erase prior karmic impressions (samskāras) and, in the words of the commentator, Vyāsa, turn them into sterile "burnt seeds." This would correspond perhaps to the twelfth gunasthäna, during which the passions disappear, and delusions have been minimized. At the thirteenth and four- teenth levels, one enters into a state of liberation, first with the body and then without. The thirteenth stage could correspond to sabīja samādhi, with the seeds, or bījas, perhaps referring to the final four karmas of Jainism. Ayogakevala, or total freedom, could correspond to the fourteenth and final stage of seedless (nirbīja) samādhi, which results in first the restriction of other karmic impressions and finally the suppression of everything (sarva-nirodha). The expulsion of subtle karma through the sev- enfold application of samādhi seems closer to the Jaina guņasthāna system than the limbs mentioned by Patañjali in his eightfold system (see Table 2.4). In this chapter we have investigated Haribhadra's attempts to align his interpretations of Yoga within the context of Patañjali's Yoga, and Jaina gunasthāna theory, using two words in the Yogadrstisamuccaya that seem to give obvious clues. The term

38 RECONCILING YOGAS

TABLE 2.4 The Progressive Erasure of Karma

Jainism's Guņasthānas Patañjali's Samādhis

1-7. ignorance, insight, and ethics citta-vrtti

8. Apūrva Karaņa samāpatti Action uninfluenced by prior karma

9. Anivrtti Bādara Samparāya savitarka with gross passions

10. Sūkşma Samparāya nirvitarka with subtle passions

11. Upaśānta Kașāya Vītarāga savicāra No passion, delusion temporarily pacified

12. Ksīņa Kaşāya Vītarāga nirvicāra No passion, diminished delusion

13. Sayoga Kevala sabīja Remnants of Karma

14. Ayoga Kevala nirbīja Total Freedom

[Christopher Key Chapple]

apūrvakaraņa, used in reference to Haribhadra's second stage (Tārā), is used in the commentaries on Umāsvāti's Tattvārtha Sūtra to refer to the eighth gunasthāna. The term ayoga is used to describe the eighth and final of Haribhadra's stages. In Umāsvāti, the same term is used to describe the fourteenth and final gunasthāna. Using these two clues, it has been argued that the eight stages of Hari- bhadra's Yoga correlate to the upper eight levels of the gunasthāna system.22 In the next chapter, we will examine his attempt to ex- plain the Yoga systems of Bhadanta Bhāskara and Bandhu Bhagavaddatta, which seem to be affiliated with Buddhism and Vedānta, respectively.

CHAPTER THREE

The Vedantin Yoga of Bhagavaddatta and the Buddhist Yoga of Bhāskara

In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra describes three systems of Yoga for which we have no other account. The first is attrib- uted to Haribhadra himself and incorporates terminology reflec- tive of the Tantric movement that flourished during his time, as will be discussed in chapter six. The other two are attributed in the autocommentary (verse 16) to Bandhu Bhagavaddatta and Bhadanta Bhäskara. Though I have searched various sources, from Hemacandra's Abhidhānacintāmani to Tson Kha Pa's Lam Rim Chen Mo, and have consulted numerous international scholars, there is apparently no other record for these persons, nor do their articulations of Yoga align with any other systems. However, in the section that follows, I will hypothesize about their doctrinal affiliations, suggesting that Bandhu Bhagavaddatta hails from a Brahmanical or Saivite or Vedantin school of thought, and that Bhadanta Bhaskara was a teacher of Buddhism. In the following chapter, I will then examine the arguments in the Yogadrstisa- muccaya that challenge Brahmanical and Buddhist positions and explore how the inclusion of these two thinkers relates to Haribhadra's mission of unifying all truth under the rubric of the common goal of liberation. In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, the Vedantin and Buddhist sys- tems of Yoga are listed as parallel components to Patañjali's and Haribhadra's eightfold paths. The systems attributed to Bandhu

39

40 RECONCILING YOGAS

Bhagavaddatta and Bhadanta Bhaskara in the commentary on verse sixteen are described over a sequence of verses that mention the eight limbs (angas) of Patañjali. Haribhadra names correla- tive yoga practices for each of the four systems: his own, as discussed in the prior chapter, Patañjali, Bhagavaddatta, and Bhāskara.1 In the prior chapter I explored the relationship between Haribhadra's eight yogas, Patañjali's eight limbs, and the Jaina stages of spirituality, or gunasthānas. In this chapter, I attempt to isolate the Vedantic and Buddhist systems attributed to Bhaga- vaddatta and Bhāskara. By looking at each first in the context of its appearance in Haribhadra and then advancing a cogent vo- cabulary reflective of Brahmanical and Buddhist ideology, respec- tively, I hope to recover the intention and possible application of these "Lost Yogas." In chapter four I explore how these render- ings or interpretations of Brahmanical and Buddhist ideology reflect Haribhadra's own understanding of Brahmanism and Buddhism, and how they might possibly serve his purposes of criticizing Brahmanical "monism" and Buddhist "nihilism" else- where in the text.

THE EIGHTFOLD VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BANDHU BHAGAVADDATTA

In his commentary on verse 16, Haribhadra attributes an eight- fold scheme of Yoga to a scholar he names "Bandhu Bhaga- vaddatta." A search of various catalogues and other bibliograhic listings has yielded no such author as early as the eighth century, so it can only be assumed that Bhagavaddatta either was the author of texts that have since been lost or a prominent teacher during the time of Haribhadra, or both. According to Sanghavi, he might have been a Saiva or Pasupata teacher.2 His name, which means "God Given," indicates a theistic orientation, and many of the eight categories that he lists reflect Brahmanical textual traditions. By listing and describing each level in terms of both its core vocabulary and elaborations made by Haribhadra in the autocommentary and subsequent verses, I attempt a recon- struction of this eightfold Yoga path.

THE VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BHAGAVADDATTA 41

TABLE 3.1 Forms of Yoga as Given in Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya

Bandhu Bhadanta Haribhadra Patañjali Bhagavaddatta Bhāskara

Mitrā (Friendly) Yama (Disciplines) Adveșa (No Akheda (No Aversion) Distress)

Tārā (Protector) Niyama Jijñāsa (Desire Anudvega (No (Observances) for Knowledge) Anxiety) Balā (Power) Āsana (Postures) Śuśrūșā (Desirous Akşepa (No to Hear Truth) Distraction) Dīprā (Shining) Prāņāyāma Śravaņa (Hearing Anuttānavatī (Control of Truth) (No Interruption) Breath) Sthirā (Firm) Pratyāhāra Sukşmabodha Abhrānti (Detachment) (Subtle Awakening) (Unmuddied) Kāntā (Pleasing) Dhāraņā Mīmām̧sā Ananyamud (Not (Concentration) (Reflection) Finding Pleasure in Anything Other)

Prabhā Dhyāna Pratipatti Arug (Without (Radiant) (Meditation) (Perception of Pain) Truth)

Parā (Highest) Samādhi Sātmī-kṛta-pravṛtti Sanga Vivarjitā (Enactment of (Free from Absorption) Attachment) [Christopher Key Chapple]

The first term used by Bhagavaddatta is adveşa, which I have translated as "freedom from aversion." Like ahimsā (non- violence), asteya (not stealing), and aparigraha (nonpossession) within Patañjali's first stage, this is stated in negative terms. Rather than putting forward a positive term such as equanimity (sama) or peacefulness (śānti), Bhagavaddatta states what is to be avoided. This interesting device, widely employed by the Buddhists (as we will see later), operates from the premise that something is awry, and that steps must be taken to reverse it. In this instance, aver- sion or dislike first must be recognized and then overcome. In the commentary, Haribhadra lists as a synonym the term amatsara, which means unenvious or disinterested. Both terms indicate a

42 RECONCILING YOGAS

state of detachment or dispassion. This concept of rising above aversion finds prominence throughout the Bhagavad Gita in such verses as II:64, which speaks of being free from aversion and de- sire, and V:3, which proclaims that the one who "neither hates nor desires, is to be known as the everlasting renouncer (sannyāsi)."3 The subsequent terms used by Bhagavaddatta are couched in a more positive modality and evoke ideas also found in a wide range of texts and traditions in the years prior to Haribhadra. The first of these terms, jijñāsā, "desirous of knowledge," is rooted in a desiderative form. It is followed with the terms indicating the field of one's reality (tattvagocara), indicating that, as in Śankara's Atmabodha and Iśvarakrsņa's Sāmkhya Kārikā, among countless other texts, an intentionality fixed on spiritual knowledge is es- sential. The commentary states that this arises after advesa. The third phase of Patañjali's Yoga is the accomplishment of asana, free and steady placement of the body. In later tradi- tion, this becomes closely associated with the Hatha Yoga schools and refers to the wide range of postures that the aspiring yogi learns in an attempt to prepare the body for extended periods of meditation. In Bhagavaddatta, this third stage is called śuśrūşā, which I have translated as "desirous to hear truth." It follows the same desiderative structure as the prior phase, and again it echoes

TABLE 3.2 The Yoga of Bandhu Bhagavaddatta

Adveșa (No Adversion)

Jijñāsa (Desire for Knowledge) Śuśrūșā (Desirous to Hear Truth)

Śravaņa (Hearing Truth)

Sukşmabodha (Subtle Awakening)

Mīmāņsā (Reflection) Pratipatti (Perception of Truth) Sātmī-krta-pravrtti (Enactment of Absorption)

[Christopher Key Chapple]

THE VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BHAGAVADDATTA 43

many texts that refer to the need for one to be teachable in order to progress on the spiritual journey. In the commentary, Haribhadra states that "desirous to hear truth" would be the same as the "desire for knowledge." How- ever, in the root text, he later expands on this notion, drawing the analogy that desiring to hear truth is like the heavenly songs that young lovers hear when joined together (YDS 52). He fur- ther intimates that this truth is to be found in scripture (śrutam) (YDS 53). In neither the commentary nor the later root text references to this stage does Haribhadra refer to āsana as a form of physical movement. This might reflect the actual practice of Yoga at the time (as noted earlier, the Hatha Yoga manuals probably arise at a later date), or traditional Jaina indifference to purely "physical" yoga. Bhagavaddatta refers to the fourth stage as "hearing truth" (śravana). In the commentary, Haribhadra says this is the result (phalam) of the desire to hear truth. However, unlike the prior stage, Haribhadra explicitly links this accomplishment to the par- allel level in Patañjali. He proclaims that one who hears highest truth goes "from strength of the breaths, indeed, to the highest dharma" (YDS 60). He also draws an analogy that one who seeks truth will flourish like a sprouting seed in fresh water, while the worldly one will perish like a sprout in salt water (YDS 61, 62). The fifth stage of Bhagavaddatta is called sūkșmabodha, or "subtle awakening," which corresponds to what Patañjali terms pratyāhāra, in which one detaches from the objects of the senses. Though Patañjali chooses to refer to this state in somewhat nega- tive terms, Haribhadra, in his explication, expresses this level in more positive terms. He states that this phase corresponds to "the cutting of the knot" (granthi-bheda), which indicates that here one begins to effectively disengage from the snares of par- ticular karmas. He also links this phase to vedyasamvedyapada, the special term coined by Haribhadra to indicate the correct path. To illustrate the spiritual import of this critical fifth phase, he uses several metaphors:

Through the undoing of the knot of lethargy, the entire struggle of worldly existence is perceived by the wise as like children playing with a house made of sand.

44 RECONCILING YOGAS

One sees all external existence as if it resembles a dream, the city of the Gandharvas, a magician's illusion. Here the only thing resembling truth is the interior, singular, undisturbed, unnameable light; anything else is merely a disturbance. (YDS 155-157)

Having communicated the positive spiritual aspects of this ac- complishment, he then explains this subtle awakening in more traditional language, emphasizing the need to renounce attach- ment to physicality:

Thus those who are firm in their discrimination excel at detachment, renouncing obstacles to dharma and exerting genuine effort. For the wise, wealth does not bring happiness, because its friend is poverty. So should it be for the many extensive enjoyments of the body, which in the world have sin as their companion. (YDS 158-159)

At the level of the inner limbs of Yoga, Haribhadra's descriptions become quite animated. He enthusiastically establishes common- alities between all the systems that he juxtaposes. This corre- sponds to his assessment that these phases of Yoga are truly effective, while the possibility of backsliding exists within the prior four stages. The sixth phase of Patañjali's Yoga is concentration (dhārāņā), the first component required for the advanced technique of samyama. In Patañjali, the simultaneous application of concentra- tion, meditation, and samādhi leads to great spiritual accomplish- ments (siddhi) and eventually to the state of discriminative discernment (viveka khyāti) and liberation (kaivalyam). For Bhagavaddatta, this phase is interestingly termed Mīmāmsā, which I have translated as "reflection." In traditional Hinduism, Mīmāmsā is the name of the philosophical school that deals with the particu- lars of enacting Vedic sacrifice. The inclusion of this title does not refer specifically to this extensive tradition but probably indicates

THE VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BHAGAVADDATTA 45

value being placed on a concern for proper sustenance of a particu- lar worldview. By viewing life in ritual categories, the propensity to cling to karmic structures lessens. In the performance of ritual, the creation of positive samskāras in accordance with religious precepts can help minimize worldly samskāras. Etymologically, the term mīmāmsā derives from a desidera- tive form of the root man, "to think." It indicates a desire to think on a more profound level. In his commentary, Haribhadra states that it refers to reflection or cogitation on the real by one's self (sad-vicāra-ātmikā). By introducing a term used by Patañjali to describe a preliminary state of concentration (see YS I:44 on savicāra, nirvicāra, etc.), and by using an epithet for Brahman (sat) and a reference to the notion of Self, Haribhadra establishes this phase within the Brahmanical theological tradition. In the verses that explicate Haribhadra's understanding of this sixth phase, he states that one's conduct becomes purified, that one is beloved among beings, with a mind always fixed on scriptural teachings. Such a one, he states, no longer becomes enticed by worldly affairs and avoids obstacles as though they were only a mirage. As with descriptions of the liberated soul in the Chändogya Upanisad and the extensive Living Liberation (jīvanmukti) tradition of later Vedänta, he states that one re- mains detached even while in the midst of enjoyment, progressing toward the highest step. Bhagavaddatta refers to the seventh and penultimate stage as Tattva Pratipatti, which I translate as "perception of truth." Though Haribhadra provides no commentary for the verse in which this stage is mentioned, it is clear from its context and the verses that follow that he equates this stage to Patañjali's Medi- tation (dhyāna). The benefits that accrue are quite similar to those listed for the prior stage, though more intense:

In this, happiness is born of meditation, as well as the discipline of conquering amorous passion, the emergence of strong discrimination, and the power of constant serenity. (YDS 171)

He also describes this state as being beyond concern for merit, and he notes that the great souls meditate because of their puri- fied intellect.

46 RECONCILING YOGAS

For the eighth and final stage of Yoga, Bhagavaddatta intro- duces a new term, sa-ātmī-krta-pravrtti, which I translate as "Enactment of Absorption." In this phase, all things are done without separation from one's true self. Haribhadra's commen- tary cites several of Patañjali's aphorisms that describe concentra- tion, meditation, and samädhi, and though he does not fully define Bhagavaddatta's phrase, "Enactment of Absorption," he does include in his descriptions of liberation the notion that the enactment of this state is like the smell of sandalwood, that is, the best. The verses that follow equate the eighth stage to liberation and freedom from all adversity. Such a person's consciousness is said to be "like a cloud concealing the moonlight" (YDS 183). The person in the eighth stage does things only for the sake of others (YDS 185). Though using epithets from Buddhist, Jaina, and Hindu modes of expression, Haribhadra does not seem to give priority to one tradition over another. However, the term Enactment of Ab- sorption (sātmikrtapravrtti) attributed to Bhagavaddatta for this highest form of Yoga is particularly noteworthy for its positivistic slant, in contrast to the theologically neutral term used by Patañjali (samādhi), the theologically specific term used by the Jainas (kevala), and the decidedly nontheistic, nonsubtantialist term used by the Buddhists (sanga vivarjitā). In concluding our discussion of Bhagavaddatta, the following points can be made. He uses terms familiar to the Upanisadic and Brahmanical tradition and names that could be readily found in the Gita, the Upanisads, the names of schools, and so on. He uses the desiderative form repeatedly, which perhaps was a favorite of the learned Brahmins. He most likely emphasizes scripture, as in- dicated in the verses used by Haribhadra to explicate each of the levels. Although we have no information about Bhagavaddatta outside of Haribhadra's rendering, it seems clear that he represents a Brahmanical perspective, with leanings toward the school that later came to be identified as "Advaita Vedānta."

THE EIGHTFOLD BUDDHIST YOGA OF BHADANTA BHĀSKARA

Along with his own rendering of eightfold Yoga, Patañjali's eight- fold system, and the eightfold Yoga attributed to Bandhu

THE VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BHAGAVADDATTA 47

Bhagavaddatta, Haribhadra also explicates an eightfold Yoga that the commentary attributes to Bhadanta Bhāskara. As with Bhagavaddatta, we have no external confirmation for the life or work of Bhäskara. However, by looking at his name and then at some generic features of how he describes Yoga, we may glean a sense of his identity and religious persuasion. First, the prefix to his name, Bhadanta, is a term of respect usually reserved for Buddhist monks. In the Pali tradition, this appelation becomes abridged to Bhante, a form of address found throughout Bud- dhist literature. His presumed given name, Bhāskara, is shared with scholars of the Hindu tradition several centuries after Haribhadra. However, due to the honorific term Bhadanta, and from the study of the content of his thought as follows, it can be speculated that Bhäskara was most likely a Buddhist teacher of Yoga.4 As with Bhagavaddatta, a reconstruction of Bhāskara's Yoga will be attempted through an analysis of its core vocabu- lary, Haribhadra's commentary, and related passages from the main text. The first term used by Bhāskara, akheda, has been trans- lated as "freedom from distress," and it is said to be "related to the gods." In the commentary Haribhadra explains that this link- age to the gods in fact refers to holding to the primal words (ādiśabda) made by the teacher. It states: "From time to time, one falls from happiness into a state of distress. The reality of this primal fault, according to the head teacher, [leads one to] greater delight and enjoyment (as found in Yoga)."5 In many ways, this commentary appears to restate the first teaching of the Buddha, that all reality is fraught with suffering, and that this suffering prompts one to seek release. This concern for the teacher also is reflected in verse 26, which advises that "devotion is to be directed especially to teachers and the like; in such yogis arises a state of purity." This analysis of the role of the teacher, that is, to provide a model for and counsel to those who suffer, is an important characteristic of the religious traditions of India. Bhäskara describes the second phase of his eightfold Yoga as a state of being free from anxiety (anudvega) while involved in undertakings. The commentary explains this as a state of not being distressed about things to happen in the world to come (pāralaukike akhedasahitaķ). Haribhadra later describes this sec- ond phase of Yoga as a state where fear becomes abolished, yet

48 RECONCILING YOGAS

TABLE 3.3 The Yoga of Bhadanta Bhāskara

Akheda (No Distress)

Anudvega (No Anxiety)

Akşepa (No Distraction)

Anuttānavatī (No Interruption)

Abhrānti (Unmuddied) Ananyamud (Not Finding Pleasure in Anything Other) Arug (Without Pain) Sańga Vivarjitā (Free from Attachment)

[Christopher Key Chapple]

one may still undertake activities: "there is no abandonment of what should be done. Even when neglectful, these lofty ones do no improper action" (YDS 45) The third phase of Yoga, as characterized by Bhāskara, in- volves being free from distraction (aksepa). Although his com- mentary gives no elaboration other than to say that this state arises from the prior one, two later verses explain the significance of overcoming distraction:

In undertaking this Yoga of purification, there is never any vacillation. And, indeed, the path of purity would be the beloved (object) sphere. For one who has gone forth on this path of self-discipline, obstacles are not known. This absence of obstacles due to a shunning of objectionable things is liberation. (YDS 55-56)

By leaving behind distraction, one gains the discipline needed to overcome impediments to liberation.

THE VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BHAGAVADDATTA 49

Bhadanta Bhaskara characterizes the fourth phase of Yoga, correlating to Patañjali's control of breath (prāņāyāma), as a state without interruption (na yoga utthānavatī). The commentary ex- plains that one arrives at this state through the attainment of a calm disposition or comportment (tathā vidha praśānta vāhitā lābhena). The fifth phase, which as noted earlier indicates a transition into the more powerful "inner forms" of Yoga (antaranga), is characterized by Bhaskara as "unmuddied" (abhrānti), which also could be referred to as "nondeluded" or "unerring." The com- mentary defines actions undertaken at this phase as respectful (vandanādi), stating in this context that they are sanctioned from above (kramamadhikrtya) and are without sin (anaghamana) because of their elevated nature (aticāratvāt).6 Bhāskara describes the sixth phase (Patañjali's concentra- tion) as not finding pleasure in the other (ananyamud). The com- mentary states that this meaning is obvious, and later in the main text, he elaborates on the nature of the "other," writing:

Again, one for whom enjoyments are real never crosses over the ocean of existence. After firmly immersing oneself in the waters of illusion, how is one able to go on the path? (YDS 167)

The deluded person sees the world as exterior and oppositional to herself or himself. By extricating oneself from the notion that the other is in fact separate from oneself, then obstacles can be dispelled (YDS 165). The state of meditation, or dhyāna, Patañjali's seventh phase, is characterized in Bhāskara as "without pain" (arug). Though Haribhadra provides no comment on this verse, the following verses convey the spirit of both the sixth and seventh stages, as articulated by Bhāskara:

"All suffering [is dependent on] externals; all happiness [is dependent on] oneself." This saying, in brief, [gives] the characteristics of pleasure and pain. Even what appears to be merit in fact is situated in external happiness.

50 RECONCILING YOGAS

Hence, it is actually pain, in accordance with this characteristic. (YDS 172-173)

Even a person's meritorious acts benefit other people and hence reinforce the notion of another as exterior to oneself. Such ac- tion, rather than advancing oneself or another toward liberation, actually can be an occasion for further attachment. Implying that it is better to remain inactive rather than actively seeking to help others, Haribhadra writes that the "great souls meditate" and, as an introduction to the final stage, he notes that:

This truly perfect stage allows one to stand unattached in the midst of attachment. The one who follows this great path arrives at the stage of not returning. (YDS 175)

By not seeking to reach out to others, and by remaining satisfied within oneself, one approaches the final stage of Yoga. Bhäskara describes the eighth stage of Yoga as free from attachment (sanga vivarjitā). In the commentary he specifies that this entails breaking free from the activities of the world (bhūtapravrtti). Haribhadra describes this state of detachment with several analogies:

The behavior of such a one is like the manner of one who, having climbed up [a mountain] no longer is in the state of climbing. Just as one who is trained in looking at jewels and so forth is different from the one who is merely enjoined to look at them, so the action and conduct of such a one are different due to the distinction of the fruit it bears. (YDS 179-180)

The "distinct fruit" in this case would refer to the fact that the actions of the liberated one are completely disinterested. No longer concerned for his or her own well-being, the goal has been

THE VEDĀNTIN YOGA OF BHAGAVADDATTA 51

achieved, allowing such a person to act purely for the sake of others, with no selfish intent:

With faults eliminated, omniscient, endowed with the fruits of all that can be accomplished, with things to be done now only for the sake of others, such a one attains the end of Yoga. Therein the blessed one quickly attains highest nirvāna through the Yoga of Total Freedom, the best of Yogas, having accomplished the cessation of the ailment of worldly existence. (YDS 185-186)

These verses in particular use Buddhist terminology and imagery to describe the final state of Yoga, and hence they can be reason- ably linked to the thought of Bhadanta Bhāskara. In summary, Bhadanta Bhāskara seems to present Buddhist approaches to Yoga in several ways. First, all of his terminology is couched in negative language. With the exception of the more grammatically complex eighth stage, the descriptions of all of his Yoga practices begin with the negating prefix "a." Second, he makes the centrality of suffering, as found in Buddhism, the key to his argument, both in his explication of the spiritual impor- tance of discomfort in his explanation of the first stage, and in his subsequent reminders of the pain of existence that arises from the delusion that one can help another person. In describing the state of being free from attachment as the highest Yogic goal, Haribhadra uses explicitly Buddhist terminology, including the term nirvāņa. The Vedantin Yoga of Bandhu Bhagavaddatta begins with a turning away from adverse situations. From this one cultivates a desire for knowledge, followed by a desire to hear truth and the hearing of truth. This results in a subtle awakening, his fifth stage. From reflection arises the perception of truth, culminating in the joining with one's true self in the midst of one's activities (sātmī-krta-pravrtta). The Buddhist Yoga of Bhadanta Bhāskara similarly begins with turning away from distress. In sequence, one moves beyond anxiety, distractions, and interruptions to arrive at the fifth stage, referred to as "unmuddied." After mastering a sense of completion within oneself (ananyamud), one transcends

52 RECONCILING YOGAS

pain, and in the culminating final eighth phase, one lives free from attachment (sanga vivarjitā). In his explication of these three thinkers, Haribhadra skill- fully demonstrates how two very different Hindu thinkers (Patañjali and Bhagavaddatta) and a Buddhist thinker (Bhāskara) can arrive at the same goal of liberation, using very different modalities of practice. However, he does not necessarily agree with the philosophical frameworks that undergird Bhagavaddatta and Bhäskara. In the next chapter, we explore his critique of the momentariness theories of Buddhism and the monistic theories of the Upanişads.

CHAPTER FOUR

Centrality of the Real

Jainism's core religious philosophy, as articulated by Umāsvāti in the Tattvartha Sutra, asserts that the world is real, that the soul is real, and that the religious path involves a gradual ascent through sequential stages (gunasthāna), away from the influences of karma and toward final liberation. The insistence on the reality of the world distinguishes Jainism from Vedāntic forms of Hinduism. The second assertion regarding the reality of the soul distinguishes Jainism from Buddhism. The third aspect of Jainism, the notion of successive stages of spirituality (gunasthānas), as articulated in Umāsvāti's Tattvārtha Sūtra, brings Jainism into accordance with some of the meditative traditions of Buddhism and Yoga. How- ever, because these three Śrāmanical traditions of Yoga, Bud- dhism, and Jainism are grounded in radically different theological views, they remain distinct: Yoga allows for the possibility of a meditative ideal that carries theistic overtones and makes positive statements regarding the human self; Buddhism disallows any positive allusion to theism or self; and Jainism posits countless souls involved with a quest to disengage themselves from karma. Haribhadra was familiar with all the schools of thought mentioned above: Vedānta, Yoga, Buddhism, and Jainism. In his surveys of religious philosophy, he seems to affirm aspects of each, emphasizing the importance of liberation (nirvāņa or mokșa) to all of them. In both of his major Sanskrit texts on Yoga, the Yogadrstisamuccaya and the Yogabindu, he emphasizes the importance of acknowledging the reality of existence and its

53

54 RECONCILING YOGAS

concomitant sorrows as a prerequisite for entering the path of liberation. In this chapter, I discuss passages from both texts that assert the centrality of the real in Jainism and demonstrate how Haribhadra uses this touchstone to distinguish the Jaina position from views held by Buddhists and Vedāntins. In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra presents a compara- tive account of different schools of Yoga. In the process he cre- ates an architectonic scheme by which these multiple disciplines are juxtaposed and put forth as alternate paths to the same goal of karmic dispersal. As mentioned in the first chapter, he states that regardless of the tradition, the state of liberation is constant, as indicated in the following verses:

The highest essence of going beyond samsāra is called nirvāņa. The wisdom gained from discipline is singular in essence, though heard of in different ways. "Eternal Śiva, Highest Brahman, Accomplished Soul, Suchness": with these words one refers to it, though the meaning is one in all the various forms. (YDS 129-30)

By holding forth nirvana as the goal of various religious systems, Haribhadra posits a commonality of purpose among religious traditions. As was discussed in the first chapter, other scholars of Haribhadra have suggested that this approach to faiths other than Jainism indicates a high degree of liberality, though, as I will discuss later in this chapter, elsewhere in the Yogadrstisamuccaya Haribhadra refutes the philosophical premises of non-Jaina schools, even though they share the common telos of liberation. The drive toward homologizing and harmonizing diverse religious traditions and practices has surfaced frequently in the history of Indian thought, most recently in the guise of neo- Vedānta, a universalist form of Hinduism. This tendency also is evident in the Yogavāsistha, a vast Hindu text in the process of being compiled during the lifetime of Haribhadra, in the tradition of what I call "monistic accommodationism." Rather than defin- ing a firm position that is "owned" by the author, the Yogavāsistha

CENTRALITY OF THE REAL 55

exhibits an exuberant affirmation of diversity. Siding with what can, in modern times, be referred to as "perennialists," the Yogavāsistha proposes that all mystics share a transcendental state of consciousness without an object:

a state of bliss that is not its description, which is both the "is" and the "is not," both something and non-something, light and darkness. It is full of non-consciousness and con- sciousness. It can only be indicated by negation .... That state is the void, Brahman, consciousness, the Purușa of the Sāmkhya, Iśvara of the Yogi, Śiva, time, Ātman or self, nonself and the middle, and so forth. It is that state which is established as the truth by all these scriptural viewpoints, that which is all. In that, the sage remains firmly established.1

The Yogavāsistha describes the absolute as "the Purușa of the Sämkhya philosophers, the Brahman of the Vedāntins, the Vijñānamātra of the Yogācāra Buddhists, and the Sūnya of the Sūnyavadins, "2 making a home within its fold for the dual- istic and monistic Hindus and the idealistic and nihilistic Bud- dhists. The text affirms the Upanisadic notion that, "I am the Self of all," yet it also makes Buddhistic statements such as, "It is neither sentient nor insentient, neither being nor non-being, nei- ther ego nor non-ego, neither one nor many."3 The Yogavāsiştha is committed to the notion that a single truth undergirds reality, as posited in the Upanisads, but it is also sensitive to the unwill- ingness of the Buddhist tradition to categorize or name this real- ity. Consequently, it celebrates Buddhism by echoing its unique style of evasive language. Yet the Yogavāsistha contradicts Bud- dhism by insisting upon the primacy of an unchanging self. In its unique form of syncretism, the Yogavāsistha ignores fundamental doctrinal differences by using the reversible blankets of monism and nonessentialism. I present this digression to highlight the very similar and yet very different approach used by Haribhadra in his examination of Yoga traditions in light of Jainism. Paul Dundas has com- mented that Haribhadra possessed the "most wide-ranging mind in Jain history," and that his works on Yoga "demonstrate a

56 RECONCILING YOGAS

strikingly liberal approach to alternative, non-Jain attempts to map out spiritual paths."4 However, while affirming the possibil- ity of both truth and spirituality in non-Jaina Yoga traditions, Haribhadra did not synthesize a new system nor advocate a syn- cretic approach to coping with the reality of plural religious and philosophical systems. In contrast to the juxtapositional and ambivalent theology of the Yogavāsistha, he honed a carefully charted path that simultaneously and succinctly outlines ways of Yoga theory and practice and then subtly seeks to demonstrate that Jaina metaphysics most fully accounts for the experience of liberation. In the process, he teaches the reader of the Yogadrstisa- muccya about the classical Yoga of Patañjali, the Vedānta-like Yoga of Bandhu Bhagavaddatta, the Buddhist Yoga of Bhadanta Bhäskara, and his own systemization of Goddess Yoga, but he remains committed to the stages of the Jaina spiritual path (guņasthāna).

MANY ENLIGHTENMENTS

In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra emphasizes omniscience (sarvajña) as the highest state of Yoga, and he equates this state to highest truth (tattvam uttamam, YDS 101) and liberation. He asserts that the omniscience attained by the Yogi is always the same, though the circumstances of this experience are, by nature, conditioned by the particularity of each individual soul (YDS 109-10). Giving an individualistic twist to an old monistic adage, Haribhadra writes, "There could never be a single road to differ- ent cities," advancing a plural theory of liberation and the pro- cesses by which it is attained (YDS 114). Each soul (jīva) achieves its ultimate spiritual goal by following its own karmic path, and Haribhadra celebrates the variegation of "disciplines and prac- tices" (YDS 114) that can be followed in the process. He goes on to claim that "People differ in various ways due to their desires and so forth. They enjoy various fruits according to differences in their intellectual dispositions, and so forth" (YDS 119). Though Haribhadra acknowledges many paths, he also claims that similar paths are appropriate for the goal of achieving calmness (śama), "like the path on the shore of a lake" (YDS 128). I find this

CENTRALITY OF THE REAL 57

image particularly interesting, because rather than talking about the shore of the vast ocean, which is seemingly endless and hence evokes monistic images, each lake will have its own unique contours. The experience of releasing karma and calming the mind will be distin- guished by the particular karmic peculiarities of the individual per- son. Because of similarities in the process of the karmic pacification, this experience will share structural similarities that indicate a simi- lar but not an identical path. All who seek liberation face the chal- lenge of controlling and quieting their karmic impulses. However, because of their individual karma, the path followed by each will be distinct, just as one lake differs from another. Recognizing both a plurality of approach and a singularity of achievement, Haribhadra writes that "the wisdom gained from discipline is singular in essence, though heard of in different ways" (YDS 129). Citing both Hindu and Buddhist names for this, he refers to this final goal as "Eternal Siva, Highest Brahman, Ac- complished Soul, Suchness," noting that "the meaning is one in all the various forms" (YDS 130). He further characterizes this final state, by which one achieves calmness, as having "no con- tradiction, free from disturbance, disease, and action, by which one is freed from birth" (YDS 131). Haribhadra advances a pluralistic approach to liberation, maintaining that the experience of liberation will be unique to each soul, and that each soul's approach will be distinct from all others. However, he also claims that the experience, although approached and experienced uniquely by each liberated individual, will nonetheless hold common characteristics, most notably, the gradual extirpation of karma.

THE IMPORTANCE OF SUFFERING IN THE YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA

If liberation is the hallmark that characterizes Indic religions across doctrinal barriers, then its evil twin is the perdurability of suffer- ing (duhkha) for those who remain trapped within the snares of samsāra. Two passages from Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra quintessentially express this aspect of Indian thought:

58 RECONCILING YOGAS

Pariņāma-tāpa-samskāra-dubkhair guņa-vrtti-virodhāc ca duhkham eva sarvam vivekinah. (YS II:15)

For the discriminating one, all is suffering, due to the conflict of the fluctuations of the gunas and by the suffer- ing due to change, sorrow, and karmic impressions.

Heyam duhkham anāgatam. (YS II:16) The suffering yet to come is to be avoided.5

Like Patañjali and Buddha, Haribhadra asserts that "every exist- ence takes the form of suffering" (duhkha-rupo bhavah sarvah [YDS 47]. He even claims that meritorious action in fact perpetu- ates suffering, because it is driven by a desire to help others (YDS 173) and can leave a residue of attachment. Haribhadra also uses the term ailment (vyādhi) to convey the pervasive nature of suffering. He claims that for a person to be proclaimed "liberated," he or she must in fact have been afflicted (YDS 187). He writes:

Existence, indeed, is a great illness, comprised of birth, death, and disease. It produces various forms of delusion, and causes the sensation of excessive desire and so forth. (YDS 188)

For Haribhadra, the only cure to the "disease of worldly exist- ence" is to destroy its cause, which is karma. In the Jaina tradition, suffering arises from the fettering adher- ence of karmic material to the individual soul. In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra defines the highest form of Yoga as "the destruction of the karma of the body and so forth" (YDS 9). Although he only sparingly uses Jaina jargon in this text, he refers to the accumulation of karmic substance (dravya) as the cause of agitation (YDS 27). Through the destruction of impurity (bhāva- male ksīne), one advances toward liberation, which arises with the destruction of marks (lakşanam) on the soul (YDS 31). In various places, Haribhadra identifies the source of bond- age with karma, and states that "those with excessive sin ... have

CENTRALITY OF THE REAL 59

been cut down by their own actions" (YDS 152). In a critique of the libertine notion that experience can help liberate one from attachment, he writes, "Trying to stop desire through enjoyment is like removing a burden from one shoulder and placing it on the other shoulder. Like that, karmic residue (samskāra) is created" (YDS 161). This critique will be taken up in greater detail in the next chapter. Although these references to karma are not accom- panied by detailed descriptions of specific karmic formations (prakrti-s) or any mention of the theory of karmic colors, he clearly advances the position that karmic substance must be purged.

LIBERATION

In Haribhadra's descriptions of liberation in the Yogadrstisa- muccaya, he uses a beautiful metaphor, likening the practice of Yoga to cleansing winds that destroy "the clouds of destructive karma." He writes:

With faults eliminated, omniscient, endowed with the fruits of all that can be accomplished, with things to be done now only for the sake of others, such a one attains the end of Yoga. (YDS 185)

Therein the blessed one quickly attains highest nirvāna through the Yoga of total freedom, the best of Yogas, having accomplished the cessation of the ailment of worldly existence. (YDS 186)

By performing Yoga and systematically disengaging from the in- fluence of karma and its residues, one achieves the state of lib- eration, characterized as faultlessness. Haribhadra emphasizes that the chief ailment of the soul is the process of generating various karmas, and that when this ceases, one "reaches the prime state of liberation" (YDS 190). This procedure does not differ significantly from the phi- losophy of Yoga put forth by Patañjali. In the Yoga Sūtras, the suppression of all karmic residue (samskāra) leads to a state of liberation known as "seedless (nirbīja) samādhi" (YS I:50, 51). All karmas are said to be afflicted with one or more of the five

60 RECONCILING YOGAS

impurities, listed by Patañjali as ignorance, egotism, attraction, repulsion, and clinging to life (avidyā, asmitā, rāga, dveșa, and abhiniveśa, [YS II:3-12]). The operations of karma cause sorrow, to be reversed by the practice of Yoga. Karmic propensity (pariņāma) leads to pain; its reversal leads one toward liberation. Patañjali further describes karma as white, black, or mixed, not- ing that the karma of a Yogi has no color. The practice of Yoga culminates with the diminishment and expulsion of all karmic residue, accompanied by the cessation of afflicted action (YS IV:24- 30) and the emergence of a state known as "kaivalyam," or "perfect solitude," in which the pure witness (purusa, ātman, citi śakti) no longer mistakenly identifies itself with the world of change (prakrti). In the Yogabindu (YB), Haribhadra summarizes the yogic process as follows: "Due to the linking of the self with karma, one is trapped in samsāra; through disconnection from that, one is indeed liberated" (YB 6). In the Yogabindu, in particular, he emphasizes the reality of this process, asserting both the reality of the soul and of karma. He writes: "As long as one is in the state of being connected (with karma), then one is not linked with the interior self (jiva). This connection is real; this linking has no beginning" (YB 10). Through attachment to karma, one estab- lishes and maintains a sense of ego; by severing this connection, one accomplishes liberation (YB 13).

CRITIQUE OF BUDDHIST MOMENTARINESS

Haribhadra develops this advocacy of the real and also distin- guishes the Jaina position from that of the Buddhists and the Vedantins. In both the Yogabindu and the Yogadrstisamuccaya, he criticizes the Buddhist notion that there is no distinction be- tween samsara and nirvana, dismissing this position as "fantasy" (YB 8). This critique is leveled at Nāgārjuna, who proclaims that there is no difference between transcendence and relativity in the Mūlamādhyamika Kārikā (XXV:19).6 In a critique of the Sarvāstivāda Buddhist position, that all things exist in a sequence of moments (ksana) but disappear shortly following their emer- gence, he writes: "If everything is nonexistent, then everything is in vain" (YB 20). In the Yogadrstisamuccaya (193-97), he re-

CENTRALITY OF THE REAL 61

peats this argument, also adding that in fact this notion of con- tinuous birth, maturity, decay, and disappearance cloaks an in- cipient eternalism: "The defender of endless nonexistence would in fact defend the existence of the Self, because, by this argument, there is no resistance to the notion of eternalness." In response to the often-critiqued Buddhist position that no self or essence abides from moment to moment or birth to birth, which he sum- marizes as "This indeed does not exist [now]; it exists in a dif- ferent manner," Haribhadra counters that this is contrary to reason, noting that "something that is always being destroyed cannot be posited." Because perception and experience attest to the abiding nature of things, Haribhadra claims that the reality of existence is indisputable. Furthermore, he claims that the po- sition of nonsubstantiality renders the concept of liberation im- possible. If suffering is merely momentary, then it does not truly exist. If it does not truly exist, then there can be no incentive to seek spiritual advancement through purification.

CRITIQUE OF VEDĀNTIN MONISM

Haribhadra also challenges the Vedantin precepts that all reality shares a common ground such as Brahman, and that the true state of the soul dwells perpetually, eternally, in a state of libera- tion. He posits in the Yogabindu that "if the soul is always in a state of isolation, then the nature of the soul is always without change" (YB 8). He reiterates the Jaina position that the soul becomes afflicted with karma, that this affliction is real, and that karma must be expelled. Although he is willing to accept the position of Sämkhya that the world is real, he is unwilling to accept the unsullied view of spirit implicit in Iśvarakrşņa's Sāmkhya Kārikā. He aligns Jaina Yoga with Sāmkhya by identifying the soul (jiva) with the witness (purusa), and he uses the epithet from the Bhagavad Gītā, "knower of the field" (ksetrajña) (YB:17). He also sees commonality among the terms ignorance, prakrti, and karma, but he does not accept the premise of a unifying absolute or an underlying substratum. "If existence is absolute, then everything is determined" (YB 20). This runs counter to the Jaina insistence on individual determination and to the theory of karma.

62 RECONCILING YOGAS

In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, he uses a similar argument but emphasizes that the concept of path requires gradated, real states of spiritual progress. Recall that in this text, Haribhadra expli- cates four different systems of Yoga, drawing parallels to the theory of spiritual stages (gunasthana-s). He writes that "if only a singular essence is proclaimed, then there could never be the two states of life (viz., happiness and misery)" (YDS 198). If the monistic argument is followed through to its logical conclusion, then karmic reality is relegated to a nonexistent ontological sta- tus. Haribhadra argues that if this is the case, then there is no incentive to improve oneself; karma would hold no consequence. If this were the case, he posits, "all wordly existence would be called eternal; how could there be the possibility of liberation?" (YDS 201). To the illusionist (māyāvāda) position that "appearance is not truth" (YDS 202), Haribhadra retorts that this is simply not evident from experience. If the argument is made that Yogic knowledge is of a different quality than illusory knowledge, he claims that this in fact reinforces his point; if yogic knowledge is "from a different state" (YDS 203), then both this higher state and the other lower state must be real. To summarize and encapsulate his position, Haribhadra returns to the metaphor of illness and cure:

If an ailment is nonexistent (as per the Vedāntins) or is something else (as the Buddhists claim), then, according to either precept, [a person] is never liberated from ailment. If the one in samsāra is nonexistent or is in fact something else, then a liberated one is not liberated! Just as in the world one whose illness has disappeared is determined to be cured, so also for the one who has the disease of wordly existence. In the tantras he is called liberated due to the destruction [of that disease]. (YDS 204-206)

By using this medical analogy, Haribhadra declares karma cul- pable for all human ills, and prescribes its extirpation.

CENTRALITY OF THE REAL 63

In conclusion, the concept of the real anchors the thought of Haribhadra in his two Sanskrit Yoga texts. Soul, karma, libera- tion, and path are all deemed non-negotiable aspects of Yogic theory and practice. Like the Samkhya and Yoga traditions and slightly at variance with Advaita Vedānta and Sarvāstivāda and Mādhyamika Buddhism, Haribhadra's spiritual vision finds its roots in grappling with the pressing presence of suffering, the cause of which lies in karma. By observing practices of purifica- tion, the Yoga aspirant severs the knots of karma, leading to a state of liberation. This leads us to consider the earlier statements regarding Haribhadra's approach to non-Jaina points of view. On the one hand, in his Yoga texts, Haribhadra celebrates a wide range of spiritual practices. He generates a new list of Goddess Yoga, starting with the Friendly (Mitra) and extending up through the Highest (Parā). He affirms the Yoga of Patañjali. He provides the only extant record of two other eightfold systems of Yoga, one attributed to Bandhu Bhagavaddatta, couched in Vedāntic termi- nology, and the other attibuted to Bhadanta Bhāskara, using a Buddhistic vocabulary. In the Yogabindu, he lavishes praise on Buddhism. In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra expresses hesitation over criticizing the views of other people, as we have seen. However, despite this generosity of spirit, this seeming lib- erality only barely conceals an immovable commitment to the Jaina position. By alluding delicately to the gunasthāna system, advocating the primacy of karma, and defining the liberation experience in starkly individualistic terms, he clearly regards Jainism, as taught by Mahāvīra and developed by Umāsvāti, as the true path toward each individual's liberation. The reality of the world, the reality of suffering due to karma, and the reality of the individual soul collectively serve as the foundation for Haribhadra's interpretation of Jaina philosophy and practice.

This page intentionally left blank.

CHAPTER FIVE

Purity in Patañjali and Haribhadra

Jainism emphasizes the purification of one's karma through rig- orous abstention from tainted, violent behavior as the only path of liberation. Buddhists and Vedāntins alike have characterized Jainas as holding extreme views, and they have developed differ- ent theologies and styles of liberative practice. Patañjali attempted to enfold Jaina asceticism within his explication of Yoga, and he gives great emphasis to the importance of purification. However, Patañjali remains simultaneously committed to upholding the Sāmkhya definition of kaivalyam, or consciousness distinct from identity, as the culmination of Yoga practice. Consequently, Patañjali does not emphasize the dispersal of karma as thor- oughly as do Jainism's Ācārānga Sūtra, Umāsvāti, and Haribhadra. As we will see in this chapter, Haribhadra emphasizes the dis- persal of karma and the practice of purity over and above the more metaphysical approach of Patañjali. In the process, he ac- knowledges the lure of the tantric tradition, which recently had gained in popularity, criticizes its practices (though not its in- tent), and attempts to demonstrate the superiority of the Jaina spiritual path. Patañjali, I have argued elsewhere, consistently defends the Sāmkhya philosophical position that maintains the centrality of discerning the distinction between seer and seen as the key to one's liberation.1 Haribhadra asserts that purity is the central practice of Yoga, in both his philosophical and sociological expli- cations found in the Yogadrstisamuccaya. In this chapter, purity is

65

66 RECONCILING YOGAS

examined from the perspective of Patañjali's Yoga Sutra and then as found in Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya.

PURITY IN PATAÑJALI

In Patañjali, the concept of purity or clarity can be found in the terms prasāda (clarity, YS I:33, 47), śuci (pure, YS II:5), śuddha (pure, YS II:20), śuddhi (purity, YS II:28, II:41, III:35), and śauca (YS II:32, II:40). The means of attaining clarity can be found in the descriptions of how to pacify and clarify the mind in the first section, or pāda. In the second pāda, this purity lies in the obser- vance of the yamas and niyamas, the central, ethical practices for overcoming the effects of negative samskāras. In the third pāda, the highest of the siddhis entails the purity of perfect sattva, leading to the knowledge of puruşa (YS III:35, 55). In the fourth pāda, dharma megha samādhi brings about the cessation of af- flicted action, a state of purity that can be linked to higher awareness (citi-sakti). In the first, third, and fourth pādas, the discussion of purification hinges on the perception of the distinc- tion between seer and seen, emphasizing dispassion (vairāgyam). In contrast, the second pāda emphasizes the active restructuring of one's moral and affective behavior, which is seen as being foundational to overcoming the difficulties inherent in afflicted action (klişta-karma).

PURIFICATION AS THE PATH TO LIBERATION

The yamas, or restraints, are listed by Patañjali as nonviolence, truthfulness, nonstealing, sexual restraint, and nonpossession: ahimsā, satya, asteya, brahmacarya, and aparigraha. These are defined as the great vows when "not limited by birth, place, time, or circumstance" [jāti-deśa-kāla-samaya-anavacchināh sarva- bhaumāh mahāvratam, YS II:31]. By controlling one's impulses as influenced by the kleśas, or afflictions, defined by Patañjali as ignorance, egoism, attraction, aversion, and desire for continuity, one develops new habits (samskāras) that mitigate against nega- tivity, leading one to a greater state of purity. This process di- rectly correlates to the Jaina practice of the vows (vrata) and the theory of karmic expurgation.

PURITY IN PUTAÑJALI AND HARIBHADRA 67

Purity can be defined as the opposite of the impurities or afflictions. Wisdom would be the antidote for ignorance, and egolessness for ego. Equanimity toward attractive or repulsive things would be the opposite of attraction and aversion. The last of the five, the desire to continue living (abhiniveśa), is said to exist even among the wise, and it would be countered with an attitude of surrender. The application of these antidotes to the poisons of afflictions involves a process that directly correlates to the Jaina practice of vows to facilitiate the expurgation (nirjarā) of karma. Patañjali describes this process of reversing negative karmic influences as the "cultivation of opposites" (or pratipaksa bhavana), and he writes:

When there is bondage due to discursive thought, the cultivation of the opposites [is prescribed]. Discursive thoughts like violence, etc., whether done, caused, or approved, consisting of lust, anger, or delusion, and whether mild, medium or intense, have as their endless fruits dissatisfaction and ignorance; thus, cultivation of opposites [is prescribed]. (YS II:33-34)

Impurity is described in this verse in terms of the Buddhist catego- ries of lust, anger, and delusion, a simplification of Patañjali's earlier explication of five afflictions, or kleśas. Purity, in this in- stance, would be seen as the absence of lust, anger, and delusion. The first two stages of eightfold Yoga, the restraints (yamas) and observances (niyamas), provide the mechanism by which the grip of all these impurities may be loosened. Patañjali describes each of them and lists a corresponding benefit:

35. When in the presence of one established in nonvio- lence (ahimsa), these is abandonment of hostility. 36. When established in truthfulness (satya), [there is] correspondence between action and fruit. 37. When established in nonstealing (asteya), [whatever is] present is all jewels. 38. When established in sexual restraint (brahmacarya), vigor is obtained.

68 RECONCILING YOGAS

39. When steadfast in nonpossession (aparigraha), there is knowledge of "the how" of existence. 40. From purity (śauca) arises dislike for one's own body and noncontact with others, 41. as well as purity of being (sattva), cheerfulness, one pointedness, mastery of the senses, and fitness for the vision of the self. 42. From contentment (santosa), unsurpassed happiness is obtained. 43. From austerity (tapas) arises the destruction of impu- rity and the perfection of the body and senses. 44. From self study (svādhyāya) [arises] union with the desired deity. 45. Perfection in samādhi arises from dedication to Iśvara. (YS II:35-45)

Each of these ten disciplines provides new pathways, new habits for the person on the Yoga path. One can readily find positive qualities that arise from the practice of these disciplines in pas- sages from the Upanişads, the Bhagavad Gītā, the Yogavāsiștha, and numerous other texts that describe the enlightened sage. For instance, the Bhagavad Gītā states:

With the elimination of desire and hatred, Even though moving among the objects of the senses, He who is controlled by the Self, By self-restraint, attains tranquility. (II:64)2

Through one's self-effort, one curbs afflicted tendencies and gains control over one's lower impulses. In the second pāda, Patañjali unambiguously supports the notion that the Yoga path must entail the observance of a strict moral code. Without the observance of the five vows, common to both classical Yoga and Jainsm, the purification deemed essential to spiritual unfolding cannot be realized. In Patañjali, the essen- tially negative vows or restraints listed in the five yamas lead to the positive attributes found in the niyamas. In his eightfold schematic, Patañjali offers no room for ethi- cal compromise. The first two stages, yama and niyama, provide

PURITY IN PUTAÑJALI AND HARIBHADRA 69

the foundation for subsequent Yoga practice. As Georg Feuerstein and Jeanine Miller point out in The Essence of Yoga, this need not necessarily be seen as a linear progression. In the perfection of ahimsā, one sees other beings as fundamentally no different than oneself.3 Such a vision implies the state of samādhi. The Bhagavad Gītā states: "the wise see no difference between a learned and humble Brahmin, a cow, an elephant, a dog, or even an outcaste" (BG V:18). In seeing all things as equal, with the im- plication following that all things deserve respect, the wise simul- taneously practice the discipline of nonviolence and achieve the state of unific vision, or samādhi. Spiritual attainment cannot be separated from ethical observances.

ALTERNATE PATHS TO LIBERATION IN THE YOGA SŪTRA

This leads us to the topic of the diversity of Yoga paths in Patañjali, and the issue of moral ambiguity. The eightfold path is just one of many avenues offered by Patañjali. In many of the other dis- ciplines or practices he lists, few specifically ethical directives seem evident. For instance, in the first pāda, after discussing practice and dispassion, Patañjali cites dedication to Iśvara, breath control, concentration, sorrowless illumination, nonattachment, dream knowledge, and "meditation as desired" as possible ways to achieve Yoga. However, with the exception of the exhortation of the Brahma Vihāra (a Buddhist formula for the cultivation of friendliness, compassion, happiness, and equanimity, listed in YS I:33), none of the practices listed in verses I:17 through I:40 includes an inherently moral message. It could well be argued that in the descriptions of levels of samapattis and samādhis that follow, the very notion of burning the seeds of karmic residue carries an inherent ethical requirement. This argument could be further developed through a close analysis of the term prasāda in I:33 and I:47, which indicates a state of clarity, if not purity. However, the first pāda of Patañjali emphasizes the restriction of mental fluctuations (citta-vrtti) and past conditions (samskāra), with minimal attention given to ethical behavior. In the third päda, which outlines the attainments of the great yogic powers (siddhis), the Yogi perfects an array of abili- ties, including knowledge of previous births, facility in the cakras,

70 RECONCILING YOGAS

and an understanding of the mind. However, with the exception of an abbreviated reference to the Buddhist Brahma Vihāra, also cited in the first pāda,4 Patañjali calls for the need to distinguish between the seer and the seen, stating that "in the sameness of purity between the sattva and the puruşa, there is kaivalyam" (YS III:55), again emphasizing the metaphysical while neglecting the ethical. Although the term purity (śuddhi), used to describe the purity of consciousness,5 implies ethical behavior, he does not specify how this is to be observed. In the fourth pāda, Patañjali discusses in detail the process of karmic dissolution. We see that distancing oneself from karmic identification is put forth as being indicative of the highest state, again with only an implied ethical mandate. Although all karma is said to be fraught with impurity (YS II:12), the accomplished practitioner transcends even the positive avenues created by the yamas and niyamas: "The action of a Yogin is neither white nor black; that of others is threefold (black, white, mixed)" (YS IV:7). If in fact the actions of a Yogi require dispassion and the dissolution of any karmic compulsion, then it would be most probable that the actions of a Yogi would be pure, that they would be free from ignorance, egoism, attachment, aversion, hatred, anger, and delusion. However, the emphasis lies on the side of philosophical, analytical rigor, leaving wide open the possibility that as long as one assumes a posture of detachment, one can perform any deed whatsoever. If we look at Krishna's arguments for Karma Yoga in the Bhagavad Gitā, and at the various behaviors of even some contemporary Yogic teachers, as documented in Georg Feuerstein's Holy Madness, it could be stated that Yogic purity is a matter of one's perspective and intention. Feuerstein even suggests that mystic adepts transcend all conventional rules:

They play tricks but all the while remain beyond the con- ventional sphere of good and evil. This at least is the thrust of both mythology and much of mysticism: Reality in its nakedness, whether mythologically pictured or mystically realized, transcends the moral dimension of human experience.6

PURITY IN PUTAÑJALI AND HARIBHADRA 71

Though the Yoga Sūtra does not necessarily reject the moral dimension, it does imply that the highest form of purity lies outside of normal boundaries. Hence, in Yoga, two approaches to purity can be gleaned. The first requires following a strict moral code as outlined in the Brahma Vihāra, the five restraints (yama) and the five obser- vances (niyama). The second is metaphysical: distancing one's identity from all activity. The metaphysical approach claims that one's freedom lies in one's perceptions of the difference between consciousness and activity. The ethical approach takes seriously one's relationship with the world and demands corrective action to replace afflicted karma engendered by past action. Patañjali appeals to both the ethical and the metaphysical but unlike Jainism, does not necessarily conflate them.

PURITY IN HARIBHADRA

As we have seen, Patañjali sets forth the importance of both ethics and identification with one's higher nature in his discus- sion of various styles and forms of Yoga. Haribhadra, similar to Patañjali, supports the notion that one must overcome clinging and distance oneself from worldly concerns. He states that "those desirous of liberation should have no attachment (asanga) to grasping anywhere" (YDS 148). Although he uses the term asanga, a word used also in the Bhagavad Gītā, in the above verse, and in verses 166, 175, and 178, he does not employ the term dispassion (vairāgyam), as found in the Yoga Sūtra. Nonetheless, Haribhadra clearly sees a need to distance oneself from the attachments associated with karmic accretions to advance on the spiritual path. Rooted in the Jaina theory of karmic dispersion, Haribhadra emphasizes the purgative nature of the Yoga path. Several differ- ent terms are used to convey the key concept of purity or puri- fication. These include śuddha (YDS 42) (which Jaini relates to transcendental purity), and its variant uses, saśuddha (YDS 23, 25), viśuddha (YDS 26, 73, 163), pariśuddha (YDS 29, 89, 126), and śubha (YDS 33, 54, 55) (which Jaini relates to mundane purity).7 Haribhadra emphasizes the importance of purging all obstructive karmas.

72 RECONCILING YOGAS

Descriptions of enlightenment, or samädhi, the culminating stage of Yoga, referred to by Haribhadra as Para, or the Highest, can be found in verses 179-92. These passages affirm the central- ity of purity to this process, which is certainly implied in Patañjali's Yoga but seemingly accorded a lesser status than the metaphysi- cal shift away from identification with mundane activity to the state of pure witnessing. Haribhadra refers to destroying the clouds of destructive karma by the wind of Yoga (YDS 184) diminishing one's faults (YDS 185), and he explains the liberation process in terms of ridding oneself of the karmic impulses:

This is the chief [ailment] of the soul: giving birth without beginning to the cause of various karmas. All living beings understand this experience. (YDS 189)

When liberated from this, then one reaches the prime state of liberation. From cessation of the fault of birth and so forth, one encounters that state of faultlessness. (YDS 190)

Separation from karma rather than entry into the state of the pure seer characterizes the Jaina approach to Yoga, clearly pre- ferred by Haribhadra. In comparing Patañjali and Haribhadra on the issue of purity, one can make the following observations. Patañjali emphasizes the power of consciousness as the highest goal (citi-śakti). He describes ascension to this state as a subtilization process, a light- ening process that brings one into a state of pure sattva. Three of the many avenues he prescribes for this ascent require con- scious, determined ethical transformation: the Brahma Vihāra, men- tioned in the first and third pādas, and the restraints (yamas) and observances (niyamas), described in detail in the second pāda. Fur- thermore, in his definition of karma and its general linkage to im- purity in pādas two and four, Patañjali indicates that the highest state (dharma megha samādhi) expels all afflicted action. Any sub- sequent action presumably could be none other than purified action. In the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra affirms a different philosophical approach to Yoga. Rather than beginning with

PURITY IN PUTAÑJALI AND HARIBHADRA 73

consciousness as his base definition, he, following Jaina philoso- phy, as found in the Ācārānga Sūtra and Umāsvāti's Tattvārtha Sūtra, asserts that the key to knowledge lies in the purgation and expulsion of all karmic residue. Consequently, from the onset and throughout the text, the emphasis lies on the necessity of the Yogic aspirant to develop practices that support a program of ongoing purification. Unlike Patañjali, who lets his readers infer or perhaps only presume the importance of purity at all levels of Yoga practice, the beginning, the middle, and the end of Haribhadra's system remind the reader of its necessity.

This page intentionally left blank.

CHAPTER SIX

Haribhadra's Critique of Tantric Yoga

Patañjali most likely composed the Yoga Sutras in the early cen- turies of the Common Era, perhaps around 200 C.E. Although he includes references to cakras, he does not take up a discussion of the broader Tantric tradition, which, according to archaeological evidence, does not bloom until the fifth or sixth century.1 By the eighth century, Tantric manuals appeared in both Hinduism and Buddhism that prescribe elaborate rituals to expedite the yogic process and entail participation in activities that under normal circumstances would violate both the Buddhist precepts and the Yogic/Jaina vows listed earlier. In the eighth century, Haribhadra provided a fascinating glimpse of Yoga traditions, presumably current in his lifetime, and he criticizes some of the practices associated with the emerg- ing Tantric tradition. He lived and wrote during a period of Tantra's ascendancy, and he includes in the Yogadrstisamuccaya many rejoinders to key themes of the Tantric tradition. In the process, he shows the close connections among Jainism, Sāmkhya, Buddhism, and Yoga, all of which might be deemed "śrāmana," or renouncer traditions, and challenges some aspects of Tantra. In the second stanza of the Sāmkhya Kārikā, Iśvarakrsņa pro- claims that the process of sacrifice, so central within the Brahmanical Vedic tradition and in the many rituals of Tantra, proves ineffectual for assuaging the pain of human existence, and that the more reli- able means of knowledge (jñāna) must be applied. Similarly, in the Yogadrstisamuccaya, Haribhadra emphasizes the pervasiveness of

75

76 RECONCILING YOGAS

human suffering and states that people seek liberation because of this enduring discomfort (duhkha). Rather than emphasizing knowledge as the means of liberation, Haribhadra, true to his Jaina faith, insists on the purification of one's karma as the means to liberation. However, like Iśvarakrsna, he directly criticizes elabo- rate sacrificial ceremonies, particularly in honor of the goddess. Echoing the standard Jaina disdain for such activities, Haribhadra proclaims that the ritual process only helps desires fester. During the time Haribhadra lived in India, the Tantric schools were proliferating in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Jainism even- tually incorporated many Tantric ritual practices,2 though, as John Cort points out, Jainas made certain that these remained merely symbolic, without the actual use of the banned substances employed in "left-handed Tantra."3 Archaeological evidence points to a fully developed goddess tradition by the time of Haribhadra, replete with temples, statuary, texts, and paintings. Vidya Dehejia writes:

The tantric cult of the Yoginīs, one of the lesser-known sects of the form of heterodox worship referred to as Kaula Mārga, appears to have risen to considerable sig- nificance in the centuries following A.D. 600. Increasing numbers of followers were attracted to the cult, drawn presumably by the promise of the magical abilities that these goddesses would bestow on their favoured devotees. The orthodox tradition became increasingly aware of the power of this new religious order that was drawing away such large groups of worshippers. Realising that the Yoginīs possessed a certain persistent and magnetic appeal, it de- cided to incorporate their goddesses at least into the outer fringes of its own tradition.4

This, it seems, is what Haribhadra had in mind, with the hope perhaps not of gaining converts from Kula Yoga to Jainism but of retaining adherents within the fold. He employed two strategies to accomplish his purpose. First, he severely criticized their practices in at least three places in the text. Second, his two original "recastings" of yoga practice are done in a distinctly Tantric manner, as we will see, and he bestows some praise on the intent of Tantra.

HARIBHADRA'S CRITIQUE OF TANTRIC YOGA 77

Haribhadra states that he composed the Yogadrstisamuccaya in an attempt to communicate with those who, in his assessment, had gone spiritually astray. In verse 222, Haribhadra baldly as- serts: "The Kula Yogis, who are drunken and more dull than us, might side with our case from hearing this and derive some small benefit." Yet he specifically backs away from the notion that this be presented directly to them, stating that "The wise ones do not give this to those who are unsuitable; Haribhadra says it is not to be given to them out of respect" (YDS 226), and that "contempt that is engendered in this case is unfortunate and very little is gained" (YDS 227). He clearly does not want to offend the Kula Yogis nor open himself up to criticism by attempting to convert them to his view. Presumably, this would be in violation of the Jaina precept of nonviolence. In the final verse of the text, he takes the prudent path, stating, "This is to be given to the suitable ones who are established by great effort in the law, along with those lofty ones who have abandoned envy for the sake of removing impediments to true blessedness" (YDS 228). His refusal to present it to those for whom it was originally intended ensures that he avoids any harm that might arise from confrontation. It also attests to the deeply held convictions that typify the tensions between the two schools. When Haribhadra states that he hopes the Kula Yogis might be swayed by his interpretation, he in fact is giving voice to a covert theme that seems to pervade certain aspects of the text. The Devi Purāna, a text that is perhaps roughly contempo- raneous with Haribhadra, provides some examples of what he finds objectionable in "misguided" spiritual practices. For in- stance, the Padamālā Mantra Vidyā describes powers that an initiate can gain through the invocation of Camunda, a form of the goddess closely akin to Durgā. Some of these include such accom- plishments as being venerated and popular, or the ability to stop rain at will or to become invisible. Others prove to be quite prob- lematic: "By performing rituals in accordance with the tenth man- tra, the worshipper can spread epidemic diseases among his or her enemies .... By repeated utterance of the fourteenth mantra, killing someone can be accomplished from a distance .... The twenty- sixth mantra, repeated properly with proper oblation, enables one to make another insane .... With the power achieved from the thirty-first mantra, the sādhaka achieves power to burn down a

78 RECONCILING YOGAS

city."5 Furthermore, this text specifies that blood sacrifices consist- ing of animal blood and the devotees' own blood are required in the months of Caitra (March 14 to April 13) and Jyaistha (May 16 to June 15). Clearly these practices are not in keeping with Jaina religiosity and would prove appalling to Haribhadra. Haribhadra squarely confronts and attempts to refute some of the basic premises of Tantra. Having quoted what appears to be a formula derived from a tantric text, "Through deliverance from the ocean of worldly existence and shattering of the ada- mantine karmas, one has obtained entirely what is to be known," (YDS 66) he then refutes this view, saying that this does not get to the essence of the subtle. He also characterizes such people as licentious (avedyasamvedya), and he suggests that their goal is illusory (YDS 67).6 He lambastes teachings or methods of wor- ship associated with the violence of some goddess sacrifices:

68. Subtle knowledge is obstructed by the dirtiness of destructive power.7 From this and in this teaching nothing is ever born. 69. Therefore, according to the illumination of scripture, this wayward perspective is not in accordance with the truth. Although it resembles a foundation, indeed, from it indeed only sin is generated. 70. Now from this, other than in the higher levels, there cetainly is sin, due to the fault of karma. If one does this at any time, such a thought would be like putting one's foot on a hot iron. (YDS 68-70)

Haribhadra contrasts avedyasamvedya, or licentiousness, to vedyasamvedya, by which one is said to truly be able to destroy obstacles and turn one's thoughts away from "women" (YDS 73), which might in fact refer to the goddesses worshipped in the Kula schools. Followers of licentiousness (avedyasamvedya) are said to "rejoice in existence" and be "greatly agitated by involve-

HARIBHADRA'S CRITIQUE OF TANTRIC YOGA 79

ment with objects" (YDS 75). In the following sequence, Haribhadra spares nothing in his criticism of such people:

76. The lover of worldly existence is vile, finding pleasure in acquiring things, wretched, wicked, filled with fear, deceitful, engaged in undertakings that bear no fruit. 77. Being full of negative transformations, such an attitude is not pretty. Even associating with it is invariably like mixing food with poison. 78. Indeed, because of that such deluded persons are blind when it comes to discriminating between right and wrong. Their ability to see correctly is suppressed. 79. Despite seeing existence as oppressed by birth, death, old age, disease, infirmity, sorrow, and so forth, nonetheless, because of delusion, they do not shrink from it. 80. They always see evil deeds as something to be done, and do things that ought not be done. They see pleasure in suffering as if drawn to scratch a scab. 81. Just as in such itching there is no thought of the impact on the scab, so for those ensconced in enjoyment, there is no abating of desire. 82. They bind themselves, violent with desire, always in darkness, rendered stupid by the dust of their sin, never considering truth. 83. Having obtained the highest seed of dharmas, among the human realms of karma they do not strive with even a little sacrifice on this earth for true action. 84. Like baited meat on a fish hook they are addicted to vanity, decadent pleasures, and cruel behavior.

80 RECONCILING YOGAS

Cruel and lethargic, they renounce the true object of desire. What a pity! 85. Stepping into licentiousness is the blindness that makes one fall into unhappiness. This is to be conquered by the great souls through the Yoga of good company and sacred doctrine. (YDS 76-85)

In another section of the text, Haribhadra explicitly men- tions Kula Yogis and their method of liberation. He acknowl- edges that they have intellect and knowledge, but he claims that they fall short of achieving the calmness that leads to nirvana:

By the Kula Yogis, these are considered as adjuncts to liberation. This can be seen from the combination of texts and [teachings] on power, and from the fruits of their attachment. But the taking up of non-deludedness leads to singular purity; it gives the fruit of nirvāna quickly to those travelling with the purpose of going beyond worldly existence. (YDS 125-26)

He implies in these verses that the Kula Yogis do not seek the highest goal but are most interested in fulfilling their desires. In yet another section of the text, this time at the conclusion of the discussion of Firmness, the fifth view, Haribhadra critiques those who would try to extinguish a desire by attempting to satisfy it:

159. For the wise, wealth does not bring happiness, because its friend is poverty. So should it be for the many extensive enjoyments of the body, which in the world have sin as their companion. 160. Even enjoyment arising from dharma is worthless for the path of a living being. Even if it is arising from the best of woods (sandalwood), it burns and is consumed by fire. 161. Trying to stop desire through enjoyment

HARIBHADRA'S CRITIQUE OF TANTRIC YOGA 81

is like removing a burden from one shoulder and placing it on the other shoulder. Like that, karmic residue (samskāra) is created. (YDS 159-161)

A well-known aspect of the Kula cult is the practice of the five "Ms," the forbidden enjoyments of fish, meat, wine, fermented grain, and sexual intercourse, in which one indulges during tantric ritual.8 Haribhadra implies that the pursuit of these can bring only harm. Toward the end of the text, Haribhadra again makes men- tion of the Kula Yogis, in conjunction with four groups of yogis assigned slots within a fourfold assessment of Yoga, including two preliminary phases to the previously mentioned eightfold path. He indicates that Kula Yogis have achieved no stage of Yoga. It is only the next group, the Gotravantas, that occupies the slot titled "Wishful" (Iccha) Yoga. This corresponds to the first level of the threefold scheme at the beginning of the text (Haribhadra identifies himself with this group). The Gotravanta Yogis are said to "display no ill will anywhere, think fondly of gurus, gods, and the twice born, are compassionate and modest, possess wisdom and control of the senses" (YDS 211). Haribhadra calls the third level "Engaged" (Pravrtti) Yoga, said to be observed by the Pravrttacakras. In this phase, one follows the earlier-men- tioned Precept (Sästra) Yoga. The fourth group of yogis, referred to as Avañcaka, or Authentic, Yogis, practices the two disciplines of Firmness (Sthairyam) and Inconceivable Power (Acintya Sakti) Yoga, which will be described in the next chapter, both of which can be equated to Effort (Sāmarthya) Yoga, mentioned by Haribhadra at the beginning of the Yogadrstisamuccaya. In verses 209 and 222, Haribhadra indicates that he hopes that the Kula Yogis might read this text and be persuaded to enter into the higher forms of Yoga, a position from which he later retreats. But here his disdain for the Kula Yogis cannot be dis- guised: he refers to them as "drunken and more stupid than us." And yet despite his criticisms of the Kula Yogis who practice Tantra, Haribhadra uses several devices that can be seen as at- tempts to "co-opt" the lure of Tantra. He in fact uses the word "Tantra" various times in the text, always in a positive light. In verse 74, he states that the stage known as "vedyasamvedya"

82 RECONCILING YOGAS

finds its basis in Tantra. In verse 206, he claims that Tantra states that one can be liberated from the "disease of worldly existence." Further evidence of resonance with Tantra is given in his critique of the Sarvāstivādin and Advaita Vedānta schools, described in an earlier chapter. According to Haribhadra, the momentariness of things in Sarvāstivāda and the illusoriness of things in Advaita Vedanta will vitiate the significance of suffering and hence remove any incentive for self-purification. Because both Tantra and Jainism admit to the reality of suffering, and because both advance a doctrine of living liberation, they share a limited form of kinship. And even though Haribhadra objects thoroughly to Tantric practices, he does include Kula Yogis within his socio- logical survey of Yoga practitioners, indicating that they are a recognizable, if disreputable, organization of Yoga adherents. Given the common ground between Tantra and Jainism in their emphasis on the reality of suffering and quest for liberation, Haribhadra employs two undeniably explicit devices that would be recognizable to one familiar with or perhaps interested in Tantra, with its array of Yoginīs, emphasis on liberation, and infamous rituals. The first of these is found in the opening section of the work, in his discussion of three types of Yoga: Wishful (Icchā), Precept (Śāstra), and Effort (Sāmarthya). Perhaps it could be argued that these are similar to Patañjali's Kriyā Yoga: Aus- terity (Tapas), Study (Svādhyāya), and Devotion (Īśvarapraņi- dhäna). The middle practice makes for an easy and a direct correlation, but the first and second aspects are really quite dis- similar between the two systems. In Tantra, however, we find a much closer match in the "three cities" of Icchā, Jñana, and Kriyā.9 Icchā is the name of a goddess, mentioned in the Nityāhrdaya.10 The goddess, Ambikā, also identified with the goddess, Rudrāņī, is said to consist of Icchā, Jñāna, and Kriyā.11 This triad corresponds directly to that of Haribhadra: Icchā is found in both systems, Jñāna can be seen as a clear parallel with Śāstra, as both entail knowledge and study, and Kriyā can be seen as analogous with Samarthya, because action implies effort. The Siva-sūtra (I.13) states that "The Young Uma is called the Icchā-akti,"12 further establishing a link between the goddess tradition and Haribhadra. The Lalitā-Sahasranāma, verse 658 refers to this triad as the form of the goddess's energy:

HARIBHADRA'S CRITIQUE OF TANTRIC YOGA 83

The energies of desire, wisdom, and action (icchāśakti- jñānaśakti-kriyāśakti-svarūpinī): These correspond to her three qualities. The Samketapaddhati says, "Desire is her head, wisdom is her trunk, action her feet, thus her body consists of the three energies." The Vāmakeśvara Tantra states also ... "she, O beloved one, is the energy of de- sire, wisdom, and action."13

From the prevalence of this triad, at least in the later literature of Tantra, it seems likely that Haribhadra adopted a popular tantric convention to serve his own purpose in gaining the atten- tion of persons interested in Tantra and Kula Yoga. Haribhadra's choice of names for his eightfold analysis of Yoga also indicates an overlap with Tantra. Each of these eight names occurs in the feminine gender, and although Patañjali does use the feminine gender to describe several yogic practices (see YS I:33, 35, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48), the manner in which their gender stands out in Haribhadra is noteworthy. All except one or two are actually names of goddesses. Three of the names (Tārā, Balā, and Parā) are mentioned in the Rudrayamālā, in a list that includes the names of several other śaktis.14 Tārā also is men- tioned in verse 20 of the Lalitā-sahasranāma and is specifically referred to as a "Jaina deity" in the commentary on verse 149 of that text. Mitrarūpīnī, a close approximation of Mitrā, is men- tioned in verse 565 of the Lalitā-sahasranāma. Dīprā, though not cited explicitly as an independent goddesss in the texts available to me, finds a close approximation in the term Diptā, which is the lead name for a group of five Tantras.15 The same name, Diptā, is found in the Devī Purāna, where it appears as number 15 in a list of sixty-four Yoginīs.16 Sthiti, a name similar to Sthira, is found in the Devi Bhagavatam amongst a list of sixty- four Yoginīs.17 Kāntā is mentioned two times in the commentary on the Lalitā-sahasranāma, in verses 256 and 329. Likewise, Prabhā is mentioned in verses 393 and 394. The final name employed by Haribhadra is Parā. It is used frequently in Tantric literature, as the name of the forty-eighth Yoginī in the Devi Bhagavatam18 and in verses 366, 790, and 809 of the Lalitā-sahasranāma. The Lakșmī Tantra refers to Parā as one of the "six lotuses that exist between the eyebrows and the

84 RECONCILING YOGAS

forehead."19 Sir John Woodroffe writes that "It is Citi-śakti which is called Para, "20 reaffirming the link between Patañjali's descrip- tion of the highest state and the Jaina notion of kevala. In fact, citi-sakti are the last words to appear in the Yoga Sūtras and consequently describe the culmination of Patañjali's Yoga system. In addition to Haribhadra's appropriation of goddess and goddess-like names to describe the various parts of his Yoga system, the number eight also holds significance within the Tantric tradition. Originally, a standard grouping of seven mother god- desses was found in the early Tantric texts and temples.21 How- ever, by the time of Haribhadra, this had extended to eight, a number that then reduplicated itself in the form of sixty-four yoginīs. Perhaps the earliest record of this eight-mother tradition is found in the Agni Purana, chapters 52 and 146, which has been dated from before the time of Haribhadra,22 and in the Kulārņava Tantra.23 Although these eight goddess-style names do not correlate to goddesses directly associated with Jainism, such as Sarasvatī, Laksmī, Ambikā, Padmavatī, and Jvālamālinī, they do accord with the evolution of the vidyās, which are "multi-word invoca- tions that are presided over by female deities and are learnt by initiation and practicing the prescribed sādhanā."24 Haribhadra himself makes mention of the incorporation of these into a group of sixteen goddesses known as vidyādevīs,25 goddesses who bear names that, although not corresponding to the Drstis of Yoga, advanced in the Yogadrstisamuccaya, nonetheless follow a pattern wherein "words of feminine gender ... gradually become god- desses."26 The use and worship of the vidyās in the early phases of Jainism was restricted to the gain of worldly goals. However, as Cort has noted, they advanced by at least the fifth century to a more respectable status in an often-repeated story wherein the king of the Nägas grants two of his ministers dominion over two groups of eight vidyās.27 One list of eight goddesses found in Mallisenasūri's Srī Bhairava Padmāvatā Kalpa discussion of the Pañcaparamesthi Mantra includes the names Jayā, Vijayā, Ajitā, Aparājitā, Jambhā, Mohā, Stambhā, and Sthambhinī.28 Although none of these names duplicates those used by Haribhadra in the Yogadrstisamuccaya, the tradition of eight goddesses obviously was become well estab- lished by the time of thirteenth-century scholar Mallisenasūri.

HARIBHADRA'S CRITIQUE OF TANTRIC YOGA 85

However, as noted above, the vidyās are associated with the ful- fillment of worldly desire, in contrast to the role that Haribhadra's eight levels of Yoga play in the advancement toward liberation. Although it is not possible to determine if any clear prece- dents exist in Jainism that link the names of Haribhadra's eight levels of Yoga with the Jaina goddess tradition, there seems to be clear evidence that he employed specifically tantric rhetoric in his text to counter and co-opt the tantric traditions such as Kula Yoga. Haribhadra's dismissal of the Buddhist and Vedāntic po- sitions is formulaic and perfunctory, repeating arguments that appear in many other texts. However, his concern about and attention to the Kula Yogis is noteworthy, particularly because he seems to acknowledge a kinship with them, because of their shared perception of suffering (duhkha), and their shared assump- tion that human effort is the only viable means for release. Unlike the irredeemably antitantric position found in Somadeva's Yaśasti- laka,29 Haribhadra seems to hold out hope that some window of convincingness exists to woo the Kulas away from their errant ways. Consequently, in addition to countering what Jainas con- sider the "extreme positions" of annihilationism and eternalism, he emphasizes the path of purity as the only true yogic means to liberation. However, he attempts this in a subtle fashion. Rather than emphasizing the particular (and stringent) aspects of Jaina purification practice, Haribhadra cloaks the Jaina gunasthāna system in the combined guise of Patañjali's Aşțānga Yoga and a Tantric Aşța Mātrkā system. Some of the names he employs are well known as Hindu goddesses or yoginīs; others are close ap- proximations. Through this device, and by introducing the text with a thinly veiled reference to the threefold emphasis on Desire, Study, and Practice in Tantric traditions, Haribhadra hopes to keep the faithful within the fold by demonstrating that the tantric movements offer nothing other than what already exists in the practice of his form of Jaina Yoga.

This page intentionally left blank.

CHAPTER SEVEN

Haribhadra's Sociology of Yoga and Its Culmination

One of the fascinating aspects of Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya lies in its description of different styles of Yoga practiced in eighth-century India. In this chapter we examine his descriptions of these Yogas: Kula, Gotravanta, Pravrttacakra, and Avañcaka, which can be translated as Family, Clan, Engaged, and Authentic Yoga, respectively. These categories also can be used to describe some of the movements of Yoga that have become popular in the contemporary world. In conclusion, we discuss Haribhadra's description of the culmination of Yoga. The first reference to a Yoga school can be found in Haribhadra's characterizations of what he refers to as the "Kula" group. This term alludes to the sorts of practitioners that are de- scribed in the Kularnava Tantra and in the works of David Lorentzen, Agehananda Bharati, David Gordon White, Douglas Renfrew Brooks, and other scholars of Tantra. In the prior chap- ter, we examined how Haribhadra developed a rhetoric designed to convince the followers of Kula Yoga to change their ways, pointing out that although they may have the right intentions, that is, they may truly desire to overcome suffering, they lack the ap- propriate method for achieving this goal and in fact will only mire themselves in deeper suffering through their misguided practices. The second group, the Clan Yogis, or Gotravantas, had an insight into the true meaning of Yoga. Presumably, they had the

87

TABLE 6.1 Four Types of Yogis Mentioned in the Yogadrstisamuccaya

Anga Attained Guņasthāna Yoga Group Discipline (Yama) Attained Form of Yoga Attained (Patañjali) Attained Family (Kula) none none none 1 Clan (Gotravanta) Wishful (Icchā) Wishful (Icchā) Yoga none 2-4 Engaged (Pravrttacakra) Engaged (Pravrtta) Precept (Śāstra) Yoga 1 5-7 Authentic I (Avañcaka I) Firmness (Sthairyam) Effort (Sāmarthya) Yoga 2-5 8-11 Authentic II (Avañcaka II) Inconceivable Power (Acintya Śakti) same 6-8 12-14

[Christopher Key Chapple]

HARIBHADRA'S SOCIOLOGY OF YOGA 89

experience of the enlightened view (samyak-drsti), discussed in the first chapter. They attained the discipline of Wishful Yoga and might be deemed part of the group of Yogis in the Bhagavad Gitā that actually tries to practice Yoga.1 Having had a glimpse of spiritual life, they developed a basic orientation, placing them on the path toward liberation. Haribhadra, as noted earlier, praises this group, stating:

These [yogins] display no ill will anywhere, think fondly of gurus, gods, and the twice born, are compassionate and modest, and possess wisdom and control of the senses. (YDS 211)

This group exhibits the qualities of the first discipline (yama), which Haribhadra refers to as "Iccha," the same name as the first of his threefold list of Yogas: Iccha, or Wishful. This also is the Tantric name of the first of the three cities comprising Brahman's manifestation of power (śakti) in the manifest world.2 This con- cept also corresponds to the first aspect of the threefold Jaina Yoga (ratnatraya): right view (samyak darśana), to be followed by right knowledge (samyak jñāna) and right action conduct (samyak cāritra). Haribhadra describes this first phase of Yoga to which he attributes the Gotravantas:

Wishful Yoga (icchā) is spoken of with respect to one who, though wishing to practice and knowledgable of the meaning of the scriptures, is deficient in the Yoga of prescribed conduct (dharma-yoga), on account of negligence. (YDS 3)

Haribhadra characterizes this first stage as an undying willing- ness to probe into topics of a spiritual nature. He writes that this includes "love of discussion that does not change" (YDS 215). The third group, the Engaged or Pravrttacakra Yogis, is said to display the first two of Haribhadra's disciplines (yama): the Wishful and Engaged (pravrtti) Yogas. This stage of entering into the application of Yoga practices yields an "ubiquitous calm" (YDS 216) and would correspond to living according to the Pre- cept, or Sastra Yoga mentioned in his threefold scheme. He

90 RECONCILING YOGAS

describes Precept Yoga as characterized by "adequate strength and a carefulness born of faith in the advice of those with sharp understanding" (YDS 4). Precept Yoga would allow one to fully demonstrate a comprehension and an understanding of perform- ing the ethical restraints or vows, referred to as "Vrata" in Jainism and "Yama" in Patañjali. This would establish one in the first of Patañjali's stages, and in spiritual stages (gunasthānas) five through seven of the Jaina tradition. The final group described by Haribhadra is the Authentic, or Avañcaka, Yogis. This group of Yoga practitioners has attained the third and highest of his opening threefold scheme: Effort (sāmarthya) Yoga. He earlier described this form of Yoga as follows:

Effort (samarthya) Yoga is known as the highest Yoga. It arises from an abundance of power (śakti) stemming from the steadfast observance of the precepts. It is the dwelling place of the accomplished ones. (YDS 5)

This final group is divided into two gradations. The first grada- tion has attained the third of Haribhadra's four special stages: Firmness (sthairyam, not to be confused with the sthirā, one of Haribhadra's eight stages). In this, one is clearly ensconced in the path of purification. This attainment can be correlated to the attainment of gunasthänas eight through eleven, the beginning of the unpreceded spiritual stages (apūrvaka guņasthānas). This in- volves the entry into the Śrenis, or Ladders, of either Suppression (upaśama śreni) or Elimination (kşapana śreņi). As explained in the second chapter, the first ladder culminates in the eleventh gunasthāna, followed by a descent to a lower level and the need to recommence the path. The second ladder leads one to the twelfth gunasthäna and, hence, to the second and highest grada- tion of this fourth phase. Haribhadra indicates that the first- gradation Authentic Yogis, those who attain Firmness (sthairyam), enter into the Ladder of Suppression (upaśama śreņi), and that they rise only to the eleventh gunasthāna. The highest yoga is described by Haribhadra as the "Yoga of Inconceivable Power" (acintya śakti), reminiscent of Patañjali's description of the power of awareness (citi-sakti) in the concluding verse of the Yoga Sūtra. Haribhadra describes this state as follows:

HARIBHADRA'S SOCIOLOGY OF YOGA 91

The fourth discipline (yama) is accomplished by the Yoga of Inconceivable Power, resulting in the perfection of unsurpassed purity of self and goodness for the sake of others. (YDS 218)

In this highest form of Yoga, one has entered the Elimination Ladder (ksapana śreni) state. This includes the final three gunasthānas: the obliteration of passion with diminished delusion (kșīnamoha), the obliteration of delusion while retaining connec- tion with the body (sayoga-kevala), and the final state of release from all karmic connections (ayoga-kevala). Those who have at- tained this highest state then become an inspiration for all spiri- tual aspirants. As indicated consistently throughout the Jaina tradition, reflection on and gazing upon the image of the per- fected beings (siddhas, tirthankaras) comprise an important as- pect of Jaina religiosity.3 Hence, even though the liberated one no longer maintains any attachment to worldly concerns, she or he becomes an ideal for the emulation of others. Haribhadra ad- dresses the theme of perfection in several verses of the Yogadrstisa- muccaya, which will be discussed in the final section of this chapter. However, before pursuing the discussion of the culmina- tion of Yoga, some contemporary analogues for Haribhadra's four types of Yoga groups will be explored.

CONTEMPORARY YOGA

When I first moved to Los Angeles, one spiritual organization operated a bookstore in Santa Monica that had a rather interest- ing way of grouping its titles. Apparently, its leader had, on several occasions, passed judgment on the depth of insight of several traditions and several individual teachers. The books were arranged accordingly. I found this a bit idiosyncratic, and I was intimidated by the thought of the store clerk sizing me up and directing me to the appropriate level! I offer this story as a cau- tionary tale: any attempt to pass judgment on the attainment or life state of another individual is fraught with peril. I am re- minded of an emphatic statement made to me by a group of devout Jaina laypersons while I visited Jaina Vishva Bharati in Ladnun, India, several years ago: No one can judge your level of

92 RECONCILING YOGAS

spiritual attainment (gunasthāna), because no one can follow you into death. This group also quoted to me a passage from Umāsvāti's Tattvārtha Sūtra (10.7) and stated that the uniform that one wears carries no bearing on one's ultimate spiritual attainment.4 Within this group's tradition, even a layperson can excel within the Jaina path. Nonetheless, Haribhadra wrote the Yogadrstisamuccaya with the intent of correcting false views and perhaps of winning over the Kula Yogins from their "drunken ways" and onto the path of purification. In my Preface, I mentioned that part of my con- cern in bringing forth a new translation (however flawed) and interpretation of the Yogadrstisamuccaya was similarly to let Haribhadra's emphatic voice be heard in the context of the prac- tice of contemporary Yoga. On the one hand, I do not want to judge and would prefer to live by the adage "live and let live." However, when misguided notions lead to meaningless suffering, it seems that a small voice is better than no voice at all. In the world of Yoga today, there exists a wide range of styles of practice and intentions. At many health clubs, Yoga is taught with only one intent: enhancement of one's physicality. In such a context, Yoga generally does not include more than a philosophy of bodily well-being. It would be difficult to charac- terize this style of Yoga in any of the categories set forth by Haribhadra, unless of course one sees the desire to improve one's body as being within the ambit of reducing the suffering that one experiences due to bodily aches and pains. At a slightly higher level, one can find particular Yoga teach- ers who infuse their teachings with an earnest dose of spirituality. In recent years, there has been increased interest in the study of the Yoga Sutras and the dawning of a popular Yoga culture in America that begins to resemble the Precept Yoga advocated by Haribhadra. Whether inspired by Ram Dass's Be Here Now, by the inspira- tional spiritual writings of Paramahamsa Yogananda, or by Chris- topher Isherwood's and Swami Prabhavananda's How to Know God, many practitioners of Yoga at least have been exposed to the foundational worldview that grounds Yoga in spirituality. At the highest level, Guru Yoga, which involves a process of discipleship and a much deeper level of commitment, can be found. According to the Yoga Sutra, since beginningless time,

HARIBHADRA'S SOCIOLOGY OF YOGA 93

Iśvara, the paragon of Yogis who has forever been untouched by karma and its fruitions, has served as an inspiration to pursue the spiritual path. Within Jainism, the model provided by the Tīrthankaras, the Siddhas, the Preceptors, and the community of monks and nuns has offered a clear path for lessening one's karma and advancing toward the state of total spiritual purifica- tion.5 In this style of Yoga, one apprentices oneself to a teacher. If one's intentions are clear, then this relationship can effect sig- nificant changes in one's physical, psychological, and spiritual well-being. In some instances, this can be beneficial and whole- some. In other instances, if one's teacher is not well chosen, then the results can be ambiguous, if not potentially disastrous, as in the case of Fred Lenz, cited in the Preface. Several contemporary Yoga movements and organizations attribute a divine or near-divine status to their leaders. The ideal of a liberated person can be very inspiring. It can, however, lead to abuse and manipulation of followers whose psychological makeup and desire to be parented lead to an unwholesome de- pendency. Georg Feuerstein, aligning himself with Ken Wilber on this issue, has expressed reservations about "cultic developments" that might occur, "developments that appear to stem directly from an authoritarian style that encourages the totemization of the guru in immature individuals."6 Many traditions, including the Jaina tradition, solve this potential problem by stating that no one can ultimately save anyone else, and that for over 2,000 years, no one has met the criteria of attaining the fourteenth gunasthāna, that is, total separation at the point of death from all the remaining karmas of life span, name, family, and sensa- tion.7 Although this might seem a bit dour, it gives one pause to consider that all persons in the human body, even the most el- evated, grapple with the living reality of cause and effect in day- to-day life. How, then, can one develop the moral compass needed to enter into a genuine path of spirituality, referred to by Haribhadra as "Authentic," or Avañcaka Yoga? One has to assume, first, that one agrees to the basic orientation of Yoga, that is, that one's being has become shrouded with the clouds of karmic sub- stance (dravya), and that the practices of Yoga will help diminish and eventually remove these coverings (āvarana). Second, one has

94 RECONCILING YOGAS

to be willing to shape one's thoughts and actions through the application of ethical precepts. In both Yoga and Jainism, this means taking on a daily commitment to the ideals of nonvio- lence, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual restraint, and nonpossess- iveness. Finally, one needs to hold forth for oneself an ideal spiritual goal. In Yoga, this would involve developing a relation- ship with an ideal image of the perfected self; or, in Jainism, a commitment to the ideal of liberation set forth by the Jina, the Siddhas, the teachers, and the monks and nuns.

THE CULMINATION OF YOGA

For Haribhadra, the following points are important for an effec- tive spiritual life. Self-effort is essential. Each being holds a per- spective on reality that is unique, formed by his or her individual engagement of karma over countless births. Though a teacher may be concerned and interested in a student's well-being, and may establish a context for self-discovery and self-purification, no one has the power to set anyone else free. In the words of my own preceptor, the late Gurāņi Añjali, "We come alone, and we go alone." The spiritual goal, as framed by Yoga and Jainism, is one of blessed solitude. The task of spiritual advancement is a heroic one, requiring a willingness to live a life of self-examination and self-correction, guided by the ideals of spiritual purity, not conformity to convention. In Haribhadra, the path can be summarized as an acknowl- edgment of the reality of suffering coupled with a quest for purity. Haribhadra emphasizes the need to be in touch with the causes and effects of one's fragile humanity. The practices of Yoga may generate feelings of goodwill and even states of bliss. However, to be effective, these experiences also must bring one into a direct perception of the routine, and sometimes unconscious, violations of the precepts listed earlier that perpetuate pain in others as well as in oneself. By careful observation of one's way of being in the world, one can learn to correct the subtle forces that prompt one to be, in the words of Patañjali, ignorant of one's true self, egotis- tical, attached, repulsed, and fearful of death. This requires dili- gence, vigilance, and honesty, and the willingess to subject oneself

HARIBHADRA'S SOCIOLOGY OF YOGA 95

to criticism by others. Ultimately, the only antidote can be found in a commitment to self-purification. According to Gandhi, the salvation of the world begins with the salvation of one's self. As the philosopher, Ortega y Gasset, has stated: "I am my self and my circumstances. In order to save my self, my circumstances must be saved."8 The human quest for authenticity mandates that one grapple with one's inner impulses to heighten and purify one's relationship with the world. In the final analysis, Yoga, regardless of the philosophical or theological school through which it is expressed, emphasizes the real possibility of human freedom. Haribhadra attempted to com- municate this ideal as a pan-cultural possibility, found within all of the philosophical and religious traditions to which he had access. As a Jaina, Haribhadra held up the notion of total free- dom (ayoga) as the ultimate goal. He writes that once one enters the Ladder of Elmination stage and systematically disengages from all karmic impulses, one approaches freedom:

Indeed, on account of this, the Yoga of Total Freedom (ayoga) is declared the highest of Yogas. Characterized by the renunciation of all things, it is truly the path of liberation, (YDS 11)

Haribhadra employs the metaphor of clouds to describe the nature of karmic obscuration. He writes:

Like clouds that come and go in the night, like the graspings of a small child- so indeed is the view of the stream [of worldly existence] to be understood. Otherwise, one is dwelling in a mistaken view. (YDS 14)

In truth, one does not approach great uplift within this realm of gross matter. How can genuine form be grasped when the eye is clouded? (YDS 36)

96 RECONCILING YOGAS

With the various species of karma in a purified state, the jīva becomes established in cool, moonlike radiance. With respect to this, ordinary consciousness is like a cloud concealing the moonlight. (YDS 183)

It is said that at the time when the clouds of destructive karma are themselves destroyed by the wind of Yoga, that is the escape. Then the glory of singular knowledge is born. (YDS 184)

This brings one to the final state, as defined by Haribhadra:

With faults eliminated, omniscient, endowed with the fruits of all that can be accomplished, with things to be done now only for the sake of others, such a one attains the end of Yoga. (YDS 185)

The culmination of Yoga can be no less than the severance of one's self from all entanglements. Through the process of gradual purification, through the sloughing off of all karmic attachments, and after having subjected oneself to an honest, authentic process of self-examination and self-correction under the guidance of a suitable preceptor, one moves out from behind the clouds and into the gleaming, pure light of awareness.

Forms of Yoga as Given in Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya and Comparisons

Bandhu Bhadanta Patañjali's Haribhadra Patañjali Bhagavaddatta Bhāskara Guņasthāna Samādhi

Mitrā (Friendly) Yama Adveşa Akheda 4-7; insight and citta-vrtti (Disciplines) (No Aversion) (No Distress) ethics Tārā (Protector) Niyama Jijñāsa (Desire for Anudvega 8; in path, samāpatti (Observances) Knowledge) (No Anxiety) with passions Balā (Power) Āsana Śuśrūșā (Desirous Akşepa 9; with gross savitarka (Postures) to Hear Truth) (No Distraction) passions Dīprā (Shining) Prāņāyāma Śravaņa Anuttānavatī 10; with subtle nirvitarka (Control of Breath) (Hearing Truth) (No Interruption) passions Sthirā (Firm) Pratyāhāra Sūkşmabodha Abhrānti 11; no passion, savicāra (Detachment) (Subtle Awakening) (Unmuddied) calmed delusion, no omniscience Kāntā (Pleasing) Dhāraņā Mīmām̧sā Ananyamud (Not 12; no passion, nirvicāra (Concentration) (Reflection) Finding Pleasure in diminished delusion, Anything Other) no omniscience Prabhā (Radiant) Dhyāna Pratipatti Arug 13; no passion, no sabīja (Meditation) (Perception of Truth) (Without Pain) delusion, with body Parā (Highest) Samādhi Sātmī-kṛta-pravṛtti Sanga Vivarjitā (Free 14; omniscience, nirbīja (Enactment of from Attachment) no activity Absorption)

This page intentionally left blank.

Yogadrştisamuccaya (A Collection of Views on Yoga)

HARIBHADRA

Translated by Christopher Key Chapple and John Thomas Casey

100 RECONCILING YOGAS

A NOTE ON THE TRANSLATION

The Yogadrstisamuccaya is comprised of 228 ślokas, a standard verse form that includes thirty-two syllables generally divisible into meaning units of two sixteen-syllable lines, further divided into two eight-syllable units. The verse form dates from before the Christian Era and is employed in the Rāmāyāna and in the Mahābhārata, as well as in Purāņic literature. In translating the Yogadrstisamuccaya, we have drawn from two critical editions of the text. These critical editions collate multiple manuscript versions of the text. The earlier edition was published by the Italian Sanskritist Luigi Suali (a student of Hermann Jabcobi) by the Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha in Bhavanagar in 1911. The other (and more reliable) edition was published by the Jaina Grantha Prakashaka Sabha in Ahmedabad in 1940. We have obtained copies of both texts from the L. D. Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad. Both include the so-called autocommentary (Svopajña), which although attributed to Haribhadra most likely was either penned by a later author or augmented by later copy- ists. For various obscure passages, Dr. Yajneshwar Shastri has assisted by giving us alternate readings of the text and has helped us consult passages from Yaśovijaya's Dvātrimsaddvātimśikā that discuss the Yogadrstisamuccaya. Samanis Charitra and Sharda Pragya also have graciously read through the text and made sug- gestions. We also consulted with Dr. Pravin L. Shah and Pandit Dhirajlal Mehta regarding the text. The Yogadrstisamuccaya was translated previously into En- glish by K. K. Dixit. It is available through the L. D. Institute of Indology in Ahmedabad and includes useful prefatory and interpre- tative material. We have prepared this new translation for various reasons. Our methodology of translation attempts to retain the "feel" of the original verses. With only rare exceptions, Dixit translates each thirty-two syllable verse as a single sentence. To the extent possible, we have opted for a sparer translation that somewhat preserves the phrasing and rhythm of the original verses. We also have attempted to identify thematic breaks in the text to emphasize Haribhadra's dazzling command of Hindu and Buddhist thought. The analysis of the Yogadrstisamuccaya in this book in- cludes many important aspects of the text that have not been previously discussed fully, including the relationship between clas-

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 101

sical Yoga and Jainism and Haribhadra's comparative assessment of different Yoga paths. The prior chapters explored the parallel between the Jaina progressive stages of spirituality (gunasthānas) and the eight stages of the various Yogas described by Haribhadra. Haribhadra's detailed critique of goddess worship and Tantric traditions has been highlighted, as well as the heuristic devices that Harbibhadra used in an attempt to convert his readers to the Jaina view, such as the appropriation of goddesslike names to describe his rendering of Yoga and his praise and "Jainification" of action, scripture, and faith, three key terms used in the Tantric schools, with which Jainism found itself in competition. While translating, we have tried to direct particular atten- tion to how the author chooses and uses key terms in an attempt to make our translation of these terms consistent. For instance, ayoga is a very important technical term in Jainism. It can be translated simply as "disjunction." However, after grappling with this term over a period of several years, we agreed upon the term total freedom, which has been applied consistently throughout the work, signalling the importance of this key idea. Similarly, after much anguish and consultation with several scholars, we decided to translate the term avedyasamvedya as "licentiousness." Although the text includes what is described as an "auto- commentary," K. K. Dixit indicates that he regards it to be writ- ten by someone other than Haribhadra. He notes that "at some places it seemed that the commentator has misunderstood the text."1 In our work, we have learned to become suspicious of commentaries.2 At times, commentators neglect to trace terms used throughout the text and often fail to see continuity in the main author's style or vocabulary. Furthermore, we have learned that subsequent commentators parrot their predecessors and fail to offer new insights. For example, Dixit states that he follows the commentary because Yaśovijaya has done so.3 Consequently, we have challenged the commentary but have provided a ratio- nale for doing so, most notably, as indicated in chapter five, regarding the term avedyasamvedya, which, as noted above, we decided to translate as "licentiousness" and not as "outer limbs," or bahiranga, as suggested by S. M. Desai.4 Wherever possible, our rendering of the Sanskrit attempts to reflect the sense of completeness and symmetry innate to the śloka style. In cases where meaning can only be conveyed through

102 RECONCILING YOGAS

the use of an additional word or two, we have indicated any supplements with brackets and explanatory terms with parenthe- ses. We apologize for any errors, and we welcome the day when yet another translation of this fascinating text will appear.

The Yogadrstisamuccaya of Haribhadra

BENEDICTION

natvecchāyogato'yogam yogigamyam jinottamam viram vakşye samāsena yogam taddrstibhedataḥ

1. Having bowed to Mahāvira, known by yogins as the Supreme Victor, I will concisely discuss Yoga from a variety of perspectives, from Wishful Yoga to the level of Total Freedom (ayoga).

THREE TYPES OF YOGA (VERSES 2-8)

ihaivecchādiyogānām svarūpam abhidhiyate yoginām upakārāya vyaktam yogaprasangatab

2. Since this is certainly an opportunity for Yoga to be presented for the benefit of yogins, the character of Yogas will be described, beginning with the Wishful.

kartum iccoķ śrutārthasya jnānino'pi pramādata vikalo dharmayogo ya sa icchāyoga ucyate

3. Wishful Yoga (icchā-yoga) is spoken of with respect to one who, though wishing to practice and be knowledgeable of the meaning of the scriptures, is deficient in the Yoga of prescribed conduct (dharma-yoga), on account of negligence.

104 RECONCILING YOGAS

śāstrayogas tv iha jñeyo yathāśakty apramādinaḥ śrāddhasya tīvrabodhena vacasā'vikalas tathā

4. Precept (śāstra) Yoga is known when there is adequate strength and a carefulness born of faith in the advice of those with sharp understanding.

śāstrasamdarśitopāyas tadatikrāntagocaraḥ śaktyudrekād viśeşeņa sāmarthyākhyo'yam uttamaḥ 5. Effort (sāmarthya) Yoga is known as the highest Yoga. It arises from an abundance of power (śakti) stemming from the steadfast observance of precepts. It is the dwelling place of the accomplished ones.

siddhākhyapadasamprāptihetubhedā na tattvataḥ śāstrād evāvagamyante sarvathaiveha yogibhih

6. Herein, the distinctive causes of attainment of the stage called "Accomplished One" are certainly not obtained by yogins on the basis of metaphysical texts alone.

sarvathā tatparicchedāt sākşātkāritvayogataḥ tatsarvajnātvasamsiddhes tadā siddhipadaptitaḥ

7. The reason perfection is acquired in steps is because the perfection of omniscience depends on the Yoga of direct realization, which depends on thoroughly precise discrimination.

na caitad evam yat tasmāt prātibhajñānasangatah sāmarthyayogo'vācyo'sti sarvajnatvādisādhanam

8. And since this is something which is linked to intuitive knowledge, it is therefore not inappropriate to say that Effort Yoga is the sādhana (means of achievement) of omniscience, and so forth.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 105

SUMMARY OF JAINA YOGA (VERSES 9-11)

dvidhāyam dharmasamnyāsa-yogasamnyāsasamjñitah kşāyopaśamikā dharmāyogā kāyādikarma tu

9. There are two types of these: renunciation of dharma and renunciation of (all) connec- tions (yoga). While dharma (renunciation) stops the desire to be active, total freedom (ayoga) stops the karma of the body, and so forth.

This somewhat cryptic verse refers to the fourteen steps of spiritual ascent as outlined by Umāsvāti in his Tattvārtha Sūtra described in chapter two. The first thirteen stages, referred to by Haribhadra as "steps," gradually reduce the deleterious conditioning built up over countless lifetimes, pro- pelling the individual soul (jiva) to repeatedly take on new births. If one takes up the pursuit of spiritual practice (sādhana), then these impulses, referred to as dharmas, diminish over time. Ultimately, one transcends even the attachment to name and form, resulting in a disconnection from all materiality known as ayoga, or total freedom.

dvitīyāpūrvakaraņe prathamas tāttviko bhavet āyojyakaraņād ūrdhvam dvitīya iti tadvidaḥ 10. The first would be involved with the essences of things, while the second brings about unprecedented experience. According to those who know, the second (Yogic renuncia- tion) is higher, because it releases one from all action.

This verse indicates the distinction between the preliminary phases of spiritual practice and the more advanced phases. In the former, karmas remain intact. This would include gunasthānas four through seven: in- sight (samyag-drsti), vow taking (deśa-virata), complete self-restraint (sarva- virata), and higher self-restraint leading to mediation (apramatta-virata).5 In the eighth stage, karma begins to actually diminish if one enters the right path. In the eighth gunasthāna of unprecedented experience (apūrvakaraņa), one can enter either the Suppression Ladder (upaśrama śreni) or the Elimi- nation Ladder (ksapana śreni) stage. If one enters the former, one can proceed to the eleventh gunasthāna but will then fall again to the sixth, fifth, fourth, or second stage. If one enters the latter, one skips from the

106 RECONCILING YOGAS

tenth to the twelvth gunasthana and may proceed higher.6 By contrasting the terms dharma-renunciation and yoga-renunciation, Haribhadra indi- cates that the preliminary form of dharma-renunciation establishes habits that will inform future actions; in yoga-renunciation, one gradually ceases to be impelled by karma in any way, up until the fourteenth gunasthāna, wherein one reaches total freedom.

atas tv ayogo yogānām yoga para udāhrtah mokşayojanabhāvena sarvasamnyāsalakșaņah

11. Indeed, on account of this, the Yoga of total freedom (ayoga) is declared the highest of Yogas. Characterized by the renunciation of all things, it is truly the path of liberation.

A GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE EIGHT YOGA-DRSȚIS (VERSES 12-20)

etat trayam anāśritya viśeşenaitadudbhavāķ yogadrstaya ucyanta astau sāmānyatas tu tāh 12. These three Yogas [Wishful (icchā), Precept (śāstra), and Effort (sāmarthya)] arise independently on the basis of their distinctions. The views of Yoga to be spoken of now are generally recognized as eightfold.

mitrā tārā balā dīprā sthirā kāntā prabhā parā nāmāni yogadrstīnām laksanam ca nibodhata

13. Friendly (Mitrā), Protector (Tārā), Power (Balā), Shining (Diprā), Firm Sthirā), Pleasing (Kāntā), Radiant (Prabhā), and High- est (Parā) are the names of the Yoga views. Listen to their characteristics:

sameghāmegharātryādau sagrahādyarbhakādivat oghadrstir iha jñeyā mithyādrstītarāśrayā 14. Like clouds that come and go in the night, like the graspings of a small child-

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 107

so indeed is the view of the stream [of wordly existence] to be understood. Otherwise one is dwelling in a mistaken view.

trnagomayakāşțhāgnikaņadīpaprabhopamā ratnatārārkacandrābhā saddrster drstir aştadhā

15. There is a progressive eightfold view of true perspective which can be compared to the light of small fires of grass, cow dung, wood, and a lamp, and with the radiance of a jewel, a star, a flash of light- ning, and the moon.

yamādiyogayuktānām khedādiparihārata adveşādiguņasthānam krameņaişā satām matā

16. The Yoga of those engaged in restraint, and so on, with respect to the abandonment of affliction, and so on, is thought of by the wise in terms of stages, [like] the gunasthānas of non-malevolence, and so on.

sacchraddhāsangato bodho drştir ity abhidhīyate asatpravrttivyāghātāt satpravrttipadāvahaḥ

17. Bringing about positive (sat) activity by battling negative (asat) activity is considered an awakened view. From this, one is joined to true faith.

iyam cāvaraņāpāyabhedād aştavidhā smrtā sāmānyena viśeşās tu bhūyāmsab sūksmabhedatah

18. This path may be thought of in eight ways, according to its diverse ways of uncovering the veil [of ignorance]. But these are only generic distinctions, as there are numerous others based on subtle differences.

pratipātayutāś cādyāś catasro nottarās tathā sāpāyā api caitās tatpratipātema netarāh

19. The first four are associated with backsliding, while the higher ones are not.

108 RECONCILING YOGAS

[The latter four] are able to remove [the veil], but the others are not, as they [harbor the potential] of backsliding.7

prayāņabhangābhāvena niśi svāpasamah punah vighāto divyabhāvataś caraņasyopajāyate 20. On the other hand, progress without interruption is like a dream in the night. Obstacles are overcome through spiritual conduct.

MITRĀ (FRIENDLY) YOGA (VERSES 21-40)

mitrāyām darśanam mandam yama icchādikas tathā akhedo devakāryādāv adveșaś cāparatra tu 21. The viewpoint of Mitra (Friendly) is for the sluggish. Hence, it advocates restraint of desire and so forth [Patañjali], being tireless in religious matters [Bhadanta Bhāskara], and, in another place, it is called "free from malevolence" [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta].

karoti yogabijānām upādānam ihasthitaķ avandhyamokşahetūnām iti yogavido viduḥ 22. The one established here acquires the seeds of Yoga. Knowledge of Yoga is considered the cause that produces liberation.

jineşu kuśalam cittam tannamaskāra eva ca praņāmādi ca samśuddham yogabījam anuttamam 23. Truly, the most excellent seed of Yoga is a wholesome mind, completely purified, which offers homage, prostrations, and so forth, to the Jinas.

carame pudgalāvarte tathābhavyatvapākatah samśuddham etan niyamān nānyadāpīti tadvida 24. Knowing that, there results this excellence in an individual's last round [of incarnate existence]:

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 109

one who is completely purified through these observances is not [born] another time.

upādeyadhiyātyantam samjñāvişkambhaņānvitam phalābhisandhirahitam samśuddham hy etad īdrśam

25. Perfect devotion is to be followed, accompanied by the act of curbing conceptual activity. It is improper to have as one's intention the fruits of such actions. For then one is indeed endowed with purity.

ācāryādişv api hy etad viśuddham bhāvayogişu vaiyāhrttyam ca vidhivacchuddhāśayaviśeşatah

26. This [devotion] is to be directed especially to teachers and the like. In such yogins arises a state of purity. Also, business is to be conducted according to the rules, so that one has a particularly clear conscience.

bhavodvegaś ca sahajo dravyābhigrahapālanam tathā siddhāntam āśritya vidhinā lekhanādi ca

27. Nevertheless, agitation naturally comes into being, nourished by the tenacious grip of karmic substance. Thus one should resort to the final aim through following the injunctions, books, and so forth.

lekhanā pūjanā dānam śravanam vācanodgrahah prakāśanātha svādhyāyaś cintanā bhāvaneti ca 28. Therefore, it is said that through books, worship, giving, listening, and speaking, one is uplifted, as well as through teaching, study, reflection, and meditation.

bījaśrutau ca samvegāt pratipattiķ sthirāśayā tadupādeyabhāvaś ca pariśuddho mahodayah 29. Upon hearing these seed principles with a firm mental disposition,

110 RECONCILING YOGAS

there arises an ascertainment born of intensity. That purified state leads to final emancipation.

etadbhāvamale kşīņe prabhūte jāyate nrņām karoty avyaktacaitanyo mahatkāryam na yat kvacit

30. Among these people arises a noble waning of impurity. One of undeveloped consciousness accomplishes nothing of great importance.

carame pudgalāvarte kşayaś cāsyopajāyate8 jīvānām lakşaņam tatra yata etad udāhrtam

31 In finishing up during an individual's last round, there arises a species of souls, concerning which the following is declared:

duḥkhiteşu dayātyantam adveșo guņavatsu ca aucityāt sevanam caiva sarvatraivāviśeșatah 32. Boundless compassion toward the afflicted, non-malevolence toward those with noble qualities, and fitness for service, in all circumstances, without exception.

evamvidhasya jīvasya bhadramūrter mahātmanah śubho nimittasamyogo jāyate'vañcakodayāt 33. So for a great-souled one bearing the auspicious embodiment of a life of kindness, there is born a virtuous conjunction of effective circumstances, due to the development of authenticity.

yogakriyāphalākhyam yac chrūyate'vañcakatrayam sādhūn āśritya paramam işulakşyakriyopamam 34. Yoga, action, and its fruits are said to be the threefold authenticity. Obtaining a most excellent refuge among the holy ones is like an arrow that finds its target.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 111

etac ca satpranāmādinimittam samaye sthitam asya hetuś ca paramas tathābhāvamalālpatā

35. These, along with respect for the truth and so on, are the effective circumstances for abiding in the moment. Thus being with diminished impurities is the primary cause of this superior state.

Samaya, translated here as "moment," is a Jaina technical term for the smallest unit of time. In the context of yogic practice, bringing the focus of attention to the immediacy of the present moment is a fun- damental aspect of the process of achieving liberation from past con- ditioning and future expectations. The importance of one-pointed, momentary awareness is similarly stressed in Patañjali's Yoga Sūtra III.9-12.

nāsmin ghane yataḥ satsu tatpratītir mahodayā kim samyag rūpam ādatte kadācid mandalocanah 36. In truth, one does not approach great uplift within this realm of gross matter. How can genuine form be grasped when the eye is clouded?

Ghana, translated here as "gross matter," refers to the practice of karmic dust that are expelled in the course of Jaina path. Therein, spiritual liberation is seen as a disengagement of spirit from materiality.

alpavyādhir yathā loke tadvikārair na bādhyate ceştate cestasiddhyartham vrttyaivāyam tathā hite

37. Just as one is not stopped in the world by the agitation inflicted by a minor illness and is propelled onward for the sake of obtaining one's desires, so it is also with this thought once set in motion.

This verse has a double meaning. On the one hand, Haribhadra is using the "struggle" metaphor as encouragement to persevere on the Jaina path of purification. At the same time, he seems to be warning the reader of the tenacity of karmic materiality.

112 RECONCILING YOGAS

yathāpravrttikarane carame'lpamalatvatah āsannagranthibhedasya samastam jāyate hy adaḥ

38. All of this happens in the final stage of activity, since there is little impurity as one comes close to severing the knot.

Granthi-bheda literally refers to undoing the bonds of karma, untying the knot, and releasing the karmic material from its deleterious adher- ence to the individual soul, or jīva.

apūrvāsannabhāvena vyabhicāraviyogatah tattvato'pūrvam evedam iti yogavido viduh

39. Owing to the absence of deviant behavior, the "unprecedented" is truly near. According to a wise one who knows Yoga, this is indeed of the very essence of the unprecedented.

Apūrva refers to the eighth gunasthāna, which is the beginning of the śreni, or pathway of highest spiritual achievement.

prathamām yad gunasthānam sāmānyenopavarņitam asyām tu tadavasthāyām mukhyam anvarthayogatah

40. What is commonly described as the first stage is this beginning state, in accordance with the meaning of Yoga. [In our reading of the text, this includes the first seven gunasthānas.]

TĀRĀ (PROTECTOR) YOGA (VERSES 41-48)

tārāyām tu manāk spastam niyamaś ca tathāvidhaķ anudvego hitārambhe jijnāsā tattvagocarā

41. In Tārā (Protector), it is somewhat clear that there are the observances (niyamas), as already described [Patañjali].

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 113

There is freedom from anxiety in setting up undertakings [Bhadanta Bhāskara], and the field of one's reality is desirous of knowledge [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta].

bhavaty asyām tathā'cchinnā prītir yogakathāsv alam śuddhayogeşu niyamād bahumānaś ca yogişu 42 So thus, in this stage, there is uninterrupted joy simply in discussions about Yoga. On account of the observances of the Yogas of purity, yogins are held in high esteem.

yathāśakty upacāraś ca yogavrddhiphalapradah yoginām niyamād eva tadanugrahadhīyutaḥ 43. When there is the power of doing service, the reward of Yoga increases. Indeed, from the observances of the yogins, one is connected to that sort of reflection that promotes goodness.

lābhāntaraphalaś cāsya śraddhāyukto hitodayaḥ kşudropadravahāniś ca śiştasammatatā tathā

44. And there are other fruits enjoyed in this stage. Yoked in faith and rising in wholesomeness, minor misfortunes are diminished, and one is respected by the learned.

bhayam nātīva bhavajam krtyahānir na cocite tathānābhogato'py uccair na cāpy anucitakriyā

45 Great fear does not arise and there is no abandonment of what should be done. Even when neglectful, these lofty ones do no improper action.

kṛtye'dhike'dhikagate jijnāsā lālasānvitā tulye nije tu vikale samtrāso dveşavarjitah 46 Situated in excellence and excellent in performance, one is accompanied by an eager longing, desirous of knowledge.

114 RECONCILING YOGAS

As if it were innate, one's fear is dispelled, and hatred is abandoned.

duhkharūpo bhavaḥ sarva ucchedo'sya kutah katham citrā satām pravrttiś ca sāśeā jnāyate katham

47. Every existence takes the form of suffering. How and when can this be stopped? This torturous round of existences- how is this known perfectly?

nāsmākam mahatī prajnā sumahān sāstravistarah śiştāh pramāņam iha tad ity asyām manyate sadā

48. "Our insight is not great. The range of sastra (texts) is profound. The learned are indeed the authorities on this." One constantly reflects upon these.

BALĀ (POWER) YOGA (VERSES 49-56)

sukhāsanasamāyuktam balāyām darśanam drdham parā ca tattvaśuśrūşā na ksepo yogagocarah 49 When firm within the stage called Balā (Power), one is prepared for comfortable posture [Patañjali] and is exceptionally desirous to hear about the truth [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta]. This field of Yoga has no distraction [Badhanta Bhāskara].

nāsyām satyām asattrsņā prakrtyaiva pravartate tadabhāvāc ca sarvatra sthitam eva sukhāsanam

50. There truly being no desire at this stage, even the various species of karma are inoperative, and, in the absence of that, there is only abiding in comfortable posture.

atvarāpūrvakam sarvam gamanam krtyam eva vā pranidhānasamāyuktam apāyaparihārataḥ 51. Unlike before, there is no hastiness in all of one's goings and activities.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 115

One is committed to devotion and avoids things perishable.

kāntakāntāsametasya divyageyaśrutau yathā yūno bhavati śuśrūşā tathā'syām tattvagocarā 52. Just as when a lover and his beloved are joined together, heavenly songs are heard, so the united one is desirous of hearing about this field of reality (tattva).

bodhāmbhahsrotasaś caişā sirātulyā satām matā abhāve'syāḥ śrutam vyartham asirāvanikūpavat

53 Know that the thought of truth is like a flowing river, in the absence of which, instruction is as useless as a well filled with dirt.

śrutābhāve'pi bhāve'syāḥ śubhabhāvapravrttitaķ phalam karmakşayākhyam syāt parabodhanibandhanam

54. Holding fast to an awareness of the ultimate, it is said that the destruction of the fruits of action may come about through the cultivation of a state of purity whether in the presence or absence of scripture.

śubhayogasamārambhe na kşepo'syām kadācana upāyakauśalam cāpi cāru tadvişayam bhavet 55. In undertaking this Yoga of purification, there is never any vacillation. And, indeed, the path of purity would be the beloved (object) sphere.

parişkāragataḥ prāyo vighāto'pi na vidyate avighātaś ca sāvadyaparihārān mahodayah 56. For one who has gone forth on this path of self-discipline,

116 RECONCILING YOGAS

obstacles are not known. This absence of obstacles, due to a shunning of objectionable things, is liberation.

DĪPRĀ (SHINING) YOGA (VERSES 57-64)

prāņāyāmavatī dīprā na yogotthānavaty alam tattvaśravanasamyuktā sūkșmabodhavivarjitā

57. Dīprā (Shining) is associated with breath control (Patañjali). This Yoga must not be interrupted even a little [Bhadanta Bhāskara]. One connects with hearing about the true nature of things [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta], [otherwise] one is deprived of subtle knowledge.

prāņebhyo'pi gurur dharmaķ satyām asyām asamśayam prāņāms tyajati dharmārtham na dharmam prāņasankațe

58. The teacher and the dharma are even [more important] than one's life. Of this truth there is no doubt. For the sake of dharma one will give up one's life rather than endanger the life of the dharma.

eka eva suhrd dharmo mrtam apy anuyāti yah śarīreņa samam nāśam sarvam anyat tu gacchati 59 There is only one good friend, dharma, who follows one at the time of death. Everything else goes with the body at the time of death.

ittham sadāśayopetas tattvaśravanatatparah prānebhyah paramam dharmam balād eva prapadyate 60. Thus one who has arrived at that abode, always hearing those highest teachings, goes forward from strength of breaths, indeed, to the highest dharma.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 117

kşārāmbhas tyāgato yadvan madhurodakayogataḥ bījam praroham ādhatte tadvat tattvaśruter nara

61. Just as a sprouting seed when placed in salty water is cast away but in fresh water flourishes, so also it is with a person who listens to truth.

kşārāmbhastulya iha ca bhavayogo'khilo mataḥ madhurodakayogena samā tattvaśrutis tathā

62 Indeed, a mind completely joined to worldly existence is like salty water, while hearing of reality is like joining with fresh water.

atas tu niyamād eva kalyāņam akhilam nrņām gurubhaktisukhopetam lokadvayahitāvaham 63. Hence, it is due to observances alone that people become completely wholesome. One who has become well established in devotion to the guru brings benefit to the two worlds (i.e., the here and the hereafter).

gurubhaktiprabhāvena tirthakrddarśanam matam samāpattyādibhedena nirvāņaikanibandhanam

64. Through the power of guru devotion the vision of tirthankara [ford makers] is seen. Through forms of meditation and so forth, one holds hast to nirvāņa.

samyagghetvādibhedena loke yas tattvanirņayah vedyasamvedyapadatah sūksmabodhaḥ sa ucyate 65. In this world one who has arrived at the truth through discrimination of true causes, and so forth, is said to possess subtle understanding from knowing what is to be known.

118 RECONCILING YOGAS

A CRITIQUE OF TANTRA (VERSES 66-85)

bhavāmbhodhisamuttārāt karmavajravibhedataḥ jñeyavyāpteś ca kārtsnyena sūkşmatvam nāyam atra tu

66. "Through deliverance from the ocean of worldly existence and shattering of the adamantine karmas, one has obtained entirely what is it to be known." Still, this is not the essence of the subtle in its entirety.

avedyasamvedyapadam yasmād āsu tatholbaņam pakşicchāyājalacarapravrttyābham atah param 67. Those who step into licentiousness are of excessive manner. Because of this, the ultimate [for them] resembles the flickering of a bird's shadow moving across the water.

apāyasaktimālinyam sūksmabodhavibandhakrt naitadvato'yam tattattve kadācid upajāyate

68. Subtle knowledge is obstructed by the dirtiness of destructive power. From this and in this teaching, nothing is ever born. The first Sanskrit compound of this śloka is cleverly complex. First, the Sanskrit term śakti means "power" and also serves as a generic term for the creative power and essence of the Goddess, in all of her forms. Hindu tantric cults were most often centered around a specific goddess in her tantric manifestation. Apāya can mean "wayward," "seductive," or "destructive." The term malinyam is being translated here as "dirti- ness," but its use by Haribhadra in this critique of tantric practice is intentionally suggestive of the term mālinī. Mālinī literally refers to one who wears a garland, but it also is an epithet for the tantric goddess, Durgā. The phrase apāyaśaktimālinyam could well be translated as "a garland of destructive power," which is suggestive of the image of Kālī, another important tantric goddess. Thus in a single phrase, Haribhadra critiques the "left-handed" tantric practices that involve sex or the tak- ing of life while simultaneously making thinly veiled references to two of the more important tantric goddesses.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 119

apāyadarśanam tasmāc chrutadīpān na tāttvikam tadābhālambanam tv asya tathā pāpe pravrttitah

69. Therefore, according to the illumination of scripture, this wayward perspective is not in accordance with the truth. Although it resembles a foundation, indeed, from it only sin is generated.

ato'nyad uttarāsv asmāt pāpe karmāgaso'pi hi taptalohapadanyāsatulyā vrttih kvacid yadi

70. Now from this, other than in the higher levels, there certainly is sin, due to the fault of karma. If one does this at any time, such a thought would be like putting one's foot on a hot iron.

vedyasamvedyapadatah samvegātiśayād iti caramaiva bhavaty eşā punar durgatyayogatah

71. From stepping into that which is sanctioned arises intense preeminence. It is said that this, indeed, is the ultimate, not connecting again with distress.

Again, within this critique of the tantric path, Haribhadra makes a thinly veiled reference to the important tantric goddess, Durgā, by making use of the term durgati, meaning "distress."

avedyasamvedyapadam apadam paramārthah padam tu vedyasamvedyapadam eva hi yoginām

72. Stepping into licentiousness is not stepping toward the highest goal. For, indeed, only stepping into sanctioned behavior is a step to be taken by yogins.

120 RECONCILING YOGAS

vedyam samvedyate yasminn apāyādinibandhanam tathāpravrttibuddhyāpi stryādy āgamaviśuddhayā

73. In one who holds fast to knowing what is to be known, such as the nature of destruction, and so on, the intellect turns away from women, and so on, in accordance with the purity of the scriptures.

tatpadam sādhvavasthānād bhinnagranthyādilakșanam anvarthayogatas tantre vedyasamvedyam ucyate

74. That stage [that arises] from being situated in goodness, marked by different text holders, conforming to meaning derived from Yoga in the tantra, is called "knowing what is to be known."

avedyasamvedyapadam viparītam ato matam bhavābhinandivişayam samāropasamākulam

75 Stepping into licentiousness is considered the opposite. The one who rejoices in worldly existence is greatly agitated by involvement with objects.

kşudro lābharatir dīno matsarī bhayavān sathah ajño bhavābhinandī syān nişphalārambhasangatah

76. The lover of worldly existence is vile, finding pleasure in acquiring things, wretched, wicked, filled with fear, deceitful, engaged in undertakings that bear no fruit.

ity asatpariņāmānuviddho bodho na sundaraḥ tatsangād eva niyamād vişasamprktakānnavat

77 Being full of negative transformations, such an attitude is not pretty. Even associating with it is invariably like mixing food with poison.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 121

etadvanto'ta eveha viparyāsaparā narāḥ hitāhitavivekāndhāḥ khidyante sāmpratekșiņah

78. Indeed, because of that, such deluded persons are blind when it comes to discriminating between right and wrong. Their ability to see correctly is suppressed.

janmamrtyujarāvyādhirogaśokādyupadrutam vīkşamāņā api bhavam nodvijante'timohatah 79 Despite seeing existence as oppressed by birth, death, old age, disease, infirmity, sorrow, and so forth, nonetheless, because of delusion, they do not shrink from it.

kukrtyam krtyam ābhāti krtyam cākrtyavat sadā duķkhe sukhadhiyākrstāḥ kacchūkaņdūyakādivat

80 They always see evil deeds as something to be done, and do things that ought not be done. They see pleasure in suffering, as if drawn to scratch a scab.

yathā kandūyaneşv eşām dhīr na kacchūnivartate bhogāngeşu tathaiteșām na tadicchāparikşaye

81. Just as in such itching there is no thought of the impact on the scabs, so for those ensconsed in enjoyment there is no abating of desire.

ātmānam pāśayanty ete sadā'sacceștayā bhrśam pāpadhūlyā jadāh kāryam avicāryaiva tattvatah

82. They bind themselves, violent with desire, always in darkness, rendered stupid by the dust of their sin, never considering truth.

122 RECONCILING YOGAS

dharmabījam param prāpya mānuşyam karmabhūmişu na satkarmakrşāv asya prayatante'lpamedhasa

83. Having obtained the highest seed of dharmas among the human realms of karma, they do not strive with even a little sacrifice on this earth for true action.

badiśāmişavat tucche kusukhe dāruņodaye saktās tyajanti saccestām dhig aho dārunam tamaḥ 84. Like baited meat on a fishhook they are addicted to vanity, decadent pleasures, and cruel behavior. Cruel and lethargic, they renounce the true object of desire. What a pity!

avedyasamvedyapadam āndhyam durgatipātakrt satsangāgamayogena jeyam etan mahātmabhiḥ 85 Stepping into licentiousness is the blindness that makes one fall into unhappiness. This is to be overcome by great souls through the Yoga of good company and sacred doctrine.

A CRITIQUE OF FALLACIOUS ARGUMENT (KUTARKA) (VERSES 86-97)

jīyamāne ca niyamād etasmims tattvato nrņām nivartate svato'tyantam kutarkavişamagrahah

86. Recognizing the incongruity of fallacious argument and how people are truly oppressed by it, one turns away from it entirely of one's own accord by means of the observances.

bodharogaḥ śamāpayah śraddhābhango'bhimānakrt kutarkaś cetaso vyktam bhāvaśatrur anekadhā

87. Fallacious argument produces in the mind sickness of intellect, destruction of equanimity, disturbance of faith and cultivation of pride. In many ways, it is the enemy of existence.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 123

kutarke'bhiniveśas tan na yukto muktivādinām yuktaḥ punaķ śrute śīle samādhau ca mahātmanām

88. The proponents of liberation are not tied to the pursuit of these fallacious arguments. However, the great souled ones are joined to scripture, good action, and samādhi.

bījam cāsya param siddham avandhyam sarvayoginām parārthakaraņam yena pariśuddham ato'tra ca 89 The seed of this is the unbounded, higher power of all yogins. Through it, higher purpose is crafted. Purity comes from this here, indeed.

avidyāsangatāķ prāyo vikalpāķ sarva eva yat tadyojanātmakaś caişa kutarkaḥ kim anena tat 90. Just as all suppositions (vikalpas) are largely associated with ignorance (avidyā), so fallacious argument (kutarka) has for itself such a bond. How can that be free from fault?

jātiprāyaś ca sarvo'yam pratītiphalabādhitah hastī vyāpādayatyuktau prāptāprāptavikalpavat 91. This destroys existence and everything, and is incompatible with the evidence of faith. It is said that "an elephant is killed." It is like imagining that this either has happened or has not happened.

This might be an allusion to Yudhisthira's famous lie in the Mahābhārata.

svabhāvottaraparyanta eşo'sāv api tattvataḥ nārvāgdrggocaro nyāyād anyathā'nyena kalpitah 92. "This indeed here is the truth, the essence of the outer edge." The field is not seen when approached by faulty logic. It is accomplished in some other way.

124 RECONCILING YOGAS

ato'gnih kledayaty ambusannidhau dahatīti ca ambv agnisannidhau tatsvābhāvyād ity udite tayo 93. "With respect to the nature of the proximity of water and fire: when near, fire wets and when near, water burns." In saying this about the two,

kośapānād rte jnānopāyo nāsty atra yuktita viprakrsto'py ayaskāntah svārthakrd drśyate yatah 94. ... no method of knowledge is engaged here -as in the norm that comes from imbibing from the store- room [of wisdom]. Thus based on one's own interests, one will see what one wishes, even if far removed [from the truth].

drştāntamātram sarvatra yad evam sulabham kșitau etatpradhānas tat kena svanītyāpodyate hy ayam 95. This is only ever an analogy; what is easy to grasp gets worn out. Who brings about the origin of things? This indeed is moistened by one's own moral behavior.

dvicandrasvapnavijnānanidarśanabalotthitaḥ nirālambanatām sarvajnānānām sādhayan yathā 96. Making something firm out of all knowledges which lack support is like [assuming] that strong evidence is produced by the perception of two moons in a dream.

sarvam sarvatra cāpnoti yad asmād asamañjasam pratītibādhitam loke tad anena na kiñcana

97 "Everything everywhere is obtained." That which comes from this is unbecoming (does not con- form to reality). This is not compatible with what is evident in the world. By this, there is not anything at all.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 125

THE IMPORTANCE OF ACTION, SCRIPTURE, AND FAITH (VERSES 98-101)

atīndriyārthasiddhyartham yathālocitakāriņām prayāsab śuşkatarkasya na cāsau gocarah kvacit 98 For the sake of going beyond the senses, and for the sake of power, thus actions are considered. Exertion at barren cogitation yields nothing whatsoever in this field.

gocaras tv āgamasyaiva tatas tadupalabdhitah candrasūryoparāgādisamvādyāgamadaraśanāt 99. But the field of the scriptures [allows for] the understanding of this. After viewing the scriptures, one comes into alignment, as in the eclipse of the sun by the moon.

etatpradhānaķ sacchrāddhaķ sīlavān yogatatparah jānāty atīndriyān arthāms tathā cāha mahāmatih 100. The origin of this is true faith. The one possessing morality [attains] that highest Yoga. Thus it is true that the great-minded one knows goals beyond the senses.

āgamenānumānena yogābhyāsarasena ca tridhā prakalpayan prajnām labhate tattvam uttamam 101. Through scripture, inferences, and the essence of Yoga practice, they succeed at threefold wisdom and obtain the highest reality (tattva).

THE ONENESS OF OMNISCIENCE (VERSES 102-109)

na tattvato bhinnamatāķ sarvajnā bahavo yatah mohas tadadhimuktīnām tadbhedāśrayaņam tatab 102. Since the many omniscient ones do not have divided thoughts regarding reality,

126 RECONCILING YOGAS

it is thus a delusion to be inclined to regard that it has many distinctions.

sarvajno nāma yah kaścit pāramārthika eva hi sa eka eva sarvatra vyaktibhede'pi tattvatah 103. Anyone who is called omniscient has obtained the highest purpose indeed. He is essentially one everywhere, though there may be differences in individuality.

pratipattis tatas tasya sāmānyenaiva yāvatām te sarve'pi tam āpannā iti nyāyamatih parā 104. Logicians would conclude that inasmuch as they have attained omniscience, they all have something in common.

viśeşas tu punas tasya kārtsnyenāsarvadarśibhiķ sarvair na jñāyate tena tam āpanno na kaścana 105. On the other hand, the distinction with respect to one [who has acquired omniscience] is that nothing in particular is unknown by all of those who have the right understanding.

tasmāt sāmānyato'py enam abhyupaiti ya eva hi nirvyājam tulya evāsau tenāmśenaiva dhīmatām 106. Indeed, they say, "Thus in entering into this state [of omniscience] there is a commonality." For a wise one, the undisputed [nature of Omniscience] is always the same.

yathaivaikaşya nrpater bahavo'pi samāśritāh dūrāsannādibhede'pi tadbhrtyāh sarva eva te

107. Just as one king has many dependents, divided according to whether they are near or far, and so on, nonetheless, all of them are indeed servants.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 127

sarvajñatattvābhedena tathā sarvajñavādinah sarve tattattvagā jñeyā bhinnācārasthitā api

108. So also there is no distinction in the essence of omniscience. The definition of omniscience is that all principles are known, and one's comportment and discernment are stable.

na bheda eva tattvena sarvajñānām mahātmanām tathā nāmādibhede'pi bhāvyam etan mahātmabhih 109. In essence, there is no distinction between the great souls who have omniscience, despite distinctions of name, and so on. This is to be perceived by the great souls.

DEVOTION TO ONE OR MANY GODS (VERSES 110-114)

citrācitravibhāgena yac ca deveșu varņitā bhaktiņ sadyogaśātreşu tato'py evam idam sthitam 110. Devotion can be directed to either one god or many gods. Just as the devotion itself remains the same regardless, so also omniscience is single, regardless of who or how many have obtained it.

samsārişu hi deveşu bhaktis tatkāyagāminām tadatīte punas tattve tadatītārthāyinām

111. Devotion to the worldly deities is pursued by those in the body. In essence, they are gone again, gone with the purpose of travelling on [and being reborn].

citrā cādyeșu tadrāgatadanyadveșasangatā acitrā carame tv eșā śamasārā'khilaiva hi

112. In variegated [worship], one's days are linked with desire and repulsion. In the focused [worship], devoted to one [ideal], there is tranquility, power, and a sense of totality.

128 RECONCILING YOGAS

samsāraiņām hi devānām yasmāc citrāņy anekadhā sthityaiśvaryaprabhāvādyaiņ sthānāni pratiśāsanam 113. Since there are variations of numerous sorts among the deities of this mundane existence, they are placed in their ranks according to their duration, power, eminence, and so forth.

tasmāt tatsādhanopāyo niyamāc citra eva hi na bhinnanagarāņam syād ekam vartma kadācana

114. Therefore, based on observances, the disciplines and practices [exhibit] distinct differences. There could never be a single road to different cities.

THE NATURE OF SACRIFICIAL ACTION (VERSES 115-118)

iştāpūrtāni karmāņi loke citrābhisandhitah nānāphalāni sarvāņi drstavyāni vicakşaņaih 115. That all pious works and worldly actions bring about different fruits appropriate to the various motivations is to be seen through one's own eyes.

rtvigbhir mantrasamskārair brāhmaņānām samakșatah antarvedyām hi yad dattam iştam tad abhidhīyate 116. For sacrifice is defined as that which is given within the sacred ground in the presence of brahmins, along with ceremonial mantras and sacrifices offered at the right time.

vāpīkūpatadāgāni devatāyatanāni ca annapradānam etat tu pūrtam tattvavido viduķ 117. But the wise know that this is the true essence of pious works:

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 129

construction of wells, ponds, and tanks, and sanctuaries for the gods and the offering of food. This verse seems to speak from a sensitivity to issues of "social justice," as there is a suggestion that public works that benefit the social com- munity are in some sense more meritorious than solely making symbolic offerings in pious rituals, as discussed in the preceding verse.

abhisandheh phalam bhinnam anuşthāne same'pi hi paramo'tah sa eveha vārīva krşikarmaņi

118. In the same religious practice, it is the intention that causes a different fruit; this [intention] is of greatest importance, like water to agriculture.

THE CENTRALITY OF INDIVIDUALITY (VERSE 119)

rāgādibhir ayam ceha bhidyate'nekadhā nrņām nānāphalopabhoktīnām tathā buddhyādibhedataķ

119. People differ in various ways due to their desires, and so forth. They enjoy various fruits according to differences in their intellectual dispositions, and so on.

INTELLECT, KNOWLEDGE, AND NON-DELUDEDNESS (VERSES 120-128)

buddhir jñānam asammohas trividho bodha işyate tadbhedāt sarvakarmāņi bhidyante sarvadehinām

120. A threefold awakening is proclaimed: intellect, knowledge, and non-deludedness. All actions of all beings are to be distinguished on the basis of that distinction. Note that the triplicity of buddhi, jñāna, and asammoha (intellect, knowledge, and non-deludedness) stands in contrasting position to the tantric triplicity of icchā, śakti, and kriyā (desire, power, and action).

130 RECONCILING YOGAS

indriyārthāśrayā buddhir jñānam tv āgamapūrvakam sadanuşthānavac caitad asammoho'bhidhīyate

121. Intellect (buddhi) is the support for the objects of the senses, while knowledge (jñāna) is derived from the ancient scripture. Herein, non-deludedness (asammoha) is described as "true religious practice."

ratnopalambhatajjñānatatprāptyādi yathākraman ihodāharaņam sādhu jñeyam buddhyādisiddhaye

122. Knowledge is like perceiving a jewel; the next step is obtaining it. Saying it is good, the intellect realizes it is to be known in order to obtain success.

ādaraḥ karaņe prītir avighnah sampadāgamaḥ jijňāsā tajjnasevā ca sadanusthānalakșaņam 123. The mark of true religious practice is joy in exerting oneself, an absence of obstacles, proficiency in scripture, desire to know, and homage to the knowledgeable.

buddhipūrvāņi karmāņi sarvāņy eveha dehinām samsāraphaladāny eva vipākavirasatvataḥ 124. All actions performed by a living creature based on prior understanding certainly yield the fruits of samsāra, owing to the unpleasantness of the ripening.

jñānapūrvāņi tāny eva muktyangam kulayoginām śrutaśaktisamāveśād anubandhaphalatvataḥ

125. By the Kula Yogis, these are considered as adjuncts to liberation. This can be seen from their combination of texts and [teachings on] power, and from the fruits of their attachment.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 131

asammohasamutthāni tv ekāntapariśuddhitah nirvāņaphaladāny āśu bhavātītārthayāyinām 126. But the taking up of non-deludedness leads to singular purity; it gives the fruit of nirvāna quickly to those traveling with the purpose of going beyond worldly existence.

prākrteşv iha bhāveşu yeşām ceto nirutsukam bhavabhogaviraktās te bhavātītārthayāyinah 127. Those who are indifferent to manifestations of worldly existence and hold no interest in enjoying worldly existence travel with the purpose of going beyond worldly existence.

eka eva tu mārgo'pi teşām śamaparāyaņah avasthābhedabhede'pi jaladhau tīramārgavat 128. For those whose goal is calmness, there is indeed only one path. On this distinct [path] there abides no distinction like the path on the shore of a lake.

THE NATURE OF NIRVĀŅA (VERSES 129-133)

samsārātītatattvam tu param nirvāņasamjñitam taddhy ekam eva niyamāc chabdabhede'pi tattvatah

129. The highest essence of going beyond samsāra is called "nirvāna." The wisdom gained from discipline is singular in essence, though heard of in different ways.

sadāśivaķ parambrahma siddhātmā tathateti ca śabdais tad ucyate'nvarthād ekam evaivamādibhiķ

130. "Eternal Siva, Highest Brahman, Accomplished Soul, Suchness": With these words one refers to it, though the meaning is one in all the various forms.

132 RECONCILING YOGAS

tallakşanāvisamvādān nirābādham anāmayam nişkriyam ca param tattvam yato janmādyayogatah 131. The mark of that highest essence (teaching) is, with no contradiction, free from disturbance, disease, and action, by which one is freed from birth, and so on.

jñāte nirvānatattve'sminn asammohena tattvataḥ prekşāvatām na tadbhaktau vivāda upapadyate 132. Through calmness and from the principles, one is established in knowledge of the essence of nirvāna. Among the considerate, there is no dispute regarding devotion to this [nirvāņa].

sarvajnapūrvakam caitan niyamād eva yatsthitam āsanno'yam rjur mārgas tadbhedas tat katham bhavet 133. The one who has been situated in omniscience has done so due to discipline. The ones near to this [have found] the straight path. How could there be any distinction?

THE NEED TO RESPECT MULTIPLE TEACHINGS (VERSES 134-152)

citrā tu deśanaiteşām syād vineyānuguņyata yasmād ete mahātmāno bhavavyādhibhişagvarāh 134. The variety of teaching is suited according to who is being taught. These great souls are the best healers of the sickness known as "worldly existence."

yasya yena prakāreņa bījādhānādisambhavaḥ sānubandho bhavaty ete tathā tasya jagus tatah

135. Just as it may be said that grain, and so forth, is born from the seed in a particular way, so it may be said of the movement of [omniscient ones].

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 133

ekāpi deśanaiteşām yadvā śrotrvibhedatah acintyapuņyasāmarthyāt tathā citrā'vabhāsate

136. Perhaps the teaching is one but there are various people who hear it. On account of the inconceivable merit it bestows, it shines forth in various ways.

yathābhavyam ca sarveşām upakāro'pi tatkrtah jāyate'vandhyatā'py evam asyāh sarvatra susthitā 137. This auspicious [teaching] provides benefit for everyone. Indeed, the essence of freedom is born joyously of it at all times.

yadvā tattannayāpekșā tattatkālādiyogataḥ rşibhyo deśanā citrā tanmūlaişāpi tattvatah 138. The root of the variety of teaching taught by the seers, though stemming from essentials, can be attributed to various perspectives on conduct or from time, and so forth.

tadabhiprāyam ajnātvā na tato'rvāgdrśām satām yujyate tatpratikşepo mahānarthakarah parah 139. Not having known the intention, it is not possible to assess the status; there would be no purpose in forumlating objections regarding [the thought of] the great one who has gone beyond.

niśānāthapratikșepo yathā'ndhānām asangataḥ tadbhedaparikalpaś ca tathaivārvāgdrśām ayam 140. Just as the blind are not inclined to dispute with one who possesses sight, so also the settling of such distinctions is not to be made from a lower point of view.

134 RECONCILING YOGAS

na yujyate pratiksepa sāmānyasyāpi tatsatām āryāpavādas tu punar jihvāchedādhiko mataķ

141. Hence it is not proper to object to words of reconciliation. Refuting or reviling noble people, it seems, would be worse than cutting one's own tongue.

kudrstyādivan no santo bhāşante prāyaśah kvacit niścitam sāravac caiva kintu sattvārthakrt sadā

142. Saintly persons never speak like evil-minded people. They speak definitively and meaningfully, but always acting with good intention.

niścayo'tīndriyārthasya yogijnānād rte ca na ato'py atrāndhakalpānām vivādena na kiñcana

143. There can be no certainty with regard to objects beyond the senses without yogic knowledge, therefore, there is nothing [to be gained] here through a contest of blind alternatives.

na cānumānavişaya eșo'rthas tattvato matah na cāto niścayah samyag anyatrāpy āha dhīdhanah 144. These essential matters are not objects that can be inferred with the mind and, moreover, there is no distinct certainty otherwise. Thus it has been said by one gifted with wisdom.

yatnenānumito'py arthaķ kuśalair anumātrbhih abhiyuktatarair anyair anyathaivopapādyate 145. With effort, even a position inferred through the proper establishment of premises may certainly be approached in another way, being assailed by opponents.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 135

jñāyeran hetuvādena padārthā yady atīndriyāḥ kālenaitāvatā prājnaih krtah syāt teșu niścaya

146. If the meaning of those things beyond the senses could be known through a statement of reason, then by now it would have been ascertained by the scholars.

na caitad evam yat tasmāc chuşkatarkagraho mahān mithyābhimānahetutvāt tyājya eva mumukşubhih 147. But since this is not the case, then those great graspers at unprofitable argument due to pride and ignorance should be renounced by those desirous of liberation.

grahaḥ sarvatra tattvena mumukșūņām asangataḥ muktau dharmā api prāyas tyaktavyāḥ kim anena tat

148. In reality, those desirous of liberation should have no attachment to grasping anywhere. In liberation, even dharmas, for the most part, are to be renounced. Why not this?

tadatra mahatām vartma samāśritya vicakșanaih vartitavyam yathānyāyam tadatikramavarjitaih

149. Thus the path of the great ones is to be depended upon by the clear-sighted ones. Such logic is to be carried out (observed) by those avoiding transgressions.

parapīdeha sūksmāpi varjanīyā prayatnatah tadvat tadupakāre'pi yatitavyam sadaiva hi

150. Even the slightest of pain to others is to be avoided with great effort. Along with this one should strive to be helpful at all times.

136 RECONCILING YOGAS

guravo devatā viprā yatayaś ca tapodhanāh pūjanīyā mahātmānaḥ suprayatnena cetasā 151. Teachers, gods, the learned, the renouncers, and the doers of austerities: these great souls should be revered with a mind well applied.

pāpavatsv api cātyantam svakarmanihateşv alam anukampaiva sattveşu nyāyyā dharmo'yam uttamah 152. Even in regard to those with excessive sin who have been cut down by their own actions, one should have compassion for those beings, according to the logic of this highest dharma.

STHIRĀ (FIRM) YOGA (VERSES 153-161)

krtam atra prasangena prakrtam prastumo'dhunā tatpunah pañcamī tāvad yogadrstir mahodayā 153. We are finished now with our digression. Now we will resume what was under discussion. We return to the fifth, the Yoga view that leads to liberation.

sthirāyām darśanam nityam pratyāhāravad eva ca krtyam abhrāntam anagham sūkşmabodhasamanvitam 154. In the Sthirā (Firm) view, one is always as if in a state of sensory withdrawal [Patañjali]. One's actions are faultless and unmuddied [Bhadanta Bhāskara], and one is endowed with subtle awakening [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta].

bāladhūlīgrhakrīdātulyā'syām bhāti dhīmatām tamogranthivibhedena bhavaceştākhilaiva hi 155. Through the undoing of the knot of lethargy, the entire struggle of worldly existence is perceived by the wise as like children playing with a house made of sand.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 137

māyā marīci gandharva nagara svapna sannibhān bāhyān paśyati tattvena bhāvān śruta vivekatah 156. From discrimination gleaned from scripture, and with truth, one sees all external existence as if it resembles a dream, the city of the Gandharvas, a magician's illusion.

abāhyam kevelam jyotir nirābādham anāmayam yad atra tat param tattvam śeşah punar upaplavah 157. Here the only thing resembling truth is the interior, singular, undisturbed, unnameable light. Anything else is merely a disturbance.

evam vivekino dhīrāķ pratyāhāraparās tathā dharmabādhāparityāgayatnavantaś ca tattvataḥ 158. Thus those who are firm in their discrimination excel at detatchment, renouncing obstacles to dharma and exerting genuine effort.

na hy alakşamīsakhī lakşmīr yathānandāya dhīmatām tathā pāpasakhā loke dehinām bhogavistarah 159. For the wise, wealth does not bring happiness, because its friend is poverty. So should it be for the many extensive enjoyments of the body, which in the world have sin as their companion.

dharmād api bhavan bhogah prāyo'narthāya dehinām candanād api sambhūto dahaty eva hutāśanah 160. Even enjoyment arising from dharma is worthless for the path of a living being. Even if it is arising from the best of woods (sandalwood), it burns and is consumed by fire.

138 RECONCILING YOGAS

bhogāt tadicchāviratiķ skandhabhārāpanuttaye skandhāntarasamāropas tatsamskāravidhānataḥ

161. Trying to stop desire through enjoyment is like removing a burden from one shoulder and placing it on the other shoulder. Like that, karmic residue (samskāra) is created.

KĀNTĀ (PLEASING) YOGA (VERSES 162-169)

kāntāyām etad anyeşām prītaye dhāraņā parā ato'tra nānyam unnityam mīmāmsā'sti hitodayā 162. In Kāntā (Pleasing), there is a higher concentration [Patañjali] for the sake of compassion toward others. Pleasure is never found in externals [Bhadanta Bhāskara], and a beneficial reflection arises [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta].

asyām tu dharmamāhātmyāt samācāraviśuddhitaḥ priyo bhavati bhūtānām dharmaikāgramanās tathā 163. In this state, due to the efficacy of dharma, one's conduct becomes purified. One is beloved among beings and single-mindedly devoted to dharma.

śrutadharme mano nityam kāyas tvasyānyaceșțite atas tv ākşepakajnānān na bhogā bhavahetavaķ 164. With mind always fixed on scriptural dharma, it is only the body that is busy with other things. Thus renouncing due to knowledge, enjoyments are not causes for a return to worldly existence.

māyāmbhas tattvatah paśyann anudvignastato drutam tanmadhyena prayāty eva yathā vyāghātavarjitah 165. Just as in seeing the truth behind the illusion of water one's mind is put at ease and one can go forth quickly through, so it is with avoiding obstacles.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 139

bhogān svarūpataḥ paśyams tathā māyodakopamān bhuñjāno'pi hy asangah san prayāty eva param padam 166. Seeing the true form of enjoyment is like the illusion of water. Being detached even while enjoying, one goes forth to the highest step.

bhogatattvasya tu punar na bhavodadhilanghanam māyodakadrdhāveśas tena yātīha kaḥ pathā

167. Again, one for whom enjoyments are real never crosses over the ocean of existence. After firmly immersing oneself in the waters of illusion, how is one able to go on the path?

sa tatraiva bhavodvigno yathā tisthaty asamśayam mokşamārge'pi hi tathā bhogajambālamohitah 168. Even when distressed with worldly existence, such a person stays there without doubt. Thus it is in regard to the path of liberation for the one deluded by the strength of what is born of enjoyment.

mīmāmsābhāvato nityam na moho'syām yato bhavet atas tattvasamāveśāt sadaiva hi hitodayah 169. Here there is always reflection on the nature of existence, and hence there could be no delusion. Thus there is a commitment to (penetration into) truth, and benefits always arise.

PRABHĀ (RADIANT) YOGA (VERSES 170-177)

dhyānapriyā prabhā prāyo nāsyām rug ata eva hi tattvapratipattiyutā viśeşeņa śamānvitā 170. In Prabhā (Radiant), one frequently practices meditation [Patañjali] that is pleasing. In this there is no suffering [Bhadanta Bhāskara].

140 RECONCILING YOGAS

It is accompanied by knowledge of the truth [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta] and a remarkable calmness.

dhyānajam sukham asyām tu jitamanmathasādhanam vivekabalanirjātam śamasāram sadaiva hi

171. In this, happiness is born of meditation, as well as the discipline of conquering amorous passion, the emergence of strong discrimination, and the power of constant serenity.

sarvam paravaśam dubkham sarvam ātmavaśam sukham etad uktam samāsena lakşanam sukhaduhkhayoh 172. "All suffering [is dependent on] externals; all happiness [is dependent on] oneself." This saying, in brief, gives the characteristics of pleasure and pain.

puņyāpekşam api hy evam sukham paravaśam sthitam tataś ca duhkham evaitat tallakşananiyogatah 173. Even what appears to be merit in fact is situated in external happiness. Hence, it is actually pain, in accordance with this characteristic.

dhyānam ca nirmale bodhe sadaiva hi mahātmanām kşīņaprāyamalam hema sadā kalyāņam eva hi 174. Due to their intellect being purified, the great souls meditate. Gold with diminished impurity is always pretty indeed.

satpravrttipadam cehāsangānușthānasangatam mahāpathaprayāņam yad anāgāmipadāvaham 175. This truly perfect stage allows one to stand unattached in the midst of attachment.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 141

The one who follows this great path arrives at the stage of not returning.

praśāntavāhitāsamjñam visabhāgaparikşayaḥ sivavartma dhruvādhveti yogibhir gīyate hy ada 176. By the yogins this is called peace bearing and having no share in destruction, [it is the] auspicious path, and the constant course.

etat prasādhayaty āśu yad yogy asyām vyavasthitaḥ etat padāvahaişaiva tat tatraitadvidām matā 177. This brings success quickly for the yogin established in this. This indeed produces the stage there. This is the thought of the wise.

PARĀ (HIGHEST) YOGA (VERSES 178-186)

samādhinişthā tu parā tadāsangavivarjitā sātmīkrtapravrttiś ca taduttīrņāśayeti ca 178. But the Parā (Highest) is samādhi [Patañjali]. It frees one from attachment [Bhadanta Bhāskara]. One manifests all actions as not different from that of the Self [Bandhu Bhagavaddatta]. One resides in a state of liberation.

nirācārapado hy asyām aticāravivarjitaḥ ārūdhārohaņābhāvagativat tv asya ceșțitam 179. The behavior of such a one is like the manner of one who, having climbed up [a mountain], no longer is in the state of climbing.

ratnādiśikşādrgbhyo'nyā yathā drk tanniyojane tathācārakriyā'py asya saivānyā phalabhedatah 180. Just as one who is trained in looking at jewels and so forth is different from the one who is merely enjoined to look at them,

142 RECONCILING YOGAS

so the action and conduct of such a one are different due to the distinction of the fruit it bears.

tanniyogān mahātmeha krtakrtyo yathā bhavet tathā'yam dharmasamnyāsaviniyogān mahāmunih 181. Just as the order followed by the great soul who has done what is to be done (would be unique), so it is for this great sage, due to the order established by the renunciation of dharma.

dvitīyāpūrvakaraņe mukhyo'yam upajāyate kevalaśrīs tataś cāsya nihsapatnā sadodayā 182. This culmination is born of the second apūrvakarana (that is, the Elimination Ladder). This has the radiance of kevala (perfect knowledge). Freedom from all adversity arises.

sthitaķ śitāmśuvaj jīvah prakrtyā bhāvaśuddhayā candrikāvac ca vijnānam tadāvaraņam abhravat

183. With the various species of karma in a purified state, the jīva becomes established in cool, moonlike radiance. With respect to this, ordinary consciousness is like a cloud concealing the moonlight.

ghātikarmābhrakalpam taduktayogānilāhateh yadā'paiti tadā śrīmān jāyate jñānakevalī 184. It is said that at the time when the clouds of destructive karma are themselves destroyed by the wind of Yoga, that is the escape. Then the glory of singular knowledge is born.

kşīņadoşo'tha sarvajnah sarvalabdhiphalānvitah param parārtham sampādya toto yogāntam aśnute 185. With faults eliminated, omniscient, endowed with the fruits of all that can be accomplished, with things to be done now only for the sake of others, such a one attains the end of Yoga.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 143

tatra drāg eva bhagavān ayogād yogasattamāt bhavavyādhikşayam krtvā nirvāņam labhate param

186. Therein the blessed one quickly attains highest nirvāna through the Yoga of Total Freedom, the best of Yogas, having accomplished the cessation of the ailment of worldly existence.

THE NATURE OF LIVING LIBERATION (VERSES 187-192)

vyādhimuktaķ pumān loke yādrśas tādrśo hy ayam nābhāvo na ca no mukto vyādhināvyādhito na ca

187. A person liberated from an ailment is still in the world. Like that, so is this [liberated person]. It is not that he is nonexistent; it is not that he is not liberated; nor that he had not been afflicted with an ailment.

bhava eva mahāvyādhir janmamrtyuvikāravān vicitramohajananas tīvrarāgādivedanaḥ

188. Existence, indeed, is a great illness, comprised of birth, death, and disease. It produces various forms of delusion and causes the sensation of excessive desire, and so forth.

mukhyo'yam ātmano'nādicitrakarmanidānajaḥ tathānubhavasiddhatvāt sarvaprāņabhrtām iti

189. This is the chief (ailment) of the soul: giving birth without beginning to the cause of various karmas. All living beings understand this experience.

etanmuktaś ca mukto'pi mukhya evopapadyate janmādidoșavigamāt tadadoșatvasangateh 190. When liberated from this, one reaches the prime state of liberation.

144 RECONCILING YOGAS

From the cessation of the fault of birth, and so forth, one encounters that state of faultlessness.

tatsvabhāvopamarde'pi tattatsvābhāvyayogataḥ tasyaiva hi tathābhāvāt tadadoșatvasangatih

191. In the cessation of that essence (of rebirth, etc.), and from union with the nonexistence of that, he has indeed been [freed] from worldly existence and joined to the state of faultlessness.

svabhāvo'sya svabhāvo yan nijā sattaiva tattvataḥ bhāvāvadhir ayam yukto nānyathā'tiprasangatah 192. The essence of this is essence, meaning innate existence derived from its principle. Being joined to this leads to the termination of worldly existence. It is not otherwise due to an "unwarrantable stretch of a rule."

A CRITIQUE OF SARVĀSTIVĀDIN BUDDHISM (VERSES 193-197)

anantarakşaņābhūtir ātmabhūteha yasya tu tayā'virodhān nityo'sau syād asan vā sadaiva hi 193. The defender of endless nonexistence would in fact defend the existence of the Self, because, by this argument, there is no resistance to the notion of eternalness: it would be either nonexistent or be always.

sa eva na bhavaty etad anyathābhavatītivat viruddham tannayād eva tadutpattyāditas tathā 194. "This indeed does not exist [now]; this exists in a different manner." This is contrary to reason, as are arguments arising from this later.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 145

sato'sattve tadutpādas tato nāśo'pi tasya yat tannastasya punar bhāvaķ sadā nāśe na tatsthitih 195. If a thing arises from nonexistence, then there will be the destruction of that thing. The existence of it would be destroyed again. Something that is always being destroyed cannot be posited.

sa kşaņasthitidharmā ced dvitīyādikaņesthitau yujyate hy etad apy asya tathā coktānatikramaḥ 196. That dharma (phenomenon) that exists for a moment would then exist in the next moment; the first would be joined by it. Hence, what was said is not contradicted.

kşaņasthitau tadaivāsya nāsthitir yuktyasangate na paścād api sety evam sato'sattvam vyavasthitam 197. Emphatic affirmation of duration on the basis of two momentary durations is equivocation. It simply does not follow. The reality of being is not established by this [line of reasoning].

A CRITIQUE OF MONISM (VERSES 198-203)

bhavabhāvānivrttāv apy uktā muktakalpanā ekāntaikasvabhāvasya na hy avasthādvayam kvacit 198. The conception of liberation is unworkable unless there is assent to the notion of the cessation of worldly existence. If only a singular essence is proclaimed, then there could never be the two states of life (viz., happiness and misery).

tadabhāve ca samsārī muktaś ceti nirarthakam tatsvabhāvopamardo'sya nītyā tāttvika işyatām 199. It would be senseless to say there is no difference between the liberated one and one in bondage.

146 RECONCILING YOGAS

In this there is the destruction of that essence [that binds one to samsara] through one's conduct; one should seek this as the truth.

didrkşādyātmabhūtam tanmukhyam asyā nivartate pradhānādinater hetus tadabhāvān na tannatih 200. Desiring to see, and so forth, are elements of the self. The first principle is that this can be reversed. The cause of this is the posturing of materiality. When it is rendered nonexistent, there is no longer any posturing.

anyathā syād iyam nityam eşā ca bhava ucyate evam ca bhavanityatve katham muktasya sambhavah 201. By some, this [materiality] is called eternal, yet this is called "worldly existence." Thus all worldly existence would be called "eternal." How could there be the possibility of liberation? The above sequence of verses criticizes the Sāmkhya philosophical view that the manifest world (prakrti) is eternal.

avasthā tattvato no cen nanu tatpratyayah katham bhrānto'yam kim aneneti mānam atra na vidyate 202. But [it could be said] that appearance is not truth. But how is this proven? One might say, "This is all confusion; by this, what is known?" This notion is not correct.

yogijñānam tu mānam cet tadavasthāntaram tu tat tataḥ kim bhrāntam etat syād anyathā siddhasādhyatā 203. If it is said that this notion comprises yogic knowledge, then it must be pointed out that this (yogic knowledge) is [from a] different state. What if this (yogic knowledge) were mere confusion? [It is obviously not.] Hence, our position prevails. Jainism asserts that appearance is real.

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 147

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN WORLDLY EXISTENCE AND LIBERATION (VERSES 204-206)

vyādhitas tadabhāvo vā tadanyo vā yathaiva hi vyādhimukto na sannītyā kadācid upapadyate 204. If an ailment is nonexistent (as per the Vedāntins), or is something else (as the Buddhists claim), then, according to either precept, [a person] is never liberated from ailment.

samsārī tadabhāvo vā tadanyo vā tathaiva hi mukto'pi hanta no mukto mukhyavrttyeti tadvidah

205. If the one in samsāra is nonexistent or is in fact something else, then a liberated one is not liberated! This is the prevailing thought of the wise.

kşīņavyādhir yathā loke vyādhimukta iti sthitah bhavarogy eva tu tathā muktas tantreşu tatkşayāt

206. Just as in the world one whose illness has disappeared is determined to be cured, so also the one who has the disease of worldly existence. In the tantras he is called liberated due to the destruction [of that disease].

THE PURPOSE OF WRITING THIS TEXT (VERSE 207)

anekayogaśāstrebhyah samkșepeņa samuddhrtah drştibhedena yogo'yam ātmānusmrtaye parah

207. For the sake of my own recollection, this chief (architechtonic) Yoga, with reference is distinct views, has been compiled in this brief exposition based on the texts of several Yoga schools.

148 RECONCILING YOGAS

THE FOURFOLD DIVISION OF YOGA PRACTITIONERS (VERSES 208-213)

kulādiyogabhedena caturdhā yogino yatah atah paropakāro'pi leśato na virudhyate 208. Since the distinction of yogins is fourfold, including the Family Yogins, and so forth, then this small contribution will not hinder helping others.

kulapravrttacakrā ye ta evāsyādhikāriņaḥ yogino na tu sarve'pi tathā 'siddhyādibhāvataķ 209. Those known as Family and Engaged [Yogins] are entitled [to know this] due to their states of accomplishment, and so on.

ye yoginām kule jātās taddharmānugatāś ca ye kulayogina ucyante gotravanto'pi nāpare 210. Those who are born into a family of yogins and who follow that dharma are called Family Yogins and not those different ones called the Clan Yogins.

sarvatrādveşiņaś caite gurudevadvijapriyāh dayālavo vinītāś ca bodhavanto yatendriyā 211. These display no ill will anywhere, think fondly of gurus, gods, and the twice-born, are compassionate and modest, and possess wisdom and control of the senses.

pravrttacakrās tu punar yamadvayasamāśrayāh śeşadvayārthino'tyantam śuśrūşādiguņānvitāķ 212. And again the Engaged [Yogins] have taken recourse to two disciplines, perpetually aspire to the remaining two,

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 149

and are endowed with the quality of wanting to hear more [about scriptural matters].

ādyāvañcakayogāptyā tadanyadvayalābhinaḥ ete'dhikāriņo yogaprayogasyeti tadividah 213. Having obtained this Yoga of Primal Authenticity, the other two are obtained. These, then, are entitled to undertake Yoga, according to those who know.

THE FOUR DISCIPLINES (YAMA) (VERSES 214-221)

ihāhimsādaya panca suprasiddhā yamāņ satām aparigrahaparyantās tathecchādicaturvidhāḥ 214. The five disciplines ranging from nonviolence to nonpossession are well known, as well as a fourfold division, beginning with the Wishful (icchā).

tadvatkathāprītiyutā tathā'vipariņāminī yameşvicchā'vaseyeha prathamo yama eva tu 215. Of these [four] disciplines, the Wishful is to be clearly understood as the first discipline and is characterized by a love of discussion that does not change.

sarvatra śamasāram tu yamapālanam eva yat pravrttir iha vijñeyā dvitīyo yama eva tat 216. The second discipline is to be understood as Engaged, the essence of which is ubiquitous calm and a nourishing of the disciplines.

vipakşacintārahitam yamapālanam eva yat tat sthairyam iha vijneyam trtīyo yama eva hi 217. The third discipline is to be known as Firmness,

150 RECONCILING YOGAS

which also nourishes the disciplines, and which makes one free from worry about the other side (i.e., worldly things).

parāthasādhakam tv etat siddhiķ śuddhāntarātmanah acintyaśaktiyogena caturtho yama eva tu 218. The fourth discipline is accomplished by the Yoga of Inconceivable Power, resulting in the perfection of unsurpassed purity of self and goodness for the sake of others.

sadbhiķ kalyāņasampannair darśanād api pāvanaih tathādarśanato yoga ādyāvañcaka ucyate 219. From being with the auspicious adepts and from darśana with a purified one, there arises the vision called the "Yoga of Primal Authenticity."

teşām eva praņāmādikriyāniyama ity alam kriyāvañcakayogab syān mahāpāpakşayodayah 220. Observance includes such actions as bowing, and so forth, to those [great beings]. The action of Authentic Yoga would result in the arising of the diminishment of great sin.

phalāvañcakayogas tu sadbhya eva niyogatah sānubandhaphalāvāptir dharmasiddhau satām matā 221. But the fruit of Authentic Yoga for beings is certainly according to the order of things. In the fulfillment of dharma, the fruit that is obtained is the appropriate consequence of the thought of beings.

CONCLUDING REMARKS (VERSES 222-228)

kulādiyoginām asmān matto'pi jadadhīmatām śravanāt pakşapātāder upakāro'sti leśatah 222. For the Family Yogins, who are drunken and more stupid than us,

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA 151

might side with our case from hearing this and derive some small benefit.

tāttvikaḥ pakşapātaś ca bhāvasūnyā ca yā kriyā anayor antaram jñeyam bhānukhadyotayor iva 223. Siding with the true teaching, but with actions that are empty of the mood, there is a difference between these two like that between the sun and a firefly.

khadyotakasya yat tejas tad alpam ca vināśi ca viparītam idam bhānor iti bhāvyam idam budhaih 224. The light of a firefly is small and waning, while that of the sun is the opposite. This is to be understood by the wise.

śravaņe prārthanīyāḥ syur na hi yogayāh kadācana yatnaḥ kalyāņasattvānām mahāratne sthito yataḥ 225. Those pleasant persons make an effort at hearing [such a text]; they stand firm in the great jewel.

naitadvidas tv ayogyebhyo dadaty enam tathāpi tu haribhadra idam prāha naitebhyo deya ādarāt 226. The wise ones do not give this to those who are unsuitable; Haribhadra says it is not to be given to them out of respect.

avajñeha krtālpāpi yad anarthāya jāyate atas tatparihārārtham na punar bhāvadoșatah 227. The contempt that is engendered in this case is unfortunate, and very little is gained. Rather, it is due to [the purification of] letting go that faults truly cease to recur.

152 RECONCILING YOGAS

yogyebhyas tu prayatnena deyo'yam vidhinānvitaih mātsaryavirahenoccai śreyovighnapraśāntaye 228. This is to be given to the suitable ones who are established in the law through great effort, along with those lofty ones who have abandoned envy for the sake of removing impediments to true blessedness.

Notes

PREFACE

1. See Eric Konigsberg, "The Yuppie Guru's Last Seduction," New York (July 20, 1998): pp. 20-28, for a journalistic account of this tragedy.

CHAPTER ONE

1. R. S. Shukla, India as Known to Haribhadra Suri (Meerut: Kusumanjali Prakashan, 1989), 1. 2. R. Williams, "Haribhadra," Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 28 (1965): 101-11. In light of this par- ticular study, Williams even suggests that the Haribhadra who wrote the Yogadrstisamuccaya, differs from the HB who wrote the Yogabindu, attributing the former to the later Haribhadra, to whom Williams refers as "Yakini-putra," and the latter, the Yogabindu, to the original author, who flourished in the sixth century (102-103). A comparative reading of the two texts finds virtually no reference to the Patañjali Yoga tradition in the Yogabindu, whereas the Yogadrstisamuccaya concerns itself almost exclusively with Patañjali's eightfold path and a comparative study of Yoga in the face of competition from Tantra, Buddhism, and Vedānta. The Yogabindu contains a more overtly Jaina termi- nology, while the Yogadrstisamuccaya, as we will see, minimizes its Jaina con- tent. In particular, the Yogabindu, while initially giving praise to the final goal of the Vedānta, Buddhism, and Sāmkhya, concentrates on the explication of five steps of yoga, summarized by Nathmal Tatia as follows: "adhyātma or contem- plation of truth accompanied by moral conduct, bhāvanā or repeated practice in the contemplation accompanied by steadfastness of the mind, dhyāna or concentration of the mind, samatā or equanimity, and vrttisamksaya or annhilation of all the traces of karman" (see Nathmal Tatia, Studies in Jaina Philosophy [Banaras: Jain Cultural Research Society, 1951], 297). Also the Yogadrstisamuccaya concerns itself with Tantra, a prominent movement in the eighth century; Tantra receives virtually no attention in the Yogabindu, which might be attributed to its possible earlier date.

153

154 NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE

3. See Suvrat Muni Shastri, Jaina Yoga in Light of the Yogabindu (An Analytical Study) (Delhi: Nirmal, 1996), 45-51; Shukla, India as Known to Haribhadra Suri, 6-12, for summaries of both Indian and Western scholarship on this issue. 4. Yajneshwar S. Shastri, Acārya Umāsvāti Vācaka's Praśamaratipraka- rana Critically Edited with English Translation (Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1989), Introduction. 5. Phyllis Granoff, "Jain Lives of Haribhadra: An Inquiry into the Sources and Logic of the Legends," Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:2 (1989): 111-12. Granoff also mentions that Haribhadra describes a similar Brahmin in his own writing. See page 113. 6. These nephews seem to be styled after two Jaina brothers, Akalanka and Nişkalanka, whose story is told in the Kathākośa (1077 C.E.) two centuries before a variant story about Haribhadra occurs in the Prabhāvakacarita. In the Kathākośa, the two brothers are put to a Buddhist loyalty test, fail, and beat a hasty escape. Nişkalanka is captured and put to death. Akalanka is sheltered by a Jaina queen and bests the Buddhist goddess, Tārā, in debate (Granoff, "Jain Lives," 114). The Haribhadra story, which occurs in several accounts, changes the names of the brothers to Hamsa and Paramahamsa. In the Purātana- prabandhasamgraha, Haribhadra does not encourage the two students to enter the monastery. In this account, Hamsa dies fighting Buddhist soldiers, and Paramahamsa is killed after losing a debate. A bird takes Paramahamsa's blood- ied, path-clearing broom to Haribhadra, who, in a rage, "makes a cauldron of boiling oil and magically causes the Buddhists to fly through the sky and land in his boiling pot, where they [700 Buddhists] are scalded to death" (ibid., 117). The mayhem stops when one of Haribhadra's students, sent by the teacher Jinabhadra, interrupts this process. According to this early version of the story, Haribhadra, having already written his many important books, then composes his final treatise, the Samarāiccakahā. Out of continuing despair (which would not be acceptable within the Jaina faith), he then fasts to death. For a complete investigation of these stories, see the excellent and intriguing article by Granoff, cited above. 7. No such king is mentioned in the historical records. 8. See Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979), 275, 285, 304. Granoff suggests that the reason that Haribhadra so wanted to distinguish Jainism from Buddhism lay in the fact that as Jainas sought patronage from Hindu kings, it might have been beneficial to clearly separate their own tradition from that of Buddhism, which had waned and become unpopular by the tenth or eleventh century. See the article by Granoff, cited above, p. 123. See also Jaini's article, "The Disappear- ance of Buddhism and the Survival of Jainism in India: A Study in Contrast," in Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001), 139-53, where he atttibutes Jaina survival to the strength of the Jaina laity and the willingness of the Jainas to adopt devotional practices similar to Hindu bhakti, as seen in their recasting of Rsabha as an avatra and the development of Jaina versions of the Rāmāyaņa and the Mahābhārata.

NOTES TO CHAPTER ONE 155

9. H. R. Kapadia, ed. Anekāntajayapatākā, vol. 1 (Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1940), 27, 29. 10. Shukla, India as Known, 7-10. 11. This is abbreviated from Friedhelm Hardy's summary translation based on the Brhatkathākośa in Phyllis Granoff, ed., The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories: A Treasury of Jaina Literature (Oakville, Ont .: Mosaic Press, 1990), 118-39. The last quote is from verse 305, as translated by Hardy in Granoff, The Clever Adulteress, 132. 12. Granoff, "Jain Lives of Haribhadra," 108. 13. M. Sivakumara Swamy, Haribhadra's Sad-Darśana-Samuccaya (Ban- galore: Bangalore University, 1977). Olle Qvarnstrom has provided a compre- hensive study of Haribhadra's doxographies as well as a new translation of the Şaddarśanasamuccaya in his article, "Haribhadra and the Beginning of Doxography in India," in Approaches to Jaina Studies: Philosophy, Logic, Rituals, and Symbols, ed. N. K. Wagle and Olle Qvarnstrom (Toronto: University of Toronto Center for South Asian Studies, 1999), 169-210. 14. Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Routledge, 1992), 197. The many- pointed doctrine (anekānta) has been extensively discussed in literature on Jaina philosophy. See, in particular, Bimal Krishna Matilal, The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekanta Vada) (Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1981). Also, for a comprehensive and critical assessment of "many-sidedness," see John Cort, "Intellectual Ahimsa Revisited: Jain Tolerance and Intolerance of Others," Philosophy East and West 50:3 (July 2000): 324-47. 15. I have suggested elsewhere that the story of Buddhists boiled in oil most likely was in response to the political and social climate of India when the stories were recorded, 500 years after the death of Haribhadra. See Tara Sethia, ed., "Religious Dissonance and Reconciliation: The Haribhadra Story," The Lessons of Ahimsa and Anekantada for Contemporary Life (Pomona: Califor- nia State Polytechnic University, 2002). 16. See note fourteen. See also my chapter, "Nonviolent Approaches to Multiplicity," in Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 85-97. 17. Granoff, "Jain Lives of Haribhadra," 107. 18. Shastri suggests that because Umāsvāti exhibits the same familiarity with Sāmkhya, Yoga, and Nyäya, as found in the Buddhist works of Vasubandhu, he was probably his contemporary. See Shastri, Acārya, 3. 19. For more detailed information on early meditation in these tradi- tions, see Johannes Bronkhorst, The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993), and Will J. Johnson, Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism, with Special Refer- ence to Umāsvāti and Kundakunda (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995). See also Johnson's article, "Kundakunda: Two-standpoints and the Anekāntavāda," in Approaches to Jaina Studies, ed. N. K. Wagle and Olle Qvarnstrom, 101- 12. 20. Indukala Jhavari, "Introduction," in Haribhadrasūri's Yogaśataka with Auto-Commentary along with His Brahmasiddhāntasamuccaya, ed. Munirāja

156 NOTES TO CHAPTER TWO

Śri Puņyavijayajī (Ahmedabad: Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyaman- dira, 1965), 18. 21. Shastri, Jaina Yoga in the Light of the Yogabindu, 77.

CHAPTER TWO

1. These include friendliness toward the virtuous, compassion for those suffering, happiness toward the meritorious, and equanimity toward the evil ones (YS I:33). 2. I am grateful to Arvind Sharma for this reference, pursuant to our conversation of January 18, 2001. 3. Padmanabh S. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification (Berkeley: Univer- sity of California Press, 1979), 5. 4. For more on the history of Jainism, see the writings of Padmanabh S. Jaini and Paul Dundas. For a modern translation of the Tattvārtha Sūtra, see Nathmal Tatia, That Which Is: The Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāti (San Fran- cisco: HarperCollins, 1994). 5. Yajneshwar S. Shastri, Acārya Umāsvati Vācaka's Praśamarati- prakarana Critically Edited with English Translation (Ahmedabad: L. D. Insti- tute of Indology, 1989), 34 6. See Praśamaratiprakaraņa, verse 277, in Shastri, Acārya, 64. 7. Jaini, The Jaina Path, 148. 8. Ibid., 157. 9. Muni Shri Nyayavijayaji, Jaina Philosophy and Religion, trans. Nagin J. Shah (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998), 70. 10. Tatia, That Which Is, 282. 11. Helmut von Glasenapp, Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation, trans. Shridhar B. Shrotri (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999), 223. 12. Tatia, That Which Is, 283. 13. Ibid., 284. 14. See Padmanabh S. Jaini, Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), for a discussion of gender issues in the Jaina tradition. For a discussion of the interchangeability of sexual emotions, see Robert P. Goldman's Foreword, p. xviii. 15. Tatia, That Which Is, 284. 16. Ibid. 17. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification, 159. 18. Tatia, That Which Is, p. 284 19. Ibid., 285. 20. Jaini, The Jaina Path of Purification, 159. 21. Von Glasenapp, Jainism, 93. 22. Dr. Pravin L. Shah has developed an alternate correlation. He sur- mises that one remains in the first gunasthāna during all four beginning phases

NOTES TO CHAPTER THREE 157

of Haribhadra's system, though one begins to develop a spiritual longing. In Haribhadra's fifth phase (Sthira), one leaps into a state of awareness that cor- relates to the fourth guņasthāna (samyakdrsti). In the sixth (Kāntā), one oscil- lates between the fourth and seventh gunasthānas; in the seventh (Prabhā), one rises to the twelfth. In the eighth (Para), one achieves the final two phases of sayoga kevala (thirteen) and ayoga kevala, or liberation (fourteen) (personal correspondence, July 2001). Pandit Dhirajlal Mehta of Surat, Gujarat, states that one attains the fourth gunasthāna in Haribhadra's fifth phase (Sthirā), attains gunasthānas five through seven in the sixth (Kāntā), gunasthānas eight through ten in the seventh (Prabhā), and, skipping over the troublesome eleventh gunasthāna, reaches the top three gunasthānas in Haribhadra's Parā or Highest Yoga. [Personal conversation June 2002, facilitated by Sushma Parekh). Neither of these scholars agrees with my interpretation of the term apūrvakaraņa.

CHAPTER THREE

1. The verse numbers and the names attributed to Haribhadra, Bhaga- vaddatta, Bhāskara, and Patanjali, respectively, are as follows: 16 and 21 (1. Mitrā or Friendly, adveșa or no aversion, akheda or no distress, and yama or restraint); 41 (2. Tārā or Protector, jijñāsā or desirous of knowledge, anudvega or free from anxiety, and niyama or observances); 49, 52-53 for Bhagavaddatta (3. Balā or Power, śuśrūșā or desirous to hear truth), 55-56 for Bhāskara (3. aksepa or no distraction, and āsana or Yoga postures in Patañjali); 57, 60-62 (4. Dīprā or Shining, śravana or hearing truth, anuttānavatī or no interruption, and prāņāyāma or breath control); 154, extending in general terms through 159 (5. Shtirā or Firm, sūksmabodha or subtle awakening, abhrānti or unmuddied, and pratyāhāra or sense withdrawal/inwardness); 162, extending in general terms through 168 (6. Kāntā or Pleasing, mīmāmsā or reflection, ananyamud or not finding pleasure in the other, and dhāranā or concentration); 170, extending in general terms through 174 (7. Prabhā or Radiant, pratipatti or perception of truth, arug or without pain, and dhyna or meditation); 178, extending in general terms through 186 (8. Parā or Highest, sātmi-krta-pravrtti or enactment of absorption, sanga vivarjitā or free from attachment, and samādhi). 2. Pandit Sukhalala Sanghavi, Samadarsī Acārya Haribhadra (Bombay: Mumbai University, 1961), 80. 3. Srinivasa Murthy, trans., The Bhagavad Gitā (Long Beach: Long Beach Publishing, 1985), 43, 57. 4. Y. S. Shastri has suggested that although he does not use the direct terminology of Asanga, Bhäskara seems to allude to the concept of the ten Yogabhūmis. See Shastri's book, Mahāyānasūtrālankāra of Asanga: A Study in Vijñānavāda Buddhism (Delhi: Indian Books Center, 1989), 115-17. 5. Commentary on verse 21, Haribhadra, Yogadrstisamuccaya (Ahmeda- bad: Jain Grantha Prakashaka Sabha, 1940b). 6. Ibid., commentary on verse 154.

158 NOTES TO CHAPTERS FOUR AND FIVE

CHAPTER FOUR

1. Swami Venkatesananda, trans., The Concise Yogavāsistha (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984), 249. 2. The Yogavāsistha of Vālmīki, Vol. I. English translation, Vihari Lal Mitra, revised by Ravi Prakash Arya. Delhi: Parimal Publications, 1998. III:5:7, p. 167. 3. Ibid., Vol. II, V:72:41, p. 457. 4. Paul Dundas, The Jains (London: Routledge, 1992), 196. 5. Christopher Key Chapple and Yogi Ananda Viraj (Eugene P. Kelly Jr.), trans. The Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali: An Analysis of the Sanskrit with Accompanying English Translation (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1990), 62-63. 6. The Mādhyamika-śāstra of Nāgārjuna, trans. Th. Stcherbatsky in The Conception of Buddhist Nirvana (Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1927), pp. 69-78.

CHAPTER FIVE

1. Christopher Key Chapple, "Reading Patañjali without Vyāsa," Jour- nal of the American Academy of Religion LXII (1994): 85-105. 2. Winthrop Sargeant, trans., Bhagavad Gītā (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), II:64. 3. Georg Feuerstein and Jeanine Miller, The Essence of Yoga (Roches- ter, Vermont: Inner Traditions, 1998), 14. 4. Yoga Sūtra III:23 states "[By samyama, the combined application of concentration, meditation, and samädhi] on friendliness and so forth, [corre- sponding] powers arise." 5. See Yoga Sutra III:35: "When there is no distinction of intention between the pure purusa and the perfect sattva, there is experience for the purpose of the other (purusa); from samyama on purpose being for the self, there is knowledge of puruşa." 6. Georg Feuerstein, Holy Madness: The Shock Tactics and Radical Teachings of Crazy-Wise Adepts, Holy Fools, and Rascal Gurus (New York: Paragon, 1991), 5-6. 7. Jerome Bauer writes: "Jaini compares Hindu, Buddhist, and Jaina concepts of śubha, śuddha, and mangala. Subha refers to the worldly pure, śuddha to the transcendentally pure. Mangala, the auspicious, was originally reserved for activity relating to the first three Hindu ends of life .... Śuddha, the transcendentally pure, was reserved for activities relating to ... moksa." See Jerome Bauer, "Karma and Control: The Prodigious and the Auspicious in Śvetāmbara Jaina Canonical Mythology" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylva- nia, 1998), 489-90. Jaini himself writes that "the Buddhists and the Jainas attempted to assimilate the ascetic ideal into mangala, not by degrading the śuddha, but instead raising mangala to a new status which incorporated both the worldly śubha and the supermundane śuddha, relegating all activities not

NOTES TO CHAPTER SIX 159

conducive to salvation to the category of asuddha." See P. S. Jaini, Collected Papers on Jain Studies (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000), 238. Haribhadra does not seem to make a distinction between these two terms.

CHAPTER SIX

1. See Katherine Anne Harper and Robert L. Brown, eds. The Roots of Tantra (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002), for a detailed history of the origins of Tantra. 2. See Paul Dundas, "Becoming Gautama: Mantra and History in Śvetāmbara Jainism" in Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History, ed. John Cort (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998), 31-52, and his "The Jain Monk Jinapati Sūri Gets the Better of a Nāth Yogī," in Tantra in Practice, ed. David Gordon White (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), pp. 231-38. See also John Cort, "Worship of Bell-Ears the Great Hero, a Jain Tantric Deity," in White, pp. 417-33, and Olle Qvarnstrom, "Jain Tantra: Divinatory and Meditative Practices in the Twelfth- Century Yogaśāstra of Hemacandra," in White, pp. 595-604. 3. John Cort, "Medieval Jaina Goddesses," Numen 34 (1987), Fasc. 2. 4. Vidya Dehejia, Yoginī Cult and Temples: A Tantric Tradition (New Delhi: National Museum, 1986), 185. 5. Lina Gupta, trans., "Tantric Incantation in the Devī Purāna: Padamālā Mantra Vidya," in The Roots of Tantra, ed. Harper and Brown, 234-35. 6. I differ here with the interpretation of S. M. Desai, who equates avedyasamvedya with Patañjali's first five outer limbs (bahiranga) and vedyasam- vedya with the inner limbs (antaranga) of dhāraņā, dhyāna, and samādhi. See his Haribhadra's Yoga Works and Psychosynthesis (Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1983), 59. As noted earlier, Bhatt's commentary on the Laws of Manu, X, 24, uses the term to describe prohibited sexual behavior. 7. Dirtiness (mālinyam) bears close similarity to the name "Malinī," an epithet for the goddess, Durga. 8. See Douglas Renfrew Brooks's excerpted translation of the Kulārnava Tantra (ca. 1000-1400 C.E.), "The Ocean of the Heart: Selections from the Kulārnava Tantra," in Tantra in Practice, ed. David Gordon White, pp. 347- 60. Brooks writes that the goal of Tantra is to "enable the committed disciple to transform his or her own life into a life of joy and liberation. Thus, the Tantra commends the twin goals of human existence, bhukti, worldly enjoy- ment, and mukti, ultimate liberation, as its promise to those who keep its secrets and take up its disciplines. The Kula path, it goes on to say, is the sole path that can promise both of these aims in this very lifetime; it is therefore superior to all others. One becomes capable of enjoyment only to the degree that one is advancing toward liberation; similarly, the liberated are the only ones who experience life's true enjoyment" (p. 350). 9. See Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Śākta Tantrism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990). Though the texts discussing the three cities were composed after

160 NOTES TO CHAPTER SIX

Haribhadra, Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya might provide an early version of this idea. See also Y. S. Shastri's essay, "Tripura Tantra (Sri Vidya): Its Philosophy and Path of Sadhana," in his Traverses on the Less Trodden Path of Indian Philosophy and Religion (Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1991), 141-60. Shastri translated these three as "will power, knowledge, and action." Pandit Sukhalala Sanghavi, in Samadarsī Acārya Haribhadra (Bombay: Mumbai University, 1961), states that Desire (icchā) is like inclination (adhimukha) or attraction. Instruction (jñāna) is the inculcation of metaphysical principles in one's life through the precepts of the Yogis. Effort (kriyā) is based on one's own experience and enthusiasm (utsaha). 10. As cited in R. Antnathakrishna Sastry, trans., Lalitā-Sahasranāma with Bhāskarāya's Commentary (Madras: Adyar Library and Research Center, 1899), 187. 11. Ibid., 158. Ambikā also is the name of a Jaina goddess. 12. Ibid., 259. 13. Ibid., 266. 14. Ibid., 23. 15. Ibid., 154. 16. Dehejia, Yogini Cult and Temples, 197. 17. Ibid., 215. 18. Ibid., 215. 19. Sanjukta Gupta, trans., Lakşmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000), p. 290. 20. Sir John Woodroffe, The Garland of Letters: Studies in the Mantra- Sastra (Pondicherry: Ganesh and Company, 1979), 217. 21. Katherine Anne Harper, The Iconography of the Saptamātrkas: Seven Hindu Goddesses of Spiritual Transformation (Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989), pp. 73-100. 22. See Dehejia, Yoginī Cult and Temples, 34. 23. Mohanlal Bhagavantas Jhavery attributes an earlier date to the Kulārnava Tantra than does Douglas Renfrew Brooks, who places it between the tenth and fourteenth centuries. See Jhavery, Comparative and Critical Study of Mantraśāstra (Ahmedabad: Sarabhai Manilal Nawals, 1944); Brooks, "The Ocean of the Heart: Selections from the Kularnava Tantra," in Tantra in Prac- tice, ed. David Gordon White, p. 347. 24. Cort, "Medieval Jaina Goddesses," 237. 25. Jhavery, Comparative, 176, 260. 26. Cort, "Medieval Jaina Goddesses," 239. 27. Ibid. 28. Jhavery, Comparative, 298. 29. K. K. Handiqui, Yaśastilaka and Indian Culture (Solapur: Jaina Samskriti Samrakasaka Sangha, 1949), pp. 199-216.

CHAPTER SEVEN

1. The Bhagavad Gita includes a similar ranking of four types of spiri- tual seekers. The first type is quite savvy; the second has had a secondhand

NOTES TO CHAPTER SEVEN 161

experience; the third has heard about it; and the fourth group does not under- stand even the fundamentals of spiritual life. Swami Prabhavananda and Chris- topher Isherwood translate this passage as follows: "There are some who have actually looked upon the Atman, and understood It, in all Its wonder. Others can only speak of It as wonderful beyond their understanding. Others know of Its wonder by hearsay. And there are others who are told about It and do not understand a word" (II:29). From The Song of God: Bhagavad-Gita (New York: New American Library, 1944), 88. 2. In his study of Bhāskararāya's commentary on the Tripurā Upanişad, Brooks notes that the author "views the feminine principle as the creative center, one whose nature is to initiate action. He repeats this general concept ... when he explains how divinity actually assumes the shape of the manifest universe ... Śakti appears as will (icchā), knowledge (jñāna), and action (kriyā)." See Douglas Renfrew Brooks, The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Śākta Tantrism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 97. 3. See Lawrence A. Babb, Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996), 26-30, 61-63, 72-82, 84-91. 4. "It is affirmed by the [Svetambara] SB/SBT tradition [Umāsvāti's Svopajna Bhāşya and Siddhasenagaņi's Svopajña Bhāșya Țīka commentaries on the Tattvärthasūtra] that physical gender-female, male, or hermaphroditic- and dress have no bearing on attaining liberation. Even a householder wearing their daily garb can be liberated." Commentary on Tattvārthasūtra, 10.7, in Nathmal Tatia, trans., That Which Is: The Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāti (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1994), 257. 5. Lawrence A. Babb notes that these "beings are worthy of worship, and it is crucial to note that these are the only entities the tradition deems fully worthy of worship. They are, in order, the arhats ("worthy ones" who have attained omniscience; the Tirthankars), the siddhas (the liberated), the ācāryas (ascetic leaders), the upādhyāyas (ascetic preceptors), and the sādhus (ordinary ascetics) .... These beings, we see, are all ascetics. This is the fundamental matter: Jains worship ascetics." See Babb, Absent Lord, 22-23. 6. Georg Feuerstein, Holy Madness: The Shock Tactics and Radical Teachings of Crazy-Wise Adepts, Holy Fools, and Rascal Gurus (New York: Paragon, 1991), 192. 7. According to Padmanabh S. Jaini, "The Jaina tradition unanimously believes that the mendicant Jambu was the last person to attain moka in the current time. He was the disciple of Sudharman, one of the two ganadharas ... who survived Mahāvīra. Jambu is believed to have died in 463 B.C.E., sixty-four years after the nirvāņa of Mahāvīra. Jainas are unanimous in their belief that mokşa cannot be attained by anyone, whether a monk or a nun until the present time cycle is completed and a new era begins and a new Jina appears here (after a lapse of several thousands [of] years)." See Padmanabh S. Jaini, Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women (Berkeley: Uni- versity of California Press, 1991), 98. 8. Ortega y Gasset, Jose, Meditations on Quixote (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2000), p. 45.

162 NOTES TO THE TRANSLATION

YOGADRȘȚISAMUCCAYA (A COLLECTION OF VIEWS ON YOGA)

1. K. K. Dixit, The Yogabindu of Acārya Haribhadrasūri (Ahmedabad: Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandira, 1968), p. 8. 2. See Chapple, "Reading Patañjali without Vyāsa: A Critique of Four Yoga Sutra Passages," Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1994): 1. 3. Dixit, Yogabindu, p. 8. 4. S. M. Desai, Haribhadra's Yoga Works and Psychosynthesis (Ahmeda- bad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1983), p. 59. 5. See Nathmal Tatia, trans. That Which Is: Tattvārtha Sūtra (San Fran- cisco: HarperCollins, 1994), p. 282 and Helmut von Glasenapp, Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation, translated by Shridhar B. Shrotri. (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999), pp. 222-223. 6. See Tatia, That Which Is, pp. 283-284. 7. Haribhadra repeats his theme here that the beginning forms of Yoga (Mitrā, Tārā, Balā, Diprā) are like the light from fires of grass, cowdung, wood, and an oil lamp, while the more advanced forms (Sthirā, Kāntā, Prabhā, Parā) are more enduring and powerful, like a shining jewel, a star, lightning, and the moon. This does not correlate to Patañjali's distinction between the five outer limbs (bahiranga) of disciplines, observances, postures, breath control, and de- tachment as contrasted with the three inner limbs (antaranga) of concentration, meditation, and samādhi. Haribhadra does not make any allusions to the gunasthānas on this verse. 8. Dixit has chosen upajayate ("arises") here, while the ms. of the Jain Grantha Prakashaka Sabha (1940b) shows the variant upapadyate ("approaches"), entailing no great difference in meaning within the context of Haribhadra's dis- cussion.

Bibliography

Babb Lawrence A. Absent Lord: Ascetics and Kings in a Jain Ritual Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996.

Bauer, Jerome. "Karma and Control: The Prodigious and the Auspicious in Śvetāmbara Jaina Canonical Mythology." Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1998.

Bronkhorst, Johannes. The Two Traditions of Meditation in Ancient India. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1993.

Brooks, Douglas Renfrew. The Secret of the Three Cities: An Introduction to Hindu Sākta Tantrism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.

Chapple, Christopher Key. Karma and Creativity. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986. Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and Self in Asian Traditions. Al- bany: State University of New York Press, 1993. "Reading Patañjali without Vyasa: A Critique of Four Yoga Sūtra Passages." Journal of the American Academy of Religion 62 (1994): 85-105.

Chapple, Christopher Key, and Yogi Ananda Viraj (Eugene P. Kelly Jr.), translators. The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: An Analysis of the San- skrit with Accompanying English Translation. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1990.

Cort, John. "Medieval Jaina Goddesses." Numen 34(1987): Fasc. 2. "Intellectual Ahimsa Revisited: Jain Tolerance and Intolerance of Others." Philosophy East and West 50:3 (July 2000): 324-47. , ed. Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1998. Dass, Baba Ram. Remember Be Here Now. San Cristobal, New Mexico: Lam Foundation, 1971.

163

164 RECONCILING YOGAS

Dehejia, Vidya. Yogini Cult and Temples: A Tantric Tradition. New Delhi: National Museum, 1986.

Desai, S. M. Haribhadra's Yoga Works and Psychosynthesis. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1983.

Dixit, K. K., trans. The Yogabindu of Acārya Haribhadrasuri. Ahmedabad: Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandira, 1968.

, trans. Yogadrstisamuccaya and Yogavimsika of Acārya Haribhadrasuri. Ahmedabad: Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandira, 1970.

Dundas, Paul. The Jains. London: Routledge, 1992.

Eliade, Mircea. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom. Princeton: Princeton Uni- versity Press, 1969.

Feuerstein, Georg. Holy Madness: The Shock Tactics and Radical Teach- ings of Crazy-Wise Adepts, Holy Fools, and Rascal Gurus. New York: Paragon, 1991.

The Yoga Tradition: Its History, Literature, Philosophy, and Prac- tice. Prescott: Hohm Press, 1998.

Feuerstein, Georg, and Jeanine Miller. The Essence of Yoga. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1998.

Glasenapp, Helmut von. Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation. Trans- lated by Shridhar B. Shrotri. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1999.

Granoff, Phyllis. "Jain Lives of Haribhadra: An Inquiry into the Sources and Logic of the Legends." Journal of Indian Philosophy 17:2 (1989): 105-28.

, ed. The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories: A Treasury of Jain Literature. Oakville, Ont. Mosaic Press, 1990.

Gupta, Sanjukta, trans. Lakşmī Tantra: A Pāñcarātra Text. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000.

Handiqui, K. K. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture. Solapur: Jaina Samskrit Samrakasaka Sangha, 1949.

Haribhadra. Yogabindu. Ahmedabad: Jain Grantha Prakashaka Sabha, 1940a.

-. Yogadrstisamuccaya. Ahmedabad: Jain Grantha Prakashaka Sabha, 1940b.

.. Haribhadrasūri's Yogaśataka with Autocommentary along with His Brahmasiddhāntasamuccaya. Edited by Munirāja Śri Puņyavijayajī. Ahmedabad: Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sankriti Vidyamandira, 1965.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 165

Harper, Katherine Anne. The Iconography of the Saptamātrkas: Seven Hindu Goddesses of Spiritual Transformation. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989. Harper, Katherine Anne, and Robert L. Brown, eds. The Roots of Tantra. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2002. Isherwood Christopher and Swami Prabhavananda. How to Know God. New York: Mentor Books. Jaini, Padmanabh S. The Jaina Path of Purification. Berkeley: Univeristy of California Press, 1979. -. Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. -. Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000. Collected Papers on Buddhist Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001. Jhavery, Mohanlal Bhagavantas. Comparative and Critical Study of Mantraśāstra. Ahmedabad: Sarabhai Manilal Nawals, 1944. Johnson, Will J. Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change in Early Jainism, with Special Reference to Umasvati and Kundakunda. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1995. Kapadia, H. R., ed. Anekāntajayapatākā by Haribhadra Suri (in Sanskrit). 2 vols. Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1940, 1947. Matilal, Bimal Krishna. The Central Philosophy of Jainism (Anekanta Vada). Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1981. Murthy, Srinivasa, trans. The Bhagavad Gita. Long Beach: Long Beach Publishing, 1985. Nyayavijayaji, Muni Shri. Jaina Philosophy and Religion. Translated by Nagin J. Shah. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998. Prabhavananda, Swami and Christopher Isherwood, trans. The Song of God: Bhagavad Gita. New York: New American Library, 1944. . How to Know God. New York: New American Library, 1953. Sanghavi, Pandit Sukhalala. Samadarsi Ācārya Haribhadra. Bombay: Mumbai University, 1961. Sargeant, Winthrop, trans. Bhagavad Gita. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. Sastry, R. Antnathakrishna, trans. Lalitā-Sahasranāma with Bhākarāya's Commentary. Madras: Adyar Library and Research Center, 1899. Stcherbatsky, Th. The Conception of Buddhist Nirvāna. Leningrad: Acad- emy of Sciences of the USSR, 1927. Senart, Emile. "Bouddhisme et Yoga." La Revue de l'Historie des Religions 42 (1900): 345-64.

166 RECONCILING YOGAS

Sethia, Tara, ed. The Lessons of Ahimsa and Anekānta for Contemporary Life. Pomona: California State Polytechnic University, 2002.

Shastri, Suvrat Muni. Jaina Yoga in Light of the Yogabindu (An Analytical Study). Delhi: Nirmal, 1996.

Shastri, Yajneshwar S. Acārya Umāsvāti Vācaka's Praśamaratiprakaraņa Critically Edited with English Translation. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1989a.

.. Mahāyānasūtrālankāra of Asanga: A Study in Vijnāñavāda Bud- dhism. Delhi: Indian Books Center, 1989b.

Traverses on the Less Trodden Path of Indian Philosophy and Religion. Ahmedabad: L. D. Institute of Indology, 1991.

Shukla, R. S. India as Known to Haribhadra Suri. Meerut: Kusumanjali Prakashan, 1989.

Suali, Luigi, ed. Haribhadra's Yogadrstisamuccaya. Bhavanagar: Jaina Dharma Prasaraka Sabha, 1911.

Swamy, M. Sivakumara. Haribhadra's Sad-Darśana-Samuccaya. Bangalore: Bangalore University, 1977.

Tatia, Nathmal. Studies in Jaina Philosophy. Banaras: Jain Cultural Research Society, 1951.

, trans. That Which Is: The Tattvārtha Sūtra of Umāsvāti. San Fran- cisco: HarperCollins, 1994. de la Vallee Poussin, Louis. "Le Bouddhisme et le Yoga de Patañjali." Melanges Chinois et Bouddhiques 5 (1936-1937): 232-42.

Venkatesananda, Swami, trans. The Concise Yogavāsistha. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1984.

Wagle, N. K., and Olle Qvarnstrom, eds. Approaches to Jaina Studies: Philosophy, Logic, Rituals, and Symbols. Toronto: University of Toronto Center for South Asian Studies, 1999.

White, David Gordon. Tantra in Practice. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.

Williams, R. Jaina Yoga: A Survey of the Medieval Śrāvakācāras. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1963.

"Haribhadra." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 28 (1965): 101-11.

Woodroffe, Sir John. The Garland of Letters: Studies in the Mantra-Sastra. Pondicherry: Ganesh and Company, 1979. Yogananda, Paramahansa. Autobiography of a Yogi. Los Angeles: Self- Realization Fellowship, 1977.

Index

Abhidharmakośa, 21 avidyā (ignorance), 16, 67 Abhidhānacintāmaņi, 39 Abhidharma, 13, 21 ayoga, kevala (total freedom)

abhiniveśa (desire to continue living), guņasthāna, 23, 26, 27, 34-38, 91, 95, 101, 103, 105, 106, 186 16, 66-67 Ācārānga Sūtra, 12, 25, 65, 73 Balā (Power) Yoga, 20-22, 28, 31, Agni Purāņa, 84 41, 83, 106, 114-116 ahimsā (nonviolence), 4, 13, 15, 17, Bhadreśvara, 2 19, 24, 25, 30, 41, 66-68, 94 Bhagavad Gītā, 12, 20, 23, 42, 61, Ambikā, 82 68-71, 89, 160 Anekāntajayapatākā, 7 Bhagavaddatta, Bandhu, 21, 38-47, anekānta, 7-11, 19, 56-57, 132-136 51, 52, 56, 63, 108-117, 136- Añjali, Gurāņi, 36, 94 143, 157 aparigraha (nonpossession), 4, 17, Bharati, Agehananda, 87 25, 30, 41, 66, 68, 94 Bhaskara, Bhadanta, 21, 38-41, 47- apūrvakaraņa (unprecedented 52, 56, 63, 108-117, 136-143, 157 experience) gunasthāna, 23, 26, Bhakti Yoga, 12 27, 30, 31, 35, 36, 38, 90, 112, Bodhisattva, 5,10 182 brahmacarya (sexual restraint), 4, āsana (Postures), 17, 20, 22, 28, 31, 17, 25, 30, 66, 67, 94 42,43 Brahman, 9, 54, 55, 57, 61, 69, 89, asmitā (egoism), 16, 67 131 Aştakaprakaraņa, 7 Brahmanical, 18, 39, 40, 75 Aştānga Yoga, 16-17, 20, 28, 41, Brahma Vihāra, 16, 36, 69, 71 85,97 Brahmin, 1, 2 asteya (not stealing), 17, 25, 30, 41, Brooks, Douglas Renfrew, 87, 159, 161 66, 67,94 Buddha, 47, 58 Ātmabodha, 42 Buddhism, Buddhists, 2-4, 12, 14, Ātman, 55 15, 18, 19, 21, 38-40, 46, 47, Authentic (Avañcaka) Yoga, 81, 82, 51-57, 60-65, 70, 75, 76, 147 87-88, 90-91, 93, 149, 150 avedyasamvedya (licentiousness), 22, cakras, 69,75 78-82, 101, 119, 120 Cāmuņda, 77

167

168 INDEX

citi-śakti, 17, 66, 72, 84, 90 Glasenapp, Helmut von, 30, 34 citta-vrtti-nirodha, 12, 15, 36 goddess, 21, 22, 76, 82-85, 101 Chāndogya Upanisad, 45 Gotravanta (Clan) Yogins, 81, 87- Clan Yogins (see Gotravanta Yogins) 89, 148 Cort, John, 11, 84, 155, 159 Granoff, Phyllis, 2, 7, 11, 18, 154 gunasthāna (stages of spiritual darśana (vision), 20, 150 attainment), 13, 18, 21, 26-38, Dass, Baba Ram, 92 40, 53, 56, 58, 62, 63, 90-93, 98, Desai, S. M., 101, 159 101, 105, 112 Devī Bhāgavatam, 83 guru, 117, 148 Devī Purāņa, 77 dhāraņā (Concentration), 17, 20, 23, Hariseņa, 5 28, 41, 44 Hațha, ix, 11, 43 dharma, 10, 20, 21, 26, 32, 33, 43, Hemacandra, 2, 39 44, 79, 80, 89, 105, 116, 122, Hopkins, Jeffrey, 12 135-138, 142, 145, 148, 150 dharma megha samādhi, 17 Iccha (in Tantra; see also Wishful Dhūrtākhyāna, 5 Yoga), 20, 29, 82-83 dhyāna (meditation), 17, 20, 23, 28, Inconceivable Power (Acintya Śakti) 33, 41, 45, 49 Yoga, 81, 88, 90, 150 Digambara, 25 Isherwood, Christopher, 92 Dipra (Shining) Yoga, 20, 21, 28, Īśvara, 15-19, 36, 55, 69, 93 32, 41, 83, 106, 116-117 Īśvarakrșņa, 42, 61, 75, 76 Dixit, K.K, 13 īśvarapraņidhāna (devotion to the dravya (karmic substance), 27, 93 chosen ideal), 16, 20, 30, 68, 82 duhkha, 57-58, 85 Dundas, Paul, 7, 11, 18, 55, 156, Jaina Vishva Bharati, 91 159 Jaini, Padmanabh S., 27, 33, 34, Durgā, 22, 77, 118, 119 154, 156, 161 dveșa (aversion), 16, 67 Jina, 19, 94, 108 Jinadatta, 2, 3 Effort (Samārthya) Yoga, 19, 20, 81, Jinabhața, 1 82, 88, 104, 106 Jinavijaya, Muni, 5 Eliade, Mircea, 11, 12 jīva, 12, 25, 26, 60, 61, 112, 142 Elimination Ladder (ksapana śreni), jñāna (knowledge), 20, 82, 83, 130 33-36, 90-91, 95, 105 Jñāna Yoga, 12 Engaged (Pravrttacakra) Yoga, 81, 82, 87-90, 148-149 Kahāvali, 2 kaivalyam, 15, 17, 65, 70 Family Yogins (see Kula Yogins) Kali, 118 Feuerstein, Georg, 12, 69, 70, 93 Kāntā (Pleasing) Yoga, 20-23, 28, Firmness (Sthairyam) Yoga, 81, 88, 33, 41, 83, 106, 138-139 90, 149 Kapadia, H. R., 5 karma, 4, 8, 12, 13, 15-17, 19, 21- Gandharvas, 44 26, 29-35, 53, 54, 57-63, 65, 66, Gandhi, Mahatma, 95 71-73, 78, 79, 81, 105, 111, 112, Gańgā, 1 118, 119, 122, 138, 142, 143

INDEX 169

Karma Yoga, 12, 70 Nyayavijayaji, Muni Shri, 29 Kaula, 12, 76 kevala, 12, 13, 23, 25, 35, 46, 84 omniscience (sarvajña), 8, 56, 104, Krishna, 4, 12, 70 125-127, 132 Kriyā (Tantra), 82-83 Ortega y Gasset, Jose, 95 Kriyā Yoga, 16, 82 Kula (Family) Yogins, 19, 22, 76- Padamālā Mantra Vidyā, 77 78, 80-88, 92, 130, 148, 150 Parā (Highest) Yoga, 20-23, 28, 35, Kulārņava Tantra, 84, 87 41, 63, 72, 83, 84, 106, 141-143 Kutarka (fallacious argument), 22, Patañjali, 11-38, 39, 41, 52, 56-75, 122-124 90, 94, 111 Prabhā (Radiant) Yoga, 20-23, 28, Laksmī Tantra, 83 34, 41, 83, 106, 139-141 Lalitāsahasranāma, 82 Prabhācandra, 2 Lam Rim Chen Mo, 39 Prabhavananda, Swami, 92 lesya (karmic color), 15, 30 prakrti (materiality), 17, 59-61, 146 licentiousness (see avedyasamvedya) prāņāyāma (Breath Control), 17, 20, living libertation (mukta), 33-35, 28, 32, 41, 49 143-144 prasāda (clarity), 66, 69 Lorentzen, David, 87 Praşamaratiprakaraņa, 2 Pravrttacakra Yoga (see Engaged

Mādhyamika Buddhism, 63 Yoga)

Mahābhārata, 4, 100 pratyāhāra (Inwardness), 17, 20, 23,

Mahāvīra, 24, 63, 103 28, 32, 41, 43

Mahāyāna Buddhists, 5, 10 Precept (Sastra) Yoga, 19, 30, 81,

Mallisenasūri, 84 82, 88-90, 103, 106

Mehta, Pandit Dhirajlal, xii, 100, purusa, 15, 17, 55, 66, 70

157 Miller, Jeanine, 69 rāga (attraction), 16, 67

Mīmāmsā (Reflection), 41, 42, 44, rajas, 16

45 Rājaśekarasūri, 2

Mitrā (Friendly) Yoga, 20, 21, 26, Rudrayamālā, 83

28, 30, 41, 63, 83, 106, 108-112 monism, 18, 24, 52, 54-56, 61-63, Saddarśanasamuccaya, 7

145-146 Śaiva, 12, 39, 40

Mūlamādhyamika Kārikā, 60 samādhi (absorption), 15, 17, 20, 23, 28, 34-37, 43, 44, 46, 59, 68, 69,72 Nāgārjuna, 60 samāpatti (unified consciousness), nirbīja samādhi, 35, 37, 59 37,69 nirjarā (karmic expulsion), 67 Samarāiccakahā, 5 nirodha, 12, 26 Samārthya (see Effort Yoga) nirvāņa, 23, 25, 27, 34, 35, 51, 53, Samketapaddhati, 83 54, 60, 80, 131, 132 Sāmkhya, 13, 15-17, 42, 55, 61, 63, Nityāhrdaya, 82 65, 75, 146, 155 niyama (Observances), 20, 28, 30, samsāra, 54, 57, 60, 62, 128, 129- 41, 66-68, 70-72 131, 147

170 INDEX

samskāras, 37, 42, 45, 59, 66, 138 Tattva Pratipatti, 45 samyak darśana, jnāna, cāritra (right Tattvārtha Sūtra, 13, 20, 25, 53, 73, seeing, knowledge, action), 27-29, 92, 105 89 Tīrthankaras, 91, 93, 117 Sanghavi, Sukh Lal / Sanghvi, Sukhalal, Tson Kha Pa, 39 5,7,40 Śankarabhațța, 1 santosa (contentment), 30, 68 Umā, 82

Sarvarājamuni, 2 Umāsvāti, 2, 13, 25, 27, 35, 38, 53,

Sarvāstivādin Buddhism, 23, 24, 60, 63, 65, 73, 92, 105

63, 82, 144-145 Upanisads, 46, 52, 55, 68,

Śāstra Yoga (see Precept Yoga) upaśama śreņi (see Suppression

Śāstravārtāsamuccaya, 7 Ladder)

sattva (illumination), 16, 17, 68, 70, 72 Vallee Poussin, Louis de la, 12

satya (truthfulness), 4, 17, 25, 30, Vāmakeśvara Tantra, 83

66, 67,94 Vedānta, 9, 14, 18, 19-24, 38-46,

śauca (purity), 30, 68 51-56, 60-65, 75, 82, 147

sayoga kevala (embodied freedom), Vidya Dehejia, 76

21, 33, 36, 38, 91 vidyādevī, 84, 85

Senart, Emile, 12 Vidyādhara gaccha, 1 Shah, Pravin L., xii, 100, 156 Vijñānamātra, 55

Shastri, Yajneshwar, xii, 13, 100, vrata, 30, 35, 66, 90

154, 155, 157, 160 siddha, 34, 91, 93, 94 White, David Gordon, 87 siddhis, 33, 66, 69 Wilbur, Ken, 93 Sikhism, x, xi Williams, R., 2, 153 Śiva, 9, 54, 55, 57 Wishful (Icchā) Yoga, 19, 20, 29, Śiva Sūtra, 82 81, 82, 88, 89, 101, 106, 149 Sodaśakaprakaraņa, 13 Somadeva, 5, 85 Yākinī, 3 Śrāmanical, 53, 75 Yākinī-putra, 2, 3 Sthirā (Firm) Yoga, 20-23, 28, 32, Yama (Disciplines), 16, 20, 28, 35, 41, 83, 106, 136-138 41, 66-72 Śūnyavādins, 55 Yaśatilaka, 85 Supression Ladder (upaśama śreņi), Yaśodhara, 5, 6 32, 33, 36, 90, 105 Yaśovijaya, 2, 100, 101 svādhyaya (study), 16, 20, 30, 68, 82 Yoga Sūtra, 15-18, 34, 35, 57, 59, Svetāmbara, 1, 2, 25 66, 69, 71, 75,92, 101 Yogabindu, 13, 53, 60-63, 153 tapas (austerity), 16, 20, 30, 68, 82 Yogācāra, 55 tamas (lethargy), 16 Yogananda, Paramhamsa, 92 Tantra, 1, 2, 14, 18, 19, 22, 24, 39, Yogaśāstra, 2 75-85, 87, 101, 120, 147 Yogaśataka, 13 Tatia, Nathmal, 29, 32, 33, 153, 156 Yogavāsiștha, 54-56, 68 Tārā (Protector) Yoga, 20-22, 26, Yogavimśikā, 13 28, 30, 38, 41, 83, 106, 112-114 Yoginī, 76, 82, 83, 85