1. Sanskrit Poetics as a of Aesthetic S K De 1

DUE DATE SLIP GOVT. COLLEGE, LIBRARY KOTA (Raj ) Students can retain library books only for two weeks at the most

BORROWER'S No. DUE OTATE SIGNATURE

Panskril Poelies

Pludy

of esthetie

BY S. K. DE

WITH NOTES BY EDWIN GEROW

1963

BOMBAY: OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Edition for India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, Nepal and Afghanıstan

First published in India in 1963 by Jolin Brown, Otford Umversity Press, Bombay by arrangement with the original publshers, the Umversity of Calfornsa Press, Berkeley 4, California, U S A

C 1g63 by The Regents of the University of Californta Designed by Theo Jung Printed in the Umted States of America

The Rabmdranath Tagore Memonal Lectureship

was established in 1961, the centenary of the Nobel Prize winning poet of India to honor the life and work of a man whose contributions to arts and letters were of umversal sigmificance, although expressed mn terms reflecting his own culture The annu il lectures are devoted to major themes relating to Indran civilzation The Lectureship is administered by a committee of the Association for Asian Studies, and is composed of members drawn from the sponsoring unversities Columbia Univer- sity, Harvard University, University of Calforma, Berkeley, Umversity of Chicago, Umversity of Michigan, Umversity of Pennsylvama, and University of Wisconsmn

1961-19G2

PATRONS

Mr and Mrs Harvey Breit The Asia Foundation The Association for Asian Studies, Inc The Umversity of Chicago, Committee on Southern Asian Studies

Host Umversity The Unitersity of Chicago Chaurman Milton Singer Program Chairman Eduard C Dimock, Ir

PREFACE

IN OCTOBER, 1961, the year of the Centenary of the birth of the great Indian poet and thinker Rabindranath Tagore, a Memonal Lectureship was maugurated in his honor at the Unversity of Chicago by Sushil Kumar De, Professor emer- tus of Sanskrit of the University of Calcutta I am pleased that persons who did not enjoy the privilege of hearing these lectures, on the subject to which a large part of Dr De's incredibly productive scholarly life has been devoted, now will be able to share his insight and sensitivity. To my mind, there could have been no more fitting open- ing for the Tagore Memonal Lectureship Dr De is one of the most erudite and wise of India's scholars, lus subject is one of importance for those who seek to understand the cul- ture of the Indian subcontinent in its abundant compleuty Nor could there be a more relevant tribute to the name of Rabindranath Tagore than the Lectureship itself Rabmn- dranath was a man profoundly concerned with all human experience, dedicated to knowledge and beauty I am certam that he is better honored by fresh offerngs of knowledge and by inquines into beauty than he would be by eulogy The Lectureship in general and Dr De's maugural senes mn par- ticular constitute an appropnate, continuing remembrance, which has already assisted many mn their search for under- standing and whuich will assist many more It would be presumptuous of me to try to point out the signifcance of these lectures to both the study of Sansknt poetics and our knowledge of the values of a culture so different from our own Nor need I point out that it is India's foremost scholar in the field of aestheties who is speaking in these pages His contributions to his field are well known But the lectures presented here are, in a sense, unique They cannot, of course, be divorced from the work which Dr. De has previously done, primanly in his monumental and defin-

PREFACE

Itive Sanskrit Poetics and History of Sanskrit Literature Prose, Poctry and Drama In these lectures, however, not only does Dr De preserve the literary sensitivity which is characteristic of all his work, not only does he treat the his- tory and philosophy of the schools of poctic theory -- he also states hs own vews and opimons on the strengths and weak- nesses of these schools These lectures represent the sum- mation of the thought and evaluation of a subject to which a great scholar has devoted a lifetime The value of the work, especially as an mtroduction to students of aestheties, has been increased by the notes pre- pared by Edwin Gerow of the University of Rochester This study thus becomes the only work mn English on the subject of Sanskrit poeties to which a student may go both for a topical and evaluatie survey of the field and for sug- gestive direction as to how to carry his study further A great deal of generosity, in time, energy, and financial support, has made the Tagore Memonal Lectureship pos- sible For their expenditures mn these directions, for their unttring efforts in organizing and carrying out the mfinite number of small and large tasks which a program like this entails, all of us are grateful to the Tagore Memorial Lec- tureship Committee, and especially to its Secretary, Pro- fessor Richard L Park of the Umversity of Michigan, to Professor Murray B Emeneau of the University of Calt- formia, Berkeley, for hts scholarly advice, and to the patrons Mr Prafulla Mukerji, Executive Secretary of the Tagore Centenary Committee m America was helpful in every way For the success of the maugural lectures, thanks are due to the members of the Committee on Southern Asian Studies at the Umversity of Chuicago, and particularly to its Secretary, Professor Milton Singer, and to the President of the Un- versity, Dr George W Beadle, who supported the program wholeheartedly It was a privilege for the University of Chicago to be the first host umiversity for the Memoral Lectureship, and a great honor to have Dr De among us, even if for too brief a time EDWARD C DIMOCK, JR University of Chicago

CONTENTS

I Introduction 1 2 The Problem of Poetic Expression . 18 3 The Poettc Imagination 33 4. Aesthetic Enjoyment 48 5 Creation and Re-creation 62 Notes 81 Bibliography . . 113 Tentative Chronology 116

*INTRODUCTION

IN THE STORY of the birth of the Sansknt kava gven mn the Romayana we are told that, having spontaneously pro- nounced the adı-śloka,* \almik exclaimed in naive astonsh- ment 'What is this that has been uttered by me (kim idam tyahriam maya)" This mnterrogation of the Adı-kav-Lim tdam-gives expression to the etemal wonder and cunosity of the human mind with regard to his own creation Like the divine creator mn the Hebrew and Chnstian senptures, man as a creator expresses satisfaction and wonders over the mystery of what he has created From wonder to enquiry is only a step, and when the restless human mind sets itself to solve the mystery lis curiosity leads hm to open up new vistas of thought. Some such mental attitude must have suppled the origi- nal motive foree which in India brought the study of poetics, like the coguate study of grammar,* into exstence In the earher stages, the older science of grammar wis very closely related to the study of poetics The earher grammatical speculations on speech in general not only prompted rheton- cal speculations on poetic speech but also influenced their method and outlook. Anandavardhana speaks of ls own system as being founded on the authonty of the grammari- ans, to whom he piys elegant trbute as the first and fore- most theorsts, prathame cidtamsah, while Bhimaha, one of the earhest known formulators of poetic theory, not only devotes one whole chapter of his work to the question of grammatical correctness (a procedure which is follow ed by Varrana) but also procl ums openly the tnumph of the views of the great grammanan, Panini It can also easily be shown th it some of the fundamental concephons of poetic theory, relating to speech in general, are avowedly based on . For Notes, see pp 8t-11e Astensks in the tert mdicate items of grticular mportaner which ae dysissed m the Aotes

INTRODUCTION

the views of the grammanans, to the exclusion of other schools of opinion Perhaps the time-honoured tendency of exalting authonty and discouraging origmality was partially responsible for tlus modest attitude Poeties did not think it expedient to appear as an entirely novel system but sought the protection of the grammanan's authority so that grammar, its elected godfather, might help it to ready ac- ceptance Whatever may bave been the reason, it is well to bear in mind this close connevon between grammar and poeties Like grammar, poetics started as an empirical and norma- tive study, and despite its later search for fundamental aesthetic principles, it hardly ever succeeded in breaking down its scholastie barriers Examination of the progress of the discipline shows that although in the course of its advance Sanskrit poetics embraced a great deal more than a mere practical treatment of rhetorcal categories, it never- theless never quite drew away from its analytic verbal for- malism into a truly theoretie discipline of aesthetic It is no wonder, therefore, that Sansknt poeties started as a purely empirical, and more-or-less mechanical study It took the poetie product as a created and fimished fact, and forthwith went to analyse it as such, without pausing to consider its relation to the process of poetic creation as the expressive activity of the human spirit It chose to deal with what was already expressed, never bothering itself with the whys and wherefores of expression, its enquiry was directed chiefly to kim idam, and not to katham idam or kuta idam * If we turn to the word alamkara, which ongmally was appled to name the discipline itself as well as to desig- nate the rhetorical figures, we find that it signified pure and simple embellshment, taken as a positive or accomplished fact, and hardly had any reference to the process or objec- tive of embellishment * This forms the main topie of analyss in the earliest extant works from Bhamaha to Rudrata * They approach the subject as a screntist approaches a physical fact. If any deducton is permissible from these indications, it is that Sansknt poetics grew out of the very practical object of methodically analysing and classifying the decora-

tve devices of expression by themselves, with a view to prescribing defimte rules of composition, and this pedagogic outlook undoubtedly received great impetus from the highly developed analytic enquiry mnto the forms of language made by the normative grammanans It also appears that Sanskrit poetics reached the rank of an independent diserplme at a time when Sansknit poetry, in the hands of less imaginative wnters, was becoming more and more a highly factihous produet of verbal special- ists The tradition of such a poetry both obscured the activity of the poetic imagmation and pomted to working the rules and means of extemal production into an evact system The result was the elaboration of a senes of more or less mechamcal formulas and rigid categones And, in- deed, the ars poetica mn India, which went by the name of the science of embelhshment (alamkaralastra), did not go further than being a series of artificial advices to the poet in his profession It cannot, however, be stated that the necessity and m- eutability of postulating an ultimate principle did not at all trouble these early wnters We shall see presently that at almost every step in the fustory of the study it was almost impossible for the so-called alamkarikas,* coucerned as they were with outward form and techmque, to be entirely un- conscious of the theoretic principles underlying literary expression At the same time, they could never get nd of the idea that words were natural, mechanical facts to be collected in their greatest possible variety and grouped in fixed classes and types Attention was directed, therefore, to the analysis of the sabda (word), with an object some- what different indeed from that of grammar but agreeig in ' its normative method and ideal. The sabda came to be the pivot around which the entire study moved, the question of the function of words in producing different kmnds of meaning became the chief concern It appears to have been thought that, whatever may be the funetion of the poetic imagination i its evpressive activity of finding its own appropnate word or meaning, or whatever may be its theoretic basis, the explanation of the mere verbal arrange-

INTRODUCTION

ment was sufficient for explamning the fact of poetic ex- pression That the art of poetry can be systematised, after the method of positive sciences, formed one of the fundamental postulates of Sanskrit poeties from the very beginning This is what is imphed by the term vokrokt* of Bhamaha, by wluch this earhest rhetoncian connotes an extraordinary turn given to ordmary speech and denotes the entire assem- blage of rbetorical ornaments His successors, Udbhata* and Rudrata, do not employ this genene term, but their attempts, like lns, are hmited to the systematie classifica- tion of expression into more-or-less fixed rhetoncal cate- gories This formal treatment gives their works the general appearance of technical manuals comprising a collection of definitions, illustrations, and empincal canons elaborated for the benefit of the aspinng poet. The standpoint is similar to that of an art of pamting which confnes itself to a collection of information about the techmques of tempera, oil painting, watercolour, and pastel, about the proportions of the human anatomy, and about the laws of perspective, forgetting that a pamted picture is more than a mere mn- gemous appheation of such know ledge or device It regarded poetry as a more or less mechanical series of verbal devices in wluch a defimte sense must prevail, and which must be diversified by means of prescnibed tricks of phrasing, the so-called figures of speech to which the name of 'omament (alamlara) is given As the botanist or the zoologist labels and classifies every new representatne of flora or fauna, the Sansknt alamkarka, pretending to find unrversals, cal- culates the particular species from the onginal four orna- ments of Bharata" to more than a hundred of Jayadeva But, in view of the methaustibility of individual poetie ex- pressions, they may be easily reneiced to an mfnte number, moreover the umversals of a formal analysis are of doubt- ful theoretic value for explamng the principle of concrete indnadpal expresoon itself The aesthetic msuffciency of rhetorical categories was, however, very speedily percened, but the theones which

were advanced agamst mere rhetoric did not entirely reject it On the contrary, a reserve was made regarding its utilty, and its principles were carefully preserved When Vāmana declared that ritt,* by which he meant a specific arrangement of words, was the essence of poetry, he did not advance the speculation very much further Nor did his predecessor Dandin give an extended interpretation of the term 'ornament,' applymg it to anything which lends 'beauty' (sobha) to poetry, and including in its scope the figurative devices as well as modes or grades of arrangement of word and sense, although Vamana draws a sharper distinction be- tween the particulantes of arrangement and the mere fig- ures of speech Both of them believe that the modes or par- ticulanties of arrangement consist of the combination of certam fixed 'qualites' or 'excellences' (gunas*) realised by different dispositions of word and sense, such as 'perspicuity', 'smoothness', 'liveliness', and so forth * In the formal schemes of poetry of both, these are considered to be of essential importance for the production of poetic beauty, the mere figures of speech, though vaguely admitted by Dandin as common to all the modes, are acknowledged but relegated by Vamana to a subordinate position as accidental orna- ments, which serve to enhance the beauty already produced by the so-called 'qualities' It must be made clear, however, that the term 'beauty' (Sobha), which is taken as the test of poetry, is not defined, but it appears to have no other far-fetched meaning than that of the logical external effect realised by a carefully worked-out adjustment of word and sense which avoids damaging flaws by adopting, pnmarly, the literary 'quali- ties', and, secondanly, the figures of speech for heightening the effect thus produced The term ritt defined as a specific arrangement of word and sense for the purpose of realismng this beauty, thus sigmfies nothing more than a mere com- bination, in vanous degrees, essentally of these clearly defined 'qualities' and incidentally of the figures of speech It has no reference to the orgame expressive activity of the poetic intuition, nor is it equivalent to the English word

6 INTRODUCTION

'sty le' as the expression of poetic indivduahty It is capable of techmcal formulation, being the verbal 'dietion' in the objective sense As such, the so-called 'qualities' of 'simphcity', 'Nivacity', and so forth, become only genertc or specific categories for labelling particular aspects of the aesthetic actrvity, they do not explain the character of the actrity itself The 'qualities' properly designate the different degrees in the development, free or less free, of the expressive actiity, and are thus aspects of successful or less successful expression When completely successful, we have the expression itself The so- called 'flaws' (dosase ) designate embarrassed activity, end- ing in failure, and are thus aspects of unsuccessful expres- sion From the aesthetie pomt of view, this success or failure of expression may also be termed beauty or ugliness But the beautiful, as the perfect evpression, does not possess de- grees If ugliness does, complete ugliness, as complete negation, altogether ceases to be ugly, for it loses its con- tradiction and is no longer an aesthetic fact The considera- tion of expression itself, therefore, is important, rather than a scholastic definition of its different degrees of success or failure, of freedom or bondage The distinction between 'qualities' and figures of speech as essential and nonessential may, then, be of some use in logical or scientific, but not in aesthetic, analysis Given a particular expression, the 'qualities' are as much integral parts of it as are figures of speech The expression should be taken not as a mechanie but as an organic whole mn rela- tion to the poetic intuition * As each expression automatically selects its own appropnate qualities and ornaments, it can- not be definttely laid down that a particular expression should possess this and should not possess that If expression is expression, it is successful, if not, it is not successful, there cannot be any question of intermediate degrees of success in aesthetic estimate Nor can generic 'qualties' or 'orna- ments' be categorically attached, for expression is not a fixed and generie but a vanable and individual fact In having drawn attention for the first time to the aspects of poetie activity indicated by the 'qualities', the ritt-

INTRODUCTION 7

theorsts may be regarded as having gone a step further than the mere alamkankas, but the speculation mn its halt- ing formalism touches only the fringe of the problem By their very attempt at systematisation the alamkartkas recog- msed the eustence of certam facts as aesthetic facts, the ritt theorists went further and held that these facts are re- ducible to a defimte principle But both schools fasled to realse that this principle is not an external category but a category ot the spint * It should have been clearly under- stood that every single expressive fact stands by itself Such facts may be grouped generically by the mductive process, but the contiuous variation of individual poetic expression results in an ireducible vanety of expressive facts There may be a formal division of grades or modes, but it has hardly any use, except for logical or scientific purposes Each poet has his own mode characteristc of his particular intuton in a specific case With such differentiation, the classification of modes would be endless without reaching any defimte theoretic principle of expression * This has, however, given to Indian scholastie minds rich matenal for subtle distinctions and opportumty for hair- splitting analsis and defimton Just as there has been a multiplcation of limitiess varieties of poetic figures as verbal variants in a formal scheme of rhetoric, the objective defimtion of riti as a particular kind of formal arrangement, a peculiar disposition or posture of parts, easily led to essen- bally unprofitable attempts at inconstant and capricious classifications Indeed, Dandin declares that speech is di- versified in its mode of expression and shows himself cogmsant of the distmnchons which mark off one mode from another and result in a multifanous variety of modes But, maitaming that the subvareties are incalculable, he dis- tingushes two genenc types, Vaidarbhi and Gaudi, and sets them agaist each other * His successor Vamana proposes three types, adding Pancah,* and recommending the Var- darbhi as containing all the 'qualties', and subsequent writers add Lafi,* Atantika and Magadhi All are in realty instances of complete and incomplete expression, erected mto defimte genenc types, probably (as the names imply)

8 INTRODUCTION

on the basis of empincal observaton of locahsed usages In the same way, the 'qualties', like rhetoncal categories, were found incapable of fixed and precise defimtion and were therefore susceptible to considerable multiplication, and the attempt to label, classify, and stereotype the entre poetical output, on the basis of more-or-less formal analysıs, into so many ready-made modes and fixed 'excellences' was bound to prove unconvincing as the theoretie basis of poetc expression The theorists, who came into prominence in the next stage, consequently declared that the true character of poetry was not understood by those who had cogmisance only of the science of word and sense . But, curiously enough, their own theory had its orgin, in the conventional manner, in the analysis of languages and meanmg From grammari- ans and logicians they acknowledged the functons of de- notation" and indication," the former giving the literal sense of the word, and the latter, the literal sense, being uncompatible, a further secondary but alled sense * But this is not all They went further than the grammarians and logicians, contending that denotation and mdicaton do not ethaust the entire sigmficance of poetry They posited still another function of word and sense, suggestion,* which pro- vides another sense, never directly expressed, but depend- ing upon the poet's particular purpose in employing the word in its obviously denoted or mndicated sense * Here for the first time the poet's purpose is brought into the con- sideration of the product of the poet's mind, and an un- expressed sense (yjangya") is acknowledged beyond what is directly expressed in so many words But the analysis is suill empincal, concerned with the form rather than with the essence * These theorists, no doubt, clearly perceive that the consideration of the ornamental ftting out of words or the literary qualities of structure does not fully solve the problem They clearly demonstrate that 'omaments' or 'qualities' have no absolute value, but de- pend upon the character of the particular utterance In recognising all this, they sailed very closely along the coast, but they hardly suceeeded m making an effective

INTRODUCTION 9

landing. The theory rendered great service by nghtly emphasising that the literal sense alone is not sufficient, that it should lead to the deeper, suggested sense of poetry But the analysis still concerned itself with the intellective rather than the mtuitive aspect of a good poem, with the understanding of its ideas as empirical facts The theory passes from aesthetic to logic and reduces expressive facts into logical relations by subjecting an individual artste composition to universal abstract formulas The unexpressed has no reference to the individual poetic mtmtion, but is umversalsed as a mode of thought, and, bemg bound up by definite lmks with fixed and mechanical symbols of the expressed, it becomes as much a fixed and mechanical um- versal as any rhetorcal or qualtative category The attempt, therefore, resolved into the same method of elaborately distinguishing and classifying thousands of vaneties of the unexpressed, and even when the unexpressed was generically classed as unexpressed matter, unexpressed ornament, or unexpressed sentiment-corresponding to the earher mechamcal grouping of descriptive, omamental, and - sentimental composition-the speculation still only labelled and pigeonholed certai generic or specific aspects of the poetc function without exhausting or evplaining the func- tion itself And this was not enough To say that the unexpressed is the essence of poetry or to analyse into groups the varieties of unexpressed meaning falls short of the main issue, for poetry is expression which contains in itself what is ob- viously expressed as well as what is imphcitly suggested, In aesthetic analysis (as opposed to the merely logical) it is impossible to separate the unevpressed and the expressed -both together make up the being of an artistic composi- tion The poet's purpose, upon which the unexpressed mean- ing is said to depend, is not meant to be coextensive with his poetic intutivity, which is nch in unified images rather than in disintegrated thought or meanng, in its power of intutive evpression rather than in presenting this or that particular concept The expression is the actualty of the intution, the so-called expressed and unexpressed forming

10 INTRODUCTION

indissoluble constituents, undistingmshable mn the organie whole To be sure, Sanskrit theory recogmises that in order to be poetical languages should be generically semantic, but it forgets that the language of poetry must be taken as one of intuition and not of intelligence, as an aesthetic and not an intellective fact The pedantic bipartition between the un- expressed and the expressed, therefore, is useless except mn grammatico-logical analysis, for the whole constitutes poetry and not a part, and it helps us little to analyse externally what cannot in its internal unity be analysed The poet's "purpose" * is unnecessarily and narrowly segregated from the word and its meaning, while the poetie purpose in its true sense is the word and the meaning themselves in their unity The unexpressed meaning is preeminently the poetical and not the logical or ethical meaning, but the poetie intur- tion knows no dualism between word and meaning, between itself and its expression, for the content here is form and the form is content In attempting to combat the science of word and sense, the new theory appears to have only preserved the earlier tradition in a different garb, starting with the same presupposition that a word, or its sense, is a natural, mechancal fact, which can, mn the manner of a scientifie fact, be grouped in classes and types This school of opimion* did an important service, however, drecting attention to an aspect of poetry which had been imperfectly understood or entirely ignored in Sanskrit theory Hitherto, speculation had been busy with the con- sideration of poetical ornament and structure as ornament and structure, and it was thought adequate if these means related certai definite ideas in a definite manner But the later theorists realsed that poetry was not the mere cloth- ing of agreeable ideas in agreeable language, the emotion* (as opposed to mere knowledge) plays an important part m it and can as well constitute the material of poetry as it forms the materal of life A new question arose How could the emotions be expressed? The later theorists main- tain that emotions are in themselves inexpressible We can

INTRODUCTION 1I

give a name to each emotion, but naming it is not equivalent to espressing it, at best we can suggest it. Considenng the emotions the most vitil matenals of poetr, the new school took them up as an element of the unespressed, which they held to be the essence of poetrv. Thev elaborated the thesis that what the poet can directly express or describe with reference to the emotions are the causes which give nse to them (cg, the situation, the en- vronment, or the hero and herome as their receptacle) With the help of these expressed elements, which must be generalsed and concen ed not as thev appear m the natural world but as they may be iagmed in the world of poetr the poet can awaken in the reader, through the power of suggeston mherent in words and thei meanings a particu- Iar condition of the mind m which a relsh of the emotions is possible The poet cannot rouse the same emotion as, for instance, his hero or herome, the mytlucal Rama or Sitā whom he describes, felt But since all humau mnds possess germs of the same emotion (here love) in themselves, and since the expressed elements as well as the emotional are generalsed, he can call up the reffection of a similar emo- ton This condition of the reader's mind in the emoyment of the generalsed emotion is called the rehsh* or resa, which can be awakened only by the suggestre power of er- pressed word and sense This relish of the poetic sentiment partakes, no doubt, of the nature of cognition But the theonsts are careful m explaining that it is nevertheless different from the ordmnary fonns of the process, because its means, the expressed factors" which suggest it, are not to be taken as ordmary natural causes * They hold that, although the relish or raso requires these factors for its mamfestation and cannot exist without them, it cannot yet be regarded as an ordmary effect, and the causal relation is mapplcable to this case, for in the spinitual sphere of poetry the connenion between cuse and effect gives place to an imaginatrve system of relations which has the power of sturng latent emotioml unpressions of the reader's mind into rasa. Thus the result-

12 INTRODUCTION

ing relish cannot be identifed with the constituent factors, at the time of relish, the latter are not experienced sepa- rately, but the whole appears as rosa, which is simple and indivisible, and from which every trace of the constituent factors is obliterated These theorsts hold that the emotion itself eusts in the mind of the reader in the form of latent impressions (vasana*) denved from actual esperences of life or from mherted instincts On reading a poem which describes a similar emotion, this latent emotion is suggested by the de- picted factors which, presented in a generalised form, cease to be 'ordmnary causes' but become 'extraordinary causes' in poetry, The factors, being generalised or im- personalised by the suggestive power of word and sense, do not refer to particularities, Rama and Sita are no longer Rama and Sita as individuals, but represent the lover and lus beloved Similarly, the emotion suggested, which is the source of the relish, is also generalised, the love of Rāma and Sita becomes love in general, and it is possible for the reader to relish the emotion in this generalised form, for its impression is already latent in his mind The emotion (bhava) is generalised into a sentiment (rasa) also in the sense that it refers not to any particular reader but to readers in general, The particular individual, while relsh- ing as a reader, does not think that it is his own personal emotion, and yet it is rehshed as such, nor does he think it can be relished by him alone, but by all persons of sımilar sensibilıty " Thus, by generalisation (sadharanikarana*) is meant the process of idealisation by which the reader passes from his troublous personal emotion to the seremty of contemplation of a poetic sentiment The poet as well as his audicnce must possess this capacity of idealisation, otherwise he will never be able to present personal emotion as an impersonal poetie sentiment capable of being relished by others The resulting relsh, therefore, is neither pai nor pleasure in the natural sense, which is found in the ordinary emotions of life associated with personal interests (which word should also be understood to connote scientific interest in

INTRODUCTION 13

them as objects of knowledge), a relish dissociated from all such interests, consisting of pure joy free from the con- tact of everything else perceived but itself Put another way, an ordmary emotion (bhava) may be pleasurable or pam- ful, but a poetic sentiment (rasa), transcending the limita- tions of the personal attitude, is lifted above such pai and pleasure into pure joy, the essence of which is its relish itself The artistic attitude is thus given as different from the naturalistc and closely akmn to but not identical with the philosophic It is lke the state of the soul serenely con- templating the absolute (brahmasvada), with the difference that the state of detachment is not so complete or per- manent The artistic attitude is thus recognised as entirely spintual. But the ideahsed artistic creation affords only a temporary release from the ills of life by enablng one to transcend, for the moment, personal relations or prachcal interests, it restores equanimity of mind (visranti)* by lead- ing one away, for the time being, from the natural world and offering another in its place. It is an attitude of pure bhss, detached spiritual contemplation (citsvabhāv samoid), similar to but not the same as the state of true enlightenment which comes only to the knower who, no longer on the empirical plane, transcends completely and permanently the sphere of pleasure and pain As such, this state of aesthetic delectation is not capable of proof, for its intwtion is inseparable from its eustence-it is identical with the experience of itself The only proof of its eustence is its relish itself by the man of aesthetic sensibility, the rastka or sahrdaya, the ideal connoisseur, to whom alone it is vouchsafed. The theory, as has already been noted, demands the evstence of aesthetie intuition, or capacity for true enjoy- ment of so-called poetc bliss But the presupposition of latent impressions is only an aspect of this demand Those who do not possess this intuition can never relish the spiritual state, and the theorsts are merciless in their satire on dull grammarians and mere dialecticians, who are in- capable of attaming the aesthetie attitude It is the rastka

14 INTRODUCTION

or sahrdaya alone, who by his own intuition can identify himself with the intution of poetic creation (tanmayibha- vanayogyata), and thereby obtam its true relish (rasa) It must be understood that although 'relish' or 'taste' renders the word 'rasa' literally, it does not imply, apart from the idea of the critic's reproduction of the poets production, any conscious ethical valuation, 'good' or 'bad' taste It imples an experience simular to what we under- stand when we speak of relishing or tasting food, but this realistic description must not at the same time drag it down to the level of natural pleasure, because by its aloofness and serenity it is lifted mto a personal-impersonal bussful state of the mind The word Stunmung used by Jacobi* may give us the nearest approach But the rasa is not a mere highly pitched natural feeling or mood, it indicates pure mturtion which is distinet from an empirical feeling It is clear that, however blissful, the aesthete enjoyment, or the enjoyment of the poetie sentiment, as conceived by these theorists, must be distinguished from the enjoyment of natural feelings And the theory does not fall into the mistake of aesthetic hedonism, which sees no difference be- tween the pleasure of poetry and that of easy digestion No doubt, the conventional classification of genenc and specific feelmgs is accepted,* but they are given as constituting the material or stimulus of poetry They may form the con- comitant or substratum of the poetic sentiment (rasa), but are not identical with it Just as one cannot talk of cause and effect in the unty of spirit, so in the unity of rasa the separate natural feelings (eg, grief, horror, comedy) which may form its constituents, are never expenenced The whole appears as a single and mdivistble aesthetic sentiment from which every trace of the constituent empirical pleasure or pam is oblterated This fact is bome out by the com- mon experence that when grief is experenced on the stage the spectator says "I have enjoyed it " Visvanatha* explains clearly that tears constitute no proof that pain is felt, for the tears that are shed by the spectator are not those of pam but those of sentiment, due to the nature of the par- ticular aesthetic enjoyment Hence in a devotee, as

INTRODUCTION 15

Jagannatha* observes, tears arise on the contemplation of the deity, where the relgious feeling is rased to a serene state of simlar enjoyment The intuitive bhss arising from idealised artistic creations should, therefore, be distin- guished from the experience of natural feelings and from all natural experiences of life It follows that the question of ornament or structure of poetry must be revised and viewed from this standpomt The poetic intuition automatically chooses its own expression, which is only the externalsaton of the spiritual activity and, therefore, not a mechanically fixed fact but a part and parcel of that activity Anandavardhana declares that the ways of expression are infinite (ananta hı vagvikalpah), and, since there is no end of poetic individuations, it is futile to elaborate rhetorical or qualitative categories. Only the broad rule can be laid down they must follow the import of the poetie intuition, which in his theory is the aesthetic sentiment or rasa intended by the poet Moreover, if it is necessary to accept the older conventional categories of rhetorical figures and quahties, the only rule that should govern their employment is their appropnateness to the par- ticular rasa Anandavardhana, therefore, states very clearly that there is no other circumstance which leads to the viola- tion of the rasa than mappropriateness, and that the supreme secret of rasa consists in observing the rules of appropriate- ness For each poetic creation its appropriate words eust, and the theory of propriety (aucitya) alone should evplain and justify their employment In this, Anandavardhana shows himself conversant with the essential nature of poetic etpression, He nghtly ex- plains that the 'qualties' are not mere tricks of sound and sense but should be considered in effective relation to the suggested sentiment of a composition The consideration of structure as such, therefore, is not necessary, and the dis- tinction between 'qualties' of sound and of sense is mean- ingless The spintual activity involved in aesthetic enjoy- ment can alone justify them Thus, it is not necessary to accept the conventional ten or twenty 'qualities' They may be reduced to three genene ones only, according as they are

16 INTRODUCTION

the means of expanding, pervading, or melting the mind." To be sure, these mental states are often mixed up and lead to vanous other mental conditions, but these latter effects are too many and too indistinct to be made the basis of new 'qualities'

This is, in its general outlme, the theory of rasa finally reached by Sanskrit theory The theorists undoubtedly ap- proach the core of the aesthetie problem, but unfortunately the starting limitations still remam and prevent a proper development of the theory Because of these limitations, it cannot by any means be maintamed that they have said the last word on the subject, or said it clearly and con- sistently, but they have certaily very ably dealt with some of its fundamental aspects A right exposition is given in- deed of the aesthetic enjoyment resulting from the idealised creation of poetry, and incidentally of the general nature of poetic idealsation But the question is still approached from the standpomt of the reader or the critic, the samāpka or the sahrdaya The problem of poetie intuition from the pomt of view of the poet's mind is not tackled in its en- tirety The process is reversed The theory speaks of the samanka's relation to the poetic creation and goes on to determine its character as an aesthetie fact solely from the pomt of view of its aesthetic enjoyment by the sāmajika, but it does not speak of the relation of the poet's mind to his creation by starting from the consideration of the creative imagination and its automatic externalsation as an aesthetic fact With the reversal of the process, the final goal is hardly reached Even the new theory could not daringly break loose from its ongmal barrer The starting preoccupation with word and sense remains, and in its attempt to adhere to their grammatico-logical analysis, the theory Ioses itself in the verbal labyrnth of the expressed and the unexpressed The process of idealisation is not fully and properly ex- plamed, it becomes a kind of abstract enjoyment of abstract symbols, ignoring the concreteness of poetic intuition and creation The idealisation is not mere generalisation, even

INTRODUCTION 17

when he was an intmtive image of it, the poet never leaves the concrete Agatn, the theory maintains that the feelings alone can be raised to the state of aesthetie relish by the idealsing capacity of poetry, but there is no adequate reason why the mtution of a descriptive matter, or even of a mere ornamental idea, cannot become an aesthetc fact Just as the expenence of feeling as feelmg is not aesthetic intution, so is also not the perception of matter or idea as such, they are only cases of the practical or logical forms of mental activity But as soon as mere matter or idea, like mere feeling, becomes a part of the poetic mntuition, it be- comes a form of its spirtual activity, an aesthetic fact, capable of being equally relshed If the ferble dialec- tc acumen of Vamana found the metaphorcal m every acs- thetic fact, that of theorsts like Visvanatha found the senti- mental in it In laying stress upon sentimental poetry and distinguishing it from the desenptive or the omamental, it falls back upon the old error of confusing the form with the essence Nevertheless, the theory of rasa is a highly mportant and remarkable contnbution Sansknt theorists were certainly aware of the aesthetic problem, but they did not attack it consistently in its entrety, contenting themselves in treating it only in some of its aspects

2

THE PROBLEM

OF POETIC EXPRESSION

ONE OF THE fundamental problems of Sanskrit poetics, as indeed of all poeties, is the problem of the content and ex- pression of poetry From the beginning of the discipline, this was recognized The parts of language, the sabda and artha* (word and sense), or, techmcally, the vācaka and cacya, (expressor and the evpressed),* had already been distingushed by grammatical and philosophical speculation as the medium of Imguistic expression The essential element of all litera- ture, as of all language, therefore, is said to consist of the material of word and sense, and the earhest definitions of poetry start in terms of fabda and artha So long as poetry is a kind of expression, conveyed through the medium of language, this is irevtable Accordingly, Bhamaha defines poetry as sabdarthau sa- Iutau kavyam, Subsequently, Rudrata's* more general state- ment refers to sabdārthau kavyam, while Dandmn describes the body of poetry as istarthavyavacchinna padatal,* and Vamana speaks of visistopadaracanā as its essence Thus, the sabda and artha umted together, and not in themselves, constitute poetry, and all later writers more or less accept the position of the salutya (umty*) of sabda and artha as the starting point The term sahitya imphes not only the umty of sabda and artha, but their inseparability as well Kuntaka" descrıbes this sāhitya as anyūnānatıriktava" or parasparaspardha,* but Kâldāsa conveys it more beautifully by his well-known comparson of poetry to Ardhanāriśvara, in which Parvati is vac or sabda and Paramesvara is artha * That the poets, and not only the theonsts, were aware of this idea is also clear from Magha's deelaration that the discerning poet pays equal regard to Sabda and artha in

THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION 19

the well-known lme sabdarthau satkavir ia deayjam tidvan apeksate This concept of the sahitya of sabda and artha, from which literature itself came to take the designation of sahitya, was not new It had a grammatical ongin, in which it meant the general grammatical and logical relation be- tween word and sense in all linguistic expression In this usage, the concept did not at first connote any special poetic relation between the two As we noted earlier, San- skrit poetics, like Sanskrit grammar, started as an empircal and normative discipline From the very begining, poetics accepted the authorty of the older diseipline of grammar, to which it was closely related The grammatical specula- tions on speech in general not only prompted speculations on poetic speech, but also mnfluenced thenr method and outlook It is no wonder, then, that both Bhamaha and Vamana, two of the earhest formulators of poetic theory, devote whole sections of their works to the question of grammatical correctness, and the grammatical analysis of word and sense came to possess an important place mn rhetorical speculation As set forth by the grammarans, the sabdartha or vacakacācyasambandha was taken to compre- hend the consideration of the structure and variety of the tacaka, of the syntactie import of a succession of vācakas mn a tacyd, and of the logicality of the expressed idea, in other words, pada," takya,* and pramana* are comprehended in all expression and constituted the onginal meaning of sahttya But it is also perceived that even though grammatical correctness or logical consistency characterises speech mn general, this is not enough for poetic speech What then is sahtya from the standpomt of poetics? Bhamaha's defim- tion sabdarthau sahitau kacyam imphes that neither sabda nor artha alone is poetry, but both must be umted together In poetry there is no question of the supenonty of the one or the other, or of the one being bahya and the other abhyantara,* or, as Bhartrhan puts it, of the artha being the titarta of sabda But mere salntya of sabda and artha is not poetry, it is a grammatical fact, common to all specch, to

20 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

the utterances of ordmnary hfe, of sastra,* of akhyand," as well as of poetry It is realised, therefore, that this sahitya of poetry must be of a special land, so that the special charm of poetic speech, which distinguishes it from ordinary speech, can be explamed Sabda and ortho mn their umty bring about a special beauty in poetry which is not found elsewhere, poetry is not merely linguistic expression, but beautiful expression In other words, it came to be recog- msed that the sahitye of sabda and artha in poetry must have a cifesa or specialty Hence, Vamana speaks of cisista- padaracana, and Kuntaka declares more clearly that cifistam eca sahityam abhipretam, while Samudrabandha," in sum- mansing the views of different schools of Poetics, is em- phatic that tha cuistou sabdarthau Lacyam .* The question of deciding what this ctfesa is and how it is realsed thus becomes the mamn problem of Poetics Some theonsts approach the problem from the standpoit of outward expression and declare the tiesa to be the dharma" of fabda and artha, which could be analysed mnto categores of lalsana,° alamkara, or guna Some dive deeper into the content and mamtam that it is the poet's peculiar way, the work of his poetie imagination, the katicyapara," which is the cifesa, whether it takes the form of ukti, bhant, bhoga, or tyanjana " But it is admitted on all sides that the sahitya, which by its cifesd makes ordmary sabdartha mto poetic sabdartha, is not the sum total of grammatical and logical relation, but indicates a certam poehc relation between the two It it the magical qualty pertaming to words and ideas, springing from the imagina- tve power of the poet, wluch makes ordmnary utterance wath its pada, takya, and pramana into the charming utter- ance of poetry The sahitya, therefore, is a certain charm- ing commensurateness between content and expression, and becomes synonymous with poetry Exactly when and how the term sahitya came to be em- ployed for poetry in tlus technical sense we do not know, but the concept is acknowledged from the very begmning It is no longer a grammatical, but a poetical, concept mn Rajaselhara . He mentions sāhitya and sāhityavidya as

THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION 21

poetry and poetics, although mn lus allegoncal desenption he does not bring out the theoretical implications of the idea. Among the theorists, the credit of divesting saltya, for the frst time, of its onginal grammatical associations and de- fining it clearly as a poetic quality imparted by the imagina- tion of the poet, belongs to Kuntaka Early speculations on the subject are vague and msuffi- cient, several tentative approaches appear to have been made. One of the earhest was through the idea of sayya," to wluch Bana refers, and for which the Agmpurana ap- pears to employ the term mudre* with a similar connotation The sayyd is desenbed as the repose of word and sense in their mutual favourableness, like the repose of the body in bed The idea of sahitya is also recognised in what is called the maitri or mutual fnendship of verbal and ideal elements of poetry, which is apparently a variation of Kalidasa's more perfect comjugal metaphor The theory is not elaborated, however, but only feebly and incoherently voiced here and there. Moreover, the sayya is sometmes taken, strangely enough, as a mere verbal excellence, but, at the same time, it nghtly insists upon what is called 'mevitability' of words and ideas as the foundation of poetic expression. The older views of paka, mentioned by Vamana, appear to make a similar approach, but greater uncertainty and confusion pre- val. The term paka, meaning literally npeness or matunty, is employed by Vamana with reference to the delghtful effect of what he calls fabdapaka (maturity of words) re- sulting from what he considers to be the best mode of dction, the Vardarbhi ritt." He desenbes fabdapaka as that *attaning which the excellence of a word quickens and in which the unreal appears as real " This descnption would lead one to believe that Vamana's Sabdapaka is nothing more than mere verbal proficiency (sabdacyutpatti), in which sense some later writers would like to take the term * But Vamana further explains that the sabdapaka occurs when words are so chosen that they cannot bear an exchange of synonym. It is clear that this view makes paka almost identical in its connotation with sayya. And some later wnters formulate sabdapaks as the perfect

22 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

fitness of a word and its sense, but, m conformity with the prevailing view about the essentiality of rasa, they speak rather vaguely of arthapaka (maturity of sense) of vanous kinds brought about by the different state of dif- ferent sentiments In brief, then, the older views tended to formulate the theory of paka as a variant of that of sayya, but the theory takes such a wavering and uncertam diree- tion in later times that it came to be regarded as a super- fuous formality When other and more convincing theories were advanced,* the sayya" and paka almost disappear from Sanskrit poetic theories Bharata's concept of laksana" also belongs to the stage of uncertainty of early speculation which was groping to find a proper solution to the problem of visesa or visistasāhitya of sabda and artha as the basis of poetic expression V Rag- havan has already given an exhaustive treatment of the lustory of this concept, and, since the laksanapaddhatt* penshed very early, or lingered as a superfluous relic in the history of Sanskrit poeties and dramaturgy, it is not neces- sary for us to make more than a passing reference Abhina- vagupta, explaming Bharata's tevt, mentions as many as ten different views concerning laksana, but it appears that laksana, otherwise called bhusana,* is generally taken on the analogy of samudrikalaksana,° to be an innate beautify- ing element belonging to the body of poetry, or rather con- stituting the body itself Although similar in function to alamkara in being a kāvyasobhākaradharma, it is not a separate entity, but aprthaksiddha, it imparts beauty to poetry by itself, and is not added, as an alamkara is added, for extra beauty It is obous that the concept of laksana, even at its birth, had an overlapping of functions with alamkara, which in course of time swallowed it up Even as a natakadharma,* connected with dramatie samdhyangas,* it had httle individuahty The attitude of the Dasarupaka* m not considering it separately, but meluding it in alamkāra or bhava,* is significant, The mamn view, however, which takes laksana, like alamkāra, as a beantifying characteristic. appears to have died out with Abhinavagupta's somewhat apologetic formulation Nevertheless, the discussion fur-

THE PROBLEM OF POETIC FPRESSION 23

mshes interesting evidence of an early tentative attempt to etplan the essential character of poetic expression Ths brings us to the first systematic approach to the problem, made by the so-called alamkara school of Bha- maha, Udbhata, and Rudrata, from wluch starts the earlest known formulation of a definte theory of poctic expression Although as a theory of expression the dlamkanka* view was subsequently discarded for its insufficiency, the concept of alamkara persisted and its uhlty was acknowledged throughout the history of Sansknt poetics It is, therefore, important to consider and understand the concept of alamkara, mn its vanous aspects, as the usesa or specialty of the sabda and artha

What then is alamkara? To this fundamental question, neither Bhamaha, Udbhata, nor Rudrata furnishes a precise answer From their treatment it appears that the term connotes an extraordinary turn given to ordinary expression, wluch makes ordmary speech (ordinwy Sobdorthosahitya) into poetic speech (poetie sabdarthasahitya), and denotes the entire assemblage of rhetoncal ornaments as means of poetic expression In other words, alamkara connotes the underlying principle of expression and denotes its means of reahsation, the term indicates embellishment itself as well as the means of embellishment In later poeties, alamkara is almost exclusively restncted to its denotation of poetic figures as means of embellishment, and in this sense it is also known to Bharata and Bhamaba, but its connotation as the principle of embellishment appears in a somewhat fuid state in the early works of Bhamaha, Dandin and Vamana ° To the mndividual poetic figures (like simile or metaphor), the prommence of which is palpable in his system, Bhamaha apples the term clamkara, but he also employs the term cakrokti as a collective designation of such individual poetic figures Vakroktt, however, is not used as synonymous with clamkara As a collective designaton, the former doubtless denotes the poetic figures as such, but it also connotes a deviating strikingness of expression which underhes all m-

24 THE FROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

dividual poetic figures and forms their distinguishing charac- teristic It is, thus, the fundamental principle of figurative expression, but since Bhamaha regards figurative expression to be the only proper expression of poetry, the vakrokti becomes the distinguishing characteristic of poetic expres- sion and the essential principle of poetry itself Bhamaha does not define vakrokt Like the term alamkara, it was perhaps already traditionally establshed But in speaking of it in connevion with the figure atiayokt, he perhaps imphes m it the lokatikrantagocaram vacah,° which he expressly mentions as a characteristic of atisayoktt As explamed by Abhinavagupta and developed by Kuntaka, the qualilication perhaps imples a heightened form of ex- pression, an imagmnative qualty which constitutes a poetic figure, and as such distinguishes poetic speech from the matter-of-fact speech of everyday life All poetic evpression involves some kind of expressional deviation which con- stitutes its charm Bhamaha's vakrokti signifies this ex- pressional deviation proper to poetry Examining the whole field of poettc expression, Bhamaha finds the alamkara or poetic figure omnipresent as a means of realising this devia- tion, and vakrokti becomes the essential prinerple of an alamkara, and necessarily of poetry itself, Although Dandin uses the term vakrokti only once in a sigmficant passage as a collective designation of individual alamkaras, and thus far agrees with Bhamaha, he does not apply it to the essential poetie quality underlying an in- dividual alamkara On the other hand, he apphes the term alamkara itself generically to the attribute, apparently of word and sense, which produces beauty m poetry, the kävyasobhakaradharma of sabda and artha Even though he does not define kavyasobha (poetic beauty), he agrees with Bhamaha that the entue tanimayo* (poetic speech) is comprehended by vakroktt (figurative expression), with only the exception of the first or primary figure, the so-called suabhavokti (natural desenption) The reservation made with regard to svabhavokti is not found mn Bhamaha But it cannot be said that, lıke Kuntaka, Bhamaba entirely re- jects the figure, he mentions it with the guarded remark

THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION 25

itt kecit pracaksate In so far as natural description involves stnikingness of expression, it would be admissble, but Bhamaha would not then consider it separately, it would be meluded in the scope of his cakrokti as figuratie expres- sion Although Dandin would employ the term alamkara as the essential poetic attnbute of sabda and artha and the beautifying principle of poetie evpression, he would not take the individual alomkaras as the sole or essential means of the beautifying prmciple He elaborates a theors of two modes (marga") or kinds of poetc diction, which he calls Vaidarbha and Gauda," and finds that the so-called excel- Iences (gunas, like sweetness or lucidity) form their essence * Dandin, therefore, employs the genenc term olamkāra, meaning poete embellishment, to designate both the gunas, on the one hand, and the specific alamkaras (poetie figures), on the other The concept of guna is not new, having been mentioned by Bharata, but it is considered in a new context It is, however, neither properly defined, nor its relation to the old concept of alamlara exactl determmed. Dandm tells ns only that the guna is an alamkara belonging to the Vaidarbhamarga exclusnely, whle the poetc figure is an alamkara which is common to both the margas Thus, it ap- pears that the guna, in his opinion, forms the essence or essental condtion of what he considers to be the best poetc diction, but alamkara as poetie fgure, on which the alamkara school of Bhamah laid exclusive stress, is not the special characteristic of any specific dichion, for it may re- side in all kinds of diction Every guna, according to Dandin, is an alamkara, but he states nowhere that every specific alamkaro is a guna Vämana further develops the rather mdefimte ideas of Dandin regarding olomkaro and guno He follows Dandmn in taking alamlara both in its denotation and connotation, but he draws a more rgd hne of distinction between guna and alamkara He states at the outset that poetry is ac- ceptable on account of clamkara, and he is careful to er- plain that the term should be taken here not in the specific

26 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

sense of poetic figure but in the general sense of poetic beauty He, therefore, lays down sententiously that alamkara is beauty (saundaryam alamkarah) He also evplams that the term alamkara is primarily synonymous with the act of embelhshing, but in a secondary, instrumental sense it is appled to that which embellishes or to the means of em- bellishment In all this he is evidently developing Dandin's teaching, and like Dandin, but more clearly, he does not make the presence of poetic figures, like simile and meta- phor, an essenttal condition or requisite, as he does with respect to the presence of gunas The guna is defined as an essential characteristic of riti, which term Vamana employs for Dandmn's marga The ritt being, in his opinion, the essence of poetry, the gunas are those characteristres which create the beauty of poetry, kāuyašobhāyāh kartāro dharmah, a function which is assigned by Dandin to both the gunas and the so-called alamkaras (poetie figures) The alamkaras, in his opinton, are such means of embellishment as serve to heighten the beauty created by the gunas, tadatisayahctatah The guna, therefore, bemng the sme qua non of poetic expression, is desenbed as nitya,* implying that the alamkara is anitya, the guna is the dharma of ritt, which is the 'soul' (atman) of poetry, while the alamkara is apparently the dharma of sabda and artha, which consti- tute its body . In other words, the alamlara without the guna cannot by itself produce the beauty of poetry, which the guna can do without the alamkara Although Vamana declares at the outset that the term poetry apples to such word and sense as are beautified by guna and alamkāra (kāvyašabdo 'yam gunalamkrtayoh sabdārthayor vartate), yet the guna, which is rigidly differentiated from alamkara, is taken as the essence of poetic expression in his system Vamana, like Bhamaha and Dandin, acknowledges the ommpresence and utility of alamkara as a means of poetic expression, he also elaborates, after Dandmn, a theory of rīti-guna to explain the tafesa* of Sabdarthasahitya He de-

racand), and explams the visesa (particularity of arrange-

THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION 27

ment) as consisting of the guna, realised in varying degrees in vanous kinds of ritt Whether the idea of ritt, like that of praurtfi of Bharata,* was evolved from geographical associa- tion and named Vaidarbhi, Gaudt, and Pancali accordingl, but was afterwards standardsed with reference to the sub- ject, it is clear that in Vamana's system it is synonymous with the hiterary mode displayed mn vanous distingiushable types of poetie diction, realsed by the umfication of certam well-defned 'excellences', such as sweetness and lueidty, wluch are called gunas The alamkaras (like sımile and metaphor), on the other hand, are, no doubt, means of poetic expression, but they are merely striking turns of word and sense which have a subsiciary value From this bnef review of the growth of the fundamental concepts of alamkara and guna-riti, st is clear that, both the alamkara and rih Schools start with sabda and artha, word and sense, and find their sahtya to consist of the poetie ttfesa of alamkara and guna-riti as the essential dharma of sabda and artha respectiely While these early theones nghtly call attenton to an extraordmary quality mn the rela- tion of word and sense in poetic etpression which distn- guishes it from ordinary expression, their madequacy from the aesthetic point of view is evident Their acute analysis of outward form and technique, with which they mainly concern themselves, is admirable, but they forget that the explanation of mere verbal and ideational arrangement is not sufficient for explaming the fact of poetic expression Mere enumeration of categories of rhetoncal embellishment or of so-called literary excellences does not adequately ex- plam why they embelhsh or why they are excellent. As the dhvam theonsts rightly cnticise, these earlier views do not correlate outward poetic expression to the inner content of poetry, nor do they, as Kuntaka nghtly points out, correlate poetic expression to the individuality of the poet, to the Lacıscabhāta Wiule the elamkaro school employs the term alamkara to connote the fundamental characteristc or principle of the beauty of poetic expression, in actual theory and

28 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

practice it is applied to the objective beauty of poetic form realised by certain decoratrve devices known as poete figures Poetic expression, mn this view, is chiefly figurative or rhetorical expression Even if Bhamaha speaks of vakroktt as an essential principle of poetie expression, he does not define it nor does he elaborate the idea in all its implication His successors Udbhata and Rudrata neither mention the term nor discuss the prmnciple The attempts of these ex- ponents of the alamkara school are limited, as we noted previously, to systematic classification of poetic evpression into fived rhetorical categories This formal treatment affords their works the general appearance of techmcal manuals comprising a collection of defimtions, illustrations, and empircal canons elaborated for the benefit of the aspiring poet Poetry is regarded, more or less, as a mechanical series of verbal devices A desirable sense must prevatl, diversified by means of various tricks of nhrasing* (to which the name alamkara is restricted) consistmg of the so-called poetic figures These theorists approach expression and embellshment as a positive or accomplished fact to be methodically col- lected in their greatest possible vanety, analysed with acute scholastic acumen, and grouped in fixed classes and types In other words, they devote their effort chiefly to working out mto an evact system the rules and means, formulas and categories, of external production This practical or peda- gogic outlook must have received great impetus from the highly developed analytc enquiry into the forms of lan- guage made by the normative grammanans Lke the gram- marian and the scientist, who label and classify ever new series of facts, the Sansknt dlamkarika," pretending to fnd umversals, calculates the particular species of expression from the orginal four 'ornaments' of Bharata* to the one hundred and twenty-five of Appayya Diksita,* but consıder- ing the methaustibility of indrvidual poetie expression, the ornaments may be easilv renewed to an mnfimte number, while the 'unwversals' of a formal anah sis are of doubtful theoretic value for explaming the principle of concrete in- dividual expression itself

THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION 29

The aesthetic insufficiency of rhetoncal categories was speedily perceived But the theones which were advanced agaist mere rhetoric did not entirely reject it On the con- trary, a reserve was made regarding its utility, and its principles were carefully preserved When Vamana declared the essence of poetic evpression to be the sitt, by which he meant nothing but a specific arrangement of words, charac- tensed by the 'qualities' or gunas, he did not advance the speculation much further, nor did his predecessor Dandin, to whom poetry was nothing more than a senes of words determined by a desired sense Both agree that the words should have a yatacchinnd, tisista, or particular arrange- ment," but thuis visesa consists not only of a special disposi- tion (ritt) but also of omamentation (alamkara) Dandın gives an extended interpretation of the term 'ornament', applying it to anything which lends 'beauty' (sobha) to poetry, and including in its scope the figuratne devices as well as modes or grades of arrangement of word and sense * Vamana substantially agrees with this view when he de- fines 'ornament' as beauty itself, but with regard to the means of realising this beauty he draws a sharp distinction between particulartes of arrangement and the mere figures of poetic speech, viewing them as essential and accidental means respectively It must, however, be made clear that the term 'beauty' (Sobha or saundarya), which is taken as the test of poetic expression, is not clearly defined There is no exposition of its character, even if its means are described and detailed But the concept appears to refer to the logical external effect reahsed by a carefully worked out adjustment of word and sense, which avoids damaging flaws by adopting, pnmarly, the so-called literary 'qualties', and secondarly, the rhetorcal figures for heightening the effect thus pro- duced Whatever attempt later theonsts like Kuntaka might have made to place the concept on a better aesthetic footing, or in whatever sense later writers might have employed it, there can be no doubt that the term riti m Dandmn and Vamana sigmfied nothing more nor less than a specific ar- rangement of word and sense, a mere combination, in vary-

30 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

ing degrees, of clearly defined 'qualities' like 'perspicurty' or 'smoothness', and mcidentally of equally clearly defined rhetorical figures like simile or metaphor It has no reference to the orgamc expressive activity of the poetic inturtion, which Kuntaka calls kavicyapara, nor is it made equivalent, in this sense, to the Western concept of 'style' as the ex- pression of poetic individuality The ritt, as understood by these early theorists, is capable of technical formulation Thus the 'quahties' lke 'simphcity, 'vivacity, and so forth, become only generic or specific categories for labelling par- ticular aspects of the aesthetic activity, they do not explain the true character of the activity itself Ritt and its constit- uent 'qualities' properly designate the different degrees in the development, free or less free, of the expressive activity, and are thus aspects of successful or less successful et- pression When completely successful, we have the expres- sion itself The so-called dosas* (flaws) designate embar- rassed achvity, ending in failure, and are thus aspects of unsuccessful expression From the aesthetic pomt of view, this success or failure of expression may also be termed beauty or ugliness But the beautiful, as the perfect expression, does not possess degrees, if uglmness does, complete ugliness, as complete negation, altogether ceases to be ugly -- it loses its contradic- tion, and is no longer an aesthetic fact The consideration of expression itself, therefore, is important, not the scholastt defimtion and classification of its different degrees of suc- cess or falure, of freedom or bondage The distinction, again, which the ritt-theonsts draw be- tween guna and alamkāra lacks a proper aesthetie founda- tion They find that both impart 'beauty' to poetry, that is, both are parts or means of perfect expression Some, like Dandin, say that there is httle difference between the two as means of producing beauty, the one being a generie and the other a specific term Others* feel that they differ but sughtly, the guna being the dharma of the collocation of word and sense as a whole, and alamlara, of ladba and artha, The view was also proposed that the guna was

THI PYCHLEX CE PCETIC ET2SESSICN

AM thee theocsts maired oufe that both gia md dic kam woar bemt Te od not odestad the mal queston. Ta vhat in poebw do the suont bernt ~ Ther feien to gereane thint gina ad derdara m vhaterer sence

a gurit and dm kdng* Vameng no dount, tumhied uen

ste therebw muly cunlv percevei the actne of the ereg of poetrr vinch churt be the mere ireetre bemty

ameremi maw be of mime ore m logel ar ammatre

earenon, the 'cualies are ac tinch mteral pate cf t ac Some of scesch Te emremon meuid be tien act as a mecimic bet ae an organ, vicle m relro ' the poetic wtntmm. As ench indriue esrercen antoitti dw selectr it o'va anctmricte 'cuattier and 'oemente', it cauct be deeutel Lid down that a paterin enemm senld pres this and shonid net perers det. E enerm i emenm, it's sceil, thee eunct be ar cuertm cf inteeredate denreer cf saters in aenhetie enimata Kan- tiez theefne, reth ecticter that thee em be so cai- Emton of ai into gocd. bad or mo feremt tyees Sor cin muritie ar anawt te ateamicil- stiached for sucs ereon is not a Sred and generc, but a wachle and

the ae related to the kardem ian or kamrcabhece, to te insnatm or inddualey of yarmerlor gcetc.

Pehe earsien is cmabie of mamte dernt i acnd-

32 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

bilty of labelling and classifying all modes of poetic ex- pression with fixed and unalterable characteristies But, while mamtaming that the subvarieties are incalculable, he distmguishes two broad or extreme types, Vaidarbhi and Gaudi His successor Vămana proposes three types, adding Pancali as intermediate, and recommending the Vaidarbhi as contaming all the 'qualities' Subsequent writers add Lati, Avantika, Magadhi, and so forth * The attempt to exhaust and stereotype the entire poetical output within the clear-cut bounds of ready-made modes and fixed 'qualtes' on the basis of more-or-less formal analysis, like the similar attempt of the alamkara school to elassify and label the entire poetic expression into fived rhetorical categones, is sure to prove unconvincing as a theoretic basis of poetic expression Neither Dandin's nor Vamana's differentiation of individual rītis and gunas, is, as the eritcim of Mammata and others shows, exhaustive and consistent .* These varieties of ritt, with their constituent gunas, are really mstances of complete and mncomplete ex- pression erected mto purportedly universal types, probably (as the names imply) on the basis of empmical observation of localsed usages But, as Kuntaka shows, the ritt cannot be a desadharma as localised usage, nor a vastudharma as an mnherent attribute of word and sense, it is a dharma of kavisvabhava (the character of the poet) depending upon the nature of his poetie intution, upon his saktt (poetic power), vyutpatt (culture), and abhyasa (practice) In this sense the ritt becomes synonymous with the manner of mdividual poets, and not with prescribed or uni- versalsed modes or grades, and all aspects of expression can be comprehended in it But since the manner of ex- pression varies with various poets, it is of mnfinite kind It can be classified under broad types, but the defimtion and classification are susceptible to infimte, but unprofitable, multiphcation

3

THE POETIC IMAGINATION.

WITH THE STANDARDISATION of the scheme of poetics outhned by the rasa-dhatam theonsts, whch we have de- scnbed,o it was thought that there was nothing new to set forth Subsequently, the history of Sansknt poetics, with one or two notable exceptions presents hardly any new idea of theoretic importance or any fresh effort to reexamine funda- mental problems There was necessanly a falling back upon matters of detail for the purpose of explanation, expansion, differentiation, or restriction of already established ideas, norms, and categories, which helped to satisfy the growing scholastic passion for hair-splitting distinctions and the dialectie bent for controversy over verbal formalısm Thus, one finds in the works of tlus later stage a great deal of elaborative acumen expressed in the same stock manner and phraseology, but very little orginalty or under- standing of aesthetic facts Some writers are excellent analysts of minutae Others are franlly unsystematc or merely eclectic A very large number of them hold to the modest ambition of producing nothing more than a popular textbook on conyentonal lines They are fine reasoners rather than contemplators of artistic creation Some attempt to arve at a rigorous defintion of poetry, a task wisely left alone by the previous thinkers, but, in their zeal to find a comprehensive logical formula, they touch only the extemals, forget all about the creative imagination, and wind up in hopeless inconsistencies The fecundity of their attempts is seen in the empirical collection of single facts, but infecundity is revealed by their perplexty over exhaust- ing the ever renewed mulbplicaton of single facts, by their uncertainty in poiting indefimtely to this and this and this fact as art. It was an age of commentaries and of com-

34 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

mentaries on commentartes The dogmas and formulas per- sısted, and the study began more and more to revert back to its original normative character Rhetonc was still there for those who were unable to assimilate any other kind of nourshment But, brushing aside all this unmspiring scholastic verbalsm and formalısm, we can still find here and there some scattered glimpses of theoretic speculation, mostly in the heretics and minor writers rather than in the major orthodox personages Bhatta Nayaka," for mstance, whose work unfortunately 1s lost, appears to have altogether denied the unexpressed of the dhtam theorsts as an essential of poetie creation, re- garding it only as an accidental element or aspect of ex- pression Kuntaka, whose work has been recovered partially. attempted to give a new tumn to the speculation by his en- deavour to rethink the subject and arrange it differently He is one of the very few wnters who took mto considera- tion, however imperfectly, the creative imagination of the poet *

Kuntaka attempts to develop further the idea of vakroktt" vaguely present in Bhamaha, and systematises the views of those who stressed figures of speech as the essential feature of poetry But m the course of his mvestigation he appears to have stumbled upon certain poetic principles which go beyond the sphere ot his formal analysıs By cakrokti, which Kuntaka considers essential mn poetic expression, he ap- parently thinks chiefly of figurative forms of speech, for whtch he often uses the phrase as a collective name,* but, as we shall see presently, this is not for hum the entire sig- nificance of the term Poetry to him is nothing but embel- Lshed sound and sense, the embelhshment being chiefy (but not exclusively" ) figurative device And, as this is the only ornament (alamkara) possible and essential, he rejects the views of those who omit figurative expressions from con- sideration or regard them as accidental or nonessential The skill of the poet," in his opiion, can and does exhibit the forms of cakrokti in the arrangement of letters, in the base or termination of words, in a sentence, in a particular topic,

THE POETIC IMACINATION 35

or in the composition as a whole While all this may be fotmal analysis in the service of logie and rhetoric, Kuntaka in his conception of the fundamentals of vakrokft itself shows lumself cogmsant of the aesthetie problem, even if he does not deal with it clearly and completely He well understood that art could not be made the medium of philosophical, religious, or scientific concepts, and insisted upon a clear distinction between fostra and Kavya, between intellective and imaginative work, stating that the words and ideas of the kavya differ from the words and ideas of the sastra He also maitams that poetic speech is an extraordmary deviation from the ordmary mode of common speech, thereby distinguishing artistic evpression from what he considers to be the merely naturalstic This extraordınariness (vakratta or vakrabhava) depends upon an imagmative turn of words and ideas, which he calls bhangibhanit,° pecuhar to poetie expression and abhorrent of logical or matter-of-fact expression He further explams that bhangibhaniti or takratta, for which another word is caicifrya or bicchitti (strilangness or charmingness), is the expression of the vidagdha, the man versed in belles lettres, who must be distinguished from the uidtat, the mere scholar He further explains that this expression rests upon the intuition (pratibha) of the poet, or on lus skill (Lau- Sala), or on an act of imagination on lus part, which 15 termed Lacıyāpāra or Kavikarman (poete functon), but which is not defined or esplamed It is obvious that Kuntaka is one of the tew Sanskrit theorists who puts a clear emphasis on the imagmnative power of the poet and considers it to be the source of the charac- teristic charm of poetic expression He regards embellished speech as poetry, but holds that the source of ths embellish- ment, even if it consists of figures of speech, is the poetic imagmnation He therefore draws a distinction between what may be called speech figure, on the one hand, and poetc figure on the other In a formal scheme of poetics they may correspond But in a poetic figure Kuntaka discovers a dif- ferentia which consists of a peculiar turn of evpression (takratua) resulting in a charactenstc strikingness

36 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

(viecluttt or uatcitrya) and depends on the imaginatrve activity of the poet (kavipratibhamtrvartitatva) The so- called figures of orthodox poetics are admissible only when they possess these characteristies of pecuhar charm imparted by the imagination of the poet, the word 'charm' apparently meaning nothing but that which gives the evpression its poetic pecularity Kuntaka mamtains, therefore, that em- bellishments do not 'belong' to poetry, that is to sav, they are not added externally, but poetry is embellished speech itself, the particular embellishment depending on the poetic imagination Kuntaka thus supplies a deficiency in the teaching of the rasa-dhoan theorists who, ignoring poetie imagination, did not consider it worthwhile to take the embellishments at all into serious account To them the ornamental evpression of poetry was a detachable, external, and nonessential addition Kuntaka gave a new interpretation and justification of the poetic figures If they are a part of the poetic expression, they have a right to be considered, for they form the er- pression itself The question of essentiality or nonessentiality does not arise Since, in Kuntaka's view, poetry is always embellished expression, as distingwshed from the plam and matter-of-fact expression of science and scriptures, embel- hshment in the general sense is always a characteristic of poetic expression This embellishment comprehends in its specific sense the whole domam of rhetorical fgures, if they are justified by the poetic imagination and become poettc figures thereby It may also melude the 'qualities', as well as feelings, mere matter, or the so-called unexpressed, if as form or material these too are a part of the poetie intuition and expresston Thus, he gives an extended interpretation to Bhamaha's vakroktt, by which Kuntaka connotes and de- notes the same thing, namely, the herghtened form of imaginative expression He makes Bhamaha's vague connota- tion of mere hyperbolic speech more definite by referring it to the poetie imagination It is, therefore, maccurate to suppose that Kuntaka accepts merely figurative expression as the denotation of cakrokti, for he brings within its com- prehensive scope all known kinds of imaginative expres-

THE POETIC IMAGINATION 37

sion The mnaccuracy arises from the apparent emphasis he puts on figurative expression for justifying it mn poetry, but in realty his cakroktt is much more than that It is a pity that this explanation of poetic expression and imagmation was never serously noticed nor fully developed by orthodox wrters, for it might have led ultimately to a clear idea of the nature of poetic creation, an aspect of the question which was ignored by Sansknt theorists But later writers, even if they neglected Kuntaka's work and let it fall mto unmented oblivion, appear to have accepted, directly or implcitly, his idea of a poetic figure and ap- pled his test of poetic imagmnation, albert only piecemeal, to their own analyses of rhetoncal categones Ruyyaka," for instance, takes the charm brought about by the productve imagination of the poet to be the cnterion of a poetic figure Thus, he thinks that a form of expression involving the logical anumana* would not prima facie constitute the figure anumana, unless it ivolved this poetie charm, or, the doubt involved in the figure samdeha must be brought mto being by the imagmation of the poet, for it should not he an ordinary doubt but a 'poetic' doubt In these and similar cases the question is not one of a mere form of speech, mn which nothing is given but the bare thought, it must be the expression of the poetic imagination Jayaratha, who has commented upon Ruyyaka's treatise, informs us that it is not possible to define this poetie charm (vicchitti), mnas- much as it is of infimte vanety, identical with the play of the poetic imagmation which is itself infimte in scope The mfinte idividuations of the poetic imagination had already been admitted by Anandavardhana as well as by Kuntaka Jagannatha, however, attempts a general defimtion, saying that this charm is nothing but the poetc imagination with reference to the power of poetic production These speculations are of no hittle value in calling atten- hon to the creative imagination, which Kuntaka may be said to have 'discovered' If Anandavardhana explamed the poetre inturtion in the samajka* with respect to the aesthetic enjoyment of poetic creations, he left out of consideration the question of the poetic intuition with reference to the

38 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

poet himself In other words, he had considered the reader's power of reproduction, but not the poet's power of produc- tion Kuntaka for the first time rased the issue, maintain- ing that we should start with the creative imagination of the poet himself, of which poetic expression or creation is the actuality. If he had resolutely pursued his ınvestiga- tions further on this hne, he might have formulated a proper aesthetic, but he still shows humself a victim of rhetorical and other categones in a different form The scholastic tendency was almost umversal and proved too difficult a bar for Kuntaka to surmount completely While he discovered the poetie imagmation, he cannot have the credit of developing its iphcation for the entre aesthetie question He apphed it chiefly to the analysis of figurative and cognative expression He had an inkling of truth when he spoke of poetic speech as a kind of proposition other than that represented by scientifie or popular speech In making the distinction he spoke indeed of the poetic imagination, but he could not clearly see that, masmuch as the intellective and the in- tutive are both aspects of the spintual activity, the dis- tinction is not absolute, it depends simply on the nature of the poetie mtuition There is thus no absolute distinction aesthetically between the simple and the ornate, for both may equally well become kinds of poetie expression-or, better, the expression itself A scientific work can very well become a work of art if the writer has a poetic inturtion of scientifie facts and converts them into mnturtive facts Kuntaka's discussions on the fgure soabhapokti (natural de- scription)," as well as his main preoccupation with fgurative expression, indicate that he could not get himself entirely out of the conventional groove The distinction was to him, in practice, an empirical distinetion between the simple and the omate, and led him to put greater emphasis on orna- mental expression His cakrokti degenerates into the mere kavipraudhokts* of later writers He started well on his journey of discovery, but stood halfway, enmeshed and un- certain, If he percerved a senous flaw in the conventional

THE POETIC IMAGINATION 39

edifice, he never ventured to take the giant's step of giving it the final blow

The next interesting wnter, Rajasekhara,* was, in spite of his pretensions, neither a poet nor a heretic He has given us no systematic theory, but a cunous jumble of disjoited thoughts and suggestions in his high-sounding Kāvya- mimamsa (Enquiry into Poctry) Yet, he was aware, how- ever vaguely, of the function of the poetic imagination It is difficult to evaluate Rajasekhara, however, for it 1s futile to seek in tus work of his for any consistent idea For instance, he declares that bad poetry is like living death, but it cannot be said that he could very clearly dis- tinguish between science and poetry, between sastra and Lacya * It is not surpnsing that he gives an inconclusive classification of two kinds of poets, the sastrakati (who may either compose the Sastra or produce Lacya effect in the sastra or satra effect in the kacya) and the Katyakavt In other words, he thinks that the poetic imagination can pro- duce a scientific work as well as a poem, or combmne both, as such, in varying proportionsl To be sure, poetry and science may meet on the aesthetic side, as we have re- marked, the intellecte and the mtutve are merely aspects of the spintual activity But when the activity of the mtel- lect passes into that of the imagmnation the seientific work becomes a work of art More fortunate, however, are Rajasekhara's remarks on pratibha (poetic imagination) The prafibha, in his opimon, is the power of the poet which illummates, the illumination is inward (for a blind man also can be a poct) and enables the poet to conceive even unseen and far-off things He holds further that the pratibha may have a twofold aspect, according as it is creative (Larayitri) or disermmnative (bhavayitri"), the former serving the poet and the latter helping the appreciator of the poet's production Haphazard and uncerttun as these observations are, they are still in- teresting glimpses of truth dimly discerned The rationalistic theonsts are less inspiring Mahima-

40 THE POETIC IMACINATION

bhatta,* who affords a curious evample of this group, pushes the grammatico-logieal attitude to its extreme form He thinks that poetry is as much the medium of the facts of logie or of thought as science, and that all poetic expression 15 reducible to the syllogistic form If by this opimon he understands the aesthetic principle of coberent expression, his contenton is legitmate, for, having a clear intuition of one's own thought, one will necessarly evpress it logically and well But since Malimabhatta attempts to prove syl- logistically the facts of poetre intuition, which are not uni- versal but mndividual facts, we can dismiss his view as mn- sufficient for the explanation of poetic expression Ksemendra,* on the other hand, does not concern hım- self direetly with the question of poetie imagination, but takes as his thesis the theory of aucitya (propnety) already discussed by Anandavardhana * He is undoubtedly right mn developing the view that proper expression is the only et- pression, in fact, it is expression itself, but his inyestiga- tions are directed mamly to the consideration of externals Accepting the prevailing view that the suggestion of rasa alone is essential in poetry, he analyses the impropneties which hinder this aesthetie enjoyment Accordingly, he distinguishes and classifies mmnutely, with profuse illustra- tions, the applications of the principle of propriety to the varous points in a poemn, such as a word, a sentence, the subject-matter, the speaker, the time and place, the quali- ties, the poetic figures, the underlying sentiment, the em- ployment of the verb, preposition, adjectives, and particles, the use of case, number, and gender, and so forth He dog- matically summarises the cases of appheation as twenty- seven in number All this is very useful, but it forgets that the infinite variations of individual poetic expression are incapable of exhaustive formal treatment, and that nothing is gamed by tabulating generically certam forms or aspects of an ever-changing suntual zctmty Nevertheless, Ksemendra, who was perhaps a better eribe than a poet, displays in most cases a great deal of insight mn his enticism, and does not always confine himself to rigid rules and specific defimtions He takes even Kaldāsa

THE POETIC IMAGINATION 41

to task, against the authonty of Anandavardhana, for the vulgarty of canto VIII of the Kumarasambhava, which he considers improper to the particular conception of his great poem And, as an instance of detail, one may cite Ksemen- dra's accute criticism of Kalidasa's use in the same work of the colourless word bhava as a designition of Rudra, the terrible god of destruchon, for he thinks that it mars the mighty effect of the few swift words desenbing the tragie annihlation of Madana, the love god * Ksemendra's small work in this respect possesses a unique value, giving evi- dence of taste and critical judgement, which are compara- tively rare or only incidental in Sansknt

Very closely connected with the theoty of propriety (aucitya) is the much older idea of Sayyd and paka" which is feebly and incoherently voiced here and there by some of the minor personages But, vaguely and only incidentally considered as it is, the theory rightly focuses upon what is popularity called 'fehcity of expression', holding that the expression depends upon the poetic imagination and that 'felicity of expression' means nothing more than the perfect espression of a poetie intuition, which is, simply, its only expression For every aesthetic fact eust only its appropnate words, every other kind of words is improper Bana has al- ready used the word sayya,* and the Agnipurana employs the word mudra with a similar connotation . It is defined as the repose of word and sense mn mutual favourableness, ltke the repose of the body in a bed, the simihtude explain- ing the etymology of the term This maitri (mutual friend- ship of verbal and ideal elements of poetry) is held to be so close that the words cannot be replaced by synonyms. It is thus a theory of the mevitability of words, claimning that each poetic intuition has its appropnate and unalterable word counterpart, and which, forming the very foundation of artistic expression, distinguishes at once the conceptual language of science from the intuitive language of poetry But the Sansknt theorists never went so far, they spoke of sayya merely as a special verbal excellence without develop- ing its aesthetic implications for a theory of expression

42 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

Greater uncertaity and confusion are seen in the closely alhed views on pula The term paka, meaning literally npe- ness or matunty, is as old as Vamana," who speaks of the delightful effect of the matunty of words (sabdapāka) re- sulting from what he considers to be the best mode of diction (Vatdarbhi riti) He describes it as "that attammng which the excellence of a word quickens and in which the unreal appears as real" He evplains again that the sabdd- paka occurs when the words are so chosen that they cannot bear an exchange of synonym This view makes paka identi- cal in its connotation with sayya Following Vamana, a few later writers formulate sabdapaka as the perfect fitness of word and its sense, but in conformity with the prevailing view about the essentialty of rasa, they speak rather vaguely of arthapaka (maturity of sense) as depth of sense of varous kinds brought about by the different tastes of dif- ferent poetic sentiments * Others, again, think of maturity of words as mere verbal proficiency ( sabdavyupatft) Rajasekhara's naive compilation of earlier views on the subject is interesting and deserves reference, for it illustrates how undecided the aesthetic opimons were, and how mn- constant the use of aesthetrc terminology

The Acaryas* ask "What is paka?" Mangala" says "It 1s maturty [parnama] * "What, again, is maturity?" ask the Acaryas Mangala rephes "It is verbal excellence [saufa- bdya[ " "The paka is fixedness in the application of words" say the Acaryds It is said [by Vamana] ^The msertion and deletion of words occur so long as there is uncertainty in the mind, when the fixty of words is established, the composition is successful* So the followers of Vamana say "The paka is the aversion of words to alteration by means of synonyms " Therefore it is said "The specialists in the propniety of words have called that sabdapaka in which the words abandon the capability of being exchanged [by synonyms]"

Despite the quamtness of this somewhat rambling dis- course, it is clear that the older views tended to formulate the theory of paka as a variant of that of Sayya, but the theory takes such a wavering and uncertai direction in

THE POETIC IMAGINATION 43

later conventional theonsts, who betray a tendency to re- gard it, more or less, as a superfluous formality, that in the end the theory entirely disappears from Sansknt poetics Rājasekhara continues

But Avantisundari* thinks that this want of capability [of words for being replaced bv svnonyms) is not paka Since the vaned expressions of great poets, with regard to one and the same subject all attai matunt, the paka con- sists of the composition of word and sense proper to the development of raso So it is said "That is matunty of a sentence [vakyapaka] to me by which the mode of stringing together word and sense, according to quality [guna], rhetoncal figure [alamkara], mode of diction [riti], and speech in general [ukti], is relished [as rasa] " And agam "There being the speaker, there beig the word, there bemg the rasa, there is not that by which the nectar of words fow " Hence the Yayavariyas [to which school of opinion Rajasekhara himself appears to have belonged] say "Since the paka, which is capable of beig commumcated by word through its mfernbility from its effect, is in a high degree the province of denotation fthe verbal function of convey- ing the literal conventional sensel, still it is subject to the usage of what is established by the sanction of the entic of sensibihty, the sahrdaya."

If this is not verbiage, it may mean that, in Rajasekhara's opimon, paka is conveyed chiefly through words, and, taken as verbal proficieney, it comes primarly under literalness of sense, but it finds its scope in the sense establshed by the relisher of rasa, the sahrdaya In other words, we have here the same tendency of relating it ultimately, in accordance with the prevailing theory of rasa, to the reproductve ap- preciabon of the reader rather than to the productive unaginaton of the poet. It is proper to note in this conneuon that the term paka, hke the term rasa, has a reference to its etymological mean- ing of physical tasting, with reference to the appreciator, whtch has been fancifully likened to that resulting from the npeness of fruts As such ripeness of fruits bears dif- ferent kinds of taste, the analysts love to carry the analogy into distinguishing and uaming pakas after various lnds of

44 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

fruity taste Vamana refers very early to the nipeness of taste corresponding to that borne by the egg-plant (orn- takapaka)," but other wniters add vanous designations after a fairly long lst of fruits, such as grapes (draksa), cocoanut (narikcla), mango (sahakara), wood-apple (Aapittha), jujube (badara), cucumber (trapusa), and even the sour tamarind (tintidt) and the bitter Asadirachta indica (nımba) One may detect in this tendency a lurling hedomstc attitude towards explaining artiste facts But this is out- done by a similar, but mixed, hedomstic and serualistc bias of some unsystematic rasa theorists like Rudrabhatta and Bhoja,e who would regard the enjoyment of the erotic senti- ment as the sole and proper objective of poetry Although the dheom theonsts" genencally classified the diferent po- etic sentiments on the basis of the vanous natural emotions (Like love, laughter, gnef, and heroism), they were careful to emphasise the umty of the resulting relish as a simple and indrvisible enjoyment, which is not pathological but ideal- ised and serene, and from which every trace of its com- ponent or matenal is obhterated That is to say, love or grief is not any longer expenenced as love or gnef, but as pure aesthetc sentiment of bliss evoked by the idealsed poetic creation They are fond of explaming the process under the analogy of a beverage which, made up a black pepper, candied sugar, camphor, and other mngredients, gives us a taste different from its constituents The later writers more or less repeat this formula in theory, but some of the unorthodor, eclectic, and less sy stematic compilers, like Bhoja, did not hesitate to bring out the practical implications of such a reahstie desenption Love had been the most absorbing and unversally appeal- ing theme of Sanskrit poetry and drama, so it is not surprs- ing that they should single out the erotic sentument, but thereby they erect a mere concomitant into an etelusive essental To this they naturally add a sevuahshe bras sup- plemented by an elaborate psychology of amatory concepts Tls is done with the object, apparently, of gurding the aspirng poet in the composition of erotic pieces so popular

THE POETIC IMAGINATION 45

and profuse mn Sanskrt The historical condition of the growth of the disciplme thus supplied a motive for develop- ing the mnate inclnation towards artistie hedonism and sexuahsm, although a theoretic appearance was often given under the all-atoning name of rasa We have in consequence a prolific series of erotico- rhetorcal treatises, beginning with Rudrabhatta's Srngāra- tilaka, in which the mmnute diversities of the amorous condition are elaborately analysed and classified with surprising assiduity and acuteness Scholastic formalism is mamfest here, too, in the making of distinctions and cate- gones, in the analysis of accidents rather than of essentials But one cannot mistake the obvious imphcation of this pleasurable eroticism The attitude was certamly not im- proved when a relgious tur was given by translating this eroticism into a devotional sentment in the semrhetorical treatises of emotionalist Vaisnata devotees, like Rūpa Gosvamin,e who show a decided leaning towards sensualısm of a refined and subtle type

Despite these aberrations, there is one point on which the complete agreement of the theorsts indicates that they un- doubtedly had a glimpse of the true character of poetic ex- pression They refuse to admit that the distinction between prose and poetry hes in an external fact,-metre They rec- ogmise that the distinction is altogether internal * According to the nature of the particular intuition, a poet may express himself in prose or in verse In the one case his intellect predominates, in the other huis sentiment, but sinee the one aspect of the spintual activity may pass mnto the other, all prose has a poetical side The theonsts could not apply this idea of the mnterionty of poetic expression, how- ever, when they admitted the conventional grouping of ex- pressive facts into literary classes (such as romance, story, epic, lyric, or drama) and formulated laws for them These distinctions are useful, but they are merely abstract or quantitative categones, made for the convemience of logical exposition, by which we analyse, after reflection, the mndi- vidual expressive facts into a senes of relations, moments,

46 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

or aspects, and which therefore do not affect the nature of the poetic mtuition or expression itself A similar tendency leads the theonsts, as we have seen, to analyse and classtfy the synthetic umty of individual expression into umversal rhetorical and other similar categories, a process which re- duces an organism into a mechamism They are thereby prone to collect an imposing array of crude facts and even useful mformation, but these are often confused, irrelevant, or discordant for the purpose of evplaiing the nature of poetic creation itself It is hardl necessary, therefore, mn the discussion of theorehe principle, to linger over the industnous but subtle analy sis of a very large crowd of writers who dealt with the rhetorical and other categones as logical facts but, hopelessly mixing them up sometimes with artste facts, attempted to imply for their study a higher name than rhetone No really new or inspiring ideas on the aesthetic question ap- pear in the countless treatises that were composed with immense trouble and subtlety The husks of pedantry were conscientiously but mistalenly accepted for explaining the jtuce of poetry They contain a mass of learned and useful things, an array of pseudo-aesthetic concepts, defined psy- chically or logically, but which hardly pertam to the funda- mental aesthetic problem Some of the works are gigantic, but they are giants puffed up with commonplaces Even those very few wnters who felt that some elements of the real problem had been overlooked and wanted to think freely found themselves mn the end hopelessl caught in the mazes of conventonal beliefs, which landed them m unsurmountable contradictions and perpleuties This is il- lustrated even by the cases of the two most accomplshed sy stematisers of this group, Mammata* and Visvanatha * They attempted to make some variations in the conventional assumptions but merely came out through the gate by w hich they entered Even the latest writer of this group, Ja- gannatha,* who pretended to leave the broad and easy path of mechanical conventionalty, accepted mn renlity most of the established dogmas and formulas More a polemical reasoner than a constructive contemplator, his erudite dis-

THE POETIC IMAGINATION 47

tinctions are in most cases trvial tuceties. Nevertheless, some of his cntiques of previous theones are just and give oc- casional glimpses of penetration He remarks with msight that the word alone is important in poetry as giving ex- pression to a charming sense. The chanmingness consists in giving an ideahsed pleasure which is a fact of mtemnal experience The cause of this pleasure is a conception or a series of representations, consisting of conhnued contempla- tion of things charactensed by the pleasure itself This pleasure is specifically different from what one finds in the actually pleasing, and depends upon taste formed by con- tinued contemplation of beautiful objects The entenon of poetry, therefore, does not le in its capabilty of producing the idealsed enjoyment of a poetic fecling alone, for the creative imagination may also concem itself with descrip- tive matter, thought, or omamentation as its matenai or stimulus. Although not very clearly formulated, these opimions are remarkable vanations of the accepted theory. But the problem of poetic creation is still looked at not from the standpoint of the poet's creating but from that of the reader's recreating, and the mechanical analysis of canons and categones, even if they are related to the reader's ideal- ised enjoyment, persists.

We have now surveyed what, from the viewpoint of aesthetic, is worth while in the speculations of Sansknt poetics We cannot but be struck by the smallness of the number of theonsts who have seen the nature of the theoretic problem clearly. The majorty hardly take po- etry as a living discourse, in itself indivisible, among evpressive organisms, but consider it as a series of dead abstractions capable of scientific dissection. They demon- strate, in short, a cunous confusion of the artistc process with that of natural seience. Many meidentally had a fash of the truth and offered just remarks, made conscientious collections and useful analyses of empirical canons But the main problem is approached from a restricted angle, and has not been formulated clearly or mn its entirety.

4

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

THE THEORY OF rasa,* like the theory of dhtant with wluch it is intimately connected, forms one of the most important aesthetie foundations of Sanskrit poetics From its first ap- pearance in the dramatic theory of Bharata down to its es- tablishment as the soul of poetry in the work of Visvanatha there has been a steady working out of the idea into a funda- mental aesthete concept The dhant school, mn its analysis of poetry, found that the contents of a good poem may generally be distinguished as either that which is expressed and meludes what is given m so many words or that which is not expressed, but must be added by the imagmation of the reader or the listener The unexpressed or suggested part, which is distinctly linked up with the expressed and which is developed by a pecultar process of suggestion (vyanjana),* 1s taken to be the 'soul' or essence of poetry To the grammarans and learned writers, it seemed para- doucal to state that the very essence of a poem is that which is not even expressed On the other hand, some form of symbolical speech, in which wisdom demands that one should express oneself more in bints and suggestions than in actual words, was always m vogue, and the poets had been more or less partial to the method of speaking in meta- phor or wrapping up their ideas in transparent allegories But the suggestive poetry is something different from the merely metaphorcal, which Vamana had already amply recogmused and on which the alamkara and the ritt schools had put so much emphasis The metaphoncal or the alle- goric, however veiled it may be, is still in a sense evpressed and must be taken as such The suggested sense (oyangya) is always unexpressed and is therefore a source of greater

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT -11549

charm through its capacity of concealment, for this con- cealment, in which hes the essence of art, is in reality no concealment at all The new aesthetic school claims a par- ticular funchion of suggestion, appertaming to words and their senses, whereby the unexpressed or the iexpressible is called into beig, or, to speak with Kant, whereby poetry becomes an expression of 'the aesthetie idea' Now the unexpressed, through the suggestive power of word or idea, may be an unexpressed thought or matter (castu) or an unexpressed figure of speech (alamkāra), but in most cases it is a mood or feeling (rasa) which is mnexpressible directly * The dheam school took up the moods and feelings as an element of the unexpressed and tried to harmonise the idea of rasa with the theory of dhram It was reaused that poetry was not, as Dandm thought, the mere clothing of agreeable ideas m agreeable language, feelings and moods play an important part in it But feelings and moods in themselves are inexpressible We can give a name to them, but naming a mood or feeling is not equivalent to expressing or developing it At best, therefore, we can sug- gest it What the poet can directly express or describe are the cibhacas, ete,* but with the help of these expressed ele- ments, which must be generalised and concerved not as they appear in the mundane world but as they may be imagined in a poetic world, the poet can awaken m us, through the power of suggestion inherent in words or ideas, a particular alauktka condition of the soul in which the relish of the feeling is possible. To be sure, the poet cannot rouse the same mood or feeling as the person (eg, Rama) whom he descnbes felt in times past, but he can call up a refechon of it which is similar in some respects, and this condition of enjoyment in the reader's soul 1s the relish of rasa, which can be brought mnto consciusness hy the power of sug- gestion inherent in words and their sense. Here anses the new aspect given to the rasa theory by the exponents of the dheant school They interpret Bharata's much-discussed dictum to mean that rasa is suggested by the union of the permanent mood with the cibhacas through the relation of the suggested (tyangya) and the suggestor

50 AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

(vyanjaka), and that the nispatti of Bharata's sutra should mean abhicyokh * Commenting on Bhatta Nayaka's theory, Abhinavagupta points out that there is no need, as there is no authority, for assuming the two powers of bhāvakatta and bhogikarana,* for they are implicitly included mn the idea of rasatyafijana* and its ultimate asvada * Bharata's dıctum kavyārthān bhācayantiti bhavah* implies bhācakatca to be an inherent capacity of all bhvas as the cause of existence (bhu ttt karane dhatuh) or the diffusion (vya- ptyartham) of the sense of poetry, the sense indicating the principal sense consisting of the relish of rasa Hence the sthayin,* together with the oyabhicann, being bhatas themselves, bring into eustence through this mherent power the extraordinary relishable sense of poetry, cognised in a general form (sartasadharanataya asvadayatt) In this way the sthayin, or even the katya itself, may be regarded gen- erally as the bhavaka or mispadaka* of rasd, and this so-called bhopakatoa, according to Abhinava* consists in nothing more than a surtable use of guna and alamkara for the ultimate purpose of awakening rasa through the suggestive power of word and sense Thus disposing of the power of bhavakatoa, Abhmnava turns to the other power assumed as bhoga or bhogikarana by Bhatta Nayaka He remarks that beyond the pratih or percepton of rasa, he is not aware of any other process called bhoga If it is relsh or emjoyment, it is already ad- mitted, and nothing is gamned by giving it a new name, just as nothing is gamed by arriving at the same idea by the use of different terms like darsana, anumiti, śruti, upamili, or pratibhana, according only to the distinction of the means employed * Hence bhoga is nothing more than the percep- tion of rasa, consisting of its essence of relish, based on permanent moods like rati, ete But it must not be supposed to rest there, for although it is admitted that wherever there is rasa there is no doubt its perception, consisting in its enjoyment, yet since the nature of sattoa and other gunas involved in such enjoyment is diversifed, according as they are principal or subordinate, and is therefore in itself in- finite and incomprehensible, the relish of rasd is not to be

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT 51

measured by the mere supposition of three functions The bhoga, supposed by Bhatta Nayaka, consists, therefore, es- sentially in the ascada of rasa, possible because of the sug- gestive power of poetry, and, falling naturally within po- etry's domai, it need not be taken as a separate function

This, in general outhme, is the theory of dheant and rasa finally reached by Sapskrit poetics The chief value of its contnbution hes in its recogmition, foreshadowed by Bhatta Nayaka, of the poetic sentiment as a fact of internal aesthetic expenence and of its process of idealsation from a natural feeling (bhata) to a poetc emotion (rasa) In this the theonsts undoubtedly approach the very core of the aes- thetc problem, and solve the question of sabdarthasāhitya in a novel way Unfortunately, the starting Iimitations persist, preventing the development of mere rhetonc into aesthetic. Because of these limtations it cannot be maintamed that these theorsts have said the last word on the subject, or said it clearly and consistently, but they have certainly dealt with some of its fundamental aspects very ably A suitable es- position is given indeed of the acsthetic enjoyment resulting from the idealsed creation of poetry, and mncidentally of the general nature of poetic idealisation, but the question is still approached from the standpoint of the reader or entic, the samajka or sahrdaya * The problem of poetic mtution from the pomt of view of the poet's mind is not consdered in its entirety The process is reversed, the theory speaks of reader's reproduction, and not of poet's production It speaks of the somanka's relation to the poetic creation, and goes on to determmine its character as an aesthetic fact solely from the point of view of its aesthetic emoyment by the samapka But it does not speak of the relation of the poet's mind to his creation by starting from the consideration of the crea- tive imagination and its automatc externalisation as an aesthetie fact. The theory of rasa is thus essentially one of aesthetic en- joyment. The pratiti of rasa, Abhinava maintains, is nothing more than its mamfestation (abhicyaktr) by the power of

AESTHETIC ENJOTNENT

surwesben rondanr in mn estarammy stete of selsh

nat the a itsrE, hnt is relsh, at the maod isalt, het its

cante is maens, the abharct, ere ast to be toee es edasr

This wal mete it theer whe rees Lke Lo unt, bibhest.

be temed vose, in whith ersyment is esseonl. The resh

sented the setatse o the srades seys. T heve enirnd

esy tol demthe npreentation thase vey thmnes whish ae ealed coens of pein m the wrrld (Lke hanshment of

ete and from them onlr pleeeme easss, as it daes E-rn hites end the Lke in amoons dobavee It is eko mawtrbe? thet ters comsttnte no pmnof thet aaythinr brt plrasine is felt mi poery; fr the tony which are shed by the reader are not those of pain bat thae of sentmart Jarematha's" remrks in this comenoo ae ttrstne. He savs thet the shedame of tes ead the Lke ere dne to the netere of the epwimr of the peratala pleesae, ead at to peiz, When

dety, thre is a't the stehte frelne of pem, Sach is the power of the ertraa daey faaca'm d' pocsy tut eret teh plessent thiers lte sar gmawnte derlle pimare en?

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT 53

and cannot eust without them, it cannot yet be regarded as an ordiary effect, and the cause-and-effect theory is inap- phcable For mn the transcendental sphere of poetry, the conneuion between cause and effect gives place to an im- agmnative system of relations, which has the power of stir- ring the reader s soul into rasa The resulting rasa cannot be Identified with its constituent uibhaas, for the latter are not experienced separatelv, but the whole appears as rasa, which is thus sunple and mdivisible, and at the time of relish nothing else but rasa is rased to our consciousness The writers on poetics are fond of explaming this phenomenon tnder the analogy, mentioned earlier, of a beverage, made up of black pepper, candied sugar, camphor, and other m- gredients, which gives ts a difterent taste from that of its constituents The result, therefore is an idissoluble unity of taste from which every trace of the constituent elements is obliterated. Abhmavagupta goes a step further mn maintaming that the sthayin (permanent mood) mferred from its laukika causes (eg, woman, garden, etc ) remains in the hearts of the appreciating audience in the subtle form of latent impres- sions On reading a poem or witnessing a drama this per- manent mood, remaming in the form of latent impressions (vasana), is suggested by the depicted vibhatas, ete, which cease to be called laukika causes but go by the name of tibhatas, etc, in poetry and drama, and which are taken in theu general form without specific conneuons The cibhatas are generahzed m the minds of the reader and do not refer to particularitres, not through the power of bhacakatta, as supposed by Bhatta Nayaka, but generally through the suggestive power of word and sense and spe- cifically through a slolful use of guna and alamkara in po- etry and clever representaton in the drama. In the same way, the sthayibhaca (permanent mood), which is the sotrce of the rasa, is also generalised, because the germ of it is already euistent m the reader's soul in the form of im- pressions, and this generalisation, together with the beanty of the generalsed representation of the cibhavas, etc, re- moves all temporal and spatial Luitations. The mood is

54 AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

generalised also in the sense that it refers not to any par- ticular reader but to readers in general, so that, although it is relished by a particular individual, at the time of relish- ing it he does pot think that it is rebsbed by him alone, but by all persons of poetic sensibilty This relish is known as rasa in poetry and drama The effectiveness of poetry depends, then, upon latent impressions of feelings whtch we once went through These are roused when we read a poem which deseribes sımilar things by universal sympathy (sādhāranya or sādhārani- Larana) * Those who have never expenienced the feeling of love, for instance, and have therefore no impression of er- penience left in them, as well as those who have no sense of community of human feelings can never relsh rasa in poetry The casand, we are told, is natural (scabhacili or nat- sargili),* but it may be acquired by study and evperience The wrters on poetics are merciless mn their satire on dull grammanans and old mimamsakas, to whom such relish of rasa is demed, and they declare unammously that rastkā eva rasastăde yogyah As rasa is not an objective entity which can reside in the hero or the actor, it is reahsed, as Dhanamjaya* puts it, by the reader's own capacity of enjoy- ment Thus a degree of culture and aesthetie instinet is demanded mn the entic, the rasika or sahrdaya, who is the adhikarin," digmfied with the appellation of pramatr,* com- patible with this subtle and extraordmary concepton of poetry As Abhinavagupta puts it adhikārī cātra timala- pratibhanasalihrdayah,* and elsewhere he desenbes such a sahrdaya as yesām kāvyānušilanābhyāsavašad višadibhūte manomukure varnaniyatanmayībhatanayogyatā te hrdaya- samtadabhajah sahrdayāh * This subtle conception of rasa makes it difficult to express the notion properly in Western critical terminology The word has been translated etymologically by the terms flavour, relish, gustation, taste, Geschmack, or saveur, but none of these renderings seems to be adequate 'Mood', or the term 'Stimmung' used by Jacobr, may be the nearest approach to it, but the concept has hardly any analogy m European cnitcal theones Most of the terms employed have ideational

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT 55

associations of their own, and are therefore not stnetly ap- plicable For instance, 'taste' and 'relish', though literally correct, must not be understood to imply aesthetic or moral judgement, 'good' or 'bad' taste, but must be taken to indı- cate an idea similar to what we mean when we speak of tasting food At the same time, this realste deseription must not lead us to drag it down to the level of a bodily pleasure, for this artistic pleasure is given as almost equivalent to the philosophic bliss, known as änanda, being lifted above worldly joy This pecuhar condition of the ego, the rasa, is reahsed through the characteristie function of oyamana (suggestion) in poetry The idea is elaborated by later theorists, who take pains to show that it does not come under the province of abhidha (denotation), nor of tatparya (import), nor of lalsana (mdication), nor of pratyaksa (perception), nor of anumona (mnference), nor of smarana (remmscence), ad- mitted by philosophers and grammarians Into these tech- mcahtes, which properly come under the discussion of the vyaijanoorttt,* we need not enter But it may be noted that Abhmava deseribes this ablnnyaktt, which is taken as syn- onymous with carvana, as vitauighnapratitt, cogmtion ren- dered free from obstacles Following him, Jagannatha notes in this connexion uyaktuf ca bhagnavarana cit, yatha ht śaravadina pihifo dīpas tanniorttau sammhitān padārthān prakāšayatı, svayjam ca prakāsate, evam atmacaitanyam vb- havadisamvalitān ratyadin * Similarly, carvanā is described by the author of the Prabha as vibhavadisamuhalambanena rattjavacehmnā caitanyābhıyaktıś carvanā, sā ca bhagnāvar- ana cit * The cogmtion of rasa, therefore, is a distinct realisa- tion freed from all doubts and obstacles by means of the Dibhaoas, ete, which are accordingly designated as vighna- pasāraka * It is vanously described as camatkāranirvesa (awakening of poetic charm), rasana (rehsh), asvada (taste), bhoga (fruition), samapatt (accomplshment), laya (fusion), and višrānt (repose) The essence of rasa, therefore, consısts in its asvada or carvanā (caruyamanaikapranah) which is alaukika, being incompassable by the ordinary processes of knowledge It is

56 AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

a relsh in which the rasa alone, apart from its constituent elements, is raised to consciousness, and it is, therefore, de- scribed as a relish in which the contemplation of any other thing but rasa itself is lost (vigaltavedyantara) or winch is free from the contact of aught else percerved (vedyantara- sparsafunya), like the state of mind lost in the philosophie contemplation of Brahma It is not capable of proof or desig- nation and cannot be made known, for its perception is in- separable from its existence, it is identical with the knowl- edge itself The only proof of the existence of rasa is its relsh itself by the sahrdaya It 1s, therefore, sakalasahrdayasamta- dabhaja pramatra gocarikrtah * Although it is a very inti- mate relish, camatkara is supposed to constitute its hfe breath This camatkara, which has been compared to the 'wonder-spint' of modem enttes, is described by Višvanatha as a kind of expanding of the mind, of which another name ıs 'wonder' (camatkāras cıttavıstārarūpo vismayāpara- paryayah*), implying that the marvellous always underles the rasa (tac camatkārasaratve sarvatrapy adbhuto rasah*) Jagannatha, however, completes the idea by correlating this camatkara with the vaicitrya or uiccluitti of the alamkāra school, who mean by it a special charm, due to an act of imagination on the part of the poet (kavikarma or kati- pratibha* ) underlying and constituting the essence of all po- etic figures The camatkara, therefore, which is the essence of all poetic figures, is also the essence of rasa, and has been defined as a fact of our consciousness (anubhavasalsika), consisting of extraordinary pleasure (alaukikahlada) which depends on a concept formed by continued contemplation of itself The last step mn this idea was taken by the attempt to bring poetry to the level of religion by hikening aesthetic enjoyment to the ecstatic bhss of divine contemplation (brahmasvada) Visvanatha sums up the idea bnefly thus The rasa, arising from the evaltation of sattva (purity), indivsible, self-mamfested, made up of joy and thought in their identity, free from the contact of aught else percerved, akin to the realisation of Brahma, the life whercof is super-

--

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT 57

mundane wonder, is enjoyed by those competent in in- separableness (of the object from the realsation thereof) and, as it were, in its own shape It follows from this that the pramatr, to whom alone this bliss is vouchsafed, is like a yogin (devotee) who deserves this preference through his accumulated ments (punyavantah pramintantt yogwad rasasamtatım* )

This, mn its general outhnes, is the rasa theory as finally fixed by the dhoam school All later writers, from Dha- nañjaya to Jagannatha, accept this new interpretation and attempt to work it out in detail Thus, an endeavour was made not only to explam the concept of rasa in terms of inward experience, but also to absorb this idea of aesthetic delectation into the new theory of dhoan and make it ap- plicable to poetry The rasa school began to merge from this time onwards into the dominant dhuant school Even Mahimabhatta,* who attempted to demolish the dhoam theory, was forced to ac- knowledge rasa and declare that there was no difference of opimion between himself and the Dhtanikara on this pomt, that they differed only with regard to the function par excellence which should be operative in poetry But the dhvan school" and its followers consider rasa as an ele- ment of the unexpressed only and, although their theory mn putting a great emphasis on rasadhean: all but leads to such a conclusion, both the Dhuantkara and Anandavardhana are yet careful not to erect it into the very 'soul of poetry From the theoretical standpoint at least, they could not give ex- clusive preference to rasadhtant, however important it may be For, in their complete scheme of poetics, the uner- pressed may also take the form of tastudhtam and alamkaradhtant,* and the centre of gravity in a poem may he in its matter or in its poetie figure as well as m its rsd Abhumnavagupta, however, appears to have attached little weight to these theoretical considerations Brushng them aside, he boldly brings forward the essentialty of rasa, de- claring that there can be no poetry without it (na ht ta- cchūnyam Kavyam kimeid asti) because all poetry lives

58 AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

through rasa (rasenaiva sarvam jivatt kaoyam) He at- tempts, however, to reconcile the theoretical discrepancy by saying that although the unexpressed may also take the form of a vastu or an alamkara, these two kinds of sug- gestion resolve themselves ultimately into the suggestion of rasa, which is in fact the essence of poetry This view apparently led Visvanatha to push the theory to its logical limit and formulate his somewhat extreme proposition that the rasa alone constitutes the essence of poetry But the considerations which led the founders of the dhvam theory to leave this view wisely unstated could not be easily put out of the way Jagannatha objects on this very ground The defimtion of poetry given by Visvanatha, he says, cannot be accepted It would exclude as poetry that in which the central charm lies m the matter or in the poetic figure (eg, in professedly descriptive and orna- mental poetry), and such an exclusion is warranted neither by theory nor by the practice of great poets Visvanatha had anticipated this objection, saying that in these cases there is a semblance of rasa (rasabhasa), and the verse given in Dheanyaloka as an instance of castudhtan is, in his opimon, admissible because there is a touch of rasa (rasa- sparsa) and not because mere vyangyavastu can constitute the essence of poetry But Jagannatha argues that nothing Is gained by this clumsy subterfuge of an mdirect reference to rasa Such a reference may also be construed in phrases like 'the cow moves' or 'the deer leaps'. This ommipresent rasa cannot be taken as a criterion, to do so would reduce any and every content of poetry to the position of a vibhava, anubhava, or vyabhicarbhaca of the rasa Jagannatha himself, one of the latest writers on the sub- ject, tries to solve the difficulty by studrously avoiding all mention of rasa m lis definition of poetry, although in theory he, like Visvanatha, adheres in the main to the vews of the dhoam school. Jagannatha mentions as many as eight different theones about rasa, but the eustence of so many confhicting views, as well as the fact that rasa cannot be taken as the essence of all poetry, leads him to defne poetry as ramanīyarthapratipadakah sabdah,* masmuch as

AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT 59

all theorists agree that rasa, which cannot be mamfested without an accompanying state of joy, conveys a pecuhar ramaniyata essential to poetry * It will be noticed, therefore, that recognition was refused to any attempt, like that of Viśvanatha, to develop the theory further out of itself, and the views of the dhean school, as represented later by Mammata,* became, in spite of many attempts at improve- ment in detail, a kind of canoncal code for all future time

In spite of the unquestioned dommance of the dhoant school, which amply recognised rasa but regarded it as one of the phases of the unexpressed in poetry, one class of writers* still adhered to raso as the only element worth considenng in poetry, although they never theoretically discussed the position and, like Visvanatha, built up a sys- tem on its basis Of all the rasas, however, as śrngara (love) forins the absorbing theme of Sansknt poetry and drama in general, and as this partcular poetic mood possesses an almost universal appeal, these wnters naturally work out the Srngara m all its detail We have, m consequence, a body of erohco-rhetorcal treatises, of which the earhest and the most remarkable is Rudrabhatta's Srngaratilaka,° one of whose avowed objects is to apply the idea of rasa, already discussed in connecion with the drama by Bharata and others, to poetry Following this we have Bhoja's Srgaraprakasa,* cited by Vidyadhara" and Kumarasvammn," which deals with the subject in the usual elaborate cyclopaedie manner of its author, with profuse illustrations of every phase of the sentiment, mn no less than twenty chapters After this come innumerable works of a similar nature, which take rasa, especially śrngara, as their pnncipal theme, and which were com- posed with the apparent object of guiding the poet in the composition of the erotie pieces so popular and profuse mn Sansknt poetry Of these, the Bhavaprakasa of Saradātanaya, which reproduces the substance of most of the chapters of Bhoja's work, the Rasarnaca of Singabhupala, and the two well-known works of Bhanudatta, the Rosamanjari and Rasatarangini, deserve mention None of these speciahsed

60 AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

treatises, however, add anything of speculative interest to a topic already thrashed out to its extreme, and as they belong properly to the province of Eroties rather than Poeties, a treatment of them must be sought elsewhere The simple Idea elaborated more or less in all these works is that the fundamental ras is srngara, which is consequently treated in detail with regard to its oibhavas, ete Tlus brings in the extensive discussion of nayaka and naytka* and their various conditions and emotions acting as a factor of the rasa These works repeat elaborate defimitions, distinctions, and classifi- cations of the amatory sentiment with its varying emotional moods and situations, matters which seem frequently to exercise great attraction for the mediaeval scholaste mind These theorists delight m arranging into divisions and sub- divisions, according to rank, character, circumstances, and the like, all conceivable types of the hero, the heroine, and thesr adjuncts, together with the different shades of gestures, graces, feelings, moods, and emotions, in conformity to the tradition which had already obtaied mn the sphere of dramaturgy We cannot deny that these essays mndicate subtle power of analysis and insight, and, although much of it is marked by scholastic formalism, there is an un- mistakable attempt to do justice to facts, not only as they appear to expenence but to the observation of general poetic usage In the elaborate working out of the general thesis that the rasa is evolved on the basis of one or another of what they call the 'permanent mental moods with the help of vanous emotional adjunets, these wrIters proceeded a long way in the careful analysis of poetre emotions, the psychology of which bears an intimate rela- tion to their theory and mn itself deserves separate study A new turn was given to the theory fy Rupa Gosvamin's Upoalantlamant,* which brings erotico-relgious ideas to bear upon the general theme of rasa It attempts to deal with rasa in terms of the Vaisnava idea of uyvala" or madhura- rasa,* by whtch is meant the śrigararasa, the term uyrala be- ing apparently suggested by Bharata's desenption of the rasa * The madhurarasa, however, is represented not in its secular aspect but primarly as a phase of bhaktirasa (mad-

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hurakhyo bhaktirasah)," for the Vaisnaca theology admits five rasas as forming roughly the five degrees or aspects of the reahsation of bhakt (faith) santa (trinqmlty ), dasya ( also called prifi, servitude or humility), sakhua (also called preyas, friendshp or equality ), catsalyg (parental affec- ton), and madhurva (sweetness) * The last also called the uycalarasa, being the prncipal, is termed bhakhrasarat* and constitutes, as such, the subjectmatter of the present treatise, The Krsnarat (love of Krsna) forms the sthayibhaca® of this rasa, and the recipient here is not the literary sahrdaya but the bhakta, the faithful This sthayibhata, known as madhuraratı, which is the source of ths particular rasa, Is defined in terms of love of Krsna, and the nature of the nayaka and nayika is defined in the same manner, and their feelngs and emotions illustrated by examples adduced from poems dealing with the love stories of Krsna and Radha The work is, therefore, essentally a Vaisnaca relgious treatise, presented in a literary garb, taking Krsna as the ideal hero, with the caution, however, that what is true of Krsna as the hero does not apply to the ordinary secular hero,

5

CREATION AND RE-CREATION

ONE OF THE great Sansknt poets, distressed probably by the capricious antipathy of contemporary critical judge- ment, declared that there was or would artse some kindred spint who would do justice to his work, for time was boundless and the world was wide Since then, many a disappomted poet must have wished that time were more boundless and the world were wider To a poet, his poetic activity is not a capnce or a pastime, but a spiritual neces- sity Nothing is more unfortunate for him than being placed among of uncongemial spirits In this apparently proud assertion, Bhavabhūti has unerr- ingly declared that the only true criterion of aesthetic judgement, as of all other kinds of judgement, is this that an activity which is spirtual can be recogmsed only by an identical spiritual activity What the poet expresses is a state of his soul, it can produce no effect except on souls kindred to it, prepared to receive it In order to judge a work of art, the true critic must place humself mn the poet's position or poit of view If the poet creates, the eritic must re-create, and the judicial activity, being reproductive, is essentially identical with the productive, the only dif- ference lies in the diversity of circumstances, m the one being assertive and the other receptive To deny this substantial identity of spirt denies the pos- sibility of the poet to communicate or the critic to judge Self-expression would be meaningless if it does not find an echo in other selves Unless we place ourselves ideally in the same condition, how can we receive and judge what is outside ourselves? In popular parlance, the creative intur- tion is called gemius, the recreative, taste, the difference between the two aspects of the same spiritual activity can-

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not be qualitatve but is only quantitative and circum- stantial A superman is also a man, genius is not something above or beyond humamty When we say that the poet sees more clearly than we do, we imply that he has a more complete intuition of things The ordinary inturtion does not differ in its nature from the poetic, but poets possess in a larger degree an aputude for expressing fully certam complex states of the soul In this identity lies the possi- bility of true aesthetie appreciation and estimate, the pos- sibilıty of our little souls uniting in spirit with great souls and becoming great with them The man of taste is known in Sansknt theory as the sahrdaya, who is regarded as the final court of appeal in all artistic matters Abhmavagupta lays down clearly that, apart from culture and technical knowledge, the sahrdaya must possess the capacity of identifying humnself with the poetie creahon (varnaniyatanmayibhavanayogyata) It must be understood that empirically the critic and the poet are not the same, but by the process of idealised contemplation his spirit can be one with that of the poet That the process is not one of mere understanding is made clear by the observation that the sahrdaya is not a mere intellectual cogniser (boddhr), but an enjoyer of the idealised bliss produced in his soul by the poetie creation (rasayitr) " Ablunavagupta also recogmses that there may be disturb- ing elements due to prejudice, perversion, and ignorance, but in the true critic these are elimmated by knowledge and culture, and the mirror of his mind becomes free and clear (tisadibhūtamanomukura" ) If a cntic could always achteve this state, he would, as a kindred spint, appreciate the poet's work as it really is, and it would not then be neces- sary to leave it to posterity to award the palm as a more dispassionate judge The conditions of production and reproduction are not always identcal, however Neither the stimulants nor the psychic dispositions remain constant, but are always con- ditioned by time and place. Even the poet himself may not in his old age possess the same psychological condition of physical stimulus for appreciating what he had himself

produced in his youth Hence there is always scope for honest diversities of judgement Nevertheless, the conditions being ideally equal, there is no justification for the com- mon view that enticism is capricious, depending on per- sonal likes and dislikes Apart from the question of apathy or anmosity, the consideration of what pleases or displeases is only practical and utiltarian, and has no application to purely aesthetic judgement Those who mamtam that hter- ary taste is only relative are often led by the etymology of the word * to the perpleving mistake of tracing it to a merely gustatory origin The Sanskrit theorists speak of relish (rasana), taste (svada), and gustation (carvană), but they seldom fall into error of regarding the appreciation of the sahrdaya as a practical activity of personal pleasure or pain, they take it as a mental condition of idealised bliss evoked by the idealsed creation of the poet Since to judge is to reproduce, under identical conditons, what the poet produces, it follows that the vision of the poet and that of the crtic can never, theoretically, diverge If the poet sees clearly, the critic must do the same, and regard the work as perfect, if the poet does not see clearly, the entie necessarily does the same and pronounces the work to be imperfect If the poet sometimes disagrees with the latter judgement, it is only because he does not always realse how he has seen and what he has produced The difference is honest, but entirely erroneous Examples are not rare for poets, after the spontaneity of production, m later moments of conscious reflection, to think little of what they produced successfully, and in their attempt to undo what thev have done well, they sometimes do worse This is often due to the disturbing elements spoken of above, but more often to failure to reproduce a previous intuition The common observation that poets are often bad judges of their own work is not wholly untrue If the creative act is really creatrve, it will be always recogmsed as such Like all other forms of spiritual activity, such as the intellectual or the moral, the inturtive activity is in this sense absolute It is possible, therefore, to affirm an absolute standard of critical taste, which identifies itself

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absolutely with the poetic gemius But the standard is not absolute in the sense that we can lay down absolute rules and models, elaborated by reasoning mnto abstract uni- versals, for each creative fact is an mdividual occurrence which must be judged by itself

Sanskrit poetics, then accepts the fundamental position that true enticism imphes idealised reconstruction in the reader's soul of what is expressed of the poet's soul All sts notable theories revolve around and appeal ultimately to the appreciation of the man of poetic sensibilty, the sahrdaya The justfication of true poetty, in their opinion, lies in its being thus recogmsed Even if the different theorsts approach the problem through different avenues of thought, they agree in having their assumptions of guna- riti, vakrokti, paka, dhuani, and rasa vouched for by the taste of the sahrdaya By this they clearly indicate the spintual character of the poetic activity which must be justified by a similar spintual activity When they distin- guish from physical or logical relations the aesthetic facts which dissolve into an imaginative system of relations, they want to imply that an imaginatrve fact must be solved and established by an imaginative fact, and not by reason or other extraneous practical considerations The Sansknt theonsts thus evince a marvellous aesthetic acumen by emphasising the purely spiritual character of poetic activity, which in its essence is autonomous, inde- pendent of intellectuality, utilty, or morality They never regard poetry, on the one hand, as an amusement, super- fluty, or frivolity, nor, on the other, as a medium of mere thought or moral maxims They assume it to be an activity which belongs to the intutive sphere of the unfettered spint Although they do not discuss the question, they at the same time tacitly distinguish the poetie actvity from the intellectual or the practical They evince a strong com- monsense by never confusing a poetic with a scientifie or didactc work, the Katya with the sastra or the nitt It is cunous that these theonsts expend a great deal of dog- matic, abstract, and intellectualistic erudition on a cold

and monofonously mfated rhetonc-and yet they emoy poetry as poetry and hardly ever think of the moral end or the intellectual gain. It became conventional, as it were, for theorists to give long hsts of extraneous 'objects' of poetry, but since these so-called objects never intrude upon or senously affect the shaping of the poetic thcones, the enumerations are of httle theoretic value We are told that the chief objects of poctry, from the standpoit of the poet, are wealth, fame, social success, escape from ills, on the reader's side we have delight, solace, instruction in knowledge, proficiency mn the arts and ways of the world, and incentive to virtuous con- duct These are sometimes summanly comprehended by the term trivarga, that is, the threefold ideal of profit, pleas- ure, and virtue To these is sometimes added salvation, completing the caturoarga, the fourfold summum bonum of bfe This is probably a kind of snobbish attempt to bning poetry on a level with the arts or sciences which solemnly profess such ends Or the effort may mndicate that all poetry at one time was popularly esteemed for its didactie purpose Thus, we have, on the one hand, an enumeration of the teaching and ennobling functions of poetry, on the other, an insistence on its function of pleasmng There was also a tendency to combine the two duties of teaching and pleasing by supposing that poetry, as distinguished from science and scripture, is like the teaching of a beloved mistress A poetic composition is regarded as a kind of pleasing fiction containing many useful truths Asvaghosa speaks similarly of the honey of poetry which makes the bitter drug of doctrine palatable . Thus poetry appears in turn or in combination as pedagogue, moralst, and seduc- tive mistress While all these predilections were always there, they fortunately very seldom moulded the theores themselves, which regarded, as they should, the poetic activity apart from such extraneous activites In Sansknt, then, mtellectualist poetics, valuing poetry for the knowledge it brought and regarding it as a lind of semi-fastra or serscience, hardly developed. Nor was

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there, in spite of sporadie hedomstic tendencies, a practicist poetics emphasising such practical forms of human activity as have a utilitanan, hedonistc, or moralistie end in view It is clearly indicated, on the other hand, that poetry is not a mere medium of a mass of populansed truths, nor a manfestation of empirical pleasure and pain from the ethieal or practical pomt of view, but that it conveys a state of the soul in its intutive punty, which can be re- produced m an ideahsed form in the reader's soul Govemed entirely by pure imagmnation, poetry is not the sum of knowledge, sensation, or feeling, but its image, its dream, its intuition, not in a umversal but in an mdividual- ised shape What mntellect apprehends in abstraction, intui- tion experiences in immediate concreteness An apprehen- sion of a fine landscape or a charming smile is a particular state of the soul, for there is nothing benutiful 'outside' mn the abstract but what the human spint makes concretely beautiful As there is no dualism in the spint, intellect and intwton are indeed indissolubly linked, but an impression or an intellective fact dissolved in the intuihve, no longer remains as such but becomes an element of intuition In expeneneing the image of a picture or a poem, no one takes it as a senes of impressions, some mediate and some im- mediate, the whole is taken in synthetically, without such distinction. A work of art may contain vanous elements of knowledge or concepts, but as an organic whole it is purely and entirely an mtuitive fact If its parts are mechancally analysed, it is possible to separate the concepts But this process destroys the individual unity of the spint and sublates it ito an abstract universal The poetic expression as such is idivisible It does not predicate umversal logical truth or falsehood, but mdividual images, desires, and aspirations umfed by intution in its directness and punty of apprehension It is in the result produced, method followed, or effect desired that a work of science differs from a work of art, but the one may pass into the other as we may pass from the intellechve to the intmtive, and tice tersa The mntwhve apprehension or formation, which gives us a work of art, stands by itself It

is as mdependent of conceptual or pedagogic knowledge as of various extraneous practical considerations, narcotic, moralstic, or utilitanan We are all selective of our intur- tions in the sense that we do not externalise all of them, but when we allow our selection to be guided by the educa- tional, practical, or moral conditions of life, we impose or attach them to pure aesthetic facts, and a different et- traneous end or value is brought in The question of truth or untruth, smncerity or insincerity, virtue or viciousness can anse in only poetry when these ulterior intellectualist or practicist tendencies intrude The only meaning of 'sincerity' admissble in art as art is the clarity and fulness of mnturtion and evpression The moral value of a poetical work has nothing to do with its artistie value, but is a value m itself and can be justified as such But it should not be imposed on art as art The Sanskrit theorists appear to recognise this, when, for instance, they approach the question of indecency (aślila) mainly as marring the pleasing effect of expression, and not from that of its ethical significance This does not mean they depreciate moral values or make a concession to unmoralty If lies or perversions are in the poet's mind, he will probably give expression to them, but that is a matter for the moral judge or the polce, and not for the aesthete critie If they are artistic facts, they cannot be les or perversions for that very reason If, on the other hand, the work is not an artis- tic fact but simply propaganda for evil or immoral ends, then let moral judgement be invoked by all means, and proper disciplinary measures be taken These questions are indeed not explicitly discussed by the Sanskrt theorsts, but their whole attitude towards poetry shows that they mplicitly accepted them We have noted that they display a positivist attitude in elaborating an empirical aesthetic, but, curiously enough, in spite of con- ventional protestations of specific extraneous objects of poetry, they never refuse to believe mn the ideal character of the poetic activity and its purity and freedom from educa- tive, ethical, or other torms of the practical activity of the spint They appear to recogmse that an impression evperi-

CREATION AND RE-CREATION 69

enced or a feeling felt cannot be expenenced or felt agam, because nothing m this world happens more than once, but that it is possible for poetry to reproduce the momentary individual situation ideally The created image in the synthess of the spirit is ideal and yet real, it is lost in time and space, yet can be produced and contemplated, again and again, from every point of time and space They say, therefore, that it does not belong to the world (laukika) but to the superworld (alaukika) The famous opening verse of the Kāvyaprakaśa makes this clear when it describes poetic speech as comprehending a creation ungoverned by nature's laws and consisting of pure bliss The caturvarga and other practical objects of poetry are mdeed repeated in unbroken tradition But when the Sanskrt thinkers put forward a theory of idealsed emoyment, which they regard to be the sole object of poetry, they undoubtedly accept, even from a himited pomt of view, pure theoretic con- templation as its essence This bhssful condition reproduced m the reader by the idealised creation of poetry is given as almost equivalent to the philosophical ananda In explaming that it affords an escape from the natural world by replacing it with an umaginative world, Sansknt theorists rightly emphasise that, even from the reader's point of view, the function of art is that of the deliverer What is said of the reader is also true of the poet, for the reader only reproduces what the poet has produced The crude emotion or impression forms the nch matenal which the poet absorbs into his psychie or- ganism, but as he passes from these troublous elements, which may be pleasurable or paiful, to the bhssful serenty of contemplation, he thereby dommnates them and frees hım- self from their tyranny By the purity of his expressive achvity he delivers and purfies himself from the bondage of crude passivity

In view of the spintual character of the poctie activity, the question of personalty is of the utmost importance in any theory of poetry In fact, this is the most vital and indis- pensable problem in treating with aesthetc expression

/V

It is a matter of ordmnary experience, and therefore does not reqtre much research to prove, that what appeals to us in a poem, unless we are obtuse or impervous, is the personahty which reveals itself in the warmth, movement, and integrity of imagination and expression The poet may astonish us with his wealth of facts and thought, or with hs cleverness in the mampulation of the language, but this is not what we really ask of a poet What we want is the expression of a soul, mn contact with which our souls may be moved Some people are indeed interested in profound thought or ethical nobility and want to find them in a work of art, but these are extrinsc intellectual or ethical valuations which have nothing to do with its intrinsic artistic appeal The personality may be cheerful or melan- choly, thoughtful or emotional, serene or perplexed, berug- nant or malignant, but if it is really a personality, it 1s sure to arrest and enliven us, apart from every other secondary consideration Such a personality by itself justifies a work of art, and we never call it dull, cold, or flat On the other hand, if personality is wanting, all the learning or moralsing in the world cannot save a work from artistic failure For, what does failure mean mn a work of art but want of integrity or unity? It means that one powerful and homogeneous personalty does not emerge, but a series of disjointed and straggling personalties, synthete coherence required for successful expression is lacking Let it be clearly understood that this spontaneous and ideal personality in a poetical work is not identical with the empincal and volitional personality of the poet The latter does very often invade or obscure the former, and leave extraneous and undesirable traces of crude and factihous effects A poet who is unable to attain a proper expression of his true personality is, therefore, often found padding out his work with declamatory or theatrical effects to make up the deficiency If his practical or mtellectual tendencies prevail, he will try to overwhelm by didactic moralsings or richness of thought and facts In the case of the eritic, too, when his artistic personality does not find free scope, his power of reproduetion and

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appreciation is eclipsed, and his enticism is no longer dis- passionate, but prejudiced One knd of personalty, the poetic, which has its proper sphere in this case, is opposed, mastered, or demed by another, which is entirely alien Theorsts who deny the claim of personalty and declare that art should be impersonal do not reall offer an oppost- tion When they object that bad artists leave traces of thei personalty and good artists do not, they only mean to say what we have sad about the real artistic personalty being fettered or free Even the strongest advocate of im- personahty will admit that the author of a work consisting merely of an mndustnous compilation of facts and having no trace of personality may be a useful or methodical pedagogue but is no artist What is emphasised by the requirement of personality in a work of art is unity This is not the haphazard unty of diverse kinds of personality, but the mtrinsic unity of the worl as synthetic expression of one artistc personalty Everyone recognises that the expression alone makes the poet, but not everyone realises that the expression in each case is unique, intrinsic, and indivisible There is thus no question of outward and inward, real and unreal From this point of view, the much discussed and vanously distin- gushed terms, hike subjective and objective, ideal and real, romantie and classic, lync, epic, and dramatic, in spite of their usefulness as artifices of empirical classification lose all thei force m aesthetic eniticism In the umty of expres- sion the distinctions are not absolute but only indicate moments of representation, and no artistic work can be exclusively ths or that It follows also that if personalty is indispensable in a work of art, each work is a concrete, indwidual, expressive fact of that personalty under a specife group of stimuli as well as under defimte condı- tions of tume and place In this sense, all cntical apprecia- hon, like all translation of artistc works, is only relative, for the personality of the entic or the translator is very seldom identical with that of the poct, and can hardly re- produce the same intuition under its own conditions of production

One of the greatest limitations of Sanskrit poetics which hindered its growth into a proper aesthetic was its almost total disinterest in the poetic personalty by which a work of art attams its particular shape and individual character Thereby it neglects a most vital aspect of its task, the study of poetry as the individualised expression of the poet's soul, which should have been one of its fundamental issues We have seattered glimpses of the fact that the Sanskrit theonsts were aware of this supreme problem, but they either regarded it to be outside their scope or did not attack it in its entirety From this spring most of the deficiencies of their theories Sanskrit poetics cannot, for example, explam satisfactorily the simple question of why the work of one poet is not the same in character as that of another, or even why two works of the same poet are not the same To Sanskrit theorists a composition is a work of art if it fulfls the presenbed re- quirements of 'qualities', of 'ornaments', of arrangement of words with a view to suggest a sense which is not directly expressed It is immatenal whether the work in question is the Raghuvamla* or the Natsadha * The mam differences theorists will probably observe between these two works will consist of the formal employment of this or that mode of diction, or in their respective skill of suggesting this of that meaning of the words. They never bother themselves about the poetie imagination which gave each a distinct and umque shape m a fusion of impressions into an organic whole They farl to understand that this is what dstingurshes the Raghuvamsd as a poem from the Naisadha, as well as from the Kumarasambhava * Their apprecration of the par- ticular power of individual poetie intuition or personality in each case is forgotten in the consideration of universal standards of more-or-less normative requirements Having destroyed the concrete particular, they prescribed the ab- stract universal, somewhat m the manner of recommending one measurement for all feet, one garment for all bodies It is not surprising, therefore, that we search in vain for a complete definition or clear discussion of the poetic imagination m the whole range of Sanskrit poetics The

CREATION AND RE-CREATION 73

theorists, albeit solemnly affirming the necessity of pratibha (Imagination) in the poet, in their theones themselves fail to give the pratibha any important or essential role except in a few isolated instances Vamana formulises that in pratibha lies the seed of poetry He describes it as a par- ticular antenatal instmet without which poetry is impos- sible and its attempt only ndiculous This empirical ob- servation, however, neither clearly determines its character nor tells us anything about its function Abhunavagupta per- haps shows more discernment when he explains it as an intition (prajña) capable of ever fresh invention, its dis- tngushing sphere being the power of creating absorption in rasa, clarity, beauty, and poetry He further quotes the authonty of Bharata, who designates it as the internal emotion (antargatabhava) of the poet * These tentative descriptions indicate that the theorists vaguely recogmised the necessity of poetie imagmnation, but failed to assign an adequate role to it in their normative schemes The failure to explain and justify poetry by the poetic imagmation is indeed a serious gap which has led the Sansknit authors into theoretic difficulties and perpleuties Bhamaha, for mstance, and following him Kuntaka, reject the figure svabhavokt on the ground that it consists of mere unadorned desenption of physical objects But the poetic intuition of a physical fact, even if unadorned, is not the same as a matter-of-fact statement or description, and Dandin and others rghtiy take it into account Both Bhamaha and Dandin betray an uneasiness over the charac- ter of the figure bhavika, not knowing whether to classify it as 'quality' o or 'omnament. We have seen that Kuntaka made an important contribution when he spoke of a kind of expression other than those which predicate empincal facts or logical relations, and posed the problem defintely for the first tme by emphasising the function of the poetic imagination But we also saw that he could not develop a complete theory of poetic production on the basis of what he had only dimly seen His Kavikarman limted itself mainly to a nonnative analysis of empircal canons, and made his poetics assume, as usual, a verbal and formal

74 LRPATION AND RE CREATION

character, in which his fundamental suggestion was lost His contribution, therefore, remamed a hazy sketch which never attracted notice and which was never completed The orthodox theorists, on the other hand, attempted to comprehend all they had to say about poetic imagination in their theory of rasa But they consider the problem in- durectly and imperfectly from the standpomt of the reader, and not directly and completely from that of the poet As we have said above, they are concerned mamly with the question of the reader's reproduction but not of the poet's production The two aspects of the question are indeed fundamentally the same, and thereby they undoubtedly had a correct idea of the problem But this inverse process was never pushed further and did not enable them to reach the ultimate goal Their restricted angle of approach made them concern themselves with abstract concepts witlun whose formal circle their vision was caught and entram- melled They could not free themselves from the starting barner of regarding words as fixed and mechanical sym- bols, from splitting up the concrete unty of synthetic poetie expression into an abstract dualsm of extenorty and m- tenority The distinction between the unexpressed and the expressed, like that between the simple and the ornate, is only a logical and not an aesthetie distinchon The same poetic intuition expresses itself in one and one way only, precisely because it is a concrete intution and not an abstract concept The question of distinction, therefore, does not arse, except for logical expostion The same tendency to abstraction betrays itself in their theory of idealised enjoyment in the reader, which they present, more or less, as an abstract enoyment of abstract symbols They bardly realse that aesthetically Rama whom the poet represents is always Rama, and never a mere force or abstraction * The poet never leaves the concrete, even if he has an idealised image of it Hence come the appealing warmth and life of his creation, which is indeed enjoyed by us ideally in the form of huis serene contemplation, but which is nevertheless vividly real The old psychology knew something about the poetie intution, but its productive

CREATION AND RE-CREATION 75

activity, which is autonomous in relation to abstract con- cepts given by the intellectual function, was imperfectly understood This imperfect understanding of the function of the umagmation is also shown by the whole discussion on the so-called 'objects' of poetry, as well as by the vacillaton and uncertainty which we find in the vanous attempts to discover a ngid defimtion of poetry Since the expressive activity is a purely spirtual necessity, this alone, theo- retically speaking, can be its absolute object Other 'objects' -knowledge, pleasure, virtue-are only relative having cer- tain practical or intellectual application, which is entirely ettrnsic There is, therefore, an element of truth m the common saying that a poet speaks because he must speak, just as a man possessing a strong will cannot help realising it in action The failure clearly and exphcitly to understand the nature of poetic mntuition, wluch differs in different poets, led many a Sansknt theorist to attempt many a cut- and-dned defimtion of poetry They made vam efforts to find one abstract and universal formula for what admits of mfnite individual and concrete vanations; to determine logically what in its essence is non-logical, to immobilise the mobile by throwing a bridle on the neck of Pegasus Similar imperfect understanding is also shown by what the Sansknt theorists often say about culture (vyutpatti) and practice (abhyasa) in relation to the poetc imagina- tion (pratibha) To be sure, the fact of poetic representa- tion is preceded by vanous kinds of knowledge which, like feelings or physical facts, act as a stimulus or matenal As adventitious aids to externalisation they have a certam relative value. In so far as this is acknowledged, the Sanskrit theorsts justly remark that culture and practice should assist poetin poes Bet, protesin then bemf m the poeke imagination, they sometimes go further and speak of "mak- ing a poet mnto a poet " Rudrata, for instance, expresses his opimon that the poete iagination is not only inbom but also capable of attamment by culture The poet is thus re- quired to be an expert in a long list of disciplines, such as grammar, levicon, metrics, arts, seriptures, legends, law,

76 CREATION AND RE-CREATION

logic, philosophy, morals, erotics, dramaturgy, poetics, poli- tics, and even such miscellaneous subjects as medicine, botany, astronomy, magic, seience of archery and miltary operations, elephant lore, veterinary science, art of gam- bling, and know ledge of precious stones It is also presenbed that the poet should make himself proficient in poetical evercise He must be clever at weaving metaphors and other figures, at the trick of producing a double meaning, at mampulating complicated schemes of alliteration, assonance, and rhyming, at following up quick composition, at making complete strophes out of broken lines and sentences, and similar skilful practices This demand was in conformity with the learned atmosphere in which poetry at one time came to floursh and which made poetics assume a scholasttc character In actual practice, no doubt, the gifted poets aspired to untrammelled utterance, but the general tendency in an epoch of reltne decadence in culture degenerated towards a slavish adherence to rules, which obscured and dommnated the mtutne activity, and wluch naturally re- sulted in the overloading of a composition with artificial devices Hence we have a group of rhetoricians who deal with the theme of katisilsa (education of the poet) and furmsh elaborate instructions to the aspirng poet m the artifices of his craft * The theory thus believes in a doctrine of tech- mque, in the teaching of the means of poetic intuition or expression It is cunous indeed that this practical object developed side by side with theoretie considerations As is commonly remarked, however, no amount of profound cul- ture or technical skill can make a poet Since poetic e- pression is a theoretic activity, it is independent of the secondary practical activity, as well as of intellectual knowI- edge, both of which do not illummnte it but are illumnated by it As it consists of pure mtution of things, it has nothing to do with volitional effort about which we speak of means and end If we say that a poet has a new techmique, we really mean to imply that the new techmque is the poem itself A poetic mntuhon cannot have a presenbed tech- nque of expression, for the simnple reason that it it it is an

CREATION AND HE-CREATION 77

mtmtion, of which the expression is merelv the actualty. It is not an mtellectual coneept which can be logicallv or mversally formulated. Nor is there any passage to it from the physical fact or the mntellectual concept. It stands by ıtself We come agam, then, to the pomt that the poetic m- tinbon differs mn each peet, according to his psvehic organ- ism and the natnre of the stimuh actmg upon it, and there are bound, therefore, to be endless kinds of mdividnal and concrete expression wluch have thei own standards and spheres m each case, and wluich cannot repeat themselves The technque of the poet is his poetc conception itself it may be a falure or a success, but there cannot be, theoretcally speaking, anv question of good, bad, or m- different techmque Even the ordmnary man, therefore, never believes m the manufacturmg of ready-made poetry The enueration of usefol sciences or the collection of technical lmowledge can never be exhausted by formal treatment. It may serve the practical purpose of supplyig mformation about material or groups of stimuli, or even the logical purpose of expositon, but it possesses no theo- retc value for the fact of poetic creation, The same inabilty to understand fully the essental character of the poete imagmation or expression is re- sponsible for the zeal with which the theonsts devote them- selves to collect, analvse and classify methodically, after the manner of natural sciences, a senes of smgle facts mnto universat formulas and categones. Such an empirical ath- tude admmits indeed the eustence of cccutrences cilled aesthetie or artistic, but nourishes a delusion that they can be grouped formally into broad classes and tvpes In the course of their mvestigaton they amass, calculate, and measure the greatest possible variety of such facts, formu- late la'vs, means, modes, and models But as they progress they alwvays discover new facts, which require fresh adjust- ment. Here, too, they indicate fatlure to realise that each espression is unique and indivisible; that artistic facts in their umfied concreteness cinnot, like phvsical facts, be divided and subdvided, that they cannot, like mtellectnal

CREATION AND RE-CREATION

facts, be logically formulated into abstract unn ersals They forget that a work of art is an inttution, that inturton is individualty, and that mdrvidualty never repeats itself nor conforms to a presenibed mould They beleve, thus, not m the umty but in the dualty of imagination and expression, thereby splitting up what is orgamc into mechane parts It is hardly recognised that words, as symbols, are inseparable from intwtion, that they are not fived but mobile, not an embalmed collecton of dead abstractions, but an ever elu- sive series of bving particulars An empircal technique of what is free and theoretical is a contradiction mn termns Sansknt poetics inhented this tendency from Sansknt grammar, which i its normatne character always proved a bar to understanding the nature of expression Some of the piteous perpleuties of Sanskrit poetcs are, thus, mn- telligible Good sense has always refused to accept a noima- tive formulation of poetic expression, whether grammatical or aesthetic. Only the poor or, at best, indifferent speaker or versifer speals or wntes by rules, merely following cut-and- dned rules never leads to speaking or wnting well. For the real poet, as for the real speaker, there is hardly any armoury of ready-made weapons, he forges his own weapons to fight his own particular battles Let it not be supposed that we wish to deny or minimise the usefulness of such analysis and classification from the scientife or scholashe point of vien. What we want to stress is that they fail to establish their claim to explain the energies of the mntutne achvity of poete creation Such distinetions as are industrously presented mn these works are made by reflectie consciousness, they are not essental to the fact itself As logical concepts or natural facts they are admissible and are of practical assistance, but they have hardly any theoretical importance. They are hke labels attached to s thing, and not the thing itself Tbeir elabora- ton as latcs constitutes, in effect, a negation of art itself By their presumption of umversalty, they negate its acci- dentalty, by their abstraction, its empircity, by therr mechamsm, its orgame character Thus, Sansknt poeties, purportedly engaged in solving

CREATION AND RE-CREATION 79

poctic riddle, delghted, rather, in the pleasure of ab- et thought and formal calculation Its method is suitable the study of botany or zoology, but affords hardly any itance for the understanding of aesthetic facts or prin- es While it had an intwtive realsation of the true Ire of poetry, it confined its mtellectual prepossession he formulation of pedagogic expedients or normative ractions Nevertheless, the aberrations are at the same : attempts to reach the truth, and m the mdst of un- d shadows one does often percene a running thread of

NOTES

by Edwin Gerow (Notes are keyed by page and line of this volume, eg, 11 refers to page 1, line 1 of the text Within the notes, references such as 2 22 refer to section 2, verse or sūtra 22, those such as 7/38 refer to page 7, line 38 )

NOTES TO CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

11 kavya In general 'the literary produet', from kavi, onginally 'seer' but in later and classical Sanskrit the usual word for 'poet' Kavya, m the sense of 'hiterature' is common to both prose and poetry, though it is often translated by 'poctry' By syn- ecdoche it is often taken to sigmfy the 'great" literary works, sometimes enumerated at six lengthy epics in elevated style and comphcated metre, such as the Raghuvamta and Kumarasa- mbhava of Kalıdāsa 13 adı-sloka The 'first verse', Valmik, the traditional author of the Ramayana, is said to have spontane- ously produced the first metrcal utterance, and thus is considered the discoverer of poetry See- ing the female of a par of kratncas ('eurlews") bereaved at the loss of her mate to the senseless arrow of a hunter, Valmili said to the hunter "ma nisāda prattsthām toam agamah šāścatīh samāh / yat krauncamıthunad ekam avadhih kamamoht- tam" (Ramayana 2 15) "may you not rest forever- more, for you have killed this curlew distraught with love." Ths happens to be a sloka, one of the simplest metres, and serves as a pretext for a pun, as Valimiki is said to have turned his sorrow

1.5 (soka) into verse (śloka) (Dheanyāloka 15)

1 16 maya Ramayana 2 16 grammar. Skt vyakarana The most authortative of the scholastic disciplines, which has served as a model for much erudite speculation Grammatical teachung was codified by Panim (ca 400 Bc ), and hs treatment, which is formal, symbolic, and sys- tematic (much in the style of the present day), had probably become canomcal by the early form- ative period of poetics (Ab 200-600) and may

82 NOTES

have contributed to the alleged andity of some Indian speculation 1 24 utdcamsah A on Dhv p 47/12, mfra page 8 1 28 Vamana Bhăm ch 6, Vamana ch 5 129 Pamm Bham 662-3, for these writers, see notes 2 35 and 54 2,29 kuta idam 'what, not bow' or 'whence' 234 embellishment The word alamkara, ht 'ornament', from alam 'sufficient', 'able', and kr- 'making' The etymology thus betrays the religious or magical funchon origmally attributed to 'embelushment that which gives sufficiency or power to common, unsanctified, and unadorned speech The word however soon takes on the connotations of the English 'ornament-extrinsic decoration-and it is generally in this sense that alamkara is applred to the poehc figures of speech The science of poetes, having begun in speculation on these alamkāras, 1s usually referred to as alamkārasāstra, even though many later theorists ignored or be- littled the 'figures 235 Rudrata With Udbhata, the three foremost writers of the alamkara school Bhamaha, who probably wrote towards the end of the seventh century, may have engaged in a controversv with Dandin (mfra page 5) over the importance of style in poetry Because he rejects the notion and concerns hım- self primarily with figures of speech, he is as- signed to the alamkara school in the narrow sense Rudrata (ninth century) is more eclectic, but bis treatment of alamkara so far outweighs in pure mass his account of style that he is put also in the school See note 54 and Chapter II 3 10 specialists Ca AD 700-900 The works of Magha and Sriharsa are a case in point though classified among the great poems by Indian entics, most Western authontes consider them overly omate, devoid of onginality, and based for therr appeal on an exploitation of the grammatical pyrotech- nics of the Sanskrit language See mfra page 72 3 23 alamkanka Agent noun one who concerns himself with alamkard, m the widest sense, 'poetician' 46 vakroktt Lit 'indirect speech', infra page 34 and Chapter III 49 omaments Bham 2 81, 85 49 Udbhata End of eighth century His perhaps frag- mentary work, the Kūyālamkārasārasamgraha,

NOIES 83

treats of nothng but the figures, and repeats Bhamaha frequently, hence his assignment to the alamkara school 431 Bharata the probably legendary figure to which the Natyasastra (Treatise on Dramaturgy) is ascribed This work, the earhest known speculation on the "fine arts", though contaming much of an earlier date, was compiled in its present form about the sixth century AD It treats of certam ancillary subjects, such as mood and sentiment, and it enu- merates four alamkara sımile, metaphor, zeugma, and homophony The next writer, Bhamaha (sev- enth century), is the first to base his work on an examination of the figures, and he enumerates more than 40 Bharata is thus the "uncle" rather than the "father" of alamkarasastra 4.31 Jayadeva A fourteenth-century wnter whose Can- draloka is considered today by many pundits the standard treatise on the figures of speech Al- though more than 100 individual figures are enu- merated, many of them are nothing but elabora- tions of subsicary distinctions already proposed in earlier writers 54 rift Lit 'style', The history of poetic speculation (alamkarasastra) is commonly treated in terms of several "schools," which had a roughly but not absolutely chronological vogue The oldest 1s called simply the alamkara school from its preoe- cupation with the figures (supra page 2) The second of the schools is usually charactenzed as the riti, from the place of honor it gives to this stylistic idea Dandin (first half of the eighth cen- tury) and Vamana (ca AD 800) were the pro- ponents of this hterary movement Subsequent schools emphasized rasd 'mood' and dhoam 'sug- geston' In none of the later schools were the figures rejected, though their relative importance was questioned Dandin, for evample, though gen- erally considered an exponent of the ritt school, gives the most exhaushve treatment of the figures known in the period before 1000 The problem of the schools is complicated by difficulties of chro- nology, not the least of which is an argument as to whether Dandin actually did follow Bhamaha, which seems to be an essential postulate of the "developmental" aspect of the school theory The authors engage m a remarkable amount of mutual

84 NOTES

refutation In any case, the alamlāra school en- joyed sustained popularity, as evidenced by the works of Rudrata (ninth century) and Ruyyaka (mid-twelfth century ) 55 words Vam 126,7 59 511 poetry Dan 21

5 13 sense Dan 23

5 15 speech Vâm 312,3 gunas One of the most important items in the phi- osophical vocabulary of Sanskrit, hit 'chord, 'string', from this 'subdivision' or 'aspect, finally 'property', virtue' In tluis last and now primary use, the word carries the same ambrguity as Eng- lish 'quality' neutral, as mn " 'audibility' is a qual- ity of sound" and mejorative, as in "among his qualities were steadfastness and truthfulness' In poetic speculation, the word guna denotes ten properties of poetic utterance which permit the diserimination of different ritt, and differ from the figures m referring more to utterance and composition than to form and content 517 forth The ten gunas of Dandmn and Vamana are ślesa (coherence of long sentences without hiatus or grammatical breaks), prasada (simphcity), samata (umiformity in the type of consonant cluster used), madhurya (highly emotive speech), sukumarata ( predominance of liquid consonants), arthauyaktt (clanty), udäratva (nobilty of sub- ject), ojas (use of long compound words), kantı (agreeable commonplaces), and samadhi (meta- phorical speech mn general) Dan 141 ff, Vam 315ff The various styles (ritt) are distinguished as they employ one or several of these qualities or their contraries, which are also presumably "qualities", though of a more equivocal character 521 5 24 modes Dan 23

5 29 qualities Văm 312,3 produced Cf Mammata, Kāvyaprakāśa, 13 61 individualty Rather in the sense of the "renais- sance" style Infra page 7 612 dosas From the verb dus-'become corrupt' A moral "flaw" is also called a dosa "Defect" is a secondary topie of all the alamkara writers except Udbhata, and the concept has like that of figure been extensively subdivided' Guna and dosa, Me their Enghsh counterparts 'virtue' and 'vice, al- ways seem to attract one another in any theory,

NOTES 85

but the parallelism mn Sansknt aesthetics is a bit skew in the later wnters the "faws" are patred more with the "figures" (lit 'omnaments') rather than with the "qualities", as the latter disappear or become vestigial The present discussion con- cerns only early usage and its ongins 6 29 poetic intuition It should be made clear at the outset that Professor De's point of view is con- temporary and Western, and that he is criticising Sansknt aesthetics from that pomt of view His use of terms such as "poete intuition" does not imply that such ideas were of importance in the Indian tradition, or were there felt to be neces- sary as principles of poetic investigation Indeed it is apparent from the literature that such is not always the case, Professor De is attempting crea- tively to unite or transcend the two (Western and Indian) tradtions, rather than simply to portray philologically the Indian tradition, This will be

79 made clearer in Chapter V

7 19 spint See previous note expression Most early writers on alamkaro make the same observation, and do not carry the analy- sis beyond what is felt to be the level of poetic relevance Bhäm 238, Dan 140, 1 104, 21 Dhv 17, 213 Later wnters in some cases appear to claim exhaustive treatment of the subject Rud

734 other Dan 140 Vaidarbhi and Gaudi are adjec- 79, 10 24

tives corresponding to Vidarbha and Gauda-

735 modern Berar and Bengal Pancoli Vam 129 (Pancali from Pancala-modern Oudh) 7 36 qualities Vam 12 11 737 Lati AP 3401 Rud 24 Latiya, also derived from the name of a region (modern Gujerat), occurs more often as the name of a kind of alliteration (Bham 28, Ud 18, Mam 112), also as a Prakrta

7.37 (Dan 1.35)

8 13 Avantika and Magadht BSP (unpublished) word and sense Dhv 17 The dhoam school, by which is generally understood three wnters an anonymous "Dheanikara" (8th century), his com- mentator Anandavardhana (9th century), and his (Anandavardhana's) commentator Abhmnavagupta (9th-10th) The first two together constitute the text of the canoncal Dhoanyaloka

86 NOTES

8 17 denotation (name) In Sanskrit abluidha or abludhana

. 817 indication Laksana ('sign', 'token*) 819 allied sense For evample, the literal sense of the word 'grandstand is the well-known object con- structed of metal and wood, but in the phrase "the grandstands are yelling" it cannot have that sense, since, for one reason, grandstands are incapable of uttering sound Hence the secondary or mn- dicated' meaning (whereof the literal word is a "token") is 'those who people the grandstands"

8 23 Cf Dhv 14 and commentary and Mam ch 5 suggestion Skt "vyamana" from the root vyat- manifesting' The poetry based on suggestion is called commonly dheom ('intimation') 8 26 indicated sense The mark of suggested meaning is that it is neither the literal meanng (abhidha) nor is it incompatible with the literal meaning (as laksana), but it must be founded on either one or the other, since the suggestion meant is that of verbal expression, not that of gestures, non-un- guistic utterance, and the like For example, the idea of evil can be suggested either through the "literal" phrase "Mephstopheles walks among the souls of the dead" or through the "token" words "The virtuous Mephistopheles decries the vices of mankind", where neither 'virtuous' nor 'vices' can be taken literally In the latter case the idea of evil, though founded on the secondary meaning, is not incompatible with it, and is not therefore a "secondary" secondary meaning The considera- tion of these three meanings in their poetic impli- cations, and especially of the third (suggestion) in relation to the generalized mood (rasa) of the work of art, constitutes the major topic of the third

829 "school" of poetic theory, the dheam school pyangya The diseussion of the three "meanings" is greatly faciltated by three analogous trilogies of referents, the rendition of which into English is cumbrous in the extreme, but which evemplifv the elegance and the finesse of the denvational process in Sanskrit 1(a) abhidha or vacaka (word expressing the literal meaning), (b) abhidheya or vacya (literal meaning to be expressed), (e) abludhana or cacana (literal signfication), 2(a) laksantka (word expressing the secondary mean- ing), (b) laksya (secondary meaning to be er-

NOTES 87

pressed), (c) Laksana (secondary signification), and 3(a) yamjaka (word expressing the sug- gested meaning), (b) oyangya (meaning to be suggested), (c) tyanjana (suggestion) Mam 5, 6, 11, 12, 22, Dhv 12 8 32 essence "Vyangya" is not posited as category of being, but only as an end corresponding to a formally distingurshable means the oyonjaka, or suggestive word(s) Thus it has only a relational

8 37 or functional eustence utterance Dhv 1 14, 3 37 919 unexpressed sentiment Infra page 49 and note 49 12 9.26 107 poetry Dhv 1I semantic Bham 61 et seq, Vam 52 1 et seq, Mam 72 (example 142) (the defect [dosa] cyutasam-

10 12 skrl: or 'fallen Sanskrit' and following "defects") purpose Ie, when the "unexpressed" predominates

10 25 in a poem it is the "purpose " Mam 7

10 33 opiion The dhoam or "suggestion" school "agreeable language" A on Dhv 11, p 5/1f, Bham 1 16, Dan 118-19 10 33 emotion Skt bhaca, the problem of the emotions was central in the speculations of Bharata on the drama (NS 6 38), and thus predates strictly speak- ing the burth of alamkara (see note 431) But it forms an important theme parallel to and within the history of alamkara, and those writers who give more emphasis to the aspect of emotion are sometimes deemed to consttute the fourth "school" of poetics (See Chapter IV, and note 11 15 ) The dhoant theorists, while recognizing emotion as the central problem of aesthetics, treat is as a case (the crucial case) of vyangya (note 8.29) Thus the emphasis remains on suggestion, even though at first glance the dhoom theory may appear to concentrate on emotion The following discussion relates to the "third" school, specifically to their criticism and evaluaton of the topies ad-

10 37 vanced by this "fourth" school (herem unnamed) theonsts Dheam theorists 11.2 119 suggest it Cf A on Dhv p 25/1f receptacle NS 6 33, cf Bharata's account of the eight rasas, in which these aspects are set forth poetry Abh on NS, p 284/8-10 -11 15 relsh Skt rasa is not the physical and immediate 11 12

emotion whose portrayal is always particular (bhava), but the generalized resultant "emotion"

88 NOTES

in the spectator, which is shared by all the specta- tors and in principle by all men This distinction is the subject of the following discussion and 1s taken up agam m Chapter IV Attempts have generally been made to render "rasa" m Englsh by calling it 'relsh', 'taste', 'mood', and so on Etymologically this is justified, as rasa derives from a root ras- tasting', in the hteral sense (cf rasana, tongue ) The phrase "relish of the emo- tons" must be understood as "rising to the oc- casion of the matter" or "delectation of (the spmrit of) a particular crisis" SKD HSP vol 2, p 35 It is well to emphasize however that the Sanskrit theorists do not express themselves in this way, as though the problem were to generate or explamn the rasa in the spectator starting from the por- trayal of the bhata (emotion), rather the rasa is taken as pnnciple, and the problem is to explamn the nature of the representation and its capacity to "enliven" the rasa Bhatta Nayaka says

Livened bhacyamano rasah", the rasa is to be en- (by means of situations, gestures, ete )' Abh on NS 277/3 11 18 felt Abh on NS p 275/10 f, Abh cited by KPK p 97/11f 11 22 11 25 emotion Abh cited by KPK p 96/10ff

11 30 sense NS, 6.31-8, Dhv 18 factors The "means of expression" are traditionally classified mto ubhate (conditions appropriate to the emotion to be expressed, as a garden or a beautiful woman), anubhata (consequents and exterior manifestations of the emotion, by which it is communicated, as sidelong glances, fondling), tyablucarbhata (temporary states which accom- pany emotions but suggest in themselves no rasa and produce no tasana, as languor, imtation, etc Cf Abh on NS p 283/3-7), and sātttikabhāta (physical and ivoluntary "products", as hor-

11.31 npilation, sweating, fainting, etc.) causes Optnion attrbuted to Bhatta Lollata bv Abh on NS p 272/4 His work is now lost Bhatta Lollata asserted that the tibhatas accompamed bv an approprate selection of the other tvpes "cause" the rasa in the spectator See preceding note 11.34 case Abh on NS p 272/16 (citing Srisankuka), p 285/2, VSD 3.37

NOTES 8g

11 3S rasa Abh on NS p 279/13-14 On "Impressions" (tāsanā) see infra, page 12, VSD 3 40 12 3 separately Dhv 112, Abh on NS 279/3-6, Abh by KPK p 99/9-10 124 indivisible Abh on NS p 279/14, VSD 3 46 125 obliterated Abh cited by KPK p 102/8-9, VSD

128 tasana From a root tas- 'dwell', in its most general 347,54

meaning vasana signifies 'potential memory', that is, that subconscious unity which underles spe- cific remembrances of a given thing (actual mem- ory ) As such tasand is a key concept in the psy- chologies of samsara and rebarth, and is taken by Samkara as a principle explaiming (erroneous) impressions, specifically those based on the sup- posed unity of soul and body (Ego) In rasa the- ory, as seen by Abhmnavagupta, the term can be taken as the ground of passage from the appre- hension of the specific representation to the gen-

12 9 eral appreciation of it

12. 10 instincts VSD 339 suggested Abh on NS p 284/9 "pracyakāranādı- rûpasamskaropajitanakhyāpanā" 12 13 poetry Abh on NS p 254/7, VSD 337, laukila/ alaukika ('common'/'uncommon') from loka 'the

12 15 people, vulgus*

12 17 particulantes VSD 3 40 cf Abh on NS p 279/5-6 beloved VSD 342, Abh on Dhv 24, p 69/3-7, cf DDR 441, JRGA pp 42 passim 12 19 love in general VSD 3 43 12 24 readers in general Abh on NS p 279/13-14 sarca- sāmāpkanam ekaghanatayaica pratıpattih sutarām

12.28 rasaparitosaya Also, Abh on NS p 280/8 sensibilty the sahrdaya, the ideal audience and the Proper poetic contest Of this more later (page

sadharanikarana VSD 3 40, from sadharana 'having 54) 12.29 a common substratum' and karana 'makmng, ef- fecting' The translation 'generalization' should be understood in the sense of 'broadening', not ab- stracting' (Abh on NS p 279/10) The emo- tional and affective aspect is not left behind, but rather a new kind of emotion is evpenenced, w hich is essentially shared Abh by KPK p 97/13 This doctnne apparently was taken over from Bhatta Nayaka by Abhmnavagupta Abh by KPK p 95/10 on "bhatalatcam",

90 NOTES

1235 others Dhv 14, Abh on Dhv p 14/12-13 12 37 132 Sense VSD 3 35-6

133 joy "Ananda"

13 8 by itself Abh on NS p 285/3-4 relish itself Abh on NS p 284/11 (cartyamanatat- Lasarah) 13 12 brahmasvada Abh on N$ p 977/4 (referring to Bhattanayaka), Abh by KPK p 99/8, Mam p 99/3, VSD 334, etc Cf note 12 29 13 14 permanent Abh on NS p 284/11-12, JRGA p

13 18 tisrantt Not only is visranti the result of the aes- 39/11

thetic expenence, but it is one of the tests of its success, inasmuch as the mind which has not been able to pass beyond the contemplation of particu- lar events and emotions is necessarly "obstructed" by its participation in them The rasa is imper- fectly realized Abh on NS p 280/8, 14 ff 13 20 I3 22 place Abh on NS p 284/7-10 cttspabhava samoit Cf S K De, HSP vol n p 137

13 26 proof Abh on NS p 284/11 (na tu siddhasvabha- footnote

13 28 of itself Abh on NS p 284/12 (tātkalika eva na tu oah)

1331 carvanāttrıktakālāvalambī) vouchsafed VSD 3 57 13 39 143 atttude VSD 339, Abh cited by KPK p 97/7 tanmayibhavana yogyata Abh on Dhv p 11/23-4 149 food Bharata himself gives the gastronomic anal-

14 13 ogy text following 631 Jacobi Translator of the Dhoanyaloka (Leipzig,

14 20 feelings Prabha on Pradipa p 82/23-5 1903)

14 24 accepted The bhovas (feelings) are generic in the sense that all the other factors of composition are subordinate to them among which are the tyabht- canbhavas or specific feelings See note to 11 30

14 33 The bhacas also correspond each to a rasa obliterated Supra page 12 14 35 14 35 it Sf VSD 3 36 Visvanatha A writer of the first half of the four- teenth century (SKD HSP vol 1, p 214) whose work the Sahttyadarpana is one of the standard resumes of poetic theory Although he decrees that the ' soul" of poetry is rasa, he follows closely Mammata (see note 3218) in an encyclopaedic

14 39 compilation of previously treated categories enjoyment VSD 338 Cf supra p 52

NOTES 9I

151 Jagannatha Mid-seventeenth century, the last great writer on poetcs He follows rather closely but with great independence of judgment the earher dhvan wnters Anandavardhana and Abhmava- gupta, but cunously enough, he devotes three- fourths of his work to defining the figures 15 3 15 13 enjoyment JRGA p 45/7-10 tagutkalpāh A on Dhv p 210/5-6 15 15 15 18 categonies A on Dhv p 210/2-6 poet A on Dhv p 181/10f, A on Dhv p 210/6-7 15 22 rasa Dhv 341,26 15 26 15 28 appropriateness A on Dhv p 185/17-18 employment Dhv chapter 3 passim, especially 36-9,32 15 33 composition A on Dhv p 134/10-16 15 36 meaningless A on Dhy p 135/7-8, p 136/1-2, p 137/7, p 138/5-6 1537 them A on Dhv p 138/6ff, p 140 161 mind Dhv 27-10, VSD 8 608, 611, 613, the three are ojas 'vigor' (use of long compounds), madhu- rya 'affection' (appropnate to love stones), and prasada 'clarity (which can be used mn any con-

1715 fact Vamana attempts to define all the non-verbal 165 text) See supra page 5 qualities VSD 8616#

17 16 figures as variations of simile in it VSD 13 "Poetry is speech whose essence 1s delectation (rasa)."

NOTES TO CHAPTER 2 THE PROBLEM OF POETIC EXPRESSION

18.5 artha One of the commonplace distinctions in which Sanskrt erudion abounds, compare French forme et fond Any respectable discipline had to ac- count for it The primary meaning of sabda 1s denved from the grammatical wnters, where the entire apparatus of formal categones goes by this name (Pan. 1168) and stands over and agamst anv intentional or semantic power that the "word" may bave Artho of course stands for that power, and is a stronger word than the translation 'mean- ing' may convey, for it implies an aim, an mnten- tion, a will (eg arthasastra, the science of the [political] good) etpressed See note 8 29 I8 15 Bhamaha See notes 4 31, 2 35 187

92 NOTES

18 16 kauyam Bham 116 "kavya is word and meanmg

18 16 Rudrata A mid-ninth-century writer commonly combtned*

18 17 ascribed to the alamkara school See note 2 35 śabdarthau kavyam Rud 21 "kapya is word and

18 18 padovali Dan 110 "A series of words distingished meaning"

by a desired meaning" The "bodv" of poetry is a literal translation of Dandın's 'Sariram', in this kartka he analogizes the substance of a poem and its figures to a body and its omaments 18 19 racana Vam 127 "A composition of differentiated ('distinguished ) words""What is being defined here is not 'kavya' but ritt (sty le), which Vamana has proposed in the preceding sutra as the "es-

18 22 sence" (atma) of kātya See note 5 4 umty Lit 'togethemess' or 'combination' See note 18 16a Sahitya became a synonym for kāvya (see note 11) during the medieval period (ca 1000

18 25 and later ) Kuntaka Fl ca AD 1000, a contemporary of Abhmnavagupta, and one of the rare original mmnds of later poetics His work, the Vakroktyivta, falls into none of the accepted "schools", and is an at- tempt to account for poetry in terms of the es- sentially nonhteral character (vakrokti indirect

18 25 speech) of its statements See Chapter III anyunanatinktatoa Kun 117, lacking both mnsuffi- ciency and excess', that is, mn which neither the word nor the sense predommates 18 26 parasparaspardha Kun text on 17 (p 29/8), text on 117 (p 60/5), 'mutual antrpathy or rivalry' Ths refers to the characteristics of the non-literal expression (as in irony, sarcasm, double-entendre) whereby the meanings intended seem to be at vanance with the words which express them (taken in their hteral garb) This "rivalry' distingishes the "togetherness" of poetic word and sense from

18 29 "appropnateness" of scientific usage, for example artha Kalidasa, Raghubamsa 11 vagarthap wa samprktau vagarthapratipattaye jagatah pitarat tande parvatiparameśvarou ( Ardhanārišvara 1s the form of Siva which is half male, half female ) 19 3 19 20 apeksate Magha, Stfupalavadha 2 86

19 23 correctness See note 1 28 vacyasambandha Kun text on 17 (p 25/8), "con- nection of expressor and expressed* See note 8 29 1927 Pramana pada 'word', vakya 'sentence' (nb not

NOTES 93

tacya), pramana 'ntenion', in logic the various sources of knowledge, as perception, inference, ete, are called pramanas Kun text on 117 (p

1937 Abhyantara bahya 'extenor', 'external', abhyantara 62/5 ff )

'intenor', 'essental' The dhtam theonsts, for ex- ample, mimimize the formal element in poetry 19 3S sabda Bhartrhar, Vakyapadiya 11 "sabdatattcam

201 ticartate 'tha bhatena" Sastra The disciplines which take truth (not revela- tion or delectation) as their aim 201 akhyana 'Story', presumably referring to the prose literature Cf Dan 12S, VSD 6 500 20 12 abhipretam Kun text on 17 (p 25/9), "what is meant is a 'sahtya' which is different" (scil from the sahitya of ordinary speech) 2012 Samudrabandha A commentator on Ruyyaka who flourshed ca AD 1300 20 14 Kaoyam Samudrabandha Alamkarasartastaurttt p 4/12 "kavya is a distinguished [combination of]

20 19 word and sense dharma. 'Property' 20 20 laksana 'Characteristic', Bharata enumerated thirty- sıx but distinguished only four alamkaras Discus-

20 20 Sion infra page 22f guna The very early writers Bharata and Bhamaha are probably meant 2022 katnyapara hit 'poet's function', Bharata relates the laksanas to kauityapara Some sort of poetic intuition is admitted by all wnters, but not spe- cifically in this form (Cf Vam 1316, K 118) 20.24 tyanjana Probably meant are the Agnipurāng (342.27), Kuntaka (110), Bhoja, and the Dheam- Kara The termns mean 'stnkingness of expression', 'expressiveness', 'emoyment', 'suggestion' See

20 32 Chapter I

20 39 poetry see supra page 19 Rajasekhara Fl ca AD 900, poet (both Sansknt and Praknt -- the Karpuramamjari) who also wrote the cunous Kat yamimamsa, which is more a work on the education of the poet than on poetics, and includes a defense of plagiansm 21 1 poetics RKM p 5/24, p 4/14, the old myth of the self-division of the primeval man is here given a new apphcation to account for the genera of poetry. 219 Sayya Lit 'bed' 21 10 refers Kādambarī 18 "sphurattatkalālāpavilāsako-

94 NOTES

malā karotı rāgam hrdi kautukādhikam / rasena Sayyām svayam abhyupagatā kathā janasyābht- nava vadhur wa" 21 11 mudra Lit 'seal, AP 341 26 21 14 bed Apparently K P Trivedi, editor of the Pratapa- rudrayasobhusana, his notes, p 16 21 15 maitrt From mitra 'friend', VPR 35 (p 67) "ya padanam parānyonyamaitrī sayyet kathyate" 21 17 metaphor See note 18 29 21 20 excellence VPR 35 21 23 Vamana 1221 ortti 21 27 śabdapaka Vām 1 3 15 trttt, see infra page 42 21 29 vaidarbhi ritt see note 7 34, the ritis, or styles, were at least in orrgm geographically based 21 31 real Vam 12 21 ortti (stanza 3) 21 35 term Mangala may be meant, a late-ninth-century writer of the rit: school whose work is now lost Cited by RKM p 20/4-6 "supām tinām ca prıā vyutpattih pakah" Cf SKD HSP vol n 240 Cf also VEA p 22/3 21 37 synonym Vam 1.3 15 vrtti (stanza 2), also cited by RKM p 20/10-13 22 I 02 5 sense VEA p 22/1-4 sentiments VPR 35 (p 67/9f ), Avantisundarī (wife of Rajesekhara) cited in RKM p 20/14-20 22 10 advanced Chapter III p 41 ff 22 10 Sayya For evample. VPR (p 67) (the only writer to treat both) defines sayyd as 'tnendship of words' and paka (in the following stanza) as 'depth of sense' 22 12 laksana See note 20 20a, Bharata enumerated thirty- sıx 'characteristics' of poetry (NS 161ff ), such as "conciseness" or saying many things mn few words (aksarasamhati), 'elevated tone' (sobha), 'grandeur' (abhimana), and so forth The hst mncludes several items which later were accepted as alamkaras (atisaya, 'hyperbole, hetu 'etiologia', drstanta 'illustration'), but for the most part the concepts involved are aspects of the story or qual- ities of the dramatis personae The list played no role in the subsequent huistory of poetic specula- tion Bharata says that the laksanas are to be con- sidered elements of the emotional structure of the drama (bhavarthagatam) and are to be used as the principal rasa dictates (samyakprayopyant

22 17 yatharasam tu ) (NS 164) concept Some Concepts of the Alankara Sastra, Adyar (Madras) 1942 pp 1-47

NOTES 95

22 17 laksanapaddhat Lit 'path', here 'school' 22 19 dramaturgy Jayadeva, Candraloka and VSD List

22 22 laksana Abh on NS p 295-8 (vol 2) them

22 23 bhusana That is, 'omament' 22 24 samudrikalaksana. The poses and gestures of the dance, each of which has a particular significance 22 27 kacyasobhakaradharma Dan 21 cited by Abh on NS (vol 2) p 295/10 22 28 aprthaksiddha Abh p 295/15 (vol 2), emended by De, following Raghavan, to read "Sariramstham eva yad aprthaksıddham tal laksanam" 22 30 beauty Abh p 295/15 (vol 2) 22 33 notakadharma 'A property of the drama', that is, considering its place in dramaturgy separate from

22 33 ıts place in alamkarasastra samdhyangas The events of the drama considered as bearng on the development of the action Sixty- four are enumerated NS ch 19) 22.34 dasarupaka by Dhananjaya (late-tenth-century au- thor of the Dasarupaka, a treatise on dramaturgy which, though based on, considerably shortens Bharata's Natyasastra He does not treat the alamkaras but examines rasa at length ) 2236 bhava Emotion' Cf notes 10 33 and 11 15 22 36 significant DDR 4 84 235 Rudrata See notes 2 35 and 2 31 237 alamkarika Adjectval form 23 24 23 30 embellishment Cf Dhv 114 Dandm and Vamana The two canomcal writers of the riti school, see note 54 Together with Bha- maha (probably earlier) and Udbhata (Iater) they constitute the oldest layer of strictly literary

23 33 speculation

23 35 alamkara Bhăm 24 figures Bham 136 The term used is vakrabhi- dheyasabdoktıh 'language involving clever words and meanings' or Bham 130 vakrasvabhavokti (doandva) 'clever and natural deseription' 246 itself Cf Bhăm 130 249 figure atısayokti Bhām 285 "saisa sarvaia cakroktır anayartho vibhācyate / yatno syām kavinā kāryah ko'lamkaro'naya oina" This is the only mention of the term cakrotk: as such, note singular, referring to the previously defined figure (atisayoktt) 24 10 vacah 'Speech whose scope exceeds common usage'. 24 11 of atisayoktr Bham 2 81

96 NOTES

24 16 lfe A on Dhv p 20S/1-5, Abh on Dhy p 208/22 (these passages refer to Bham 2 85 and 1.36, not to 281), Kuntaka 17 and text (De refers to such passages as "tena yat kesaficmn matam kacikausa- lakalpitakamaniyatisayah sabda era kevalam kav- yam apt mrastam bhavati", the qualification

24.23 in Bham 2 81 is not cited as such ) itself Abh on Dhv p 280/22-24 24 26 alamkaras Dan 2363 24 31 24.33 artha Dan 21 oanmaya Lit 'verbal stuff 24 36 desenption Dan 2 363 24 38 25 1 Kuntaka Kun 111 pracaksate Bham 293, "Some consider that (sta- bhacoktt is an alamkāra)" Cf Bham 130 25 11 marga. Lit. 'road, same as rift (the word is used by

25 12 Vāmana), see notes 54, 5 15 Gouda Dan 140 See note 7 34 25 13 essence Dan 141-2, on the gunas (properties, vir-

25 17 tues), see note 5 15 other Dan 23 25 19 25.24 opinion NS 16.5

25 3S margas Dan 23 alamkāra Vam 111 26 3 alamkarah Văm 112 267 embellishment Vam trtft on 1 1,2 26 12 26 14 rīt: Văm 128

26 16 poetry Vam 1.26 dharmah Vam 311 26 17 26 20 figures supra page 24

nitya Essenhal (lit 'eternal ), Văm 313 26 25 body For those not versed m Sanskrit this sentence 26 21 tadatısayahetavah Vām 312.

may occasion a few problems, and therefore I append a translation "The sty hstic refinements of composttion, therefore, being the sine qua non of poetic expression, are described as essential, im- plying that the figures of speech are not essential, those refinements are properties of the vanous styles, and style is the soul of poetrv, while the figures are apparently the properties of word and

26 30 sense, which consttutes its body".

26 36 cartate Vam ertft on 111 tifcsa We may recall to the reader that this word

26 38 means 'dufference' or pecuharity" tifistapadaracana Vām 1,2.7 27.2 rift Vâm 127, 11-15

NOTES 97

273 Bharata NS 6 25-6, by 'praurtff Bharata apparently means local varations in dramatic convention and

274 style ( Abh on NS p 269) Pancali See page 7 ff 27 31 theorists Chapter 4 27 33 Kuntaka Chapter 3 287 Rudrata See note 5 $ 28 17 phrasmng In the widest sense, mneluding sımile, meta-

28 29 phor, hyperbole, etc

28 31 grammarans Note 1 16 alamkanka Dervative agent noun 'one who con-

28 33 cerns himself with figures of speech' Bharata Note 4 31 28 34 Appaya Diksita late 16th century, his work, the Kutalayananda, closely follows that of Jayadeva (note 4 31), but adds fifteen figures to his predeces- sors' total A useful manual and one still in vogue

29 8 today

29 11 gunas supra page 26 passim

29 13 sense supra pace 18 arrangement the word 'arrangement' is qualified by three adjectives tyatacchinna, orsista, and 'par- ticular', all meaning about the same thing Cf note

29 18 26 36

29 34 sense The 'cunas'

30 4 produced Cf Mam 13 (p, 9/2)

30,17 intution Cf Dan 2364-6

30 35 dosas See page 6

318 others Vamana alamkarya 'A possessor of the quality' and 'a thing

31 12 to be oramented'

31 21 poetry A on Dhv 352 p 231/10-13

31 27 omaments Cf Dhv 332-3

31 33 types Kun 1.24 text (p 22/8 ff ) poets Kun 124 text (p 101/4 ff ), 157 (p 163/8-

322 11)

325 characteristies Dan 1.101,21

327 Gaudi Dan I 40

328 qualities Vam 12 13, 14

32 18 forth See page 7 and notes consistent Mam ch 8 Mammata is the latter-elev- enth-century author of the Kocyoprakaso, the standard work, in India at any rate, on the subject of poetics He follows Anandavardhana and Abhı- navagupta m the mam (notes 813 and 826), and it was his work which was largely responsible for the tnumph of the dhoam theory The Prakasa

98 NOTES

however has in itself very little mert, being an encyclopaedie compilation of previously discussed topics, put together with very little regard for either their nature or consistency The work has (probably) more commentaries than any other Indian book (SKD HSP vol 1, 156# ) and has served as model for other writers of encyclopaedic bent (notably VSD, note 1435, HKA note 55 18,

32 27 and VEA, note 59 27 practice Kun 1 24 text (p 99/2-p 102/3) 32 35 multiplication Kun 124 text (p 102/7f)

NOTES TO CHAPTER 3 THE POETIC IMAGINATION

333 descrbed Chapter I 34 10 Bhatta Nayaka Early tenth century, author of the

34 14 Hrdayadarpana partially The first two chapters complete, parts of the third, and fragments of the last Vakroktijioita,

34 19 ed SK De (2nd ed ) Calcutta 1928

34 20 poet Cf Chapter 2 cakroktt Lit 'expression courbee, 'indirect speech' 34 21 Bhamaha 285, here a synonym for 'hyperbole' (atisayoktı) and apparently concomitant with all other alamkāras (ko'lamkāro'nayā tnā) 34 27 speech Kun 110 34 28 name Kun 120, 1 23, that is, the phrase cakrokt: as

34 31 a collective name for the alamkaras sense Kun 17,110 34 32 exclusively For evample, certain stories or situations are in themselves "poetc" Kun text on 1.21 (p 90/7 ff ) as when Sita remaining alone sends Laks- mana to investigate a pitiable wailing knowing full

34 35 well that the forest contams a dangerous enemy nonessentral Kun text on 120 (p 89/7 ), on 17 (p 28/11 f, cites Bhamaha) (p 33/1f) See

34 36 also note 35 13 poet Skt "kaotoyapara" (Kun 1 18) See notes 20 22 and 20 24 34 37 34 37 Ietters Varnavmyāsavakratuam Kun I 19

34 38 base Padapūrvardhavakrata Kun 119 termination pratyayasrayah (prakarah) Kun 119 34 38 34 38 sentence Vakya Kun 120 topic Prakarana Kun 121 351 whole Prabandha Kun 121

NOTES 99

3511 Sastra Kun 15 and text See also note 201 Cf Abh

35 13 on Dhv p 70/9-20 speech Kun 18, curously enough, the commentary includes in "common speech" the function of sug- gestion! ( cyamjakacyangya) 35 17 bhangibhaniti Kun 1 10, uit 'eurcumlocutory speech', bhangi and cakra both mean 'curve' or curved' 35.20 ucchitti Kun 1 18 cicchittisobhinah of the karika

35.21 is glossed as taicitryabhangibhransnaah tidagdha lit 'burned up', 'consumed' from root tl- dah-, 'tempered', 'seasoned', 'clever' Compare our use of the word 'sharp' Kun 110, a synonym for

35.23 scholar Cf Kun 1,5 He uses the word taduit ('who sahrdaya

knows that') as a synonym for tidagdha Cf A on Dhv p 239/18 where the termns seem to be com-

35.24 phmentary, and SKD HSP vol u, p 186, note 12 pratbha Kun 134, Comm on 17 (p 32/11) 35.25 Aausala Kun Comm on 110 (p 51/8-9) 35.96 kattcyapāra Kun, 118, glossed as kauyaknyālak-

35 34 umagmmation Kun Comm on 17 (p. 18/8ff ), an sanah

etample is given which despite many formal de-

35 36 vices does not please other Kun Comm on 1,2 (p 8/1-6) 36 I taicitrye Kun Comm on 1 10 (p 51/11) 362 Kavipratibhantrcartitatta Source unknown 36.5 36 10 poet Kun Comm on 17 (p 32/10-11)

36 31 itself Kun 1 13 expression Kun Comm on 13 (p 8/2) 37 13 Ruyyaka: mid-twelfth century, author of the Alam- Karasartasta, a late work on the alamkaras impor- tant for its precision and thoroughness

37 17 37 15 fgure. Ruv AS p 184/2

37 19 anumana That is, 'mnference' Ruy AS p 184/3

37 30 samdeha That is, 'doubt', Ruy AS p 53/8 Anandavardhana. See note 15 13 Cf Abh on Dhy

37 30 p 70/16

37 33 Kuntaka Kun, 1 18

37 37 production. JRGA p 6/2 ff sāmapka from samaj 'assembly', 'one of the assem- 3S 30 bly.

3S.36 descnption Kun 1 11, see supra page 24 ff 39.3 Lacipraudhokt: 'Over-ornateness Cf Dhv 2.27. Rajasekhara See note 20 39 39 12 death RKMp 21/4 39 14 Xatya See pages 20 and 35

100 NOTES

39 17 Kauyakaut RKM p 17/6f 39 27 pratibha See note 35 24 39 28 illummates RKM p 11/24, "ya sā pratıbhā" pratıbhāsayatı

39 29 poet RKM p 11/25, p 12/1 39 30 things RKM p 12/2-3 39 33 bhabayitri agent nouns from the causative aspect of Ar- 'to do' and bhu- 'to be' Cf page 50 39 34 production RKM p 12/20, p 13/21 401 Mahimabhatta Latter-eleventh-centurv author of the Vyaktioweka who attempts to account for poetie allusion (dhoan) in terms of inference (anumth) He is one of the few writers of the late

405 penod to question the function of suggestion form Vyaktivweka p 32/19-25, "anumeyarthasam- sparsamatram canvayavyattrekabhyām kāvyasya carutoahetur mscitam" 40 13 Ksemendra Mid-eleventh-century wrter of prolfic capacity and universal interests Perhaps hts best- known work is the Brhatkathamantari, a Sanskrit version of the "Great Story", but he wrote also on philosophical and religious subjects (see list SKD HSP vol, 1, p 132-3) His two works on poetics are the Aucityauicaracarca and the Kavikanthabhar- ana, which fall into the category of katasiksa, or the education of the poet See note 20 39 40 16 Anandavardhana Supra page 15f 40 18 Itself AVC 3-5 40 21 40 29 poetry AVC 5 forth' AVC 8-10 and severally throughout the rest of the work 40 31 number Ibtd 41 I Anandavardhana A on Dhv p 148/7-9 (with Abh on Dhv p 148/19/20) 41 4 poem AVC text on verse 13 (p 120/22 ₣ ) 415 work Kumarasambhava 3 72 419 god 'Bhava' means approximately 'being' and 'rudra' 'roarer', both are epithets of Siva 41 14 paka Lit 'bed' and 'ripeness', chapter 2, p 21 ff 41 24 Sayya See page 21 and note 41 25 41 27 connotation See page 21 and note 21 10 bed See page 21 41 31 svnonyms See supra page 21, VPR, p 67/8 41 33 42 3 excellence See page 21 Vamana See page 21 42 4 Sabdapaka See page 21 426 ritt See pages 21 and 7

NOTES 101

428 real See page 21. 42 10 42 13 symonym See page 21

42 17 sense See pate 22 sentiments See page 22 "Arthapaka" probably

4218 comed by De sabdatyutpattt See page 21 42 19 Rajasekhara Supra page 39 note 20 39 42.23 42 23 Acarya Teachers', 'sages Mangala See note 21 35 42 30 successful Vam 1 3 15, See supra and page 21 42 32 synonyms Vam ibid, the entire quotation is from RKM p 20/4f 435 Avantisundari Wife of Rajasekhara and obviously a

43.24 very talented lady sahrdaya RKM pp 20/14ff, on the sahrdaya see

413 note 51 25 and page 54 passım trntākapaka Vam 3214 urtti, he also mentions cuta (mango) and dadima (pomegranate), liken- ing the best poetry to the taste of the mango, poetry employing verbal device to the eggplant,

448 and poetry lacking all quality to the pomegranate nimba RKM p 20/23 ff , AP 316 22-3, VPR p 67/11, in Rajasekhara nmne types are given, according as the "taste" in the drama develops from bitter to sweet, from bitter to neutral, from sweet to bitter,

44 13 Bhoja Chapter 4 p 59, see notes 59 22, 59.27 etc.

44 15 dhiam theorsts those who emphastze the allusne or suggestive element in poetry see note 8 13 and Chapters 1 and 4 passim Rudrabhatta and Bhoja

44 27 are not meant

4436 constituents 53 15 .. essential Cf BSKA 5.1-2 45.5 Tasa BSKA 51 Rasa is said to be a synonym of

45 8 śrn̄gra

45 18 Śrngaratilaka Note 59 22 Rupa Gosvammn Early-sixteenth-century Vaisnava

45 25 writer internal Dandın, for evample, divides poetrv (kacya) into prose (gadya), verse (padya) and mixed (miśra), Dan 111 4632 Mammata See note 32 18 46.32 Visvanatha Note 14 35 4636 47.5 Jagannatha Note 15 1 sense TRG\ p 6/3 "ramanivarthapratipādakah

İ sabdah kacyam", see 58 39 and Chapter 4 passim

I02 NOTES

477 experience JRGA p 6/3-4 "ramanīyatā ca lokotta- rahladajanakamanagocarata" 479 Itself JRGA p 6/6-7 47 12 objects JRGA p 6/7-9 47 17 stimulus. JRGA p 12/4 ff

NOTES TO CHAPTER 4 AESTHETIC ENJOYMENT

48 1 rasa See Chapter I 484 Bharata NS Ch 6 485 Visvanatha VSD 1 3 48 11 words Dhv 13 48 12 histener Dhv 14 48 15 tyanjana See note 829 and in general Chapter 1 48 16 48 19 poetry Dhv 1 I

48 27 expressed See note 13 39 and text recognized In treating all figures except yamaka (Vam 411ff) as extensions of sumile (Vam 43.1 ) 48 30 48 31 such Dhv 1 14-15, 19

49 12 unexpressed Dhy I 16, 18 directly Dhv Comm on 14 (p 99/1): Dhv 23, 24-26 An example of a suggested alamkara would be, "The summer yawns and wilts the lazy fowers with his tepid breath", where a simile is under- stood the summer is like a person with bad breath Of course, these implicit similes are always under- stood as such by the alamkara writers This one would be called an utpreksa Rasa differs from alamkara and vastu in that it is incapable of being so transformed mto a literal statement The utter-

49 13 ance 'love" does not express the rasa 'love' feelings See note I1 15 and passim m Chapter I 49 14 dhuant A on Dhv p 163/7-9 49 23 vibhavas See note 11 30 49 28 alaukika See note 12 13 49 37 dictum "na ht rasad rte kascid arthah pravartate/ tatra vibhavanubhavaoyabhicansamyogad rasani- spattth* (NS, sutra following 631) This, the so- called rasasutra, is the occasion for Abhinava- gupta's brilhant discursus on the nature of rasa (NS p 272) 502 abhuoyakt: lit 'mamifestation', another word for 'sug- gestion' Abh by KPK p 96/9-10 Abh on Dhv p 70/22, p 71/1, 502 Bhatta Nayaka's theory In the lost Hrdayadarpana,

NOTES 103

an author of the beginning of the tenth century, who attempted to refute the dhoant Abhinava- gupta nevertheless respects his views and takes much trouble accounting for his cnticisms, notably in hs Comm on NS p 276/19ff 50.5 bhogikarana 'the power of enhvening' (from bhata 'emotion') and making enjoyable' (bhoga 'enjoy- ment') A suceinct restatement of Bhatta Nayaka's view is given mn NS p 277/1 ff 506 rasacyanjana. "The suggestion of rasa', Abh on Dhv 70/6-7, Abh on NS p 277/18 f. 506 ascada See Chapter I, one of the higher intellectual states whose essence is to be rasa A confusing mul- tiplicity of such words occur āscada, carvana, rasana, camatkara, ete Astada does not imply that there is a state beyond rasa whose property is to comprehend the rasa (VSD 3 60 text). Abh on Dhv p 70/15 507 bhatah "The bhatas are so called because they en- liven the sense of the poem", NS text preceding 7 1 (p 312), Bharata is speaking from the pomt of View of the dramatist 509 dhatuh "The root bhu- ('to be') is to be taken in a Causative sense", Bharata, NS text preceding 71

50 10 (p 344)

50 10 tyaptyartham Bhar NS (p 345)

50 12 poetry Abh on Dhv p 70/8-10 sthamn The bhaca itself, distingushed from its accessories (See note 11 30) is called sthayibhva 'fixed emotion', that is, necessarly implying a cer- tain rasa, as love must imply the erotic rasa only. 50 14 The tyabhicanbhacas are not so determined. poetry Abh on Dhv p 68/19-21 50 15 asvadayatr 'he emjoys (it) in a completely general way' (source unknown ). 5017 nispadala 'producer' from mspatti 'origin' (in Bha- 50 17 rata's sutra).

50 I8 rase Abh on Dhy p 69/13-15 bhacakatta -fta is a general nominalzing suffit, 50 18 English "-ness"

50 19 Abhinava Shorter form of Abhinavagupta 50 21 guna See note 5 15 sense Abh on Dhv p 70/12-13 5026 bhora Abh on NS p 277/7, Abh on Dhv p 70/5-8 5031 employed Abh on NS p 285/2-3, Abh on Dhv p 69/17-20 [this list omits upamitt ('comparison') and includes "yogopratyaksaja pratitih" ('yogic

104 NOTES

perception')], the term pratibhana means 'ımagi- nation' (ef pratibha, note 35 24), the other terms are the usual four "pramanas" or modes of cogni- tron of the Logics (See note 1927) perception,

50 33 mference, comparison, and revelation ratt, ete Abh on Dhv p 70/14-17 511 functions Abh on Dhv p 70/18-19, on NS p 277/

515 11 f

51 13 funchons Abh on Dhv p 70/14, 19 Sabdarthasāhitya Chapter II, note 18 22 51 25 51 25 sāmāpka See note 37 37 sahrdaya Lat 'sharing the heart', one who through education and sensibilty is a proper connoisseur of the rasa, the critical audience Abh on NS p 281/12 p 287/7ff 51 36 fact ef Abh on Dhv p 29/17 52 2 caroana Supra, passim 527 laukika *exoteric 529 causes Abh on NS p 284/6-10, p 285/1-2, Also see

52 12 essential Abh on NS p 284/1-3, p 282/9, 'pity', note 12 13

'disgust', and horror' are translations of the three Sansknt terms 52 17 52 20 pam VSD 3 35 f Visvanatha See note 14 35 52 26 52 29 dalhance VSD 3 57 and text

52 29 sentiment VSD 3 38

52 34 Jagannatha See note 15 I pain JRGA p 45/7-10 52 38 means JRGA p 45/13, p 46/I 536 53 7 rasa See Chapter 1 and notes pp 11-14 passun txbhavas, ete Vibhaca is the name apphed to those ordinary causes (gardens, the beloved, ete ) when they are given extraordmnary representation, as in

53 15 a poem Abh on NS p 284/7-9 constituents Eg, VSD, text following 3 46 53 22 impressions Abh on NS p 285/23, p 284/6, see

53 27 connevions Abh on Dhv p 70/4-5, on NS p 285/ note 12 8

6-7 Cf DDR 4 41 53 33 drama Supra note 50 21 53 39 Lmitations Abh on NS p 285/6-8, p 279/1-16 541 generalized This sequence of generalizations is rea-

545 soned out mn Abh bv KPK p 98/5 #F sensibility Abh on NS p 279/13-14, VSD 3 60 and text See also note 51 25

NOTES 105

54 11 sadharanikarana 'unversality' or 'universalzing', see note 12 29 5414 poetry Abh by KPK p 97/4-6 54 16 naisargiki From Stabhaca 'nature' and msarga 'orı- gin, Abh by KPK p 97/7, Dan 1 103 (pratibha) 54 16 experience SD 3 39 text 54 18 mimamsakas See note 13 39 51.20 yogah "Only connoisseurs of the rasa are capable of realising the rasa * ( source unknown) 54 21 actor VSD 3 19 54 22 Dhananjaya See note 22 34, 54 23 enjoyment DDR 4 36 text 54 25 adhikarin 'Offcial' (one who holds an office), hence 'authority' 54 25 pramatr 'giver of critena', ef pramana (note 19 27), VSD 3 60 text/8, JRGA p 37/10 54.28 hrdayah "The authorty is one whose mind is capa- ble of flawless imagination" (1e, permitting total absorption mn the poetic creation) Abh on NS p

54 31 sahrdayah "The connoisseur participates in the con- 279/]

sensus of minds and is one who has perceived the natural appropriateness of what is represented His mind has become lucidly receptive like a mirror, through effort and constant practice of poetry" Abh on Dhv p 11/23-4 55 18 grammanans Mam 5 69 text, HKA p 49, VEÃ ch 1 p 23-53, ete, also Abh on NS p 280/3-4, Abh on Dhv p 17-19 55.20 cyamanaurtt: The 'mode of evstence' of suggestion,

55 21 vartate 'it exsts in a certain fashion' abhtoyakti Note 50 2 55.22 Cartana Abh by KPK p 99/56, also see note 507 55 22 oitauighnapratits Abh on NS p 280/8, he says "sa- rvatha rasanātmakavītavighnapratitigrāyho bhāva eca rasah" Abloyakt: is inferred as the sub-

55 7 ratyadin JRGA p 37/14ff, "This comprehension ject

(vyaktr) is unhmdered mtelligence, as in the opin- ion of the 'arrow' school a shielded light illummates adjacent objects when the sheld is removed, and likewise reveals itself, just so does the intelligence (atmacattanyam) illuminate the eircumstance of the drama, the enacted emotions, ete (and reveal itself)". Cf Dhv 19 The "arrow" school refers to

106 NOTES

a theory of denotation by which all the meanngs, lteral, conventional, and allusive, at any time at- tachable to a word, should be considered no more than the literal meaning extending itself farther and farther (m the manner of an arrow) to the goal set by the speaker's intention This theory was often resorted to by those denying the function of suggestion (vyamana or abhioyakti) Cf. Mam text on 569 (p 213/4f ) 55 28 Prabha That is, Vaidyanatha, who composed the Kāvyaprakāsapradipaprabhā a commentary on the Kavyaprakasapradipa wntten by Govinda Thak- kura (Iate fifteenth century ), which is itself a com- mentary on Mammata's Katyaprakasa Should not be confused with Vidyanatha, author of the Prataparudrayasobhūsana 55 30 cit Vaidyanātha p 80/23 4 (see previous note), "this poetic delectation (carvand) is a manifesta- tion of (pure) thought in erotically defined cir- cumstances, accompamed by appropriate vibhavas, anubhavas, ete and it is this thought freed from obstacles " These "obstacles" are generally in the form of states of mind which prevent the full par- tcpation of the onlooker in the unfolding of the

55 33 drama See next. vighnāpasaraka Abh on NS p 280/9, 'removers of obstacles' Abhinava here deseribes the various obstacles to sympathetic cognition lack of im- agination, predisposition to regard what is gomg on on the stage as mere historical fact, lack of interest, lack of experience, unfamilarty with the language used, portrayal of some trifling matter which does not concern the unversality of human experience, confusion as to the emotion being por-

55 36 repose all these from one hne of Abh on NS p trayed

55 38 caroyamanatapranah Cf note 13 8, "whose life con- 280/10

sists entirely of being enjoyed" VEA p 88/1-2, (as "carvyamanataikapranataya") Abh cited by KPK p 99/6, (as "cartyamanataikasarah") (same

55 38 meaning), Abh on NS p 284/11. alaukika See note 12 13 564 56 6 vigalitatedyantara VEA p 87/5 (as "-antaratvena") vedyantarasparšasūnya VSD 334 (as vedyāntara- samparkasunya Abh by KPK p 100/8)

NOTES 107

567 Brahma See note 13 12 56 10 itself See notes 13 8, 13 28, and 55 27 56 13 gocarikrtah "Realized by the cntic (pramatr see note 5423) who participates in the consensus of all connoisseurs" Mam p 98/3-p 99/1 (this phrase is part of a much longer defimtion of

56 15 life breath See note 55 27 rasa)

56 15 camatkara Lat 'astounding', 'causing astonishment'

56 16 (see note 506) but usually, 'striking' 'charming' Visvanātha See note 14 35 56 19 paryayah VSD text following 3.34 (p 51/6-7), tismaya, here translated 'wonder', is the sthayi- bhata (note 50 12) corresponding to the rasa

56 20 adbhuta 'marocllots' rasah "wherever this strikingness (camatkara) is found as an essential element, there you have adbhutarasa" (see previous note), this is part of a floka quoted by VSD (p 51/10) and attributed to one Dharmadatta, who is citing Visvanatha's great-grandfather, Narayana, as being of the opin- ion that the adbhutarasa (the 'marvellous') is an

56 22 essential element in all the other rasas uicchitt: See 35 20 56 25 Katipratibha See page 35 f 56 26 figures JRCA p 12/4ff, p 13/1-3, p 248/3-5, cf

56.28 Dhv 26, and ef Abh on Dhv p 13/18 ff anubhacasaksika JRGA p 6/5-6 56 29 alaukikahlada JRGA p 6/4, 5 ("lokottarahlada") 57.3 shape VSD 334, compare the analogy of the hght

57.7 note 55 27. rasasamtatim "Those having merit experence, like ascetics, the plentitude of rasa" hit . "to the men- tonous as to yogis is vouschafed the contimuty of delectation" VSD p 52/2-3 (cited immedtately after the quote in 56 19 and attnbuted to some-

57 17 one else). Mahuabhatta See note 401 57.22 poetry MVV p 22/10, Mahmabhatta even suggests that the Dhvamkara rephrase his defimtion of dhuam (11) so as not to imply that some people

57,23 deny the importance of rasa, MVV p 110/5-8

57 33 school See note 8 26 and 54

57.39 alamkaradht ant See page 49 ast: Abh on Dhv (23) p 65/6 5S 1 Latyam- Abh on Dhv (23) p 65/6-7

108 NOTES

58 6 poetry Abh on Dhv (14) p 15/17-18, p 27/3 58 10 58 18 poetry VSD 13

58 20 poets JRGA p 12/4-7 rasabhasa, VSD text on 12 (p 13/14), 3 247 58 SI vastudhoam Atta ettha nimayas ettha aham diasaam palocht / ma paha rattiandhaa sepae mahamna mayahisi" my mother-in-law sleeps here and I sleep there, how late the day has becomel Now watch out lest you, blinded by the gloom of eve- mng, get mnto one of our beds! (spoken by an improperly libidinous young lady [whose husband is travelling] to a male visitor to whom the honors of the guest have been offered ) The sttuation (vastu) suggested here is of course that of an invitation, the visitor, though the grammatical form is that of a warning, is thus caused to re- mark the disposition of the two beds and is in fact told not to get into the wrong one The verse is cited by Anandavardhana as proof that the inten- tion of an utterance is not always the same as its hteral import (p 20/2-3) Repeated by VSD, 12 text (p 13/11) 58 24 poetry VSD p 13/13, p 15/4ff, the term "rasa-

58 27 sparsa" from JRGA (p 12/10-11), not Visvanatha leaps JRGA p 12/11 58 30 58 36 the rasa JRGA p 12/12 -- 13, see note 11 30 about rasa JRGA p 48/4-p 49/4 58 39 sabdah Words productve of delightful effect' or 'expressing agreeable meanings', JRGA p 6/3 593 poetry JRGA p 50/1-3, ramaniyata means literally

597 the state of beig conducive to pleasure' Mammata See note 32 18 59 12 writers Chapter 3 p 44 f 59 22 Srn̄garatilaka A work of uncertain date, perhaps at the end of the tenth century (SKD HSP vol 1 p 91), the author was once thought to be the same person as Rudrata (note 18 16) but is now con-

59 24 sıdered not to be

59 27 poetry RST 15 Srngaraprakasa First half of the eleventh century, probably none other than King Bhoja of Dara, a well-known patron of letters and the arts The work has the dubious distinction of being the longest ever written on the subject of poetics It is un- pubhshed, but a resume by V Raghavan is avail- able (New Ind Antiqury v 1-4) Bhoja is also

NOTES 109

the author of the Sarasvatikanthabharana, which though largely copied from earlier authors, ap- pears to conserve some traces of the mndependent

59 27 poetic doctrine of the Agmipurana Vidyadhara Ca 1300, author of the Ekatali, a treatise based primarily on Mammata (note 32 18) and Ruyyaka (note 37 13) and affirming the

59 28 primordinance of dhtant Kumarasvammn, Early-fifteenth-century commentator of Vıdyanātha's Pratāparudrayasobhūsana 59 35 Saradatanaya Twelfth or thirteenth century 59 37 Singabhupala Early fourteenth century 59 39 60 8 Rasatarangini Latter half of the fifteenth century

60 33 nayika The ideal hero and herome Unbalanilamant See note 45 18 60 35 60 35 uguala Lit 'incandescence', bursting into flame' madhurarasa Int 'sweet', onginally one of Dandın's ten gunas (note 5 17) 60 37 rasa Upvalavesatmakah, 'whose essence is an ap- pearance of burning' (1e "inflamed" passions, etc ) NS text on 6 45 (p 300/1) 61 1 bhaktirasah Uypalanilaman: 13, that is, the state of religious devotion considered as a rasa A turn- about of the theory (ef page 13 and note 13 12) 616 sweetness Of these the first (santa) is the much- discussed nnth rasa of the canonical schools and madhurya ('sweetness', nommalization of ma- dhura) is a guna, preyas is also the name of an alamkara (Dan 2275), and priti is a definand of rasavadalamkara, one of the most controversial figures (Dan 2 281, Dhv 25) 617 bhaktirasarat "King" of bhakt rasas (the five listed)

61 9 sthaybhava See page 50, ratt ('physical passion') 15 UN 12

the fixed emotion corresponding to śrngararasa, or the erotic sentiment 61.21 hero UN 1 18-20.

NOTES TO CHAPTER 5 CREATION AND BE-CHEATION

62.5 wide Bhavabhut, Malatimadhavam 18, "utpatsyate mama tu ko'p samanadharma kalo hy ayam nira- tadhir uipuila ca prthot* 62.21 produchve Cf Abh on Dhv p 29/17-18

110 NOTES

63 13 sahrdaya Notes 51 25, 54 31, Chapter 4 passım 63 17 63 24 creation Abh on Dhy p 11/24, see note 5431 rasayitr Abh on Dhv p 12/5, agent nouns of the causative aspects of the roots budh- 'know and

63 29 ras- 'taste' visadibhutamanomukura Abh on Dhy p 11/23, see

64 10 note 54 31 "manomukura" Lit 'mind-mirror'

64 12 word From ras- 'taste' ef rasand, the 'tongue' carvand See note 50 6 65 15 guna-ritt 'poetic excellence' and 'style' note 54 and Chapter II, vakrokti is 'indirect speech' note 34 20 and Chapter II, pakd Note 41 14 and Chapters II and III, dhoant is 'suggestion' notes 1033 and 11 15 and Chapters I and IV, rasa is 'aesthetic delectation' notes 10 33 and 11 15 and Chapters 1 and 4 66 13 conduet Mam 12 (p 5) 66 17 life VSD 12 66 27 66 30 Iistress Mam p 6/4, palatable Aśvaghosa, Saundarananda 18 63, Aśva- ghosa lived in the first century A D, was a Bud- dhist, and is the first known writer of kavya (ornate poetry) 68 20 sigmficance Cf Vam 2115, Mam p 256/2f 699 alaukika Note 12 13 69 12 blıss Mam 11 "myatikrtanujamarahitam hlādar-

69 21 kamayim ananda Supra page 55 nırmıtım"

69 25 72 16 delverer Abh on NS p 282/3

72 21 same Cf RKM p 17-19 Raghuvamsa "No composition of Kalidasa displays more the richness of his poetical genius, the exu- berance of his imagination, the warmth and play of ls fancy, his profound know ledge of the human heart, his delicate appreciation of its most refined and tender emotions, Ins famiharity with the work- ings and counter-workings of its conflicting feeling, -- in sort, more enttle hum to rank as the Shake- speare of India" (M Momer-Wilhams) Said in reference to the Sakuntala but cited by the ed of the Raghuvamsal 7221 Naisadha "Vaste épopee en 22 chants, qui, sous pretexte de narrer l'episode de Nala et Damayanti, multiplie les dissertations sur des sujets pluilo- sophques ou techniques, attestant d ailleurs une maitrise eclatante en nombre de sastra, Au

NOTES 111

chant XVII, les dieux qui ont pris part au soa- yamLara decrivent les diverses doctrines dont ils se font les protagonistes, et l'ensemble du poème forme une sorte de cursus religieux et philoso- phique, ou ne manquent pas des illusions, relative- ment insolites, aux materialistes, à Dattatreya, aux douze idoles de Visnu, à la déesse bouddhique Tara, etc" (Lows Renou) The author of the Naisadha is Sriharsa 72 30 Kumarasambhaca Another epic poem of Kalidāsa "The theme is truly a daring one in aspiring to en- compass the love of the highest deities, The new mythology had life, warmth, and colour, and brought the gods nearer to human life and emo- tion The magnificent figure of the divine ascetic (Siva), scorning love but ultimately yielding to its humanising influence, the myth of his temptation leading to the destruction of Kama as the emblem of human destre, the story of Uma's resolve to win by renunciation what her beauty and love could

73 1 not achieve by their seduction * (S K De)

73 7 pratibha Notes 35 24, 50 31

73 13 ndiculous Văm 1316 poetry Abh on Dhv p 29/18-19 "pratibha apūrva-

73 15 vastunirmanaksama prajna" poet Bharata is explaming the sense in which he uses the word bhaca ('emotion') "vagangamtkha- rāgena sattvenābhinayena ca / kaver antargatam

73 24 bhavam bhavayan bhata ucyate" N$ 72

73 27 objects Supra pages 24, 38

73.29 account. Dan 28ff bhauika Lit 'expressive', real, a figure defined as prabandhatisayo gunah (text m accusative) 'a quality of the entre work', and which is perceived in such aspects as the relevance of the various parts of the story to one another the clarification of difficult contexts by emphasizing a cham of events, the suitability of the story to representa- tion, clarity of language, and so forth Dandin ex- plains that this "figure" is a function of the poet's intention or desire (ablupraya), and can be seen as a competent rendering of that unifying prin-

73 30 ciple mn the work Bham 352, Dan 2364 ff

73 35 qualty Gund imagination Chapter 3 73 37 kacikarman Supra page 35

112 NOTES

7423 expressed Note 8 26 74 34 abstraction In fact, they affirm the contrary supra

75 8 pages 53 ff, 12 #f

75.27 poetry Supra page 66 praitbha Cf Rud 1 14, Mam 13, etc. HKA p 6 75 37 culture Rud 116 (he does say, however, that m-

765 bomn imagmaton is preferable) stones Rud 118, Mam p 8/2ff, Vam 133, RKM

76 17 ch 8

76.25 practices HKA p 9/12f, AKK craft The chief among whom was Arisimha, a Jain wnter of the thirteenth centurt, but Rajatexhara and Ksemendra also treat of the subject. See notes

78 13 20 39 and 40 13 grammar See note I 16

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(When more than one abbreviation appears with a cited work, the additional abbreviations refer to commentanes on that work )

Anonymous, Agmpurana, Anandasrama Sanskrit Series 41 (1957) AP Appaya Diksıta, Kucalayananda (Bombay, Nırnaya Sagar Press, 1955, tenth ed ), (with Candrāloka) Ansimha, Kacyakalpalata, no edition available to annotator AKK Asvaghosa, Saundarananda, ed Johnston (London Ovford University Press, 1928)

Bana, Kādambarī, ed Kale (Bombay Shāradākrīdan Press, 1896) Bhamaha, Kacyalamkara, appendix 8 to the Prataparudray- asobhusana of Vidy anatha, Bombay Sansknt Senes 65 Bhãm Bharata, Natyasastra, Gaekwad Onental Series, vol 1 (36) Bhar (NS), second ed, vol 2 (GS) first ed (with a commentary of ] Abh on NS Abhmavagupta) (vol 1 unless

Bhartrharı, Vakyapadiya, Benares Sansknit Senes 7 (18S7) .specified)

Bhatta Lollata (commentator on Bharata, whose work is

Bhatta Nayaka, Hrdayodarpana (commentary or work based now lost)

on Bharata, now lost) Bhavabhuti, Malatimadhta (Bombay Nımaya Sagar Press, 1936, sixth ed ) Bhoja, Sarascatikanthabharana, ed Vidyasagara (Kalkata Naray anayantre, 1894, second ed ) BSKĀ

Bhoja, Srngaraprakasa, unpublished BSP

Dandın, Katyadarsa, ed Bohtlingk (Leipzig Haessel, 1890) Dan De, S K, Hstory of Sansknt Litcroture (Umversity of Calcutta, 1947) De, S K, History of Sanskrit Poctics, 2 vols second ed re- viseď (Cafcutta, 1960) Dhanamjaya, Dasarūpaka (Bombay Nırnaya Sagar Press, SKD HSP

1941, fifth ed ) DDR 123

114 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Dhv , Abh Dhv, A on Dhavanikara, Dhtangaloka (with commentanes of Anan- davardhana and Abhmnavagupta), Kavy amala 25 on Dhv

Hemacandra, Kāvyānušāsana, Kāvyamālā 71 (1934), second HKA ed )

JRGĀ Jagannatha, Rasagangadharo, Benares Sanskrit Series 8 (1903) Jayadeva, Candraloka (Bombay Nunaya Sagar Press, (1955), (with Kutalayananda)

Kalıdasa, Kumarasambhava (Bombay Nırnaya Sagar Press, 1955, fourteenth ed ) Kalidasa, Raghut amsa (Bombay Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1948, eleventh ed ) Kalidasa, Sakuntala, ed Momier-Wilhams (Oxford 1876) Ksemendra, Aucityavicāracarcā, Kāvyamalā Gucchaka I AVC (1886) 115-160 Kun Kuntaka, Kakroktijivita (Dillī Atmaram end sams, 1955), pirated edition of Professor De's Vakrotijtetta (second ed ), which was not available to the annotator

Magha, Sisupalavadha (Bombay Nırnaya Sagar Press, 1957, tw elfth ed ) Mahrmabhatta, Vyaktipieka, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series MVV 5 (1909) Mammata, Kovyaprakasa, (with commentanes of Thakkura and Vaidyanatha, called the "Prabha"), Kayamala 24 (1891) Mam Abh \ Mammata, Kavyaprakasa, Anandaśrama Sanskrit Seres 66 [cited] (1929), (with commentary of Govinda Thakkura, called by KPK the "Pradipa", Abhmnavagupta quoted in extenso)

Raghavan V, Some Concepts of Alankara Sastra (Madras Adyar, 1942) Rajašekhara, Kāoyamīmāmsā, Gaekwad Onental Series 1 RKM (1916) Renou, L'Inde Classique (Hanoi 1953), vol 11 Rudrabhatta, Srngaratilaka, ed Pischel (Kiel Haeseler RST Rudrata, Kātyālamkara, Kāvyamala 2 (1928, third ed ) 1886) Rud UN Rupa Gosvamin, Upavalanilamant, Kavyamalā 95 (1913) Ruyyaka, Alamkarasarvasva, (with commentary of Samu- drabandha), Trvandrum Sanskrit Series 40 (1915)

BIBLIOGRAPHY 115 Ruyyaka, Alamkarasarcasca, (with commentary of Jaya- ratha), Kavyamāla 35 (1939, second ed ) Ruy

Śriśankuka (commentator on Bharata, whose work is now lost)

Udbhata, Kāyālamkārasarasamgraha, Bombay Sansknt Senes 79 (Poona Aryabhushan Press, 1925) Ud

Valmik, Ramayana (Gorakhpur Gita Press, n d ) Vāmana, Kātyālamkarasūtra(trttr), Kācyamala 15 ( 1953, fourth ed ) Văm Vidyadhara, Ekacali, Bombay Sanskrt Series 63 (1903) VEĀ Vidyanatha, Prataparudrayasobhusana, Bombay Sanskrit Senes 63 (1909) VPR Viśvanatha, Sāhityjadarpana, ed Vidyāsāgara (Calcutta Mookerjee and Co , 1900) VSD

TENTATIVE CHRONOLOGY

Paninı fourth century B c ? Vālmīki second century s c ? Aśvaghosa first century A.D Kālıdāsa late fourth or early ffth century A.D Bāna early seventh century Bhartrhar first half of seventh century Bharata second to eighth centunes (text by the seventh) Māgha end of seventh Bhmaha last quarter of seventh to mddle of the eighth century Bhavabhot first half of the eighth century Dandın first half of the eighth century Dhvamkāra first half of the eighth century Vāmana middle of the eighth to middle of the mnth century (ca 800) Udbhata end of the eighth century into the ninth Lollata early ninth century? Srīšankuka first quarter of the mnth century Rudrata first quarter to the end of the ninth cen- tury Anandavardhana middle of the minth century (Agmpurāna) Rājašekhara after the middle of the ninth century end of the ninth century through the

Nayaka early tonth last quarter of the mnth to last quarter of the tenth (earlier more likely) Rudrabhatta ninth through twelfth centuries, prob-

Dhanaiijaya ably the tenth

Kuntaka tenth century mid-tenth century to mid-eleventh cen-

Abhnavagupta tury (earher more likely) last quarter of the tenth to first quarter of the eleventh century 117

118 -- CHRONOLOGY

Bhoja first half of the eleventh century Ksemendra second and third quarters of the eleventh century Mahimabhatta last half or end of the eleventh century Mammata Imd-eleventh to first quarter of the twelfth century Hemacandra first three quarters of the twelfth century Ruyy aka second and third quarters of the twelfth century Jayadeva last quarter of the twelfth to first quarter of the fourteenth century Arısımha mid-thirteenth century Vidyanatha end of the thirteenth to early fourteenth century Vidyadhāra end of the thirteenth to early fourteenth century Vistanātha frst half of the fourteenth century Rupa Gosvāmin second quarter of the sixteenth century Appayya Diksıta thrd and fourth quarters of the sixteenth century Jagannātha first half of the seventeenth century V Raghavan mid-twentieth century