1. Rgvedic Foundations of Classical Poetics Manikar T.G

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THE RGVEDIC FOUNDATIONS OF CLASSICAL POETICS

THE RGVEDIC FOUNDATIONS

OF CLASSICAL POETICS

891.21

T G MAINKAR M 168R R G Bhandarkar Professor of Sanskrit and Head of the Department, Umversity of Bombay

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हाक्टीय मगदिालय

REFACE

In the Winter of the vear 1971 1972 the University Grants Commission mvited me as t National Lecturer to deliver a few lectures at the different Umversities Many Universtties were very kind in extending invitations to me and I very much regret mv inbilty to accept therr kind hospitality As a sequel, I could deliver lectures at onlv three Universities Karnataka University, Dharwar, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad and Jiwaji University Gwaltor I am grateful to the authorittes of these three Unnerstties for all the courtesy and kindness which they showed to me when I Visited these Unnersities I carry very happv memories of the davs spent with the Post Graduate Departments at these places

The Commission had m their ivtation expressed a desire that these lectures could be on topics of one's own research and rterest The topic that I selected was the Rgvedic Foundations of Classtcal Poetics The lectures that I del- vered are now appearing in print I am grateful to the Commission, not only for the honour they did by mvting me as a National Lecturer in Sanskrit, but alo for thus providing me an opportuntty for putting mv thoughts together and placing them before my colleagues and Post-Graduate students at the different Universtties It was indeed an exciting experience for me

In these lectures I have profuselv drawn on the work of the earher scholars like Bloomfeld, Gonda Velankar, Divekar

(v)

and manv others I verv gratefully acknowledge my debt to these scholars

The Rgveda is a mmne of gold, a veritable mine of infor- mation for that early period Religion, History, Mythology, Philosophy, Culture all stand reflected here and efforts have been made to study the Rgveda from all these different points of iew The Reveda bas also struck its readers as a literary composition and efforts have been made to study the rhetori- cal elements in it Here is an effort to put all this material together with a view to arriving at something like a poctics of the times To be sure, there was neither a Bharata nor an Abhmnavagupta nor a Mammata, But a period that Witnessed such a wide and varied poetical activity on the part of generations of poets ought to yield something interestmg on the side of the theory which could have been but vaguely present howsoever unconsciousty in the minds of the practising pocts This theory, these possible thoughts and working methods of the Rgvedic poets have been the subject of my srudy in these lectures I have trred to be as objectie as possible but the subjectne element i any presentation and in any interpretation can never be wholly avorded and ideed, need not be avoided For when that is avoided, one wonders what remains t All knowledge Is, I believe, Savikalpa, and therefore perhaps, one's own

Caitra Pratıpadā, Bombay, 20th March, 1977 T G Malakar

CONTENTS 6/172

PREFACE v-vt

RGVEDIC POETS 1-21

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE RGVEDIC POETS 23-46

VEDIC POETRY AND CLASSICAL POETICS 47-71

APPENDIY A 73-

APPENDIY B 75-76

INDEX 77-79

READERS

To read Coleridge for Keats on page 8 line 2

1

Rgvedic Poets

The poetical compositions, the Suktas, in the Rgveda really defy any single and therefore simple nomenclature or description They are compositions produced under several but mutually deeply affecting influences, strains and urges Their close connection with the prevading ritual is so obvious and therefore their priestly origin n beyond doubt But it would be hazardous if one were to accept the judgment of Oldenberg and Hillebrandt that this poetry has arsen exclu- sively in prestly circles This is not corroborated by the internal evidence from these Suktas themselves Their con- nection with magic is also clear and though their authorship cannot be ascribed to the ancient magicians, the characteris- tics of magical poetry are to be very clearly seen in these Rgvedic pieces I have elsewhere spoken of the bardic nature of the Rgvedic poetry and though obviously the Rgvedie seers are not bards in the techntcal sense of the word, the presence of the characteristics of bardic poetry here is beyond doubt The Rgvedic poctry, it will be seen, was thus magico-religious and bardte It would, further have to be admitted that here we have also pieces that appear to have been produced by the seers under pure literary urges These seers appear to be deeply impressed by some pheno- menon mn Nature like the Dawn or the Torrential Rais or the Still Night in a Woodland and a poetical piece is the result Ancient mythological or historic themes are dealt with and the characters ire made to hold a dialogue wlich is very neatly composed with an apparently caleulated effect Sometimes, a drinking or more correctlv, a drunken deity is made to give out a sobloquy undet the influence of the drink and on another occision a domestic scene involving a deity

4 The Rgedie Foundations of Classical Poeties

would be made the subject of a song Such pieces bave no vsible connection eitber with magic or with the ntual On another occasion, the seer would be deeply interested in metaphy sical problems and on occasions it would be seen that be is spealing of his own personal mystie experiences, his mterview with his favourite deity One comes across here, a seer who loves to deseribe the greatness and pomer of languare vak, while yet another would compose a prece celebrating the marriage of the daughter of the Sun Even when metaphysical problems are the theme of the preces, the approach is drerse for, in one case, it may be ntualistic and in another, imagmnatne while mn the third, purels mystic This brief discussion is really sufficient to indicate the wide spectrum of the urges behind the Rgvedic pieces It is therefore that the Rgedic pieces appear to defv any simple descrption and nomenclature

It has been said that the Rgvedic Soktas have been 'produced' Traditionally spealing these Suktas have been 'seen' by their seers What is preciselv the meantng of this traditional vew that these Suktas have been 'seen' and not composed ? The Sokta has its onn Rsi, the seer, who is the 'mantradrk for, he is called a Rsi smnce he has 'seen' the piece Ruth darfanat is what the tradition asserts Tradı- tion aiso uses another word mn this very context to suggest the divine ongift of these pieces These pieces are the 'Sruti texts fexts which have been heard by their seers These pieces are the 'rhythms of the infimte heard by the soul' These pieces are the breathings forth, the 'mhsvastta' of the Highest Reality Man is only the medium of transmission. of commumcation but by no means the author of these sacred texts They have been there since times immemorial The rși, therefore, the man chosen for tra nsmission or communt- cation, is an extremely holy person having abont him an aura of the divine Being divne and not man-made the

Rgvedic Poets

authority of these texts is beyond dtspute Man is essentially fillble but whatever is divine is, by definition, infallable Thus argues the 'apauruseya vada in connection with these picces before us

In a sense, a sound view no doubt, but this view deserves to be understood in a different way, m a way which can accommodate the etactly opposite vew, the 'apauruşeya' vda Logical necessities apart one can understand this view in the light of the evidence that these pieces themselves furnish The Rgvedic seers themselves quite often speak of their three generations the ancients, those of the middle penod and the moderns, the pratnih, the madhyamah and the nutnah Further, thev appear to suggest that the art of composing pieces has been taught to the son by the father and that these seers are antous to preserve this paternal pattern and that they appear to take pride mn doing so They imitate very freely the models betore them and thus appear to be conservative in the execution of their compositions as well as in the selection of their diction, The repetitions in the Rgveda are a result of their conservatism The seers also speak of their having fastuoned out a piece 'new' but in the manner of ofd' Their pride and joy in the act of creation as well as their satisfaction at therr loyalty to the set pattern are both to be prommently seen in a piece It ts also to be seen from the repetttions to be found in the com- position of a seer that he tries to follow the famtly pattern and also the pattern set by the poets outside hs family In other words he looks to his predecessors not only in his own family, but also beyond These two, the famtly pattern and the professtonal pattern are the formative ifluences for a Rgvedic seer This would implv a very conscious effort on the part of the seer and then the apauruseva Mew will have to be discarded, or at least, modified.

6 The Rgiedic Foundations of Classical Poetics

That the piece is nen, navyam brahma, pomts to the 'pauruseya' aspect and the fact that it is after the old pattern supplied by the fathers 'pitrya dhth', would pomt to the 'apauruseya' aspect of the piece It would be worth our whle to further study ths 'seen' aspect of a Vedic text There are accounts preserved by the Vedic tradition itself as to how some texts were seen by the rsis, the seers connect- ed with them Sunahsepa, son of Ajigarta, has about a hundred verses, rks, to his credit and these are to be seen in the First Mandala When were these 'mantras' revealed to Sunahśepa ? The account traditionally preserved, informs us that Sunahsepa was being sacrificed to Varuna and was being at the time offered as victim as a substitute for Prince Rohita son of King Harseandra of the Iksvaku race None of the seers assembelled, Visvamitra Vasistha and the hke, was willing to kill Sunahsepa tied to the Yopa, the sacrificial post, and it was Ajigarta, his own father, who undertook to kill him At that time in an effort to save himself Sunahsepa sought the help of Visvamitra who guded hum to approach the Vedic derties Sunahsepa did accordingly and he 'saw' the mantras now standing against his name and as soon as the last mantra was 'seen', all his fetters became loose and ultimately he became a free man Later, he was adopted by Visvamitra. What is of importance in this account 1s that Sunahsepa 'approached' the deities when he was tred to the Yopa and at that time, when his life was in peril, the mantras in question were 'seen' by hum or were revealed to him The simplest explanation is that these mantras were composed by Sunahsepa when he felt 'inspired' while facing death at the Yupa

Yet another instance can be taken to illustrate this point Kavasa Ailosa is a celcbrated personalty of the Tenth Mandala having the famous Aksa-Sukta, the Gambler's Hymn to his credit Tradition in this case asserts that

Rgvedic Poets 7

Kavaşa Aılūşa was a proved gambler and tried to enter a sacrificial session The other seers not willing to admit this gambler in their midst, placed him in a desert so that he might die of thirst Left thus to die, Kavasa had the 'Aponaptriya Sokta' revealed to him or he 'saw' it and the rver Sarasvati swelled up to flow by hrs side to save him When the seers saw this miracle, they admitted Kavaşa Ailasa in their midst, now that he was a 'seer Here too, the simplest and most plausible expfanation is that mn that hour of trial when death for want of water started Kavaşa Adluşa in the face, he felt hunself 'insptred' and composed the Sukta in question

Yet a third instance can be brought in to strengthen the argument here, though th's would take us to a Brahmana text and not to a Rgvedic Sokta. Mahidasa was a neglected child by his father, perhaps, being a son of Itara, a name- less woman possibly not a 'savarna' wife Frustrated, Mahidasa left the house and with the favours of goddess Earth, Mahl, he saw the Brahmana, which is known as the Aitareya Brahmana and the author is known as Mahidasa Aitareya, a name that mentions both the deity and his revered mother Now what is the meaning of the fact that a whole text like the Aitareya Brahmana was 'seen' or 'revealed' ? It could only mean that Mahidasa was 'inspired' to write the tett From this discussion, it would appear that when tradi- tion is speaking of a text or sukta being 'seen or 'revealed it rs in plain words refernng to insprration' that we are familar with It is a fact that poets as a class speak in mysterious and mystifying language about this 'inspiration' and the pro- cesses as how it functions The proce s is, on all accounts, hot open to analysis and the poets when under its influence do not know the exact way how they come to recerve thoughts

The Rgredie Foundations of Classical Pocties

and expressions proper to it, or recene properls 'clothed thoughts The Englsh poet Keats tells us that he 'san, almost the whole of his poem Kubla Khan It was left for him to write down what he had seen' If I may be permitted to refer to a very recent, nay, a contemporary but a less well Lnown case, I might refer to the work Unfinshed Symphonics by Rosemary Brown (Souvenir Press) where she, a housewife, without any formal or specialist traiing in music, tells us of having 'composed' a lot of music that is dictated to her by Chopin, Liszt, Brahms who are long dead. One mav or may not grant the claim of Rosemary Brown, but her account is sigmficant to us only in this context that there is a tendency to regard 'inspired' work as being either 'seen' or frevealed' or even 'dictated'

Not in all cases are 'recened thoughts' property clothed A search for proper or adequate expression begins then and often an eusting model shows the way A memorable phrase, a successful expression, an attractive piece all these attract the new poet who has 'recened' the thought and is struggling for a proper expression The piece has to be well-execuied, 'suvrkta as a Rgvedic poet would say When language is found to be madequate to comey nhat is mwardiy felt or received other devices are thought of to male the language powerful enough, 'alam" as the Vedic phrase goes The word 'alamkarana is very cigmficant from this pomt of vew All emnbellshments are thought of primanly with a vien to mak- ing the language at the disposal of the poet capable or powerful cnough to convey all that is felt Decoration 15 thus constructed with effort and labour, all which is conscious and a thought is decorated as a war-steed is decorated with omaments wth love and care, as Rgvedic poet says, Sumbhantah jenyam yatha (I 130 6) This is the most con- scious part of the poetic effort and the poet takes a narural pnide in this aspect of his production, be is all grateful for

Rgvedie Poets 9

the part he has 'received, seen' or has been 'revealed' to hum The Rgvedic Süktas bear ample testimony to these feelings of pride and gratitude on the part of the seers

There is another aspect to be bome in mind while dis- cussing the Rgvedic poetry The Rgveda that we have before us is in a very farge measure 'school poetry' It has already been observed that a Vedic seer always looks both for tmitation and cxecution to a pattern available in the family and also to a pattern if available outside the family If he were to compose a Soma-sukta he would naturally go to the stock of the Soma-suktas available to him In this manner there was a school of poets to which all the seers belonged and therefore they freely drew on this vocabulary and idiom which was, indeed, their common property This would imply that the present generation of the seers had a lot of poetry before it which it is trying to copy Such a view is further strengthened by the fact that almost all the seers say that thei suktas are new, 'navya or that they belong to the generation of the new poets, to the younger generation, the nūtanas This description of themselves by themselves would suggest to tis that they had the ancients, the 'pratnas' and the middle generation, the 'madhyamas before them The Rgveda, then is mostly a composition of the younger generation, the 'nutanas' to judge both by the amount of repetition and imita- tion as well as by the direct references to the older paternaf pitterns being followed Max Muller spoke of a 'chandas period a perjod that preceded the 'mantra Period , a primary penod being followed by 1 secondary period This carly period that supphed the patterns to the younger seers, the nutanas, was the period of the pratnas and the madhyamas, the ancients and the middle ones A secondary period is always a period of imitation, for, the first penod always serves as a model while the first period itself is, in the very nature of things, bound to be period of experiment and effort

10 The Rgredic Fourdatiors of Classical Poenes

and therefore likely to possess a certam freshness. The early seers had to find out expressions for themselves, they baving no models before them. Viewed in this manner, the Rgveda before us is the last precipitate of that mtense pocucal acuvnty of the previous peniods of which we have only names like the Angirasas, the Usyas or Jamadagm and others

I am referring to all theso aspects of the Rgvedie poctry here since I want to observe that such a long perod of potti- cal actrty on the part of the seers is likely to gie rise to certarn comventions These may not be the rules to be obeyed but are comventions to be obsened Comventions when hardened receive the status of rules and when the conventions and the rufes are codified we get the Sastra, the science. The Rgveda is obvioush not the penod of Sastra mn its formal sense but it could be argued that there could be present in the minds of the composing seers some notions, bomsoever vague, about the conventions to be followed, methods to be employed, the ideas of what is good in a Sokta and what is not, the ideas of excellence and also the constituents of this excellence and of factors that materrally contribute to this excellence All this thought material I would call as 'poetics in the making'

A closer readmng of the Rgveda and a study of the diffe- rent Süktas further points out to the existence of smaller schools among the seers A seer desirous of composing a new ritualistic sukta would go to another ntualshe compo- sition as a seer wanting to compose a Soma-sulta would go to the Soma-suktas There was a style to be followed in the metaphysical inquines reflecting the questions and doubts disturbing the poets A seer with ability would place a familar line into new use in his own piece If a deity was to be praised, the exploits were the same and therefore ofien umes idenbeally described and thus m thts manner would

Rgvedic Poets 11

come into existence the mythological school A seer would appear to proclaim to us his school through his imitations and relations with the other suktas in the Rgveda

A seer would go to a 'school' if he were dealing with a theme or a theme similar to it, was dealt with before him But a seer with an altogether new theme would have no model and would be naturally required to find out his own new expression In this case then, his composition would have no relation with any of Soktas in the Rgveda In many of the Suktas of this type is to be scen all abseoce of repeti- tion, imitation and influence This phenomenon of a seer having quite a new urge would belong to any time and there- fore such Suktas are to be found in all the Mandalas, the earher and the later A Vasistha speaking of his personal meeting with Varuna, theit movng in a pleasure-yacht, his sincere devotion to him and appeal-all these are urges mn a ritualistic atmosphere and hence these Suktas have no rela- tion with any of the Rgveda Suktas A Vamadeva declaring lus mystic experience or the goddess Vak declaring her greatness also are unique themes and so the Sūktas are mn every way onginal So would have to be regarded the cele- brated Urvasi Pururavas Sükta To be brief, all great per- formances in the Rgvedic poetry are unrelated with the other part of the Rgveda and thus are experiments in expression by the poets, the seers, of what was keenly and uniquely felt Here there is no model to be followed, no tradition to go by no phrase or idiom to be lifted The Rgveda is not wanting in such pieces, remarkable achtevements which would do credit to any poet of any times In this manner we come across several brillant poetical compositions in the repeti- tious Rgveda that has been described as a 'school product' The depth of thought is eventy matched with the dehcacy in expression In construction, symmetry and contrast, delbe- rate arrangement of clauses and hnes are all to be met with,

12 The Revedic Foundations of Classical Poenes

hence it would be no exaggeration nor blasphemy to observe that the Rgveda is a deliberate composition of the poets who style themselves as seers In this context it has got to be remembered that the title 'qai' is conferred on them and is indicatne of the respect that others had for them But so far as they are concerned they prefer to call themselves in their compositions poets, singers, praisers, 'kavi', garat', 'grnana' and so on One cannot also forget the words 'Karu' and "kin in this context. And there could be no mistake on our part if we take them at therr words Yaska who declared 'sak satkrtadharmanah rsayah' is yet to arme and belongs to a pretty late date

It is therefore clear that when the Rgveda was being composed a tribe of poets with their different 'schools' had come ito existence Somethig hike comventions also had come into vogue Poetry was possibly a profession too Did these poets have at this time, thoughts of any prestding deity for their vocation ? Had they reached any conception of a Muse, a presiding genn of poetry who mspired them and guided them ? The later age, the classical age has created a fovelv all white, 'sarva-sukia, Sarasvati with a lyre in her hand and with the swan as her vehicle Haye the Revedie poets any such similar deity

Wherever is poetry consciously cultivated there is seen also developed a theory as well as a concept of the Muse of poetry It is true that the Rgvedic imagination mostly did conceie of powerful Nature gods but it is also to be seen that there are in the Rgveda even delicate and abstract con- cepts deified and one can refer in this contest to the denly Anumati and Sraddha (X 596 167, 3 X 151) by ay of an illustration It is therefore not quite impossible in the nature of things that a delicate concept of a genn of poetry should have been thought of or concerved in these times.

Rgredic Poets 13

Oldenberg s assertion that the Rgvedic imagmation only loved the gross and brillant is unfortunately only a half- truth Through many of the Rgvedtc similes, thoughts and concepts can be clearly seen the delicate poctical sensibilities and sensitiveness of the Rgvedic seers

Geldner while iterpreting a Soma Sūkta (IX 72) put forth the suggestion that for the Rgvedic people the Daughter of the Sun, 'suryasya dutnti was the genie of poetry and song The Soma Book appears to develop this idea through- out its songs and in thts contett one can be referred to the following observations of the Vedic poets 'punāti te parisru- tam somam sūryasya duhita/ varena saśvatā tinā (IX 16) 'dhiya pavate somah' (1X 72 4), ınduh pavişta cetanah prıyah Kavinim matt/ srjadasvam rathirva/ (I\ 64 10) and places like IX 96 15, 2 7, 20 3, 26 1, 63 20 It is also seen that the Sun is connected with the art of the poets and their thoughts Gandharva, the father of the pocts and the song- sters is identical with the Sun and it is to be rememberd that the Sun is the source of the Sukla Yajurveda Another interesting idea which is relevant to the discussion here is the concept of the 'divo duhtta who is obviously the Usas The Rgvedic poets do not appear to have any clear idea about the relationship between the 'suryasya duhita' and the 'divo duhita, whether the two are independent concepts yet closely related or identical ones Vasistha seems to identify the two in his hymn to the twin gods Asvinau particularly ın 'yuvoh srıyam pan yoşāvrnīta sūro duhitā paritakmyāyām (VII 69 4) It is known that Surya is the bride of the Asvins and yet it appears the Usas has been treated as if she were rdentical with Surya, but her relation with the Asvins is not very specifically mentioned Opinion is seen divided on this issue, for Geldner and Hillebrandt appear to accept this identification of Usas, the 'drvo duluti with the Surja, Süryasya duhitā while Oldenberg whose view appears to be

14 The Rgiedie Foundations of Classical Poeties

supported by Bhave declines to accept It Sayana thinks that in 'aramamano atyetf ga abhı sūryasya prryam duhituh ttro ravam' (IX 72 3) Suryasya duhita is Usas The mythological aspect may be left alone here for a whtle, but what ts of interest is that both these Rgvedie dexties, the Soryasya duhita and the Divo Duhita appear to be vitally connected with the art of the poet they being often the inspirers of thoughts This is pointed out by the fact that Suryasya Duhita has been identified with Sasarpari, traditionally regarded as Yal at 'sasarpariramatım bīdhamāna brhanmi- māvo jamadagmdattā/ ā sūryasya duhitā tatāna śravo devesvamrtamajuryam/ (III 53 15) and agan Sūryasya duhita has been identified with the Usas, at least by Sayana, at IX 723 Equally significant from our point of view, is the identification of the Soryasya duhita with Sraddha at IX 16 by Sayana on the strength of a Brahmana text 'sraddha vai sūrjasya duhitā, šraddhā hr enam punātı The poets often speak of their having been awakened at the carly hour of the Dawn for smnging In the hymns to Usas it is clear that her beanty mspires them to songs

There is yet a third concept that deserves our attention in this context and this concept is of Sarasvati There is no doubt whatsoever about the fact that to the Rgvedic poets Sarasvati is a river and there is a song (VIT 95) m her honour composed by Vasistha But we witness this Sarasvati slowly being personified and brought into relation with the poetical thought. Thus in 'sam sarasatf saha dhibhihrastu' (VII 35 11) her blessings are invoked along with mspiration for songs ; while at 'pra no devi sarasvati vajebhrvajinivat dhinamavtry avatu' (VT 61 4) she is regard- ed as the protector of the poetical thoughts and inspiration But more significant are perhaps the lines from Madhucchan- das Visvamtra where he tnvokes Sarasvati mn

Rgredte Poets 15

'pāvakā nah sarasvatī vājebhirvājnīvatī / jajñam vastu dhty āvasuh // codayttri sūntānām cetantī sumatīnām / yajñam dadhe sarasvati // maho arnah sarasati pra cetay atı Ketuna / d'o viếvã v răjatt // (1 3 10-12)'

for here is Sarasvati regarded in very clear terms as the inciter of all pleasant songs, inspirer of all gracious thoughts, brightener of every pious thought Here we have practically a neatly developed concept of a guardian dety of poetry the Muse of poctry In the somewhat unstable and developing mythology of the Rgveda where gods and deittes with identi- cal field of activity were assimilated into one, it is more than fikely that Sarasvati on account of her more prommnent rela- tion with Speech, Vak, amalgamated into herself the other deity Suryasya duhtta, and in doing so took on herself the full white splendours of the latter to whom it was a natural paternal gift Nor was this transfer of 'sukra or sukla' complevion difficult, for the white waters of Sarasvati only helped the process, and made it look simple and natural

To conclude this discussion about the concept of the Muse of poetry of the Rgvedic poets, it could be observed with justification that this concept has three elements in it supplted by the three deities, Sūrya, the Sūryasya duhitā, Usas, the Divo duhita and Sarasvati the river This figure of a lady, is the supreme embodiment of the beauty felt mn the visible world and is a power that does quicken man's sensibility to that beauty and links it in love with all nature All over the world, poets have concerved the Muse of poetry as a lady and have preserved very happy memories of time passed under her mnfluence and the Rgvedic poets, therefore even at that early hour mn man's civilsation, have touched

18 The Rgredie Foundations af Classical Poetics

worling and is conscious of the excellence of hts artifact Further this fimished producs, the artifact has a purpose to serve, an end to achieve and this purpose m the context of the Rgvedie poets appears to have been primanh the winning of the fayours of the gods and through them all the good things mn hfe, all that is auspictous, 'sobhana, hence Sayana s rendering of 'suvrkti' an excellently etecuted song as 'sobha- navarjakam' is significant, for it refers to the purpose of the artifact. The craft theory refers to the technical skill and it is indeed significant that philologically the word taks' wluch the Rgvedic poets use in this context has something to do with the word 'technique"

But the craft theory does rot dispense with the other and equally valuable aspeets of poetr), spontaneity, profun- dity, trresistability, onginalty and the like Sincerity. emotion, depth are also relevant here and the Rgvedic poets constantlv speal of these aspects of their songs A reference could be made to a memorable smile from Vasrstha in this context He, about to produce a son, obseries 'yyam vama- Sya manmana mdrāgnī pūrvyastutih abhrādvrstirnājam (VII 94 I) The mind of the poet is a surcharged cloud and the song has been delnered like a shower Visvāmitra speaks of faultless songs in his 'girah anavadyah (III 31 13) 1 have elsewhere carried out a detailed analsis of the views of the Rgvedie families Mandalawise, and this analy sis, it IS sufficient to state here, shows a remarkable agreement ib tbe Viens regarding poetry and its excellentes By way of summing up. I shall here refer only to the views of two famihes, popularly taken as havmng a very keen rvalry, bitter enmity between them, as tradition asserts namely the familes of Visvamitra and Vasıştha. The Visvamitra poet takes pride in the greatness of the poetry of his family and he affirms 'đnascıdā pūrvyā jāyamānāvı jāgrvit vidathe šasyamānā / bhadră vastrany arjuna vasāna sévamasme sanaja pitry a đhīh*//

Rgvedic Poets 19

(III 39 2) and tells us that the paternal poetry of the Višvāmitras is brilbant, holy, auspictous and of great anti- quity The Vasisthas too affirm of their songs, 'suryasyeva vakşatho jyotıreşām samudrasyeva mahima gabhīrah, vātas- yeva prajavo nnyena stomo vasisthã anvetave vah (VII 33 8) that these songs, possessing the lustre of the Sun, the depth of the ocean and the movement of the wind are, indeed beyond imitation

This confidence in the excelience of one s own art is to my mind, a result of a farrly long process The Rgvedic poet is conscious of the mystery of language and the full possibilities of Vak, speech A careful reading of the Sūkta of Brhaspati Angirasa (X 71) is endeed very illuminating as well as mnspiring The main purpose of language is to bestow names and to disclose the hidden essence of things The wise have created this specch with the purest of thought and language that is brilhant and clean, establishes divine rela- tionships and friendships Ail auspicious glory is establshed in the language of wise men It was through the sacrifice that the track of language was seen and it was discovered among the sages The sages through the seven metres gave her various melodius forms Mere seeing or mere hearing does not put one in possession and full command of langu- age, a richly significant institution that it is It is to the knower only that speech reveals her full beauty, just as a beautifully dressed woman does to her lord, 'uta tvasmar tanvam vi sasre jayeva patya ušati suvāsāh (X 714) ! The dullards use language that is undecorated and unfrustful, 'aphalam apuspam' Excellent language is secured only by the wise by their mind and by a careful selection, as if by making speech pass through a seive that purifies If the sublime divine friendships formed through language are not properly understood, then all seeing, all hearing has no meaning and the path of Truth is never known Those who

20 The Rgvedie Foundations of Classical Poeties

fashion out language through their heart and soul rise far above others while those who do not understand this supreme sigmificance of absolute smcerity are indeed Iike bad weavers With this view of language, it would be unjust to call the Rgvedic poets as 'primitives*

It is no wonder that ths age which realsed the great and deep sigmficance of language saw the composition of the celebrated Vagāmbhrnīyam Sukta (X 125) Speech is all pervading and moves along with other drvimties, bestows all blessings, urges the word to its different actrvties and creates a poet It is the Sacred Word that has created every thing and is through its own greatness everything that is here and beyond From all ths discussion it should be clear that the Rgvedic poets, though they held the 'craft theory of poetry, yet had understood the phenomenon of Speech, its supreme purpose, the processes of the literary creation and had also developed a concept of a Muse of poetry in which different elements like Vak, Sarasvati Divo Duhita and Sūryasya Duhita were combined According to them, poetry is born in the midst of nature, on the lap of a mountam and by the side of a conffuence of nvers , poetry again proceeds from the chambers of Truth, rtasadana and poetry, lastlv, proceeds from the heart and mind of man

The Rgvedic poets appear to be keen on bringing man's speech into a close contact with the Divine and the Real Their songs are either a devotional homage or an intellectual effort to grasp this Reality It is not to be denied that the aims of immediate gams are also present before them but this fact does not and ought not to detract the value of therr thoughts about poetry and their efforts to produce fine effec- tive poetry When the Rgvedic poets speak of the 'Visvapesas or sucipesas dhit they seem to catch the true essence of really great poetry Their craft theory need not compel us to

Rgvedic Poets 21

regard them as tried versifiers or verse-makers They were certainly not wrong in recognising three elements in their poetic art, namely, tradition, inspiration and craft It would be worth our while to find out what they actually achieved and how they really worked

हाजकीय मर्ा दालय फ्रोम, गरमाक -

2

Achievements of the Rgvedic Poets

It is now proposed to discuss some poctical compositions of the Rgvedic poets with a view to having something like a a peep into their workshop How do they appear to compose, what are the embellishments that they use and to what models they go when about to produce a composition ? An attempt to discover all this is an arresting as well as a re- warding effort Agamn such an effort would be, I consider, a sheer necessity before an effort is made to arnve at somc conclusions regarding the 'poctics in the making that we find here, the very assumptton on which we have started this our enquiry

There is one thing that needs to be explained here at the very outset, and this is about the chronology of these compo- sitions It is true that it is very difficult to be precise and verv definite about the compositions and their dates as we find them in the Rgveda, yet for our purposes, the generally accepted and plausible chronology of the Rgvedic Mandalas can be taken as the basis of our discussion The ten Mandalas of the Rgveda, very broadh speaking, fall in four different stratas the first strata would consist of the Mandalas of Grtsamada, Visvāmitra and Vamadeva (II , III & IV) The second strata would consist of the Mandalas of Atris, Bharadvajas and Vasisthas (V VI & VII) The third strata would consist of the Mandalas of Kanvas and the Mandala devoted to the deity Soma (VIII & IX) The last and the final strata would be of the Mandalas I and X where the Suktas of the remaining poets, the minor poets, are given to us This ts only a tentative division, for the problem of these different stratas is beset with baffling comphcations that

26 The Revedic Foundations of Classical Poenes

render any final and defintte judgement well nigh impossible All the dates proposed and ali tha chronological discussions 1n the context of the Rgveda are, as Whitney observed, 'only nine pins to be bowled down again' And yet conclusions based on thts drvision would not go very much wrong, for, by far and large, language, grammar and thought as well as genealo- gy seem to corroborate the general outline mdicated here

It will be seen that the scheme of layers suggested here is in some respect different from the usual chronology of the Rgvedic Mandalas which accepts Mandala II to ViI as the oldesr part, Mandala VIlI as coming next, folloned by the third part Mandala IX and the last period being that of Mandalas I and X Instead of this scheme, I have grouped Mandalas II, IH and IV m the oldest groop which is follon- ed by the second group of the Mandalas V, VI and VII The third group in my scheme consists of Mandalas ViII and IX and the last one is identical wth the one in the usual scheme, consisting of Mandalas I and X I have here based my scheme on a study of the literary influences and also the pomts of contacts of the differrnt Mandalas between one another I have discussed this in details elsewhere

There are a few points that deserve our notice here, for these pomts of contacts corroborate my earler discussion about the family influences and contacts with the poets of the other famihes As a rule, a Mandala shows a far greater number of internal repetitions than the contacts with poetry outside the family The famil tradition, therefore, is a much stronger mnfuence with the Rgvedic poets Secondiv, the Mandalas II, IlI and IV appear to have hittle contacts with the rest of the Rgveda, which possibly suggests their develop- ment m somewhat isolation A better and more intimate relation is reflected in the Mandalas V. VIand VII which I have therefore regarded as the second laver If this conside-

Achevements of the Rgredic Poets 27

ration has some plausibility about it, then the next group is of the Mandalas VIII and IX While the Mandalas I and X show so much of contact with all the earher layers that with justification, they could be regarded as the latest That the technique of the Soma poetry was a pretty well settled affair is clearly indicated by the fact of enormously large number of internal repetitions whtch becomes very sigmificant when st is remembered that it is poetry coming from all the Rg- vedic familtes This is how then the art of poetic compost- tion was practised by the Rgvedic poets by studying and imitating what was, as a matter of fact, before them The very early models which were perhaps supphed in the early Rgveda by pocts like Angirasa, Jamadagni, Kanva, Ušanas, Usijas and the like, are not before us though the Rgvedic poets tell tis in their expressions like 'atrvat, kaovavat grnimi ete ' that they are tryig to follow these models We therefore witness here the poctry of the second and the third period of the Rgvedic literary activity, the first period being no longer before us Further, if we regard contemporary contacts as perfectly natural, understandable, hence the number of such contacts being larger next to the family or the internal contacts, then another fact gamns significance and it is the comparatively larger number of contacts that the Vasistha Mandala has with the rest of the Rgveda The contacts with the earler Mandalas reveal the study of Rg- vedic poetry by the Vasisthas while the contacts with the later layers would suggest ther mfluence on them. All this discussion, it deserves to be repeated, is only in a very broad manner, for one can never be too certain about the dates of the Rgvedic compositions, piecewise This fact then should suggest the dommance of the Vasisthas over the Rgveda that we have before us The boast of the Vasistha family, there- fore, that their songs are beyond imitation 'nanyena stomo vasistha anvetave vah* ts not a hollow one

28 The Revedic Foundations of Classical Poetics

Certain very mnteresting conclusions seem to emerge from a study of these 'points of contacts' between the diffe- rent Mandalas The Grtsamads appear to be a famly composing their songs almost in isolation while the Vifva- mitras appear to be a family who have almost lost their influence The Vasisthas, on the other hand, seem to have come in power and seem to dominate all the poetical and political activity of the times It may be that their alliance with Sudasa Pavana is responsible for this their smportance but then there is no doubt, that they appear to be the cultural leaders of the times It is hence that they declare 'suryasyeva vaksatho jyotrresam samudrasyeva mahima gabhirah vātas- jeva prajavo nanyena stomo vasistha amvetave vab' // VII 33 8 To this asbect of artistic achievements, I will turn next The entire argument here was only to establish that in the Rgveda we are dealing with the poctical compositions of poets who had a long tradition to go by, who had realised the rmportance of inspiration and who were conscious of the technique they followed Such a view about the Rgvedic poetry is a desidiratum for our further inquiry into the nature of the 'poetics that was in the maling' in the Rgvedic times The Rgveda on my view is neither exclusnely a priestly composition nor an entirely lyrcal composition, 'the singing of a lark' The Rgveda, it has been very trucl observed, is a library and not a bool As such, one need not be surprised, in fact, one ought to be prepared to find here a baffling variety of poetical compositions with so many different aspects and urges Any one vew would be obvi- ously partial It would be safer and perhaps more in keep- ing with the facts too, that we admit here the eustence of many schools like those of the ntualists, the mystics, the metaphysical poets, the reflective poets and so on. Each of these schools has a long history and a tradition, a fact to be seen in the Rgveda itself It is therefore that mn each of this

Achtevements of the Revedic Pouts 29

vaniets we see some really fine pieces which could be rightly regarded as the achievements of the Rgvedic poets in the reaim of poetry It is obviously not possible to take a complete ind thorough survey of all the good pieces from the Rgveda and therefore only a few compositions hive been selected here There could be difference of view regarding the quality of the pieces selected here but this cinnot be helped For in any such selection the subjectne element 1s bound to come into phy Literary appreciation and criti cism cannot be altogether free from this subjective element and one really need hot offer any apologies on that count If any one is pleased to find better pieces in the Rgveda than the ones chosen here, my argument for the quality of the Rgvedic poetry is indeed thereby strengthened and those who refuse to see any quality in the poctty of the Rgveda may perhaps have some second thoughts I will feel amply rewarded if this minimum is achieved by my discussion here

I have been speaking of the Rgvedic poetry as 'school poetry' also traditional in character and also produced often in imitation But I would like to add that I do not subseribe to the view that "in this period poetry was the monopoly of the priestly class The poets of these times are professional versemakers and this fact should etplam 'the amazing degree of technical perfection' of these songs True poetry could not and did not flourish in the Rgvedic atmosphere, surcharg- ed with a spirit of bargatning between gods and man Poetrv of a high order springs either from absolute self-surrender or from absolute individuahsm Rgvedic poetry always oscilates between these two and never att uns the highest altitude of either Ritualsm has deadened its life, hence this poetry strikes us as intensely human, though not as actually sublime" "It may be said that my aim here is

30 The Rgiedic Foundations of Classical Poetics

only to examine this view in the light of poetry that ne see in the Rgveda

It is only too natural for a student of the Rgveda to refer to the Suktas addressed to Usas while spealing of the hterary beauty of the Rgvedic poetry and of the performance of the Rgvedic poets These Suktas, undoubtedly fine Nature poetry, reveal the art of the Rgvedic poets, their conscious work in the composition of these pieces They have very fine, delicate thoughts and they make a deliberate effort to clothe them mn an elegant manner They seem to insist on the fact that the manner should be worthy of the matter They seem to be fully aware of the truth for a good "brahma' it is not only 'Sucipesas', 'dhi' that suffices but 'sucipesas', 'varnas' also are necessary Let us have a look at the follow- ing passage from I 92 10

punahpunarjāyamānā purāni samānam vornamabhi sumbhamana | şıaghniva krtnurya dminānā martasya devi jara-

I consider this verse to be a remarlable composition of Gotama, the rsi of the Sükta according to Sayana This verse really illustrates eloquentty all that I have been speak- ing of The poet is in the first place deeply struck by the beauty of Usas, he has the direet perception of the physical phenomenon, the gorgeous colours that beautify the East The physical phenomenon everyday is more or less the same and yet it has its inexhaustible grandeur and beauty, hence he observes 'samanam varnamabhı Sumbhamana' The poet is impressed with another very sigmificant aspect of this Ușas , she is 'punahpunarjāyamānā* and yet 'purānī She is born agam and again and so is eternally young but then she is also the ancient one, hence old The poet has beautifully conveyed this apparent contradiction in her by a fine wro-

Achevements of the Rgvedic Poets 31

dhabhasa Thrown in this reflective mood, the poet further realizes that every new appearance of this Uşas is a day gone' of his own life, in fact, of the life of every mortal Like a cruei huntress she is chpping off the wings of the birds He becomes conscious of his own aging with every appearance of Usis and a realisation of this fact fills him with a certain wistfulness This wistfulness is of a reflec- tive spint that puts itself in opposition to the surrounding phenomenon of Nature As a matter of fact this sub le feeling of the Dawns making a man age is a common feeling to be seen in many a Vedic poet This realization should tell us something about the quality of the mind that we are studying mn these songs

The Rgvedic poet even in his absolute simplicity went for these poetical effects, it appears, deltberately Undoubt- edly, there is a spontaneity about these songs but then this spontaneity, I think, need not be supposed to be of a diffe- rent kind than that of poets like Kalidasa, Wordsworth and others I may tefer here to the Song to the Maruts by Kanva Ghora ([ 38) The poet asks them in a manner that clearly indicates a personal relationship as to when they will hold him by the hand as does the father a son (pità putram na hastayoh dadhidhve) The devotees of Maruts are also bellowing for them as do the cows (kva vo givo na ranyanti) He longs to seem them with all their splendour and wealth He is asking them to grant him constant pleasure in enjoy- ment "as does find an animal in grass" (Mrgo na vavase jarita bhudajosyab) He sees the lightening sounding like a bellowing cow and licking the cloud like a mother when it rams (vāsreva vidyut mimātı vatsam na mātā sışakti) The clouds, the poet observes, spread darkness during day-tme (diva cittamah krvanti) He wishes the speeding chario- teers to move in a firm manner with the res under perfect control and with their horses and the wheels steady (sthira

32 The Rgredic Foundations of Classical Poencs

vah santu Demayo ratha ašvāsa eșām / susamakrtā abhīsa- vah) It is I think pertinent here to note that the poet appeals to the Maruts that they mav be themselves mortals but they should make himn an immortal.

vad vūvam prsmmataro martasah s) atana [ stora vo cmrtah sat // I 38 4

The same feeling of contrast which the poet in the Song to Usas referred to m 'punahpunar jāyamānā purani and at the same time exhausting and wasting human life is to be seen here m a different garb The gods the Maruts may be 'martasah, mortals but they are requested to make the singer, 'stota , an immortal, 'amrtah The simpheity to be seen in this song needs no special comments but the use of telling similes and this beautiful contrast in 'martasah and 'amrtah' make this song to my mind a beautiful example of the Rgvedie poetic spirit

Another example of fine poetry is to be scen m the Song to the deity of the Forest (X 146) The simplicity and the profundity of this composition is hikely to recall to one's mind the poetry of a Wordsworth or of a Yeats Devamum, the son of Irammada observes

"aramâmaranāmasau va preva nasyas! Latha gramam na prechatt na tra bhirma vinđati [/1 rrsārmava yadate yadupăatt cicaikah aghatibhirna dhavay annoran anrmahiv ate //2 uta gara wādantyuta vešmeva drsyate uto aranamh so)am sakatina sarjan (/3 gamangaisa a hvavat darrangarso apavedhit vasannoram amam såvamakruksad.tt manyate //4 na va arany amrhanty amascennābhigacchat ssadoh phalasya jagdinava yathakamam m padyate I1S añjanadanghım surabhtm bahvennamaksiralam prāham mrgāņām mātaramaran ānimašamasem (/6"

Achtesements of the Rgvedic Poets 33

In this exquisite song Devamuni has admirably succeed- ed mn catching the evening mood in a Forest while returning home With a feeling of intimate relationship the poet calls Aranyan and this love is, to my mind, reflected in the repetition 'aranyant aranyanı' and with a very frendly concern he asks 'does not fear possess you " The chilling music of the Forest and of the Night is admirably caught in the replies of the grasshopper, 'vrsarava, and in the swelling voice of the cicala, the ciccika The Aranyam like a musician tries to feel the different notes of muste in the tinkling bells The grazing cattle and a distant dwelling place with the wagons freed, persons calling a cow and felling a tree make the picture complete with details The unidentified voice in the evening adds to the fearful serenity of the time and yet the forest is 'sweet-scented and balmy, anjanagandhi and surabhi Again the usual subtle contrast is to be met with in "bahvannam aksivalam' where we have a reference to the 'untilled plenty of the sylvan soil' In this entire song there is nothing that could be even remotely connected with either ntualsm or mythology How very skillfully and admirably have been delineated the even-time scene in a forest, its awe- inspiring peace, the feclings of a man returning to his rest- dence and all this has been enlivened by a mild and pleasant personification of the Forest If Devamum has succeeded in catching in words the awesome peace of the Forest, Kustka Sobhart mn his song to the Night has caught the attractive beanty of the Night (X 127) The all-pervading Night has appeared in all her glory filling the ups and the downs and the entire universe-men, birds, beasts-has now retired for rest The enveloping datkness troubles the poet's mind like some 'hanging debt' and he desires it to be removed The stars only 'puncture' the darkness, 'yyotisa badhate tamab*, where Sayana with appropriateness renders 'badhate' as 'pīdayatı'

34 The Revedie Fo indations of Classicel Porties

The Rgvedrc poets have artistically caught in words not only the peace of a natural phenomenon but have also been verv much aine to its terrfic aspects Torrentral rans, Parjinya is such a phenomenon This is how Bhuma Atr hts sung of it (V 83) in his Song to Parjama. The Parjamva strikes mercilessly at the trees and at the demons, the entire umerse is afratd of him The destructive aspect is bere brought out by the repetition of 'hantr with the three objects, the trees, the demons and the wicked Like a car-drer he lashes his whup and males his horses, the clouds, move epeedily, the roanng of a lion resounds, the winds burst forth and down come the lightening flashes All this atmosphere is no doubt ane-inspiring and vet the poet is seen referring to the other aspect of joy and rejuvmnation At the outset he observes 'visvam brbhava but at the end 'vsvam modate' It is this Parjansa who makes the deserts fit for travel and also makes the herbs grow for enjovment, 'ajijana osadhirbho- janiya , the Parjanya is both a Destroyer and a Preserver Vasistha in his o garbham ocdbinim gaam lrnot arvatam/Parjanyah puruinam (VII 10'2) and m 'as retodha vrsabhah (VII 101 6) clearly brings out this aspect The Rgvedic poets are thus conscious of the creatne aspect of the Parjanya though they do behold its terrifying aspect of thunder, storm, hghtening and showers I cannot resist here the temptation to refer to the Song to the Frogs from Vasiştha (VII- 103) To many scholars this Song is a spell. a charm havmg relation to fertility or ram magic To me its position after two Parjanya Songs (101 and 102) appears to be significant The appearance of the frogs at the times of the rains is a striking phenomenon and the poet is naturally led to describe it The frogs were lving in a drv lake "Suşkam sarast šayanam' and now the divine waters come to them They repty to the thunders and between themselves seem to converse All the frogs have come out in the atmos-

Acluevements of the Rgvedic Poets 35

phere of joy and they have diverse colours and diverse tones The frogs round the lake remind the poet of the priests at a Soma sacrifice singing and also of torling ind perspiring officiating priests The frogs converse between themselves, the green with the spotted and so on like 1 son with his father, like a puptl leaming from his teacher The ritualstic ideas come in here only to enliven the realistic deseription The Song has in reality only a remote connection with actual ntual, hence Sayana observes 'vrshkamen t japyam This ob+ wously must have been a later development when every Sukta was berng placed in the official priestly niturl The observa- tion of the poet of Nature, of domestic life of school and of a sacnfice is admirable and the result is a nice poetical piece The Rgvedic poets could rise to still greater heights The poet might be thinking of a ntual or a charm yet it does not prevent him from giving a free rein to his poetical mnstinets I mry here refer to the celebrated song of Surya's marriage (X 85) I would like to refer to the exquisite description of the "bridal chariot' for its delicacy, suggestive character and symboltsm The chariot is fashioned by the mind, 'manomayam angh', Raibhya is the bridal friend and Narasamst led the bride home , her robe was lovely, adorned by Gatha, thought was the pillow of her couch and signt was the ungent for eyes, carth and heaven formed her treasury Her spirit was the bridal car, its two steers were held m place and kept steady by the Rik and the Siman, the ears were the wheels, the path in the heavens This was the bridal pomp of Surya (Stryaysh vahatuh) Sürya's marriage is a typical one providing the model for the mortals The symbo- hie description here is very subtle and lifts the ntual-if there be any in tus song-to the level of sheer poetry I have referred to this deseription only to show that a Rgvedic priest was also a poet of a high order I am tempted to observe that the combination here of the holy, the sublime

36 The Reredic Foundations of Classical Pocties

and poeiry is so that it could have evoled a nod in apprecia- tion from the great Kahdasa Wintermitz is half-melmed to regard this hymn as a ballad and this brings me to the Rg- vedic balled poetry, a field m which also the achicvements of the Rgvedic poets are, to, my mind, remarkable

But before proceeding to the ballads I would like to refer here to another song of love, the hymn of Agastva and Lopamudra (1 179) This is a dialogue hymn and has been regarded by all students of the Reveda as bemg a 'difficult one To Oldenberg this song is an Alhyana, to Hillebrandt and Schroder a 'culture drama, to Thieme a legend-magie and to Bergaigne it is a song with mystical and spintual signufcance Perhaps, after all Sayana is nearer the mart when he observes that 'suktapratipadyo' rthah ratirdevata'. The song has the theme of love and the meanmg is clearly conveved by the song itself I have studied ths hymn else- where and here I will refer to only those aspeets that are relevent to my pomt. I may draw attention to the artistie and poetic expression mn which thoughts are clothed The very human complaint that old age harms, destroys the glory of the limbs is expressed in 'minat snyam jarima tanunam' An earnest request is given a prognancy by a delicate 'apr nu' We also have the familrar Rgvedie 'usasah jaryantih' age- inducing Dawns referred to here The sudden and an alto- gether unexpected appearance of passion in the mind is ex- pressed with admirable directness and simphcity in 'nadasva ma rudhatah Lama aganmta ajato amutah kutascit' The genetive is to my mind very suggestive for it mdicates how passion has appeared in spite of a life of disciplne, restramt and constant vigilance The umon is poetically conveyed in 'dhiramadhira dhayat śvasantam' where the eagerness and timidity of the women is brought out in 'adhira' while the manly panting is referred to m 'dhiram svasantam'. The çonfidence in divine protection of honest and sincere good

Achtevements of the Rgvedte Poets 37

work finds expression in 'na mrsa srantam yadavantı devah* Human bosom is a spring of desires of all sorts is finely sard in 'pulukamo hi martyah* To me, this subhme hymn depicts the struggle between Agasty1 and Käma in which the latter has won The conclusion is obviously a human one in the Rgvedic manner, for the idealism of the Buddhistie time is yet a distant thing

Among the war-ballads I would like to refer here to the song of Mudgala and Mudgalini (\ 102) This hymn is alo a very 'difficult one' and has been a disparr' of scholars who have studied it I have offered my interpretation of this hymn elewhere and I refer to it here because it enables me to advance my argument This song has in it germs and motifs that reappear in later Epie poetry The cattle lfting and its capture around which the song is built from the very central event in the Virataparvan of the Mahabharata The queen plavs a vital role in the war, for it is she who secures the victory for the king by her skilfully and vahantly drivng improvised chariot In the Ramiyana Kaikcyt helps King Dasaratha in a war and enables him to emerge successful, as a result of which the king grants her three boons Obvously in the Rgvedic fashion Indra is here invoked for assistance and victory is regarded is being due to him An element of supernatural and wonder is mtroduced by making the chariot have a mighty bull on one side and on the other a wooden hammer yoked to it This is as it should be, for in the later classical poetry and poetics, the abdhuta helps to heighten the charm of the Vira rasa So much for its theme Its expression also is cleverly done The fur charioteer is beautifully describ- ed as *kesi shouting while driving and beig herself covered with dust in the 'avavacit sarathirasya kest and 'rechanti sma mşpado mudgalānim Her fluttering garment is thus descri- bed 'ut sma vato vahati vaso asyā' an idea that can recall to one s mind the Mahabharata lınes 'dirgham venim vidhun-

38 T/e Rgredic Fourdations of Classical Poettes

vānah sādhu rakte ca vāsasiļvedhūva vețīm dhāvantam from the description of Brhannali, the charoteer and also the words of Sudraka mn his description of movng Vasantasena `rektamsukam pavana-loladasam vahanti I am not suggest- ing bere anv mfluences for that would be very far-fetched. But I only want to suggest the similarity in ideas when a poet scyc views a female fgure in action The picture of the attacling bull on the battle-field its drinking large quantities of water and then discharging it, attacking the enemy with a tearing horn udno hradam apıbat jahrsanah kotam sma trmhadabbi- matimet is running on all fours in a spinted manner 'aramhata padvabhih kakudman and the like is very cleverly drawn The neglect of the wooden hammer the drughana' though it had materially helped m the victory, is also happil described mn nasmu trnam nodakamabharanh' and the surprise of this cold ungrateful treatment is expressed in 'are agha ko nvntha vam dadarsayunjant tama sthapayanu That the quecn, possibly because she bore no child and was there fore neglected by the ling non won his favour and prosper- ed, is conveved in 'parvrkteva patrdyamanat* and the fact that she had won in spite of handicaps is conveyed in 'koca- kreneva sincan The poet has been very clever and expressie in the last verse of the ballad where is to be seen an expres- son of gratitude to indra who helped the hero to win. The actual words here are vrsa yadajım 'vysaņā sisāsası codayan vadhrina yuja, meaning Indra seeks to win the war with only one nghty bull, impelling hum forth, though accompam- ed by a weakling compamon The condeosed expression here refers to the three pars in which one is strong vrsa, and the other is vodhri wealling These pairs to my mind are Indra and Mudgala himself, Mudgala and Mudgalani his wife and the mighty bull and the wodden hammer The ling obvons- Iy refers to himself as a vadhari mn the company of Indra in a spirit of devotion and submission The song is thus a very

Achievements of tle Rgvedic Poets 39

good composition, neatly produced, a work of deltberation and effot The song does contam a few obscure words yet it is not dificult to imagine what the central idea is and what details are grven here A war song from an early period is to be seen in VI 75 a song by 1 Bharadvaja The song offers no difficulttes for all the detatls are conteeted with a war and the various weapons the bow the bowstring the quiver and the hke are praised But I would ltke to refer to some ideas and their expression in this song The bow is the means of success in war but its string that is stretched upto the the ear is something much more Ah ost conversing with her lover, the warrior the string touches his forehead and embraces him like Fer lord and she speaks hike young girl taling the hero successfullv out of the war 'akşvantıveda ganigartı karn im privam sakhyam parisasva- jra yoseva sinkte vitatadht dhanvaop I iam samane pomvrt The word 'samana has been yigmficantly used, for a 'samara' was the festivity where voung beauties and beroes gathered to make merry ard perhaps to find suitable partners The war is a 'samana Tre quner is a pita to manv, obyiously the arrows, bahvinam pits and it has many sons, the manv arrows that are discharged, bahurasya putray' The leather-straps of the manly Brace wind around the hand of the archer like serpants, 'ahıra bhoguh paryeti bähum and the flying atrows are like plavful boys in yatra banth sampatantt kumara visikha va The entire imagery Is clever and poctical ard the fact that the song is a war-charm later does not mdicate that the song is a priestly creation The Rgvedic ballads often sing of Indra s exploits for he is the war god of the times Such songs are scattered through all the layers of the Rgveda ard the battle imagery of thun- der, lightmng storm is to be frequenty met with Natural result is that in such songs we find the poets usmng famihar phrascology, hence I have rot referred to any Indra song

40 The Revedic Foundations of Classical Poeties

here But these songs also have a picturequesness all their own

There is a very stgnificant song in the Rgveda which tells us something about the poetical contests of the times and which also lets us have a peep into a poet's mind I am referring to the song of Bharadvaja (VI 9) which to my mind throws interesting light on the poetic frenzy which 1s about to fructify The imagery used here comes from weav- ing and a fine poetical composttion is like a fine piece of cloth, hence the rdeas of the 'tantu' and the 'otu' Sayana understands the 'tantus' as the metres and the 'otus' as the ntualistic actions but the 'otus' can be understood as words Further, the poet here speaks of the tradition, reflection and of mspiration which together make the poet capable of composing a fine song The poet is to speak without the assistance of the father, hence protection is sought of Immortal who knows everything The light is placed within and the senses with the mind try to catch a glmpse a vision, of the Highest Truth The poet observes 'vi me karna patayato vı cakşuh vīdam jyotırbrdaya āhitam yat / vi me manah caratı dūraādhih kım svidvakşyāmı kımu nū manisye /' Agnt is requested to grant inspiration The humilty of the poet is to be noticed here The poet here seems to have something more mn his mind than the craft theory of poetry Classical times speak of poctical contests at which poets vied with each other for supremacy The present song perhaps has a simdlar situation behind it This would tell us something about the poets, therr assembhes, thesr contests and finally about the mood of a jumor poet who has entered the contest

True and sublime poetry arises out of devotion and self-surrender and the Rgveda, even the early portions, has specimens of this kind of charming poetry I may refer

Achtevements of the Rgvedie Pocts 41

here to the song of Vasistha to his favourite deity Varuna, (VII 86) Vasistha is under the wrath of his deity Varuna and thinks that Varuna desires to kill hım, 'stotaram jigham- sası sakhayam' He is not able to think of any sin or offence on his part which should have thus angered Varuna He is very eager to be reconciled to Varuna and to 'merge' in his deity, 'kadi nu antarvarune bhuvam' When will Varupa be favourably disposed towards him and he will meet hitn, 'kada mrlikam sumanā abhi khyam' He makes on his own inquiries with the wise and carries on an itrospection, 'emi cıkıtuşo viprecham' and 'prcche tadeno varuna dıđrkșu' He feels that the sins might have been those committed by his forefathers or by his own self 'drgdhant pitrya' and 'ya vayam cakrma tanubhih' and implores Varuna to relcase him from the same In a sincere and repentant mood he observes that it was not his own voltion, 'svo dakşah' possibly it was destiny, dhrutih, or wine, sura, or anger, manyuh or gambling, vibhidakah or even negligence acittih or influence on the juntors He wants to serve Varuna as a slave 'dāsa' The sincerety in this song really does need no comments, it is so transparent The feelings of the devotee over the estrangement from his favourite deity are so candid and have been put forth in such a straightforward, appealing and intimate manner that one would be more than justified in seeing here the germs of the cult of Devotion, 'Bhaktr' Bhakti is after all an intimate and personal relationship between the deity and its devotee With what delicacy and innocence does Vasistha implore Varuna to free him from the bonds of sins The simtles used here are telling ones 'ava rajan pašutrpam na tāyum spjā vatsam na damno vasıştham' is a beautiful pregnant line expressing remarkable thoughts Vasistha is comparing himself to a thief who has carried out an ordeal of feeding a cow and has thereby proved his innocence He therefore deserves freedom

42 The Rgredie Foundations of Classical Poctics

Further, Vasistha is to be released from the bonds of offence as a calf, vatsa, is to be freed from the rope with which it has been tied down Thus m these two similes Vasistha argues that be is now innocent and that he deserves the fond treatment gren to a calf an idea that brings to our mind the love for the domestic animals in an agricultural socicty It is quite possible that there is also lurking here another idea. Varuna is compared to a cattle-lifter and is requested to lift Vasistha as if he were a calf The cattle-lifter would hift the young animal with all possible care, affection and without the knowledge of the others It need not be regarded as an offence to the denty Varuna in that he is compared to a cattle-lifter Devotees often take this lind of liberty with their faxourite deities and this frankness is an indication of their persomal relationship and mtimacy Later bhakti' literature offers many such instances God that tarnies and does not answer the fervant prayers often comes mn for chding from his devotees In the phrase 'aram daso na mihluse karani' is to my mind the earliest expression of the celebrated 'dasya bhakti In this song we have the poct describing the greatness and majesty of Varuna, the mtunate personal friendship between Varuna and Vasistha, the estrangement that has now come between them, Vasistha's anxiety and a keco urge to find out the cause of displeasure of Varuna and to be reconeiled to hrm after proving his innocence These are the elements that go to make lyrical devotional poetry of a very high order Vasistha elsewhere (VII 88) descrbes himself as a near and constant relative, a fnend, a dear friend, 'apth nityah, priyah, sakha' and he also refers to their friendship in 'kva tvām nau sakhya babhuvuh' where the word tyant, according to the later poetical criticism is 'arthantarasamkramitavicyadhvan' like Bhavabhuti's celebrated 'etam tant ginnirjhara ete Such instances are many but I have dealt with this song in thts

Achtevements of the Revedic Poets 43

manner for it tllustrates the quality of the Rgvedic lyrical poetrv and i an eloquent expression of the pangs of a mys- tes soul when under the spell of a 'dark night of an estrangement

The poetical genius of the Rgvedic pocts has given us poetrv of different forms They appear to have been cxperiment ng with such forms To this spirit of expert- mentation I would ascribe the composition of a monologue I am referring here to the monologue of Indra (X 119) It was perhaps a natural idea to make an mterestmng detty to express her own thoughts and what more could be interest- ing than Indra, the Soma-drinker, the 'Somapi, the excellent war-hero Indra is under the deep influence of Soma and desenbes the diverse thoughts that ffash in his mind, itt va iti me manah' mcely brings out the unsteady character of the drunken deity The draughts have lifted him hike the violent gusts of wind, 'pra vata iva dodhata , these draughts have caried him awav like fleet-foot horses carry a car ratham asvi nasavah', the draughts have insprred him to compose a song and a poetical fanev is meeting him as a cow does mect her dear calf, as a result he has produced a beautiful song as a carpenter fashions out a chariot seat, the five tribes of men are to him less than a mote within the eye, the worlds are not in any way equal to him, he has surpassed everything in grandeur , he is in two minds as to the place- ment of the earth whether here or there, a thought of stmting the earth also crosses his mind , he is great enough to occupy the untverse and he is the 'greatest of the Mighty One s 'mahamahah' The trembling hero under the deep mfuence of an intoticating drink and his unsteady mind concerving so manv ideas of accomplshments have been very picturesquely drawn by the poet This 'humaaisation of the great Wargod is artistically significant This monologue IS mdeed a remarkable composition as the vanous thoughts

44 The Rgiedic Foundations of Classical Poeties

and the appropriate similes would bear out. When the artist is interested in expressing himself as in the song of Vasiştha we have lyrical poetry, and when he makes an effort enter some other mind and make it speak' we have the germs of dramatic poetry

And indeed it is very easy to think of bringing tno deities together to contend and converse when once it was thought possible to make one god speak If a monologue was possible then a dialogue also would be possible Thts is what we actually get mn a song by Vamadeva (IV 42) where he brings face to face Indra and Varuna, the two mighty gods and makes them contend for power and unrver- sal rule As a matter of fact, the Rgveda is a story of Indra's supersession of Varuna Vamadeva s song gives us a glimpse into this rivalry, since here Varuna and Indra severally urge their claims to superiority Another song referring to this fact is X 124 which refers to Agni's forsaking Varuna the Father, for Indra 'indram vrnanah pitaram jabami' and where Indra magnanimously offers Varuna a share in his Lingdom and power, 'tvam ca mā kāmayāse , tena rājan anrtam vivocan mama rastrasyadhipatyamehi' This song also is a dialogue between Agm, Indra and Varuna In Vamadeva s song (IV 42) Varuna, mn the opening four stanzas, claims power, 'mama duta rāșțram, rājāmi Arsteņ Again 'aham raja varunah, Lratum sacante varunasya devah Then Indra puts forth his clarm in 'mam narah samarane havante' people call on me in wars, 'krnomi ajim' I male wars , he is simply irresistible, 'nakth ma varate apratitam' The confiict depicted makes the song iteresting, not only from the point of view of mythology but from a purely literary point of vew Conflict is the essence of drama From two gods speaking it is but a next step to mtroduce three or more divine or human personalities conversing and thus we have the celebrated Dialogue Hymns Whatever

Achevements of the Rgsedic Poets 4S

may be their purpose, there is no doubt that we witness mn them the germs of dramatie compositions The famous song of Purüravis and Urvast (X 95) which sings of the tragic love of the mortil King for the divine Nymph the amorous gestures of Yami to Yama, her brother (X 10), the spirited dialogue of Sarama and the Panis (X 108) , the dralogue between Visvimitra and the Rivers (III 33) all are very interesting because of the different emotions they seem to deal with The poct of the Visvamitra nadisamvada who personified the rivers Vipas and Sutudri has indeed in a way long back anticipated Bhavabhutt who in his Uttararama- canta persomifies several rivers and makes them participate tn the action of the play The Vrsakapı Hymn (X 86) is also important in this context for in Indra Indrani ano the Vrsakapi can be seen faintly the King, Queen and the Vidü- saka of the Classical Drama. The myth has in it all the germs of the famihar plot of the later drama From all this discussion, it would appear that the Rgvedic poet has tried the different forms of monologue and dialogue betwcen two and more characters and this experiment only reminds one of the different classical forms ltke the Bhana, the Nataka and the Prahasana and the like Scholars have discussed the Riddle poetry in the Rgveda The Rgveda riddles mostly are either mythologieal or meta- physical m character and content One may refer in this context to the song of Dirghatamas (I 164) which contains a few riddles At times some important characteristic of trait of a god is mentioned and the reply is to be inferred from it Such poetry is important for it has given rise to the metaphors and secondly through it to symbolism Agun one can trace in such songs the ongin of the later Prahelikās and the Samasyapurtis Such poetry is the poetical hertage of the Indo-European period

46 The Rgrede Fou-detiens of Clesricel Pott rs

There is one more song to wich I would fike to refr here, for it is a ver remarkatde compoution The Rgvede poet could thint of maling gods speal, converte and con- tend he could speak with his god with a spint of fnendship and intimeey but mn this cong he has identified himself wnth gods. This cong desenbes the highest spintual evpenence that a human soul is capable of baving. The song of \ame- deva, 'aham manurabhavam stnafcaham lakdvan rune viprah (I\ 26) is memorable from this pomt of ven Vare- deva speaks in a manner in which be idcoufes himsf with Indra, his favourable deny Vaustha longed for a "merger" m Varmna, 'Lada nu antarvarune bhuvanf bat Vamadera has already become one with so many dnme and human celebnbes The song is free from any figuratre language and is a very direct expression of a mystical expenence. It is therefore no wonder if the later Vedanta teaching the doctrine of oneness Jools upon this song for its cuppon

I am deliberately not referring here to the Rgvedit philosophical poetry because it is so familiar to all the students of the Rgveda In this feld too, the achevements of the Rgvedie potts are admrable and Max Muller was moved to remark with reference to the Nasadiya Sukta (X 129), that Language blushes at its onn trumph. parteularh with refe- rence to the expression 'anidavatam svadheya tadekam' Even the obuoasly phestly Soma poetry has many good songs I have here concentrated my attenton more on the thonght, it woald appear, than on its expresuon I have done this because I have clewhere fully dealt with the peetic dicton of the Reveda. The clement indicated m 'tals' or 'sigltf really stands for the "kavyapara' of the later timee The achievements of the Rgvede potts are to m mind aned and signifcant m every feld,

3

Vedic Poetry and Classical Poetics

61172

We have seen how the Rgvedic poets have 'fashioned their poetical compositions There was a certain spontaneity mn their songs and there was atso a good deal of effort in them The Rgvedic songs were composed mn a spirit of nvalry to clam exclusiely the gods and their favours for the singer hrmself, or for the family of the singer or for the family and its generous patron In spite of this personal rivalry among the poets, the Rgvedic poetry is largely, what I would like to call, 'community-poetry' Of course there is also good deal of personal and indrudualistie composition, but it would perhaps be more correct to hold that the Rgveda reveals the rise of the indivdual m a gradual manner The poet prays and sings a song wherem he expresses a desire for the well- being of his community and the plural 'nth' that the Rgvedic poet uses is not an honounfie term but is a term that is etpressie In Vasrstha s 'yuyam pata svastibhth sadā nah', the word 'nah' refers to hts familv and patrons Similarly in "brhad vadema vidathe suvfrah' and in other similar bless- ings, favours are invoked for the famtly and patron and not for an individual only The plural forms are hence signifi- cant Extremely personal songs like the expression of the mystic experience of Vâmadeva (IV 26), the mystic expert- ence of Vasistha of his meeting with Varuna (VII 88), the grief of the gambler (X 34) and the expression of the et- perience of the stillness and peace of a mght in the forest by Devamuni (X 146) are undoubtedly to be seen yet in a verv large number of the Suktas, the poets appear to speak not mn an entirely personal manner It is in this sense that the Revedic poetry is to a very farge extent socral and commu- nity-oriented rathar than individualistic in character

50 The Rgiedic Foundations of Classical Poeties

It would be worth our while to understand the motives of the Rgvedic poets in their composition of the Suktas The Rgvedic poet longs for great and lasting fame and this desire of theirs is often expressed in words such as 'abhi vijam uta Sravah (IX 1 4, 66, 51 5, 63 12) 'asme dheht sravo brhat' (I 98. 44 2, VIII 65 9) 'asme bhadri sausravasam santu (VI 1 12, 742) arsu dha viravad yasah (IV 3 12, V 79 6) śravah sūribbyo amrtam vasutvanam (VIT SI 6, VIII 13 12) and so on Thus immortal fame 'asah śravah' was one of their objectnes Not onl the patron gets 'yasah' or 'sravah' through the prayer but also the poet gets 'sravah or yasah' as he is a 'seer , a 'rsi' The poet gans in status and wins fame as soon as he sees a 'mantra' He recerves ivtation from rich patrons, royal courts and ambitious sacrificers

Another objective that appears to be constantly present in the minds of the Rgvedic poets is wealth which consists of gold cons and horses is often referred to by the words 'ry rava posa and the like There are constant prayers for this wealth as for instance 'vayam syama patayo rayinam (IV 50 6) rayım pisangam bahulam vasīmabı (IX 197 21, 72 8) same rayım nı dhāraja (1 30 32, X 24 1) rayım grpatsu dharava (V 866, VII 13 12) rayım gomantam aśvinam' (VIII 69, IX 62 12, 63 12, 67) and rayım dhattam vasuman- tam purukşum (VII 84 4) Such prayer also appears with small varations as satagvinam, vasumantam satagvmam (I 159 5, IV 494), gavam poşam svašvyam (I 932, IX 65 17) etc There are many more expressions hke these expressions but these given here should suffice to gie us an idea as to how the Rgvedic poets in their poetry ask for wealth for themselves and for their patrons 'Rayr is one of their objectnes then The classical term 'artha' might sum up perhaps all that the Rgvedic poets mean by 'rav', 'raya' and 'posa',

Wedie Poetry erd Classrcal Poeties 51

The Rgvedie poet was a wise man well conversant with the life around him and he actively particrpated in the religout and political life of his ties. One may refer in this contett to the Visvamitras and the Vasisthis who have taken such a prommeut part mn their contemporary social and politi- cal Iife The Rgvedic poet, as has been argued before leart the art and craft of poctry from his predecessors, fore-fathers His simles cover a wide field and reveal a considerable vanetv of theme, com ag as they do from religion sacnfice, nature, home and war The Rgvedic poet therefore was not a mere cobbler of wo-ds but knew mach and had first hand experence of I fe about him. Agriculture and set also supply hum ideas. One may therefore be justified in observing that Lfe with all its compleuties was known to him and this fact is reflected m his poetical composition The Rgvedic poet was not a mere singer bot wis a 'rst in this sense His wisdom was fu ther strengthene i by his assidious study of the composttions of the previous generations The reading and cultivation of poetry was therefore for this acquisition of knowiedge and status in the society The man of knowledge was a pract cal man too and it ts therefore that the Rgvedic poct, a wise man, a viprz, was a min of the world as well, a wholesome truit to be seen preserved in the Upanisadtc times as well as can be seen m the mstances of Yajaavalkya and Raikva To put this fact in the classical manner, one could say that the Rgvedic poet was very much interested m and took part m his contemporary life, the 'vyavahara' He winted the gods to come to lus rescue against the plots and hatred of the wicked and he abo wanted them to give him liberal patrons_

Many of the Rgvedic poets appear to have composed their songs to avert an immment calamitv by invoking the favours of a deity Sunahsepa secared, through his hundred verses addressed to the various deities, his own freedom'

52 The Rgiedic Foundations of Classical Poeties

when he was bound to a sacrificial post, the 'yupa' for being offered as a victim, a 'pasu Kavaca Ailusa was about to die with thirst when he saw the 'aponaptriya' hymn which made the rner Sarisvati flow bv his side Apala Atrevi in her song (VIIT 91) is seen praving for a cure from a skin disease and she appears to ask for the restoration of her father s head rich and bumper Farvest from his field and her own fertility Visukra's wife (\ 28) is anxious for the weal of her father- m-law Ghosã the roval princess (X 39) asls for a cure from lepross as she is growing old at home without a bride- groom and she requests the Asvinau to help her to obtain one This motif of warding off a calamity is to be ceen in many songs as is made known to us by the introductions supplied by Sivana on the authonty of tradition which often is supported by earlier texts The Rgvedic Poets often tong for sam or diva and desire its counterpart to be kept at a distanec, 'Snctaraksatı was hence another purpose why these poets wrote poetrv

In some songs the purpose appears to be delight and perbaps nothing more The Rgvedic poets expect their spontancous and sweet songs to 'touch the hearts' of therr gods, to be "hrdisprs' and to please them Thev hope that the gods their lsteners would like them, yusa' Vaustha tells us that his song is spontaneous and his mind has unburdened itself mto the song as does the cloud in the showers abhrat vrstirajam These songs are inspired and the poefs seem to sing because they must To one poet, the early dawn when Agmi is enkindled gres the msptration whtle to the other the urge to sing is supphed by the natural surroundings He tells us that 'by the side of a mountam or at the conffuence of mers a man through his thought becomes a poet, pra parvatānām usati upasthāt (III 33 I) nadinam ca sangathe, dhiya vipro ajavata' (VIII 6 21) In such songs which we spontancous and do

Vedic Poetry and Classical Poeties 53

seem to have any purpose religious or mundane, are possibly composed for the sake of sheer delight, paramrvti, one might sav It could be safely observed that the Rgvedic poets were conscious of the htghest delight and satisfaction that good and well-thought put and tinelv executed poetry gives to the poet himself and to the listener mav he be divine or human

In mrany plices the Rgvedic poets have asked the gods to love their songs addressed to them as it these were their belovedy Thev speak of the caressing of the songs and also of the heking of the deity addressed by the songs Thev think of srngira and vatsalva in this Context The poetrv of the carhier generation was same of inspiration to the later poets and alo was an object of imitation The songs a'e spolen as olyects of lose These soays to them at least have not become srutis having absolute authorty 'prabhu sammita but were like beloveds perhaps enticmg and guiding kantisammita for upades

This should show that mn their urges for cultivating poetrv, the Rgvedic poets were not very much different from the poets of the later ages Kalidisa aspired for fame as a poet, Lavivasahprirthi as he himself tells us Bina secured wealth from Harsa and Mentha from the King of Kasmir Mammata s observations about the purposes of poetr in his 'kāvam vasase arthatrte vyavaharavide sivetaraksatave/ sadvah paramirgtave kantāsammitatavopadesavuje// seems to hold good for the Rgvedic poet and his poetrv Nor need we nod our heads in contempt over these mundane purposes for the cultivation of poetry in all ages gifted writers have written their compositions for fame, wealth and awards The Rgvedic poets seem to have been conscious of the variouy factors that go to mike t composttion worth while The thoughts of the poets have to be pure, 'suct, 'ghrtz iva potāb matayah' Further thts their 'dhi is sucivarna or

54 The Rgvedic Feurdattons of Classical Poeties

supesas The songs are impelled forth by a force or power, 'intah' and all this would pomt to their farth in a drumne power that enables a poct to bring a forth a nen and power- ful song that can touch the heart of a deitt In all fitelihood this was to be the Pratibha of the later days Without this 'dhi being awakened no song is possible This is ther 'saltf that is the most important cause of poetry for almost all the poets refer to this sacred 'dhi'

Along with this dnine 'dhi' which is spontaccous, the Rgvedic poets also speak of their skill with which they have fashioned their song The song is well-cut, 'suvrkta' hike the szat of the 'barhis grass. In many places the fashoning of a song is sard to be like the fashionmg of a chanot This skill gies beauty, an effectneness, a charm to the song and makes it acceptable The insprred thought is to be properb clothed in words The thought element is the worl of 'dhi while this arrangement of expression is the skill of the poet. This skill is the 'nipunata' of the later classical times

The observation of the Rgvedie poet is indeed very commendable as can be seen from the fact that he casts his net very wide for his similes, illustrations and ideas The Soma sacnifice, agnculture, the vanous professions, nature and the practice of men, all these supph him very fine ideas. The expression of these sdeas rs a clear testimony to the zealous study by the poct, of poetry that was before him and that was bemg produced arourd him. The Rgvedic repeti- tons reveal ample evidence for the fact that a Rgvedic poet often goes to his family poetry as well as to the poetry of the other familes for his expression All this is conscions and hence the result of his study of the methods of the predecessors and of the contemporarics He never felt sby of imtating for he does not think that it is hfung' This deliberate study of the world that was around and of the

Vedic Poetry and Classical Pocties 55

compositions of predecessors and contemporares is just what Mammata was to describe as an essential for the writing of poetry in his phrase 'lokakavyadyavcksana'

A Rgvedie poet has very close tes with hts family compositions and with the Rgicda, outside the work of other families If he is to write Soma poctry he would go to the Soma poet for ideas and fine expression More than often he observes that he is writing after his fathers Poetry was a craft like all other erafts and here too as in other erafts the father was the first natural teacher It is not without significance that the father always gets a precedence over the teacher in the matter of reverence even mn the later Upant- sads and in the Dharmafistras In fact, in the Upamisads the father and the husband ippear as natural teachers The Rgvedic poet did learn the art of poetrv from his father ind family ancestry ind also from other competent teachers If he himself belongs to the race of the juntors, nutnah, he speiks reverentially of the ancients ind the preceeding generations, the pratnah ind the midhyamas This study of the Rgvedic poet so clearly to be seen in his compositions is indeed the other essentril for the composition of good poetry according to Mammata when he includes the Kavya- jhasiksay abhy asn' among the causes, 'hetu of poctry From this it would appear that the Rgvedic poetry appreciates as essentrals for the composition of poetry worth the name, 'dli, 'svapas -mpunatā lokašāstrikāvyāveksana and Lavvajnastksayabhyasa Of course, ill this has not been is etplicitly stated as by Mimmata that all the essentials really form only one cause , 'hetth' of poetry The classical poetics is one might say materially anticipated here and we find 'poetics' in the making There was no occasion naturally for the Rgvedic poets to define an excellent 'brahma' song, 'uttama kavya of the

56 The Rgvedte Foundatious of Classical Poettes

classical poetics Yet a fruitful effort can be made to put together their ideas in this respect with a view to formulating a tentatne definition, a definition which could be compared with that of the classical poetics A good song is that which is 'powerfully persuasne', a song capable of persuading the deity addressed to accept it in preference to the songs of the rval poets The song has to be bhadra, navya, sukrta, proceeding from the seat of the Rta, (V 29 15, VII 36 1) spontaneous as a shower from a cloud, abhrat vrstt (VII 94 1). ıt is dıvine, brahmanah devakrtasya, danyah šlokah (VII 97 3, 5), the speech that is lucid, vigorous, free from weak- ness, brillant, dyumati, anamiva, isira. The song is deco- rated like a conquering steed, sumbhanto jenyam yatha vajeşu vajinam (I 1306) The song is skilfully executed, well-finished, 'svapa ataksişuh' and a 'suvrkti Such a song has to touch the heart of the deity, 'hrdisprs* If we put ali these ideas together we get the idea that a good song is dn- nely ispired, well-executed, ongmnal, nen, free from weak- ness, brilliant, decorated, arising from the scat of the Rta and is meant for pleasure immortal, amrtaya justam (VII 97 5) It is interesting to see how this description comes pretty close to the classical ideas of 'uttama kavya' that is 'adosau sabdarthau, sagunau, alamkrta with shobhadhayaka dharmas, rasavat or rasātmaka, ramanīyārthapratipādaka, istarthavyavacchina. One would be justified in seeing here an assemblage of ideas to be seen in Vamana, Dandin, Kuntaka, Mammata, Visvanatha and others, who emphasise this or that aspect of the excellence of a composition where- as the Rgvedie vew appears to be all inclusive

No poetical language can far advance without similes and metaphors, without symbols and alhterations, without sigmficant adjectnes and clever turns of phrases and the language of the Rgvedic poets is no exception to this obser- vation The Rgvedic poets are often seen to abandon the

tedic Poetry and Classical Poeties 57

natural style and turn to styhstre ornaments, natural and artifictal devices with which they seel to have special effects The classical pocties has found a very eloquent word for all these devices, the word Alankara and this word has a very Interesting Rgvedie history The Rgveda uses the phrase 'aram Lrtam or krtah' on many occasions and this is cqur- valent of alam Lrtam or Attah Aram Artam or Artah means in the Rgveda 'has been made fit, strong equal to the occasion' It is bestowing some peculiar strength or power through something which makes the thing in question ade- quate', 'fit' or "useful Later, the object which bestowed this power or the operation that bestowed this sufficiency itself must have come in course of time to be Inown as the 'alam-kara This is something similar to an amulet and the hike in magic which when used by a person is suppos ed to confer some pecuhar power on the wearer The classical poetics frequently speaks of the bracelet, the kataka, in the context of the alinkara The various stylistic devices came to be regarded as alankaras, as these devices make the composition strong enough to meet the requirements enther in the context of religion or magic or poetry To think of and to use the alinkaras, the stylistic devices, is an urge that is, as a matter of fact, universal and almost everywherc, even in very very early compositions are to be seen 'repetition balance, antithesis and the fike freely resorted to Imitation is a naturat result in this context, for a successor is ltkely to feel tempted to ues a phrase that has been successfully used and found as good by the early practitioner of his art Simlarly persomfication, amplification, puns and the like are essentral elements of poetry, be it early or late The poet feels a natural impulse to play with the words and so the 'wortspiel of the Rgvedic poets must be regarded is a very natural instmct, Many of the Alankaras of the traditional classical poetics, therefore, are to be found as used in the

58 The Rgvedic Foundations of Classical Poetics

Rgveda Thus a cluster of sigmificant adjectives round an object to be described which appears in the Rgveda is the Parikara alankara of the later times and is defined as 'visesanaih yatsakutnh uktih (KP X 118)' The symbols used mn the Rgveda of the Bull, the Con, the Rays reallv constitute the Ropaka alankira where there is the 'abheda' of the upnmana and the upimeya (KP X 93) The repeti- tion of the first word for the sake of emphasis also appears in the Rgveda, a mode seen resorted to by the later poets Effort has already been made by many scholars to trace the classical figures of speech, the alankaras, in the Rgveda and a reference here could be made to the efforts in this direction of Diekar (Les fleurs de rhetorique dans l Inde, Pans, 1930). of Gonda (Stylistics Repetitions in the Veda, Amesterdam 1959), of Guerinot (De Rhetorica Vedica,) Bergaigne, Hillebrandt, Oldenberg are seen discovering the figures of speech in the Veda One need not be surprised if one were to find the Rgvedic poets using skilfully the alankaras like the Upama (I 124 7), Atısayokti (I 164 23), Vyatıreka (I 164 11) , Sleșa (VI 55 5 I 164 21 which the Nirukta III 12 explains in two ways, Utpreksa (X 146 ], II 35 13), Svabhavoktt, Arthantaranyasa and the bike Alankaras, especially similes are to be found by hundreds mn the Rgveda (HI D Velankar, Similes mn the IV and V Mandalas of the Rgveda, JBBRAS, Vol 14, pp 1-47, Figures of Speech in the Rgveda A Venkatasubbmah, ABORI, Vol 17, pp 61-83, 259-288, Vol XVI, 232-261, Figures of Speech in Rgveda P S Sastri, ABORI, Vol 2S, pp 34 64) One therefore finds it difficult to agree with De that those who trace the Alankara School to the Rgveda are placing an undue empha- sis on the use of poetic figures in the Rgveda (HSP I p 341) Since the Rgvedic poets use the word 'sumbhantah' or the verb 'sumbh' to decorate, m this context it could be very well suggested that to them these modes of expression were

Ved e Poetry and Classical Pocties 59

the decorations, the 'Sobhakara dharmas' of the classical poctics

Rasa occupies a very important position in the classical poeties which regards it as the soul of poetry as Sauddhodant asserts in (his Alankarastu sobhayai rasa atma The Rgvedic pocts also speak of Rasi It is undoubtedly clear that to them the rasa par excellence is the Soma their favourite drink of insprration and strength not onlv for physical tasks but also for intellectual work The Soma songs themselves offer ample evdence to indicate that the Rgvedic poet felt inspired for poetical effort by the Soma The Soma is the guardian of the ancient song, pratnam ni pati kavyam (IX 6 8), it is he who prepares and makes newer paths for the songs nu navyase naviyase suktaya sadhaya pathah, and bestows on them the ancient charm pratnavat rocaya rucah (1\ 98) The Soma is adorned with the songs, sumbhantı Vipram dhitibhih (IX 40 1) and he is the begetter of the speech of the poet, vaco jantuh kavinam (IX 67 13) In a very interesting passage (IX 67 32) are brought together Sarasvati and the rasa and a reward is promised to a student of the ancient poctry The Rgvedic poet observes, 'pavama- niro adhyeti rsibhth sambhrtam rasam, tasmar sarasvati duhe kşiram sarpih madhudakam', here the word adhyeti going with the accusatie 'rasam' leaves no doubt that the poet understands by 'rasa the very essence of the songs This therefore is the earhest germ of the later concept of rasa m poetry The intoxicating nature and the power to give the highest delight are ali suggested here It is this very 'rasa concept that appears developed in the Upanisads and brought into relation with Ananda in the celebrated raso var say, tam labdh,3 anandi bhayat, raso va anandah (Taitti 261) It is from thence that the rasa concept has been taken over bv the classical poeties and developed into a full-fledged well knit theory

60 The Rgiedic Foundations of Classical Poettes

In its fully developed form the classical poetics recog- mses eight or nine and even more rasas and later efforts are made either to take up a philosophical position to reduce the number of these reasons to one or to take up a purely fite- rary postuon to keep the number quite open Varous additions like those of the bhakti, vatsala, preyan and the like have been also made to the traditional list of the nine rasas Bharata admitted onh erght rasas, and the Buddhist Rahula added the ninth Santa. In the Rgveda are not to be seen the names of all the rasas but the Adbhuta is mentioned in its negatre formation anati-adbhuta where adbhuta has the sense of wondrous, in the contett of the songs The word 'adbhuta occurs pretty frequently in the context of the exploits of the gods The same is true of the word Vira and it is but natural that the Rgvedic poets belonging to the times of fights and struegles are thoroughly familar with this sentiment. The word Karuna occurs only once in karunasya (I 100 7) and possibly conveys the idea of pity going with the word 'visvasya' The word bibhatsuh occurs thrce in bibbatsuh (J 164 8), bibhatsuvah (X 124 8) and bibhatsonam (\ 1249) As is to be expected 'bhaya' 1s pretty frequent being connected with the Vira and the ex- pluits of the gods The word hasa is to be seen in the root forms hasate (A 127 3, IX 27 5), hasamand (1 169 22) hasamine (III 33 1), hasayantı (III 53 23) but the root has a different meaning altogether With the idea of Rudra, it is but natural that the essence of the Raudra is known It is interesting to note that the escence of Vatsala and the Bhakti are to be seen almost everywhere, especially when the poets speal to therr deites The technical terms fke rati and smgara may not occur but there is ample evidence to show that the Rgvedic poets are quite familar with the Smngāra and a reference could be made to the Usas bymns, and to the references and similes based on the 'vadbu*

Ledic Poetry and Classieal Poet'es 61

There ts evidenee enough to indicate that the Rgvedtc poets are famibar with the main rasas of the classical poets and have tried to depict these different rasas in their songs In the different dralogue hvmns the different rasas are very skilfully developed Thev have also given us satirical preces and this is not to be wondered at when the confftets social relgious, ethmical are taken into consideration Poetry grows out of life and the life of the Rgvedie poets was a rich and vaned one in which all the different emotions plaved an important part and so these emotions are cle trly reflected in the songs of the Rgveda The Yama Yami Hymn (X 10) could be a case of rasa bhisa and manv of the classical bhavas could be traced in the songs of the Rgveda The theory of Rasa is a later affair but the rasas as the great Abhinavagupta pointed out evst in all human beings in the form of the sthayis

The Riti and the Vakroktr concepts are essentially con- nected with the 'expression for these two constitute what mav be called a striling mode of speech 'vaidagdhya-bhangi- bhamtih', and differ as well as surpass in point of excellences and attractreness the ordinar evervday mode of speech This etcellence is the result of a careful orgamsation of the various elements It is also the result of a careful and deliberate choice and use of words calculated to bring about the desired result It need not be debated here whether the aim of the Rgvedic poet was to produce in his song power or beauty for he may have tried for both, to judge him by his words The Rgvedic poet frequentl speals of his craft in making his song and is seen comparing his craft with the craft of a carpenter who very skilfullv fashtons out a chariot, 'ratham na dhiray svapa ataksam (V 2 11) A poet says that he decorates his song in the manner of the Kanvas, 'girat sumbhamt kanvavit' (VII 6 11) The wise poet knows the application of the metre, and the full and proper use of the

62 The Rgvedic Foundations of Classical Poetes

words, '1nh chandasam yogam a veda dhirah ko dhisnyam prativācam papada (X 1149), the songs are trimmed like grass, barhirna pra vrnje stoman (1 1161) and hence the song is a 'suvfkti', an object well-cut The roots sumbli, wrij and taks clearh bring out the deliberate organisatronal aspect of the Rgvedie songs It is these aspects that are responsible for the further development of the Riti and Vakrokti aspects of the classical poetics, and are reflected m the words 'racana, krya, kavivy ahara' and the like The classical poetics treats the 'word' and the 'cense' together as the essence of poetry The 'sense' part rs the 'thought' part in a composition while the 'word part and aspects connected with it form the orgamsatronal part that primqrily deals with the careful selection and skilful arrange- ment of the words and the choice of metre, placement of words and the selection of a particular figure of speech The thought element however, comes from thinking and refers more to the substance than to the form, though it is to be readily conceded that the form also is one that has been thought of by the poet This substance aspect is often seen referred to by the Rgvedic poet when he uses words hike 'mati, manma and the root man A good poet has to be a 'sumanma (VII 68 9) In the use of the words 'suvrktr' and 'matim supotăm the Rgvedic poet is suggeting that a good and beautiful composition is that which is well thought out and also 'finely executed' and this is a position which 15 developed in the classical poetics this is the reason why in classical poeties a poetical composition has been defined as 'rasatmaka vākya' by Visvanatha, as 'ramaniy arthapratipidaka šabđa* by Jaganatha and 'rītiratma kavyasya' by Vamana In the development of the classical poetics both in the definition and the treatment of a poetical composition this or that aspect came to be emphassed Like the Alankara concept, the concept of Guna also

Tedic Poetry and Classical Poetics 63

has its own importance in the classieal poeties It is reallv mteresting to find thit the Rgvedie poets also have this notion and have in ther wy suggested so many Gunas of an attractive composition It is on iccount of the presence of these elements in their own compositions thit they expect thetr songs to be liked and honoured The 'newness or 'novelty' frequently claimed in respect of these political compositions when the pocts speak of 'brahmanavyam, apürvyam (V 17 13, \ 23 6) and this element, to judge by the emphasts that these poets lay on it seems to be 'valuable' to them It is to be noted here that Magha regards navatva as an element or form, rupa of beauty 'ramaniyata and that Kalidisa speaks of his play Vikramorvasiya as 'ipurv' The 'vak' is described as 'dvumati (\ 98 7) and thts quality reminds one of the 'dipti of the classical poetics Hrdya and suseva, attractieness and capacity to give pleasure (V 422) can be compired with the prasada and sukumirata of Vamana 'Gabhiratva is regarded as a virtue since the poct speaks of his song as 'brhad gabhiram in its praise (V 85 1) and this gabhira may well bring to one s mind the 'udaratva and also 'ojas of the classical poetics The quality mentioned as 'suvrkti may include in it the "Sleşa' and the 'samata of Vamam The qualits 'kanti of the later poctics seems to be reflected in the quality of 'suci- pesas' cr 'Sveta' of which the Rgvedic poet speaks in the context of 'dhi I 144 I VIII 26 19) Stmilarly the quality 'madhumattama or madhumat' (VIII 3 15, 8 11) reminds one of the 'madhurva* of the later classical poetics The adjective 'vandhura' (X 119 5) refers to 'sukumirata The 'dhi' is described to be sukravarna) (1 143 7) and thts can refer to the purity and brilhance of diction clarity and other qualties possibly referred to bv the arthavyktr, kantr of Vamana The composition is praised as new and pure, navajita suci (VII 93 1) and this 'sucitva' might preclude obscurity and vulgarity in a composition

64 The Reredic Foundatiors of Classtcal Poetics

Vamana speaks of the sabdagunas and arthagunas, qualities of the word and the sense Some of the qualities mentroned by the Rgvedic poets could be taken as arthagunas qualties of the sense Thus these poets value 'truth satya, and rta as high quabties of a composition The songs are based on truth, satyanı uktha (VI 67 10) similarly thev speal of 'matim suputam thoughts very holy, visvapesas dhi beautiful thoughts, hrdisprs, touching thought The agvedic poet speaks of his speech as 'sudhita, ghrtaci, hiranyanirnig tvesapratika and sabhavati, and these different words in themselves suggest so many different qualities like those of clever arrangement, emotional intensity, bnilhance, and unnersal appeal (I 167 3-6) Sincenty, appears to be highly valued) for a poet speaks of his song as being fashioned by his senses, heart, mind and desire 'ındrāya hrda manasā manīsā pratnava patye dhiyo marjayanta (I 61 2) The melodious nature of the diction is referred to in 'dhivo mandravuo vpammah (IX 86 17) There is thus ample material in the Rgvedic observations about poetry which mn a way can be regarded as antecedent to the Guna concept of the classical poetics

Conneeted closcly with the Guna concept is the conccpt of the Dosas, the faults or defects in poetry The Rgvedic poets speal of faultless poetry that is above reproach, anamiva (X 98) anavadya (III 31 13) but bevond this they are not seen developing the topic The coneept of the Dosas at lenst of some of them is of a very relative and vague nature and one may refer to the fault of 'astilatva" in this context Dandin seems to objeet to a lover's request to his beloved ın "kanye kamayamānam mām tvam na kamavase katham' or to the expression in 'ya bhavatah pria' for the obscene suggestions The Rgvedie poet had no mhibitions in this regard and he could very freel refer to matters of sex both for his ntualistic and poetical purposes What Vamang

tede Poetry and Classical Poetics 65

observes about the Doşas in his 'gupa-vipar vayātmuno dosth' is essentially correct and, therefore one could say that in the suggestion of the qualities of a good poctical composttion the Rgvedic poets have abo given some ideas which they seem to possess m respect of the Dosas

The classical poetics moves round the concepts of the 'Rasa' as explained by Bharats and of the Dhvam' as er- plained by Anandavardhana. One would naturally be interest- ed in knowing something about the Dhvam in the Rgvedic compositions The Rgvedic poets do not use words indicitive of any principle like the Dhvam but this should not mean that they are altogether unaware of the process imoled tn the Dhvant The Rgveda is more a period of prictice rather than of theory There are many occasions when one is tempted to read Dhvant in the compositions of the Rgvedic poets and the cffort to do so need not be regarded as a far-fetched one Anandavardhana humself has observed that in the composition of great poets there is always some suggested sense which is over one above the formal elements of their utterances Says Anandavardhana prath amanam punarany adea vastvastı vānīşu mahākavnam )attatprasiddhvayavātinktam vbhāt lāvam amn anganāsu (/ 4) The Rgvedic poets are 'maha kavi s and it is no wonder if the Dhvani element is also found to adorr their composition The compositions (I 2410), aml ya rksa of Sunahsepa Ajigarta, the description of the car of Sury in 'raibhyāsida- nudeyI etc (X 85 6-12), Vasistha s appeal to Varuna (VII 86) and the like would do credit to any poet The Rgvedic poets have realised that language is always madequate for a proper expression of what is inwardly eamestly felt, and it is therefore naturat that the expression employed by them should point to something else that is sought to be suggested and seems to

66 The Rgvedre Foundations of Classical Poeties

he beyond the scope of mere expression This is exactly what constitutes the Dhvan of Anandavardhana and an effort to study such places having the qualty of Dhvam with them in the Rgveda would shon the tno varieties of 'samlaksyakrama and asamlaksyakrama 'gupibhūta vyangya and vyafigya' are present in the Rgvedic verses Rajasekhara while speaking about the poets and therr methods of composing poetry gave out a great truth mn his 'nasti acaurah kavijanah', there is no poet who is not a thief, a 'lifter' This hfung he deseribed as 'aharana' (XI-XIII KM) The Rgvedic poets had no prejudice of any hind whatsoever agamst the use of the thought and expression of their predecessors and contemporanes They repeat and tmitate very freel, for this they know to be the way to write poetry worth the name The Rgvedic poets often speak of the immortal predecessors, 'amrtīsah pūrajāh, pūrve rsayab, pratnah which reminds one of the reverentral references to the earler great poets, the celebrated 'purvasuris' by the later poets like Kaldasa, as mn 'vamse' smin purvasuribhih" ete And yet the Rgvedic poets are Leen on affirming that their songs are new and deliberately have been fashioned by them in the manner of the olden times It is a grateful recogmtion of the tradition that they possess when they refer to pre- decessors and an humble assertion of therr own personal authorship and contribution when they say that the compo- sttion is new But in making this contribution they do not at all fight shy of taking over and using the thoughts and cxpressions of others, mndulgig mn what Rajaselhara in classical poctics called 'sharana' and permitted it, to an extent at which he would have blushed indeed The repeti- tion in the Rgvedic poetry is the result of the strong grip of the tradition and what is really encouraging is the sight of a Rgvedic poet struggling after new themes and proper and effectie expression for the same When a Rgvedic poet is

Vedic Poetry and Classical Poetics 67

seen in such a struggle as in the Puroravas-Urvast Hymn (X 95), there is no tradition to go to and a single repetition or even a shade of an earher expresston is to be seen In the Rgveda which is more traditional than personal in point of poetry, there is to be seen the rise of the inddual, slowly yet surely making himself free from the tradition In fact such a struggle is to be witnessed in the early Family Books as well and attention can be drawn to Vasistha's appeal to Varuna (VIt 86) where also no relation with any other song in the Rgveda is to be seen and the same is true of hts other song (VII 88) in which he tells us of his meeting with Varuna Unique experiences need unque expression and the poets made an effort to find out the same

The classical poettcs is keen on having a classification of poetry and this it naturally does according to the presence or otherwise of the vital element in it Thus a composition where Dhvant or Rasa or a combination of the two, Rasadhvam is present would be the best while subordination of this element to the expression lowers the composition to the second class and the lowest or the third class is that where expression alone is seen as of prime importance and as such is attended to by the poet This was as it should be When it came to prose compositions the manner of narrating the story as well as its external divisions decided whether the work was a Katha or an Akhyayika and in the Drama the tradition spoke of ten forms mamly basing the divsion on the nature of the story the status of the hero and the herome and the like In the times of the Rgvedic poetry there was felt no such necessity for classification of the 'brahmani' though 'girah, dhih, mati, vacah, suvrktih' are the words that tndicate the songs There are metaphysical songs, ritualstic invitations, poetical descriptions, dramatic monologues and dialogues, but a proper classification as such is nowhere suggested It is when we come to Yaska that we find a

68 The Rgredic Foundattons of Classical Pocties

reference to the mantras being paroksa adbyatmika and pratyaksa m his 'tāh trnidha reah paroksakrtah pratyaksak- rtah adhyatmikyasea* (VII 1) This threefold division to be seen in Yasla is very interesting since to judge by the etpla- nation that he has offered in the sequel, he seems to refer to the poems as descriptre, drectly based on expenence and personal, referring to one s own psycbological expenence This desenption takes us to the modern diision of poetry into descriptie narrative and lyncal compositions Though the Rgvedic poets do not suggest any type of classification, yet they reveal an astonishing vanety m the compositions There are descriptie songs like those addressed to Parjanya, Usas and the like, lynical outbursts like those of Vamadeva and Vaststha, dramatic monologues like that of Indra and dialogue songs where a dramatic action is intended. It is possible to see the begmmings of dramatic forms hke the Bhana in the monologues and of the drama in the dialogue hymns There are the riddles, the Brahmodvas lle 'vasim eko bibhartı (VIII 29 3) which are the precursors of the later Prahehka and the like The Rgvedic poets create a variety in songs that is admirable yet they do not attempt any classifcation, a task which the classical poetics tool upon rtself and excelled in it Thus the forms are there though they are not defined in the fashion of the classical poetics

Another instance of a snmmlar nature can be referred to in this context. Mammata and Visvanatha (KP VIII 74-75. SD VIII 36) attempt a classification of the letters, varnas, in respect of the poetical value of these different letters and try to bring them into relation with 'madhurya, ojas and the hke Such an idea of poetically valuable letters contributory to vigour, swectoess, music is to be met with in Western Studies also, as for istance m the analsis of phoneuc effects by Marjonie Boulton (p 58) The Rgvedic poets do not refer to any such notions but they are seen creating patterns

Vedic Poetry and Classical Poetics 69

following this analysis almost instinetivels It may be per- missible to assert that formal classifie iion in such matters is nothing more than a recognition of natural mstincts or practices of the poets Though the Rgvedic poets do not speak of different styles like the Vaidarbhi and the Gaudi, thev seem to follow the principle underlying these two styles with sure poetrcal instincts for when they describe the Indra- Vrtra fight thev seem to emplov words that contribute to and reflect torce and vigour white they resort to a different mode when they describe the Usas It is thus that the vigorous and the melodious styles are to be seen employed by the Rgvedte poets with due concern for the theme and the emo- tion to be depicted and this matter i5 further fully developed by the classical poetics in its notions of the Vrttis like the Kaišiki, Arabhați and the like

The classicnt poetics speaks of the different types of poets as can be seen from the clissification attempted by Rajasekhara. He speaks of the Sastrak ivs, Kavyakavis and the Ubhavakavis (V) The Rgvedic poets only speak of good and bad poets a poet who is a master and who is a weakling They speak of a 'prabhu and an aprabhu and they speak of a 'kavtnu who is, according to them, a bad versifier (VII 32 9) The poet who is an 'aprabhu' is not able to see the thread of the holy truth, rta, that Varuna by his superior might, 'maya has placed on the tip of the tongue and there- fore he falls m a pit and farls (IX 73 9) The dhira who by contrast is the 'prabhu' knows the pure speech which as a beloved to a lover admits him to all her beauties and charms whtle the other one ighorant one, serves the speech that is both without a reward and without a flower, aphala and apuspa (X 71 4-5) The 'dhira' of the Rgvedic poets is the 'vasyavak of the later times The gods do not favour the bad poets, thev are not for them, na devasah kavatnave (VII 329) declares Vasıştha The Vasişthas remind us of

70 The Rgvedic Foundations of Classical Poetics

Bhavabhuti and others of the later time by their supreme confidence in themselves ind in the qualty of their composi- tions The songs of the Vasisthas are beyond imitation for 'theirs is the light of the Sun their depth is as great as that of the ocean and therrs is the speed of the Wind (VII 33 8)

Rajasekhara seems to lay down a time-table for a poet. as Kauțilya does for a king but the Rgvedic poet belreves that the compositions are inspired and the Dawn when Agni is enkindled, the confluence of the rivers, the slopes of the mountams and the din of the war are the elements that seem to awaken the poetrcal powers The songs are discharged like showers from the clouds The Vasisthas affirm that 'karuh jarate sūktair agre budhana usasām sumanma' (VII 68 9) and 'abhrat vrstiriajam (VII 94 1) The Rgvedic poets are conscious and fully aware of the fact that a good composi- tion is both a product of inspiration and preparation "Gods are frequently to those who toil, without toil there is no friendship of the gods , declare they na rte śrantasya sakhyāya devāh (IV 33 11)

The later classical poetics has very commendable achiete- ment to its credit But as their poetres gamned authorty and tentative suggestions attained the status and dignity of rules, decadence set in, for rules hindered the poetical gemius The Rgvedic poets reveal an abundunt freedom and creatre urges and since the theory of poetry follons poetry, they secm to anticipate so many elements of the classical poetics These therefore are the Rgvedic foundations of the classical poetics

The classical poetics has thought of connecting poetry and lterature with Goddess Sarasvati who is all white, 'sarvašukia' as Dandın describes, associated with a lyre and having a swan as her vehicle The Rgvedic poets also had

Vedic Poetry and Classical Poettes 71

already anticipated this concept and created a Goddess SarasvatI who is also 'suci' and 'subhra' as well as 'bhadra' She was thought of as 'the inciter of all auspicious thoughts and protector of all good thoughts No fitting close to this series can be thought of than in the words of the Rgvedic poct

pavaka nah sarasvati vajebhr vajinnatt jajnam vastu diuy åvasuh / codayıtri sūnțtānām cetantī sumatınām vajñam dadhe sarasvati / maho arnah sarasvatī pra cetayatı ketunā dhiyo všvā v râjatt // (I 3 10-12)

मता भालय फोटा

Appendıx 'A'

Table ef Contacts and Ripetitions

Maodsla I IV No

394 28 38 64 56 76 185 57 92

II 22 78 3 14 14 19 4 22

42 8 127 14 16 19 29 39 8 46

IV 56 4 13 84 14 24 31 48 3 38

Y 64 2 20 13 36 25 112 18 34

79 14 21 J0 36 90 47 70 38

VHI 83 15 25 35 27 43 172 49 72

VIII 220 22 42 45 9t 5S 42 273 105 95

IX 78 6 12 6 27 20 19 94 1031 26

99 24 54 37 29 50 49 66 26 216

Notes Each Mandala has a larger number of internal repeuttons when compared with the external repetitions

2 Tendency to repeat becomes marked and of greater fre- quency in Mandalas VIII IX I and X 3 Mandafa IX has a eloser relation it appears with VIII I and X than with the rest

4 Mapdalas I, 11 and I appear to be early 5 VI and VII appear to be representing a transitional stage

Appendix 'B'

Indet to Rgvedie Passages

Mandila Passage Page Mandala Passage Page

1 10-12 15 71 IV 3 12 50 J 10-12 I$ 71 33 70 98 $0 26 46 49 24 10 65 42 44

30 32 50 49 4 50 38 31 50 6 50 412 50 211 61 61 2 64 17 13 63 92 10 30 29 15 16,56 93 2 50 42 2 63 100 7 60 79 6 50 116 1 62 83 34 124 7 58 85 50 130 6 8 16 56 VI 1 12 50 143 7 63 9 40 144 1 58 63 S5 5 58 159 5 50 61 4 4 164 11 58 67 10 64 164 23 58 74 2 50 164 21 58 75 39 167 3 6 64 13 20 50 169 22 60 VII 32 9 69 179 36 33 8 19 28 70 192 10 30 35 11 14 1I 35 13 58 36 T 56 111 31 13 18 64 68 9 62 70 33 1 45, 52 60 69 4 13 39 2 19 81 6 50 53 15 14 844 50 53 23 60 86 41, 65 67 88 42, 49 67 93 1 63

76 The Rgiedie Foundations of Clasttcal Poeties

Mandala Passage Page Mandala Passage Page

TVII T24n 10. 56, 70 10 55 61 14 1S 236 63 97 241

1022 34 49

103 39 52 VIII <96 12 71 19 69 61 85 35,65 40 $6 45 8 11 63 95 45 67 13 12 50 9S 7 6 26 19 63 102 37 65 9 50 105 55 91 52 1149 62 IX 14 50 119 43.63 16 13 124 44,60 27 13 125 6.6 50 127 3 33 60 68 59 129 46 $9 146 32.49 S8 20.3 13 151 12 26.1 13 167.3 12 27 5 60 53 5 50 62.12 50 63 12 20 13,50 64 10 13 65 17 50 67 6 50 67 13 59 723,4 8 13. 14 73 9 69 86.17 64 96.15 13 197 2I

Index

A Dirghatamas song of 45 Doşas (defeets in poctry) 64, 65 Abhinavagupta 6t Ađbhuta 60 Agastya and Lopamodr3 36 Akhyayıka 67 Elements of body 44 Anandavardhana 65 66 f Apala Atreya 52 Apauruseyavada 5 Aranyānt 33 Family Poetry 54 Arabhap 69 Arthintaranyasa 58 G Atsayoktı 58 Atr: 16 Gaudi (a style) 69 Atrı Bhauma 34 Gaurviti Saktya 16 Geldner 13 B Ghosa 52 Gotama poetic achievements of 30 Bharadvaja 25, 39, 40 Grifith 17 Bharata on ratas 60 Grtsamada 25 Brbhatsa 60 Boulton Marjone 68 Guna-s, concept and kinds of 62

Brbaspatt 19 H Brown Rosemary 8 Hãsa 60 C Hillebrandt 3

Devamum 33 I Dhira vasyavāk 69 Dhvant 65, 66 ff Dialogue hymns 4$ Indra, a monologue of 43

78 The Rgvedic Foundations of Classical Poettcs

Rajašekhara 66, 69 Râmiyana 37 .Kat eSp and Dafaratha 37-s Rasa 59 65 fT -Reudra 60 Kaldisa 31 4- REvedic poctry as School poctry Qarwa 25 29. -as community poctry 49 Karuna 60 Rttt 61 ath3 67 S Kavaşa 7, 52 Kāvya concept of 56 Sarasvati 12, 14 15, 20, 70, 71 Sayana 14 ff Schools of the seers 10 2 Sımiles 13 Mahabharata 37 Ślesa 58 Mahidasa 7 Sobharı Kuşıka 33 Mammata 55 68 ff Soma suktas 9 Mandalas 25-28 Song to the deity of the forest 32 Max Muller 9 46 Sragara 53. 60 Monologues dramatic 68 Sudas Fayjavana 28 Mudgala and Mudgalant 37 Śudraka 35 Sunahsepa 6 51 65 N Surya s marnage 1 song 35 Svabhavokti 58 Nasadıya hymo 46 U

Upamā 58 Oldenberg 3 Unasi 11 Ugas, song of 32 P Utprekșā 56 Uttama Lavya 56 Parikarı 58 Poetry, essence of 62 V Prahelikā 68 Prayers for wealth 50 fr Vaidarbht (a style) 69 Puraraves 11 Vakroktr ốt Vamađeva 11 25 R Vāmana 58

Raibhya 35 Vasştha hts merger mn Varuna 46 his appeal to Varuna 6$ 67

Inder 79

Vasukra's wile 52 W Vatsalya 53 Vira 60 Wordsworth 31 Visvamitra 6, 18 ff Visvanatha 68 Y Vrşakapı hyma 45 Vyatıreka 58 Yama-Yamt bymn 61

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