1. Studies In Kalapurnodayam (Thesis) Krishna Rao G.V

Barcode : 2990100051571 Title - Studies In Kalapurnodayam Author - G.V.Krishna Rao Language - bengali Pages - 354 Publication Year - 1999 Barcode EAN.UCC-13

2 990100 051571

STUDIES IN

KALAPURNODAYAM

உ ்ய : த த (கரவர், ao S) dcEi Souo : Studies in Kalapurnodayam

(கது கிசய, வ்ஸ், குவத b.8.) eo' தய : கs, க, த்ை பச்யய. : சூ -0ன 55305, , 38

STUDIES IN KALAPURNODAYAM

(Literature and its value in life with special reference to Kalāpūrnodayam)

This is approved by the University of Madras for the Ph D Degree

G.V.KRISHNA RÃO

EDITOR ANNAPAREDDY VENKATESWARA REDDY

A GIFT FROM A DAUGHTER IN MEMORY OF HER FATHER, THE WRITER

PRABHĀSA PUBLICATIONS BOSE ROAD - TENALI

Studıes ın Kalāpurnodayam

First published in April, 1956 Reprint January, 1999

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த்வ கிலினவ கல் லதி க வஜலு் கில்கி ல்வி்க் மன கழ்ல கி்க கஸர் வகத் ல தற்சவ் கனல் ீ கிக்ல் "சககவ்" லலவ ைக் நதஸ்விஸ்க் ல்சா கஞுல லசந்ஸ்வல் ப்லலவக் குய்ல லலறல் சண மஸல் கூஸ் லீக கவுச "கில்லககக்" க்த ங்கல்னஞ் விக்

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கயய்வக் மக்றதல கப்கஸ் லலறத் குகரலய்த கக்க் கண்லா ஐய்குப்பாக பற்கயய்ககல்க ககண் கபக் எக் எஜ்சயுல் வய்பவஸ்க் கழினணஎ் கக்னம் லக்கிர லல் பால கப்பக் கரல் ஸ்oக்சன கிக்வ சய்க் மல்ன சப விடி்பைக் 'காசழ்" நமிமககக வக ல் புதி்பமு முழா்கவய்கான்துவிவிகில் சியில் வல்ன் 2 க்கம்பன லர் ன்ோ நபப்பய் பன கய்வ கில ககிராவ நனைா னசல் ஏஜ்சய்

கற்கு ல்வன் ல்ேஜ்து 8"ஜூக்து லசலை ",

லுகிவன் லகவ கிக் லத் கல்வுகினி லக்கே "கன்" லச இகின்க் "அகது லசலை ஜக் த உதனைய்5க 6s5 வன ஜர்ச ல்த வகனகக்ல கலக வாதி ச வகக் லல்கல 5, 285, லனகs, நங் ேல்வ லணன்சர அஸ்ணக்க கல்கல வல்ல்

"கக்கக்" னக ஸ்ககக லைவ3கலவ5 கலண்வஸ் பறுக்ஷ்கக் ஸக் மகிஸ் ல eas்a, 5்3

லஞ்பக ஸ்ஸதஸ்கிகன மல்கனம்சகக்வெலவகி 302 கலசசல் "வில் க" லகக ு வதவகவ் மலாயல லக்ல ககஙிககக்குல் சாயல்லை காவன்னு்தககதல் அுள்வில் யல்ல்க் லவ் வவ் eக கிலஜ் வகல்கக்க கச்ஞ்ச "வில் ணலக் லணத லக்கலக் Sspsஜo" மகய் ஏ்சவ் கக வல்க்லண்னல னல ககில gலS 2க

யல கம்வ ல் கக் ஸசை், ல்ஸ்கர், மங்சி மஞ்திலா கீSக்கவ்க் சவக கலல் ஸ்சன் ன்ன்ன்கது ல்

கங்தின ஜல வனல் வகக லலறகி லச ரிகிஸ்க் 086 யooa ஜodoso வாo, அக் ரிகலன லெதகoல) அக 5 சவ் சசக் ல்கலத சக்தக் சப்கா ம்சத ல கர, சல்கக லனக் க்க் அல்பக்ஸ்பக் க கிக் ு ஸுகலைபக் ஜக் லகஸ் ரக்ஸ்க்கல்

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 MAHAKAVYA Kalāpūrņodayam and its reception - Mahākāvya - Bhämaha's definition - Dandin's view - Nannecoda's conception - The echoes of Vdyanatha and Vinnakota Peddana - Visvanatha's epitomisation - Critical exmination of the definition of the Mahakāvya. pp. 1- 12.

CHAPTER 2 THE STORY OF KALĀPŪRŅÖDAYAM IN OUTLINE pp. 13 - 26.

CHAPTER 3 THE SO-CALLED SOURCES Kādambari and Kalāpūmodayam - Comparison - The former not a source - Prabodhacandrodaya - Markandeya Purāņa - The story of Madalasa - The four episodes in the Mahabharata - Narada's conflict with Tumburu as described in the Lingapurana - Consideration of the Manuchantra and the Sri-kalahasti- mâhātmyam as sources and their refutation - Kathāsaritsagara of Somadeva and its influence on Surana - The opening story in the Kathasantsagara - comparison - the story of Sridatta - The story of the Unfaithful Wife - The story of Süryaprabha - Influ- ences of the Kathasarıtsagara on the Kalāpūrņodayam in general - Āscaryacūdamanı of Saktı- bhadra as an influence - Other rea- sons in suport of the originality of the poem. pp. 27 - 61.

CHAPTER 4 THE THREE ALLEGORIES AND THEIR REFUTATION The philosophical allegory and the reasons for its refuta- tion- The erotic allegory and the causes for its untenability - The historical allegory, only an illusion - Allegory, slesa and dhvani distinguished. pp. 62 - 74.

CHAPTER 5 SURANA AND HIS CRITICS An approach to literature - Dr. C. R. Reddi's attacks - His remarks about the manihara untenable - The question of prob- ability - assaults against the latter part of the poem unreason- able. pp. 75 - 110

CHAPTER 6 POSITIVE MERITS OFTHE KALAPURNODAYAM Surana's characters definite, concrete and human - Narada - Manikandhara - Kalabhasini - Sugatrı - Manistambha alias Salina - Caturmukha and Sarasvati. pp. 111 - 148.

CHAPTER 7 POSITIVE MERITS OFTHE KALAPURNODAYAM (Contd ) The significant background - Nāmavakrata - Structural beauties - The beauties of presentation. pp. 149 - 175.

CHAPTER 8 KALAPURNODAYAM AS A MAHAKAVYA The five sandhis and the sixty-four sandhyangas - The var- ous descriptions to be found in the poem - The rasas. pp. 176 - 194.

CHAPTER 9 ON THE MEANING OF THE POEM Complete emergence of art - The central idea of the poem - Reasons for such a theory - The highly complicated nature of the poem - References to the nature of poetry and phalasruti - Manikandhara's antecedents and subsequent activities - The names of Manistambha and Sumukhasatti, their native country and their family deity - The episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha - the names of Kalapurna, Abhinavakaumudı, Madhuralālasa, Suprasäda and Sarasa - Introducing tenets of philosophy - The poet's ardent hope of getting publicity for his poem through the co-operation of Sastravyasanatıdhanyas - The very title of the poem. - pp. 195 - 213

CHAPTER 10 SURANA'S PHILOSOPHY

The poet not an Advaitin - His leanings in Kalaurnodayam not a simple mask - Surana not committed to Advaita in his other works - Not a follower of Pratyabhijna School of Kashmir - the poet only a Visıstadvaitın. pp. 214 - 224.

CHAPTER 11 VISISTADVAITA AND ITS THEORY OF BEAUTY Epistemology of Visistādvaita - Pramēya - Prakrtı and Kāla - Nityavibhūt - Dharmabhūtajana - Jiva - Isvara - Nature of Beauty according to Visistadvaita - Beauty, the quality of the Absolute - Comprses truth goodness, knowledge, änanda etc. - Not the ob- ject of perception, recollection, recognition, inference analogy, presumption and negation - Realisable only through mntution - Does not evolve nor admit division - Beauty infinite - Manifests itself ın five forms, para, vibhava, vyūha, antaryāmin and arca - The two values of Beauty, intrinsic and utilitarian - The hierar- chy of arts - Artists and aesthetes mainly devotees - Theory of rasa - Abhinavagupta, Pandıtarāya - Visistadvaitin's interpreta- tion - Theory of rasa and Visistadvaita not mutually incompat- ible - The whole province of Beauty not covered by rasa. pp. 225 - 257.

CHAPTER 12 SURANA'S THEORY OF BEAUTY AND OF ITS EMERGENCE Surana's suggestion of his theory of Beauty - His concep- tion of poetry and of the emergence of Art - Critical examination of his theory - Conclusion. pp. 258 - 280. Notes pp. 281 - 315. Appendices pp. 316 - 333.

PREFACE

The present thesis, "Studies in Kalāpūrnodayam" (Litera- ture and Its Value in Life with special reference to the Kalapumodayam) constitutes the result of the author's research work done from 1949 to 1952 at the University of Madras. This essay proposes to expound the nature of Beauty in general, and literature and its value in particular, as suggested by Pingali Surana in his work, Kalāpurnodayam. Before this ex- position is undertaken, it is necessary to show positively that such a suggestion exists in the poem because even its possibility has not yet been discussed. This second point also, therefore, becomes an important part of this essay. Every work of art, as is generally admitted, is the outcome of historical events and the ideological inhertance ofits age. While pure idealists maintain that it is entirely determined by the pre- vious ideas, matenalists advocate the opposite view that it is the superstructure of the established economic relations of that par- ticular age. Both these schools adopt views too extreme to be acceptable. Perhaps strking the balance between the two, a third view says :- "The dynamics of ideas runs parallel to the process of social evolution, the two influencing each other mutually. But at no particular point of the process of the integral human evolu- tion, can a direct casual relation be established between histori- cal events and the movement ofideas. Cultural patterns and ethi- cal values are not mere ideological superstructures of established economic relations. They are also historically determined by the logic of the history of ideas." This view appears to be more reasonable because a literary work particularly when it is highly imaginative, as Hegel postu- lates, is the ideal among the Fine Arts. Consequently, the emer- gence of the Kalapurnodayam has to be traced to its origination more through the history of ideas than through the historical events of the age of Surana. But this does not imply that the latter are to be completely ignored.

Simple awareness of this fact is not in any way helpful in the case of the Kalapūrnodayam because material pertaining to the social history apart from that avilable in the poetit works of that period is almost as scarce as hen's teeth. Letting alone the poet's biographical events, even the exhaustive list of his works is not known. Hence there is no other alternative than to depend upon the former method which consists in tracing its origination through history of ideas. A work of art, howsoever organically as a whole it may be conceived, has a form and content which can be clearly analysed. A thorough understanding of these aspects is essental to grasp the suggested idea of the work. The form which the Kalāpțūnödayam takes is the Mahakavya or Mahāprabandha whose historical development and evlution has to be traced with a view to finding out its exact requirements. The content also which is agroup of ideas, is to be carefully examined on the basis of external and internal evidences with a view to seeing whether the theme is borrowed from old works prior to the Kalāpūrnodayam. If it is borrowed in toto or with slight modifica- tions, it is necessary to see in the former case the context and purpose of the original work, and in the latter, the object of such modifications. The result of this enquiry will go a long way to- wards understanding the main purport of the suggested idea of the poem, and at the same time will help to indicate the poet's conception of the role of ideological and cultural heritage in the emergence of a work of art if he had really written his poem with that object in view. Comments, expositions and criticisms concerning the Kalāpūrnödayam are to be studied with the main purpose of ar- riving at the real purport of the poem and finding out whether any questions remain unanswered if the suggested meaning is not taken into account. In the light of these findings, the merits of the poem are to be explored so as to ascertain which of them are required by the exigencies of the form and content, and which by the poet's own theory of Beauty and Literature.

The results accruing from this enquiry provide reasons for or against maintaining that the Kalapurnodayam was written to suggest the nature of Beauty in general, and of literature in par- ticular. When these happen to substantiate the positive aspect, the poet's philosophy is to be investigated and determined, be- cause, without it there cannot be any consistent and genuine theory of Beauty. From the epistemology and metaphysics of the poet's philosophy, the theory of Beauty in general and literature and its value in particular are to be carefully deduced. In the light of the broad principles thus obtained, the poet's own theory of Beauty as suggested by the Kalāpurnodayam has to be ex- plained. When a wrter believes in and suggests a certain theory, it will be rather improbable that he should not follow the very principles thereof. Those very principles, therefore, are to be il- lustrated from his own work, and then evaluated. This very same method is followed, but its success depends upon the extent to which dispassionate and disinterested enquiry is brought to bear on it. Besides, there are two grave dangers - firstly, when a regular source having a different purport is traced and established. But this possibility seems to be rather negligible in view of the fact that the Kalapurnodayam has an inseparable connection with the other works of the poet. Secondly, when his- tory comes into possession of more facts than it has now on hand and proves that the Kalāpūrnodayam is the direct result of some other outlook than that of Visistadvaita, thew hole essay, it is needless to say, simply collapses like a house of cards. In that case the poem once again becomes an enigma for the critic. This essay does not claim infallibility, or perfection. The author is too well aware of its limitations. It is necessary to mention that the author is deeply indebted in producing this essay to the learned Mr. Nidudavolu Venkata Rao, Senoir Lecturer and Head of the Department of Telugu, at the University of Madras. Words fail the author to express his gratıtude to Mr. K.V. Gopālaswāmy, M.A. (Oxon.), Barrister-at-

law, Registrar, Andhra University, without whose sympathetic and benevolent encouragement this essay would never have been attempted. He has to express his thanks to the authorities of the University of Madras for permitting him to have his thesis pub- lished and to Mr. S.P. Ragland, M.A., L.T., Principal, V.S.R. Col- lege, Tenali, for going through the press copy and making invalu- able suggestions. The author in this context, cannot but express his deep gratitude to Mr. K. Madhavaiah and to Mr. M. Chalapati Rão for extending all the facilities to print and publish this thesis.

TENĀLI G.V. Krishnarāo.

24-3-56.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A. B. .. Abhınavabhārati A. M. B. ... Andhra Mahābhāratamu A. Dh. A. Andhradhvanyalokamu Kavitā Vimarsanamu A. B. K. V. ... Andhra Bharata Kavita Vımarsanamu

A. M. ... Āmuktamālyada

Ap. .. Appakaviyamu A. S. ... Abhijnānašākuntala Bh. ... Bharati

Bh. K. ... Bhaskararāmāyanamu C. A. Comparative Aesthetic Dh. A. ... Dhvanyāloka D. R. ... Dašarūpaka

K. Kādambari

K. A. ... Kavyadarsa

K. An. ... Kāvyānusāsana

K. A. S. ... Kāvyālamkārasamgraha K. A. S. V. ... Kāvyālamkara Sūtra Vrttı

K. B. ... Krsna Bhāratamu K. C. ... Kāvyalamkaracūdāmaņi K. Pr. Kāvyaprakāsa ...

K. P. ... Kalāpūrņodayamu K. S. ... Kumarasambhava K. T. V. ... Kavitvatattvavicāramu

M. P. Mārkandēyapurānamu ...

N. K. S. ... Nannecoda's Kumarasambhava

N. S. ... Nātyasāstra

O. S. ... The Ocean of Story

P. M. ... Pandurangamahātmvamu P. P. ... Prabhāvatipradyumnamu P. R. ... Prataparudrıya P. S. Pıngalı Sürana ...

P. U. ... Prašnopansad P. V. Palnätı Virachartra ...

R. ... Rāmāyana R. G. ... Rasagangādhara R. P. Raghavapāndavıyamu R. R. Ranganātharamāyanamu R. S. ... Rasārnavasudhākara S. B. Śrībhāsya ...

S. D. ... Sahıtyadarpaņa S. Dr. ... Sanskrıt Drama S. K. M. ... Sn-kāla-hasti-mahātmyamu S. N. Sukranitısāra ...

V. C. ... Vasucaaritra V. J. ... Vakroktijivita Y. M. D. Yatındramatadıpıka.

CHAPTER I MAHĀKĀVYA I

Pingalitürana and his three works, the Raghavapandavıyam, the Kaläpurnodayam and the Prabhava tipradyumnam, are well known to every student of Telugu literature. Though he was rec ognised as a poet of consıderable merit by writers and lākshanıkas of the later period, his main work, the Kalapurnodayam, did not receive the proper appreciation it deserved. It may not be an ex aggeration to say that, if Surana had not written Raghavapandaviyam, his other works would have been altoghether lost and cleanly forgotten. The fact that it does not enjoy today even so much popularity as Manucaritra and Vasucaritra with our pandits brought up in the old tradition, is a clear indication that Surana was always for creative onginality, while his age was for the old and the conventional. Neither the poets, nor the lakshanikas of the later perod did ever read or care to under- stand the profundity of the school of rasadhvant, once for all firmly establshed by Abhinavagupta. Their souls, perhaps, were com- pletely lost in the mirage of the Alankarika school of the deca- dence. Word-play, stale incidents, lifeless episodes of love and hackneyed descriptions of the city, etc. seem to have found much favour wtih them. The more a writer exhibited his scholarship, hs capacity for slesa and bandha, the more they held him in great esteem. A good story depictinig a vast and profound human expenence had perhaps but little attraction for them. That was why Ramarajabhusana without the least hesitation could come out with the statement that stones of pure creation are glass beads while stories handed down by tradition are natural gems.1 This sort of prejudice is probably rooted in our very schools of phuosophy which maintain invanably that knowledge is abso- lute, that there is no scope whatsoever for new things,and that the ultimate object of man, after all,is to realise the Absolute that

G. V. Knshna Rao

exists already. When such is the prevailing notion, it is scarcely any wonder that neither Surana's contemporary world nor the literary elite of the succeeding generations cared to pay the proper attention that Kalāpurnodayam deserved. This remark, however, does not rule out the fact that Surana was paid homage by some writers here and there2; and , as a matter of fact, one or two commentanes wre written.3 Another writer tried to give the story in a nut shell.4 What is stressed here is that the Kalapūrnodayam was perhaps not studied in its proper perspective, understood as an organic whole and valued accordingly. Of course there have been some attempts to interpret that poem since the eighteen nineties, but their achievement, as it will be examined later on, appears to fall short of what one might reasonably expect. Sürana, the great poet and profound thinker, was always for novelty and onginal creation. As he explicitly mentions with prıde, the Garudapuranam, the Rāghavapandaviyam, the 2 Kalāpūmodayam and the Prabhavatipradyumnam are his main works, the first being a translation. It is rather surprising why he began his poetic career by translating a work which is considered inauspicious and read only at funerals. Since this work is lost, the aspects that attracted him, and the objects he achieved in it are quite unknown. His second poem, the Raghava pandaviyam is a dvyarthi kavya, the first of its kınd in Telugu literature. It describes both the stories of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana in lucid and simple language. And its greatness lies in his skill in bringing out both the meanings by simple and familier words without any trace of pedantry. Though it lacks rasa, as any kāvya of this type is bound to do, it is far better than those of the later writers. They might have handled more difficult themes which could not easily be treated simultaneously in one and the same poem; they might have written tryarthi or caturarthi kāvyas, kavyas conveying three or four meanings, but they were quite unable to achieve the simplicity, lucidity and beauty attained by Surana. This work enabled the poet to take his contemporary world by surprise and force it to recognise his merit. For the first time wrters and läksanikas came to know that surana, if he had

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

chosen to follow the traditions, could have easily excelled any writer of the day; and so admitted him to the rank of the laksanika kau Had he not written this work, alll his other available works might have met with the same fate as that of the Garudapuranam. The Prabhavathi pradyumnam, his last mentioned poem, is a pecu- liar work combining both the Nataka style and the Mahaprabandha marga of his times. The Kalapurnodayam, the subject of this essay, is beyond doubt, sui geners. To understand its meaning and significance it is necessary to know the charac- teristics its form and content. Just as the suggested idea of a sentence cannot be known without grasping the denotative and connotative meanings of the words in their syntactical relation, so also the suggested idea of a poem cannot be known without a clear analysis of its form and content. In the hight of the latter alone can one distinguish and appreciate which features and characteristics are determined by the exigencies ofform and con- -tent, and which by the motive force of the poem. Therefore, it devolves upon one to know the characteristics of the Mahakavya or Mahaprabandha to which literary form the poet explicitly and repeatedly assigns his work5. The term Mahakavya6 or Mahaprabandha6 has come into vogue in Telugu since Nannicoda's use ofıt in Kumarasambhavam. Tikkana used the term Prabandha in the Mahābharata, but one cannot say definitely that he used it in a technical sense though some scholars like Mr. Ramakrishnayya (Korada) maintain posi- tively that he did.7 But to students of Alankara Sästra it is well known that the word prabandha is a synonym of kavya, for Vamana in the glossary of his Kāvyālankārasutras mentions it. Mahäprabandha is nothing more than the Mahakavya which is a species of poem, but not a great poem as its verbal meaning de- notes. II

When the Mahäprabandha is only a synonym of the Mahākāvya, itneeds no separate proof that it has a special con- notation, for it has been defined since the sixth century onwards by the Ālankarikäs. Before trying to form a clear and definite

G. V. Krishna Rao

conception ofit, it is necessary to trace its history in this context. As far as is known, Bhamaha is the earlest crtic to define this concept. His idea of a Mahakavya, when analysed and expressed in terms of plot, characterisation, construction and the particu- lar type of experience it has to give, may be summarised as fol- lows :- The theme of the Mahakavya must be one borrowed from tradition, and must invanably describe noble characters and great deeds. It must be great in magnitude and sublime in content. This does not, however. mean that it may be too long to be grasped in its totality. Diplomacy, sending embassies, tours, wars and glones of the hero, should be its contents, and it must have a prosperous and happy ending. Besides, it must conform to the ways of the world. The hero must be one of high birth, endowed with noble character, wide learning, lovable qualities and great prowess. When such a character is the hero, it is of course natu- ral for him to overcome difficulties and emerge victonious at the 4 end. The plot, when it is great in magnitude, falls into cantos or chapters, and these are to be closely connected, as in the case of Nataka. That means, it must contain the five sandhis mentioned in the Natyasästra and the Dasarupaka. In the first part, the seed of the plot is to be made partially visible. In the third its development, culminating in the attainment or the reverse, is to be delineated and the search after it is to be depicted.The fourth which deals with the investigation is to be followed by the last nirvähana sandhi, wherein all the threads are gathered and the plot is brought to its happy ending.9 It is not desirable to begin the story with descnptions of the valour, learning and greatness of the nval of the hero and to get him killed in the end in order that the hero's greatness might be established As the rival of the hero is not to dominate the story. and enjoy and participate in the success, so also he is not to be shown at all in the beginning in attractive colours. In matters of expression, vulgarity of words should be com- pletely avoided, and, on the other hand, the plot must have a great significance. The narrative should be strewn with figures of speech which owe their existence to vakroktz.10

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

As to the experience which the Mahakavya is to give, Bhamaha seems never to have clearly analysed it for himself. No doubt he insists that it should be beautified, but never cares to grasp the characteristics of the Beautiful. That is why he says that the Mahakavya should contain all the rasas separately. And from this it is evident that these rasas are nothing but rasavad- alankaras and that these should pervade the poem. This experi- ence, while describing the fourfold human value, should relate, as he postulates, chiefly to the acquisition of wealth. 10 Dandin who was the second Alankarika to wnte on this particular topic, while agreeing with Bhamaha, added a few more details. The theme, he says, must contain also descriptions of cities, seas, mountains, seasons, sun - rise and moon-nse, of parks, sports in water, drunken-bouts, and of amorous dalliance, of separation oflovers, and descnptions of the birth and wedlock of princes, of diplomacy, the sending of ambassadors, of tours, battles and of the hero's glories, Different episodes and incidents sholuld be presented in different places. Regarding its structure, 5

the poem should begin either with invocation or with homage, or with an indication of the subject with which it proposes to deal. The cantos or chapters should be neither too short nor too long; and the metres therein must be pleasant to the ear. Each canto should end in such metres as differ from those of the body. While differing with his predecessor on the mode of presenting the he- ro's nval, Dandin says, "to describe the heredity, valour, learning and other attainments of the hero's rival at first, and then to describe the hero's excellence by the defeat of his foe - this method too appeals to us." He has nothing more to add to the nature of the expenence of the Mahakavya except that the body of the poem consists in words having the desired meaning (istarthavacchinna padaval) and that the gunas are very important. If a poem fails to include a few of the elements of the eighteen fold description mentioned above, does it fail to be a Mahakavya? To this Dandin replies :- "Even if a few of the said elements are lacking, a poem does not diminish in value provided the excellence of those that have been adopted pleases the scholars."12

G. V. Knshna Rao

While Udbhata did not deal with this literary form, Vamana advised the readers to consult other works in regard to the ele- ments and construction of the story. The first Telugu poet to mention and wrıte a Mahakavya is Nannicoda. According to him it consists of descriptions of the eighteen kinds of objects given by Dandın. Without saying anything further about the plot and construction, he maintains that the poem should be sustained by the gunas, filled with the nine rasas and the bhavas and adorned by the thirty-sıx alankaras Another interesting point to be noted here is that he mentions separately that the poem should be enjoyable. This clearly indicates that Nannicoda's conception of the relation between rasa and alankāra is exactly like that of Udbhata who gives the number of the figures of speech relating to the meanng as thirty-six, and that of rasas as nine.13 Vıdyānātha, the author of the Prataparudriya, also defines ths type of kavya, but he does not provide anything new. He 6 says that the poem which describes the eighteen objects enumer- ated by Dandın is a Mahakavya. With the latter he agrees that it does not cease to be a Mahākāvya if it omits a few of these ele- ments. 14 Vinnakota Peddana sımply echoes the same idea in Kavyālankāracūdāmanı, 15 The next Alankänka who has discussed all the charactens- tics of the Mahākavya in the minutest detail is Visvanātha. As to the objects to be described in a Mahākāvya, he advocates the inclusion of the three sandhyas, the dusk, darkness, day, hunt- ing expeditions, sages, heaven, and yamas in addition to the eight- een items given by Dandın. As regards the hero, he must be ei- ther a divine person or a dhirodatta ksattrya born into a noble family. A number of princes belonging to one and the same high family may be the heroes of the theme. As to the structure, the poem must open with a benediction or invocation, or a suggestion of the theme Very occasionally, it may begin with the censure of the bad, or with the praise of the good. The canto must be composed in a single metre. In the whole poem there may be one canto which contains vanous metres. At

Studies ın Kalapumodayam

the end of every preceding canto, the story of the succeeding canto should be suggested. Though the poem should be neither too short nor too long, it should consist of more than eight cantos. All the sandlus of the Nataka are to be ın the Mahākāvya, mak- ing it thus an organic whole. Regarding the nature of the expenence the Mahākāvya should give. Visvanatha is more clear and definte than the previ- ously mentioned Alankarıkas. Setting aside the claims of alankarās gunās and ntıs, he insists that a Mahakavya should have one of the three rasas, srngara, ura and santa as the main, and all the rest as subsidiary Generally, the Mahakavya is con- ducive to the attainment of the fourfold human value; but it is enough if it helps the realisation of any one of the four.16 With the foregoing definitions of the great Alankārkas in view, one can have a fair conception of this particular type of kavya To put its characteristics in a nut-shell: 7 1) The plot should be either borrowed from tradition or in- vented by the poet, and should contain the eighteen or twenty-six elements rounded off with a happy ending 11) The hero must be a dıvine person or a dhiroaatta ksattrıya If equal importance is given to a number of characters, such persons must be the descendants of one and the same no- ble faimily of a princely class. 1i1) The poem which begins with benediction, or invocation, or indication of the theme, or censure of the bad, or praise of the good should have more than eight cantos which are neither too short nor too long. Except one, each of them should be composed in a single metre, with different ones at the end, suggesting the story of the succeeding canto. The whole structure must be organic with the five sandhis Iv) Lastly, one of the three rasas, 'srngara, uira and 'santa, must be the principal rasa with the rest of the nine subor- dinate to it. It must help to realise the fourfold human value, or any one of the four.

G. V. Knshna Rao

III

Now to a modern mind many doubts may occur as to the necessity of all the conditions mentioned in the definition of the Mahakavya. Why should it have only those twenty six elements and not others like descrptions of villages etc. ? Are greatness and nobility the monopoly of monarchs and princes? Why cannot the poem begin directly with the theme proper? Does a poem cease to be a Mahākāvya simply because it consists of less than eight cantos, and every canto contains vanous metres ? Finally, why should one of the three rasas only be the main and not the others ? Is not the Ramayana in which the principal rasa is karuna, a Mahakavya ? When exammned in the light of these questions, do not the characterstics mentioned by the Ālankārikās appear arbritrary, and dependent on tradition rather than on the intrinsic necessity of aesthetic experience or artistic creation? An answer to these questions in minute detail requires a separate treatise. However, as an examination of the 8 Kalāpūrnodayam as a Mahākāvya is relevant to the main object of this essay, it is necessary to answer them. To begin with, a Mahakâvya is a poem which gives us not merely a single bhava, a single situation, or a particular aspect of life, or a character, or an idea or mood, but also a comprehensive experence that is self-sufficient and selfevident. Then only can it be great both in quantity and quality. As a matter of fact, this is explicitly brought out by Bhamaha when he uses the epithets, 'mahatam mahacca'. This can be achieved only when 'srngära or vira or karuna or santa is the main rasa but not the others. On this issue, Dr K.C. Pändey says :- "These rasas are principal which are due to basic mental states, which lead to any one of the four recognised aims of human life. Thus śrgara has rati as its basic mental state, which leads to the attainment of kama and consequently to dharma and artha; raudra springs from kroodha and leads to artha, vira is based upon utsaha and leads to dharma and artha, santa is based upon tattvajnana and leads to moksa. These four, therefore, are the principal rasas Though occasionally they may be found to occupy a subordinate position, yet it is an undeniable fact that there are dramas in which each of them is separately found to be the principal. As rasa etc. do not independently lead to any purusartha, but do so only as parts of rati etc., they are recognised to be subordinate."17

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

This view is based upon the authonty of Abhinavagupta's commentary on the Natyasastra. 18 Indian Alankarka tradition certainly supports it inasmuch as the aesthetic expenence is con- ducive to the attainment of the fourfold value of human life.19 But the inclusion of raudra instead of karuna in the list of the main rasäs appears to be rather strange. Even admitting that the ex- perience derived from a kävya leads to the attainment of the four- fold aim of human life, why should karuna be removed from the rank of the principal rasas? How does karuna fail where 'śmgara, vira, raudra and 'santa succeed? It is an histoncal fact that all the greatest epics of the world have only karuna as the principal rasa Ifits is contended that they do not help to attain the aims of human life, then the Ramayana also should be debarred from the class of the Mahakavyas. Since such a position is obviously untenable, karuna also has to be considered one of the principal rasas. Now the question arises - why should Visvanatha explicitly 9 ordain that only one of the three, 'srngara uira and santa, be the principal rasa ? Everything must have a cause, however ura- tional it may apper to be. It is not very difficult to find it out. Bhamaha and Dandin specifically mentioned that the story of a Mahakavya should be one of happy and prosperous ending. Tak- ing this tip, Visvanatha might have excluded karuna from the principal rasas. The reason for the omission of raudra may be that particular expenence will not be so comprehensive as those of the other principal rasas The next question why one rasa should be the main and the others its subordinates, can be easily answered. As the poem is to be an organic whole, various rasās are also to be harmonised; otherwise it will either read like a number of episodes or become utterly ineffective. As regards the twenty-six elements to be described, Alankarikas themselves have admitted that they are not invanable conditions which a Mahakavya has to satisfy. Rājasekhara in hıs Kāvyamīmāmsa quotes Aparajiti's opinion which says that the effort the poet puts in to describe rvers, mountains, seas, cities, horses, elephants etc. suggests only the power and fame of the poet but bears no

G. V. Knshna Rao

other frut, and hence it is not very pieasing to the widely cul- tured2c. Another point to be noted in this connection is that a Mahakavya should give as comprehensive an expenence as is possible without jeopardising the unity and the total effect, and that the prose of those times was not yet cut off from the moor- ings of word-music which plays a very important role in poetry. To present a comprehensive expenence of feudal times naturally means the presentation of the ways of cities, diplomacies, trav- els, wars, glories of the princes, etc. And, sınce a Mahakāvya is mainly a narrative poem, and realistic prose of modern times was still in a germinal stage, it had in those times probably no other alternative than to depend upon descrptions of the objects men- tioned by the Alankarikas. That is perphaps why any Mahakavya of feudal ages worth the name invariably dealt, though not with all, at least with a majorty of those items. What appears to be at the back of their minds is that a Mahakavya should convey a wider and more effective experience. If that is there, even a poem 10 which does not deal with any of the items mentioned above, can be a Mahākāvya. The next question which requires attention is the hero. The Alankarkas, as it has been observed, insist upon selecting either a divine person or a progeny of the princely class endowed with the qualities of dhirodatta as the hero of the Mahakavya When literally understood, this rule will appear to be inappropriate. When strictly followed, it imphes that there cannot be great men born in familes of average or below average means. History, es- pecially of modern times, cres itself hoarse against it. The sec- ond point that the hero must be a dhirodatta, cannot be easily ignored or refuted, because, the prncipal rasa is either śrigāra, or uira, or karuna, or santa Even if one should deny this, one cannot gainsay that, whatever may be the actual theme, the sug- gested experience must be of profound significance. When this is lacking, the kavya, though it fulfils all the other conditions or- dained by the Alankarikas, cannot be a Mahakavya Why then did the Alankarikas definitely insist on the hero of a Mahakavya being one of the princely class? The answer seems to rest on their belief in the life of Varnasrama dharma based upon Indian Phi- losophy.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

On the next question regarding the magnitude of the poem, Visvanatha was the only Alankarika to maintain that it should have more than eight cantos. On what basis he fixed this number, one has no information. Granting that all the five Sandhis have to be incorporated, the Mahakavya may be finished in five or even in three cantos. To exclude such a poem from the class ofMahakavya simply on the basis of the number of cantos in it is perhaps ndiculous. In this connection it may be noted that the lower limit fixed for the Nataka is five Acts Sınce a Mahākāvya is nothing but a Nätaka m narrative form with descriptions strewn here and there, and since these descriptions naturally require more length, did Visvanatha fix the lower limit of the latter as nine? Even then, it cannot be disproved that this lımit is arb1- trary. Speaking on the same point of magnitude, Arstotle in his Poetics wrtes :- "To be beautiful, a living creature, and every whole made up of parts, must not only present a certain order in its arrangement of parts, but also be of a certain definite magnitude. Beauty is a matter of size and order, and therefore impossible either (1) in a very minute creature since our perception becomes indistinct as it approaches instantaneity, or (2) in a creature of vast size - one, say, 1000 miles long - as in that case, instead of the object being seen all at once, the unity and wholeness of it 1s lost to the beholder. Just in the same way, then, as a beautiful whole made up of parts, or a beautiful living creature, must be of some size, a size to be taken in by the eye, so a story or a plot must be of some length, but of a length to be taken in by the memory. As for the limit of its length, so far as that is relative to public performances and spectacles, it does not fall within the theory of poetry."22 That the canto of a Mahakavya must be com- posed in one single metre except at the end, and that there may be one canto in different metres, perhaps refer more to the tradi- tion prevalent with the Sansknt poets than to aesthetic neces- sity. It may be argued here that changing metres so often in one and the same context, mood and situation will not be conducive to the realisation of the peculiar expenence, and as examples, the great epics of the English and the Greeks may be cited23. Even Arstotle's discussions on the appropriate metre for the epic

G V Knshna Rao

may be quoted at length from the Poetics. "As for its (epic) metre, the heroic has been assigned it from expenence; were any one to attempt a narrative poem in some one or in several, of the other metres, the incongruity of the thing would be apparent. The he- roic in fact is the gravest and weightiest of metres - which is what makes it more tolerant than the rest of strange words and meta- phors, that also being a point in which the narratve form of po- etry goes beyond all others. The iambic and trochaic, on the other hand, are the metres of moment, the one representing that of life and action, the other, that of the dance. Still more unnatural would it appear, if one were to write an epic in a medley of me- tres, as Chaeremon did. Hence it is that no one has ever written a long story in any but heroic verse; nature herself, as we have sad, teaches us to select the metre appropriate to such a story."24 In fact, one has to admit the intrinsic value of the metre in suggesting a tone, feeling, emotion, etc; but this does not rule out 12 the efficacy of other media in carrying out the same function. If the latter is denied, there cannot be a Mahakavya in prose, or as a matter of fact, there cannot be even plurality of Fine Arts. This sort of argument is presumably as fallacious as that of the mod- ern critics who advocate complete exclusion of metre of any kind from drama. So the rule mentioned by Visvanatha might be taken as referrng to the tradition followed by the Sansknt poets, but not perhaps as a universal principle to be strictly followed. The last point that the story to be continued in the succeeding canto should be indicated towards the close of the preceding is impor- tant, and needs no further elucidation because a Mahakavya 1s an organic whole, and, as such, the preceding part must natu- rally anticipate the succeeding. Now with these principles of a Mahakavya in view, one has to examine the Kalpurnodayam and see whether it has any unique qualities. Before this question is taken up, it is not alto- gether unimportant for one to know the story first and then settle the problems connected with the theme of the Kalapurnodayam in so far as they have immediate bearing on the subject of this essay.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

CHAPTER II THE STORY OF THE KALĀPŪRNODAYAM IN OUTLINE

When Krsna was ruling his kingdom from Dvaraka, there lived in that city a maiden named Kalabhasini. She was born in a courtezan family and was taught all the fine arts befitting her station. Her beauty was marvellous and her disposition sweet. One day, as she was swinging along with her friends in a twig- made cradle of flowers, Manıkandhara a disciple of Narada, fol- lowing his guru on his aenal path to Dvaraka, saw her. Smitten by her beauty and unable to control himself, he expressed his opinion to Närada that it surpassed even the beauty of the celestials. The divine seer readily endorsed it without any reser- vation.

Just at that time Rambha, travelling with Nalakubara in an aeroplane above them, happened to overhear their conversa- tion. Närada's open approval of his disciple's statement wounded her pride in her beauty. What could she do when the divine seer himself more than endorsed it? Now her only desire was to make Narada openly admit the supenority of her own beauty. With this end in view, she paid homage to the rsi and invited him and his disciple into her plane. Narada blessed the divine couple that their mutual love would prosper for ever. This gave her an opportunity to let him know her mind. In mild sarcasm she asked him how his benediction would bear fruit when there were more beautiful girls on earth than she. Narada was not so slow - witted as not to grasp the sting; nor was he a person to tolerate such impudence, Immedi- ately he retorted with a sardonic laughter :- "Oh! grand beauty, don't think time will always be bounteous. Who knows what is in the womb of the future? When a man having exactly the likeness of your lover and a woman that of yours come into existence, nobody can reckon the agony that will come upon you both". Realising the implied curse, Rambha with a promptness that was hers became all humility, bowed low to him and bade him adieu.

G. V Knshna Rao

Kalabhäsini, who overheard this conversation, followed the plane of Rambha and Nalakubara then flying at a very low level. When she could no longer follow it, she walked towards Nārada who had by then got down to the earth. She was impressed by the beauty of Nalakubara, and felt that she had fallen in love with him. With the help of the great seer she wanted to win him over to herself. Prompted by this secret longing, she approached Narada, and paid her obeisance. During the conversation that followed, the seer told her, God willing, she might really become Rambha's rival. Then he recollected that she was a regular visitor to the court of Krsna, and that she was the very maiden who had repeated the whole poem of dandaka composed by Manikandhara in praise of Krsna after its very first recital. With a profundity too deep for their line to fathom, he got her to repeat the poem once again. She requested him to accept her as his disciple and be- stow on her the honour of carrying his uina into the harem. To this he readily agreed. Manikandhara, guessing that she was seek- 14 ing private audience with the seer, betook himself out of ear- shot: Approaching Narada she requested him to enhghten her with the story of Kaläpürna which had cropped up in the conver- sation between Rambha and Nalakubara. The divine seer informed her that he could not reveal the story as it would spell mortal life, long and prosperous to one who did it. This information given, they departed to meet once again in the court of Krsna.

SECOND CANTO The main object of Narada's regular visits to Krsna was to study music and become a master in that art. Along with Kalabhäsini he continued his studies first under the wives of Krsna, and then directly under the Lord Himself. During this whole course, Mankandhara would wait for his guru outside the gate because he had no access to the harem. Within a few years Narada became so proficient mn that art that all the wives of Krsna paid him their highest tributes. By the grace of the Lord, Manikandhara also became as proficient in that art as Narada and Kalabasini though he had no opportunity to study along with them. After taking leave of Krsna, Närada was on his way back

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

followed by his two disciples. At that time he expressed his doubts to them as to the sincerity of the compliments paid by the wives of Krsna. Kalabhasinı told her guru that she would have found out their real opinion if she had the power to assume the form of anyone of the lades in waiting. The seer, reading her desire to acquire the necessary power to meet her supposed lover, Nalakubara, determined to bring about that mischief. So he readily conferred on her the power of assuming any form she liked. Obtaining this power from him, she went into the harem and returned almost immediately to tell her guru that all those com- pliments were offered in sincerity. Pleased with this service, the divine seer blessed her that she would meet her lover whom she sncerely loved from the very beginning, and departed from her accompanied by his second disciple. Thus her visits to the court having come to close, Kalabhasıni was in an indolent mood. Her thoughts once agan flew back to Nalakubara. How ever hard she tried, she could not wean her 15 mind from him. There appeared no way for her to meet her sup- posed lover. Time was hanging heavy. One evening, while she was brooding over her love mn her garden, a siddha named Manistambha alighted there with his lion from the aenal path. To her great surprise, he addressed her by her name, enquired after her health and her love for Nalakubara. He explamed to her the object of his visit. Good music was his meat and drink. Before he met Kalabhasini his faculty of clairaudience nounshed him with Manikaridhara's music. Because Manikandhara was occu- pied with his penance, he was denied the opportunity to hear his soul-moving music. So Manistambha requested her to entertain hum with her art. In her cunosity to know the later history of Manikandhara on the one hand, and to ascertain his supernatu- ral powers on the other, she requested him to tell her how Manikandhara happened to undertake penance. The siddha narrated what Närada had told Manikandhara before his final departure. The divine seer became envious of Tumbura's musical faculty. His proficiency was so great that Narada performed severe penance and obtained a boon from Visnu. G. V. Knshna Rao

He was to be trained in that art by Krsna. That was why Narada continually visited him for so many years. After giving an ac- count of his visıts, Narada advised his dısciple, Manikandhara, to dedicate his musical talent to the service of the Lord, to go on a pilgrimage and then to perform penance. Following this advice Manikandhara visited vanous holy places and then took to pen- ance.

This account given by Manistambha was confirmed by a parrot perching on the branch of a tree near by. It informed Kalabhasini that it had come from heaven, and that Indra had sent Rambha to Mankandhara with the sole purpose of prevent- ing him from carrying on his penance. After giving this news, the bird took leave of her and flew away on her own mission.

THIRD CANTO Rambha proceeded to Manikandhara's hermitage with her attendants as directed by Indra and very soon managed to en- snare him with her beauty. In the meanwhile, Manistambha, who was being entertamed by Kalabhäsinı, informed her at her re- quest how Manikandhara had become a victim to Rambha, and how he had to part from her owing to her unconscious reference to Nalakubara in her concubinal ecstasy. Being pressed further by her, the siddha told her that Nalakubara was waiting for his beloved Rambha in the outskirts of Manıkandhara's hermitage, and laughed at her because the sole cause of her enquiry was her anxiety to know the whereabouts of Nalakubara. When the siddha was about to leave Kalabhäsinı, she pressed him to take her on his lion to her supposed lover25. Pretending hesitation a while, he put her on the lion and started on his aenal journey. When they reached the neighbour- hood of the temple of Mrgendravahana, the lion refused to go forward. He whipped it hard, but it did not budge even an inch. Kalabhasını became nervous. By way of explanation the siddha told her that there was the temple of Mrgendravahana near by and that no lion dared to move around or above the lion of the goddess. He informed her that it would be better for them to wor-

Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

ship the goddess and then proceed towards their destination. They got down and left the lion to seek its prey. Manistambha asked her to wait for him at the temple and left her for a while promising to bring flowers for worship. There at the temple, she met a very old and fragile lady, who, to her great horror and consternation, informed her that the siddha was a cruel man, and that he had brought her there only to sacrifice her to the goddess. Sumukhäsatti, for that was the name of the old lady, advised her to make good her escape before he returned to the temple. This news came as a bold from the blue. What was her object, and what was she going to meet with? How could she escape now from one who had the supernatural powers of clair- voyance and clairaudience? Resigning herself to fate, she read the edicts on the pillar. She was now quite certain that she was about to be killed. To acquire a vast empire he was going to sac- rfice her to the goddess. Manıstambha, having returned with flowers, asked 17 Kalabhäsin to follow him inte the inmost sanctuaries of the tem- ple. Apprehensive of her coming death, she requested the old woman to accompany her. Immediately the siddha guessed that the old woman had revealed to her everything. Losing no time, he caught Kalabhäsinı by her hair and began to drag her to the presence of the goddess. Her bitter wailing and despondent ap- peal moved the old woman to the core, and she forbade him to kill her in the name of the goddess. Not heeding this, he was about to strike when Sumukhäsatti offered her own head. He cut it off, and then raised his sword once more to strike. Before the blow came down, the siddha and Kalabhäsini were flung away far, far into the lap of distance. Sumukhāsattı was resuscitated in a new body, beautiful and young. Once again she began her yogic practice. As this was going on, one day, Kalabhasın returned to the temple, and asked her who she was. What was her surprise when she heard that the young woman was none other than Sumukhasatti! Just at that time Mankandhara also arrived at the temple with his mu- sical instrument on his shoulder. As he saw Kalabhāsıni, his G. V Knshna Rao

heart leapt into his mouth because after such a long time he was able to meet his co-disciple, whom he had never expected to see any more. With overflowing emotion he enquired after her wel- fare and the cause of her appearance at that place. Kalabhäsını with an equal ardour told him how she had been brought to the temple by Manstambha, and how Sumukhäsatti had offered her life to save her. At this juncture, Manistambha also appeared on the scene, and learnt after enquiry who the young and beautiful lady was. Pressed for his later history, he gave the following ac- count :- Thrown far by the goddess, both Manistambha and Kalabhasini fell on a flowery bed in the vicinity of Manikandhara's hermitage. When he got over this shock, he saw by his side Kalabhäsin with her frame slightly quivering and yet most allur- ing. Unable to control his passion for the quivering beauty beside him, he tried to embrace her. To escape from this molestation, 18 she cried aloud for help; and help came from Nalakubara who was not very far off. While the siddha was running for his life at the unexpected turn of events, Nalakubara caught him and de- manded that he should be shown where the lady was. As Manistambha was benig dragged back to the flowery bed, Rambha appeared on the scene, released him and led Nalakubara into a bower near by. The siddha, who could not afford to lose his sword that had fallen into the hands of Nalakubara, waited for an oportunity to regain it. As their dallance was going on, another Rambha made her appearance. Nalakubara was so puzzled that he could not know who the real Rambha was. Presently there ensued a truculent quarrel between the two women. Närada, who was ever on the watch for such situations, appeared on the scene, enjoyed the quarrel to his heart's content, and left the place without explicitly revealing their respective identities. To regain her lover, the sec- ond Rambha tred to force the first to follow her to the court of Indra. But the first Rambha swore in the name of Nalakbara that she would not step into that court, whereupon the second Rambha sneered at her saying that it was but a trick to hide her Studies m Kalapurnodayam

inability to take the aerial path. This clue opened the eyes of Nalakübara; he was now able to recognize the real Rambha, and so proceeded to punish the impostress most violently while the true Rambha cursed her that she would be put to the sword in the near future. While the real Rambha was enjoying Nalakubara's com- pany, there appeared another Nalakubara on the scene and raised a quarrel. Manistambha, who was watching these bewildering events, was unable at first to believe his own senses. But the fight between the two Nalakubaras was so fierce that he could not but believe at length what was going on under his very nose. Very soon Rambha parted them, and taking them aside one after another, questioned them when Kalapurna's story was referred to. The first Nalakubara could not tell her, whereas the second could. Thereupon she left the impostor in disgust and joined her real lover. The aggneved Nalakubara cursed the impostor that he would meet his death soon. Manistambha did not know where 19

the impostor went, but the celestial couple returned to heaven. The siddha took the sword left in the bower by the impostor and returned to the temple. After narrating these incidents, Manistambha requested Kalabhasını to relate to him what befell her after she left the flowery bed.

FOURTH CANTO To their great surprise, Kalabhāsinı disclosed to her audı- tors that she was the very impostress, and explained to them how she was able to assume that form by virtue of the boon she had obtained from Narada. Now her only sorrow was, she told them, that her chastity had been violated by some other person than Nalakubara. When she was about to say something more, Manıkandhara came out with his confession. He was the person who dallied with her in the form of Nalakubara and later on re- ceived a curse from the celestial lover. He recalled their earher asociations. Sınce their first meeting he had loved Kalabhāsin, G. V. Knshna Rao

but he was prevented from expressing his love for fear of Nāradā's resentment. He was very happy to have been united with her. When she heard it, Kalabhasini's joy knew no bounds because she was united with Manikandhara whom she had loved from the very beginning. Explaining this and the psychic phenomena that led her to believe that she was in love with Nalakūbara, she told them that none would believe it to be true because firstly, she came from the courtezan class, and secondly, her attach- ment to Nalakübara was as clear as day-light. Her obvious sincenty, candour and veracity roused the true lover in Manikandhara. He consoled her saying that he truly be- lieved her words and even reminded her of tthe parting words of Narada as a proof of the truth of her statement. In addition, he gave the following account in support of the validity of the psy- chic process which she descnbed as having personally under-

20 gone. Before he became the disciple of Narada, Manikandhara propitiated Mrgendravahana and acquired the poetic gift. To get that new power tested by the literary critics of Kashmir, he vis- ited that country and stayed with a Brahmin. Just at that time there came the news that Salina and Sugatr were drowned in the lake, Satataladaghna. He asked his host who they were and he gave the following story. In that Saradapitha there was a pnest who had an only daughter named Sugatrı. Owing to unknown causes the father left the family and disappeared. Where he went, and what be- came of him, nobody knew. When the girl came of age, she was married to an apparently docile and pliable youth called Salina, who was required to live with his mother-in-law and his wife. On the first night of their meeting, Sugatri was gorgeously decorated and sent into the nuptial chamber. Salina, who had no attraction for jewellery or colourful finery did not care even to look at his wife but sank into a deep sleep in utter indifference. Thus nght after night passed with no ray of conjugal love touching the full bloom of her maidenhood. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

This indifference on the part of Salina created difficulties for him. The mother-in-law, who was eager to have grandchil- dren, was very disappointed, and began to dislike him. She even imposed on him such menial tasks as watering her garden. This humilating treatment given to her husband by her mother pained Sugätr very much. She could neither endure it nor put up an open fight with her mother. The second course would naturally make her family affairs the town talk. As days passed by, Sugatr could no longer sit idle at home, while her husband was working hard in the garden. Without informing her mother she went there, hid herjewels safe in some place and began to help her husband in watering the plants. With this physical labour she was ex- hausted. She was profusely perspiring and her breasts were gen- tly nsing and falling. Salina coud no longer be indifferent to her quivering beauty and at once took her into his arms. Within two days Sugatr came to understand her husband's temperament. he did not like anything but quivering beauty. While they were 21 thus living happily, one day Salina got angry with his wife and threw himself into the lake, Satataladaghna, and died. After narrating this story, Manikandhara asked Sumukhäsattı whether she did not know the heroine as she claimed that country as her native land. With a sweet smile on her face she told them that she was that very Sugatr. Great was their surprise to hear this news. This was doubled when Manıstambha came out with the confession that he was the very Salina. Naturally this led to the question of identification. Be- cause both Sumukhäsatti and Manistambha gave the same cause for their dispute, Manikandhara declared them to be really hus- band and wife. While Sumukhasatti was feeling grieved over Manıkandhara's curse, Kalabhasini asked him why he was not able to tell Rambha that the reference to the story of Kalapurna was made in the neighbourhood of Dvaraka. Manikandhara re- plied to her that he had never heard ofit. Then remembering that he was not with Narada when she asked the seer about it, she told him what she had heard from her guru. Alaghuvrata, a G. V. Knshna Rao

Malayali Brahmın, who had come there to seek his fortune and having heard from Kalabhäsinı that by coming to know the story of Kalāpūrņa one would acquire wealth and enjoy a long and prosperous life etc., sat down to do penance with the object of coming to know the story by the grace of Mrgndravahana. In the meanwhile, Kalabhäsinı begged Manistambha to sac- rifice her to the goddess and thus obtain his wish. He refused to comply with her request expaining that he would not dare to raise his sword once again against her as he was forbidden to do it in the name of the goddess. Since his sword was sure to kill her sooner or later, she entreated Manikańdhara to sacrifice her, and thus obtain a vast empire. Persuaded from all quarters, Mankandhara after long hesitation offered her to the Goddess. Because he hesitated, he was told by the goddess, that he would acquire the empire only in his next birth. In the meanwhile Kalabhasını woke up unhurt and found herself in her garden in Dvaraka. Mankandhara hid his sword and uina in the temple, 22 presented the manthara to Alaghuvrata and went to the Srisaila with the object of throwing himself into the valley and thus court death. Sumukhäsatti and Manistambha stayed there for some time carrying on yogic practice, and later on set out on their lion to visit various places of interest.

FIFTH CANTO By the end of the second year of Alaghuvrata's penance, he was flung far into the air by the goddess along with his manthara. When he regained his consciousness and opened his eyes, he found himself in the full court of a king. There was a baby in the cradle before the ruler. Alaghuvrata bowed low to the kng and presented him with the manhara. The king in his turn presented it to the baby. No sooner had the central gem touched the heart of the baby, than it laughed and said that it was happy to see it once again after two years. Every one in the court was taken by surpnse. The king in his curiosity and wonder questioned it where and how it had seen it when it was hardly two months old. While the audience listened with rapt attention, the baby narrated the following :- Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Originally it was the pet parrot of Sarasvati and Caturmukha. Once Brahma was dallying with Sarasvati in their garden near a lake. Although she was truly happy, she tred to hide her pleasure by pretending to be offended with her hus- band. Brahma, at this turn of events, asked the parrot in the cage near by to tell him a story. The parrot, however, pleading her inability, requested him to tell one himself, whereupon he gave the following.story :- In the city of Kasärapura there lived a king named Kalāpūrna. His father was Sumukhāsatti, a woman, and his mother was Manistambha, a man. As soon as he was thus born, he became a youth and was presented by a siddha named Svabhäva with a jewel, a bow and arrows, all invested with su- pematural powers. He conquered Madasaya, another kıng, and made hım his vassal. Hıs minister Satvadātman, made him the anointed king of Angadesa. Attracted by the jewel, the four 23 Agamas, the purohits of Madasaya, attended upon him. Once it so happened that one of the four Ägamas offended the king by fondling the jewel too much; and as a consequence, all of them were driven out. Madasaya also left the court along with his queen, Rūpanubhuti and his baby, Madhuralalasa, only to re- turn after some time. When Madhuralālasa, came of age, she was gıven ın marrage to Kalāpūrna. Sarasvatı, who was all the while carefully following the story, embraced her husband and asked him whether it was not an account of their love narrated in the form of a story. In spite of his smiling denials, he had to admit the truth when she came out with her lucid comment. Sometime after this event took palce, Rambha came to the world of Brahma to pay her homage to Sarasvati. Just at that time the parrot was repeating the manita that emanated from the throat of Sarasvati. The sensual woman that she was, Rambha came to know everything that had happened between Sarasvati and Chaturmukha through the innocent creature. Sarasvati G. V. Knshna Rao

happened to overhear the parrot imparting her secrets of love, and cursed that it might be born as an unchaste woman among mortals. Brahma, who came there, consoled the poor creature with the blessing that she would in her subsequent life be born as Madhuralālasa and marry Kalāpuma and be famed for a chaste wife. He warned Rambha that the revelation of the story of Kaläpura would confer upon the narrator and the auditor mor- tal life, long and prosperous. That very parrot was born as Kalabhasini in Dvaraka and saw the manthara with Manıkandhara. Then Alaghuvrata requested the baby to tell him where he could see the king Kalapma. It directed him to get the informa- tion from the audience. The king at once told him that he was Kalapurņa, and then introduced Satvadatman, Madasaya, Rupanubhuti and the four Agamas. He also informed him that 24 the baby was the daughter of Madasaya and Rupanubhuti. Requested once again by Alaghuvrata to be enlightened on the question of Kalapura's supernatural birth, the baby nar- rated the following events. At her husband's request, Sumukhäsatti exchanged her sex with her husband by virtue of the boon she obtained from Mrgendravahana. In that state Kalapurna was born to them, and at once he became a youth. Satvadatman abdicated his throne in favour of that superman to absolve himself of the crime of unjustified advances of love he made to Sumukhāsattı. Svabhava was no other person than the father-in-law of Manistambha. It was he who gave his son-in-law the lion and the sword. After having practised yoga for a long time in the depths of the Satatäladaghna, he emerged from it and reached the Srisaila. There he met Manikandhara who was about to throw himself down into the valley. Learning from him his personal story and promising to give him a jewel, a bow and arrows which would bestow victory and prospenty, Svabhava dissuaded Manikandhara from courting death in that manner. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

SIXTH CANTO

When Mankandhara was at the srisaila, Abhinavakaumudi, an apsarasa maden, came running towards him, gave him a miraculous sword and requested him to save her from Salyasura who was pursuing her. Courageous as he was, he had a terrible fight with the demon which resulted in each slaying the other. Mankandhara, who died in that fight, was subsequently born as Kalāpūrna; and Abhinavakaumudi marned him in accordance with her oath. Once again requested by Alaghuvrata, the baby told him his past history describing the loss of his property, the parting from his wives, the birth of the four Agamas and their entry into the service of Madasaya. Now Satvadatman approached the baby for information regarding his antecedents which he was quite unable to remember. The central gem of the manthara falling off her heart, the baby lost her supernatural powers and began to weep. No one was able to know the cause of this sudden change. 25

Kalāpurna, promising to marry her, asked her parents to bring her up with proper care.

SEVENTH AND EIGHTH CANTOS As years passed by, Madhuralalasa, as that was the name of that baby, grew up into a young and beautiful maiden and was mared to Kalapurna. Later on the king, to keep up his word given to his two wives, undertook an expedition of conquest and vanquished all the kngs. Abhinavakaumudi was presented with the uina and Madhuralalasa with a pair of anklets studded with the crown-jewels of all the princes. When Satvadatman came with that present and was about to bow to her, Madhuralalasa protested against it and paid homage to him. She then revealed his past history to her husband. Satvadatman's onginal name was Sugraha; he was the brother of Rupanubhuti. Coming to know of his pedigree and good qualities, varous kings requested him to accept their daugh- ters as his wives. Because he did not care to reply to them, all of

G. V. Knshna Rao

them besieged his capital. Perturbed by this turn of events, he stole into the forest and performed penance as a result of which he obtained the manihara. Later on, however, a curse was pro- nounced upon him to the effect that he would forget his past history up to that event and not be recognised by other people also who knew him. He would be redeemed from his curse only when he came to know of that event. Thus he lost the manihara which had the power to reveal everything when its central gem touched the heart of the wearer. It first fell into the hands of a Brahmana who presented it to Krsna. Krsna gave it to Manikandhara who in turn gave it to Alaghuvrata. How at length it reached Madhuralalasa was too well-known to need comment. Because the central gem fell off the heart of the baby, Madhuralalasa, she was not able to disclose Satvadatman's past history. All this, Madhuralalasa came to know only at that time.

26 Later on both Kaläpurna and Madhuralalasa utilsed the manhara to know not only Manikandhara's poem Laksminārayana Samvāda but also the social and political condi- tions of their kingdom as they really were. The monarch begot two sons Suprasada and Sarasa by his wives Abhinavakaumudi and Madhuralalasa respectively. Thus he lived a long and happy life with no longing unsatisfied and with nothing to crave for.

Studies in Kalapurnodauam

CHAPTER III THE SO - CALLED SOURCES

Before proceeding to enquire into the merits and demerits of Kalāpūrņodayam as a Mahakāvya, it is necessary to examine whether its theme is onginal or borrowed. An answer to this question is of great importance to the subject of this essay. If it can be proved and established that the poem has a vertable source, the purport and significance of the poem can be deter- mined by the aim and object of the source. If the poet has made alterations and changes in the events borrowed, his object in making them becomes esay to discover. If, on the contrary, the poem proves to be orginal through and through, its significance and purport is to be arrived at purely on the basis of internal evidence. When this question of sources is answered satisfacto- rly, the problem where one should inquire for its purport be- 27 comes simplified. In this connection there appears to be some confusion between a source and an influence. A clear idea about them may make the problem simpler. So it may be roughly de- fined for this purpose that anything which is to be considered a regular source must provide more than one ncident, or episode, or character, or outlook. If none of them can be traced back, then surely one is at liberty to conclude that there is no source. If such be the nature of a source, it goes without saying that a literary work whose value depends entirely on its organic unity cannot be said to have a number of sources. If many works appear to claim it, it seems appropnate to regard them more as influences than sources. Viewed from this angle, how far can the works mentioned by critics be considered sources of the Kalapurnodayam ? Mr. Achuta Rao26, Pandit Sri Duvvūr Venkataramana Sastri27 and others mention the Kadambari, the Prabodhacandrodayam, the Lingapuranam, the Manucaritram, the Sn-kala-hastı-mahātmyam, the Paryjātapaharanam, the Markandeyapurānam, the Āscaryacūdamanı of Saktibhadra, the

G. V Knshna Rao

Mahabharata, the Setubandha and the Amuktamalyada as sources. There are one or two critics like Mr. Malladı Sūryanārayana Sastri who completely deny that the Kalāpurnodayam29 has any source. But the main question is whether anyone of the works mentioned above is to be consid- ered a source, and if so to what extent. This inquiry may be started with Bana's Kädambari which is an adaptation of the story of Sumanas to be found in Somadeva's Kathāsarıtsāgara. Sudraka, the King of Vidisa, received one day a parrot named Vaisampäyana, well-versed in all the sciences from a matanga kanya. Greeted by Vaisampāyana in human tongue, the king became curious and solicited the parrot for its story. Explaimng to the king how it lost its father and was saved by the son of Jabali, it gave the following account of its past history as heard from Jäbali narrating it to the sages.

28 Tarapida, the Kıng of Ujjayını, and hıs minister, Sukanāsa, were after a long time blessed with the birth of sons called Candrapida and Vaisampayana. In due course these two boys received education appropnate to their status and grew into tall and sturdy youths. When Candrapida attained proper age, he was anointed as the crown prince, whereupon he started on an expedition of world conquest along with his frend, Vaisampayana. Towards the close of this campaign the crown prince, mounted his invincible horse, Indrayudha, and followed by his friend and the army, reached Kailäsa. One day while he was resting there with his friend and army, he was attracted by a kinnara couple and pursued it on his horse. Thus led on, he reached at last the hermitage of Mahasveta, an extremely beautiful maiden, who had taken to austerties of penance. To his great relief, he received hospitality at her hands and so requested her to enlighten him with her story. Modest and good-natured, Mahasveta told him about her ternble misfortune. She was the only daughter of the gändharva couple, Hamsa and Gaur. One day she happened to meet Pundarka, the son of a sage, when she went to the lake of Acchoda Studhes in Kalapurnodayam

to bathe. He was so handsome that Mahasveta could not but fall in love with him. With great difficulty she left her lover, and went home only to hear from Kapinjala, the friend of her lover, that love-sickness had so effected his friend that he was in danger of life. By the time she reached hm, Pundarka was no more. When she was making preparations to commit sati, a divine being came down and carned away Pundarika's body into the moon giving her definite instructions not to die. She was also promised reun- ion with her lover. Kapinjala, who was on the scene, could not stay behind ; and so he followed the divine person. After this terrible event Mahasvēta, losing all other interests and values of life, took to penance. Kadambari, the intimate frend of Mahasvēta, and only daughter of Citraratha, coming to know of this tragic fate took a vow not to marry so long as the sorrow of her fnend continued. Mahäsveta was requested by Citraratha to dissuade hs daughter from carrying out this oath. Mahāsvēta, taking Candrāpida with her, went to Kādambar 29 on this mission. At first sight both candrapida and Kadambar fell in love with each other. After spending some days there, Candrapida took leave of Kadambari and reached Mahasveta's hermitage. Meanwhile his army was awaiting him, and before long he got a letter from his father asking him to return to the capital immediately. Requesting his friend Vaisampāyana to bring the army to Ujjayin he went to the capital. Vaisampayana, how- ever, dd not return to the city for a long while, whereupon Chandräpida was requested by Sukanasa to bring back his friend. The crown prince who was once again on his journey, met his returning army on the way and learnt that his friend had refused to come with it to the metropolis. Informing his parents and the prime minister of this news and obtamning their permis- sion, he hastened to the hermitage of Mahasveta only to learn that his friend had been changed into a parrot by her curse, as she did not know who he was, for his mproper behaviour. At this terrble blow Candrapida fell down dead. Just at that time Kadambanı, and Patralekha, the maid attending on the prince, appeared on the scene. Clauvoyance told Kadambari that her G V. Knshna Rao

lover was not dead and that she would once again live happily with him. Patralekha, who had got on the back of Vajrayudha, went to the moon, returned and took a deep plunge into the lake along with the horse: No sooner had this been done, than came out of the lake Kapinjala. Mahāsvēta enquired of him after her lover, and he told her the result of his efforts. When Kapinjala reached the moon, he was told by him how pundarika before his death had cursed the moon that he would be born twice on the earth devoid of the fruits of love. The moon also in his turn had cursed Pundarka that he would undergo the same fate with him in two births in the world. To save the body of Pundarika from decay it was carned into the moon. The moon advised Kapinjala to inform Svētakētu, the father of his friend, of this curse and get it removed. While Kapinjala was returning, a curse fell upon him that he would become a horse and serve

30 Candräpida. He was further informed that the moon and Pundarika who had cursed each other would be born as Candrâpida and Vaisampayana, and that he would regain his form when he plunged into water, after the death of Candrapida. Leaving this information with Mahasveta and Kadambarı, Kapmnjala went to Svetaketu to devise ways and means of getting his fnend, Pundarika, released from his miserable fate as soon as possible. Receiving no news from his son for a long time, Tarapıda and Sukanasa went to Mahasveta with their wives and stayed with her and learnt from her of the fates of their sons. Jabali told the sages that the parrot before them was no other person thatn Vaisampāyana cursed by Mahasvēta. On hearing this whole story, Vaisampayana regamed the knowledge ofhis past hfe and his love for Mahasveta. The parrot became restless and wanted to see her once again. Though it was not strong enough to undertake this fight, love for Mahasveta would not leave it in peace. The parrot was caught on its way and brought before Sudraka, the king. The king regained his knowledge ofhis past birth as Candrapida and before long he left Studies in Kalapurnodayam

his unholy ghost behind only to wake up in the embrace of Kadamban. Pundarika also regaming his old form jomed his sweetheart, Mahasveta. Ths is the story of Kadamban when divested of the tilt and twist of phrase, the cadence of clause and the sonorous word- music. Now what are the common traits between the Kādambarı and the Kalapurnodayam ? At first sight, there seems nothing similar between these two except that in both the poems the po- etic canvas extends over three births and that an extensive use of curses is made to secure unity. While Kadambari is purely a romantic story, Kalāpūrnodayam possesses greater human in- terest. The curses employed in Kadambari are rather more arbi- trary and without artistic depth than those in the Telugu poem. Both these works make an extensive use of flash-back technique in presenting the story, and both are too mntricate to be easily remembered. But the greatest story-teller that he is, Surana employs a large number of devices and points of technique in the narration of the story. In some parts the author of the 31 Kalāpurnödayam mntroduces the characters like a dramatist and allows them to develop of their own accord through action and reaction, conflict and compromise; in some parts he makes one of the characters narrate the story to others; and in some, he directly takes up the threads into his own hands. This is not the method of Bana. As Prof P.V.Kane30 remarks in his introduction to Kadambarı, "we meet with a defect in constructive art, which is due to the device of weaving stories within stories ..... The fact that the greater part of the story is put in the mouth of a parrot is a senous drawback to the verisimilitude of the work." The learned professor nghtly adds .- "Bana seems to have had very little sense of proportion. In his descniptions of Mahasvêta and the temple of Candika he tries the reader by dwelling too much on every detail. The patience of the reader is exhausted by the overloading of single words with epithets and of the epithets to these epithets. It sometimes so seems that the poet cares only for the gorgeous descnption of the evening, morning, moonnse or the limbs of the heroine and leaves the plot to take care of itself." These blem- ishes cannot be found in the art of Surana as exhibited in the Kalāpūrņodayam.

G. V. Krishna Rao

It may be remembered in this context that the extension of the theme over three births and the utilisation of curses are in no way the innovations of Bana They are to be found in the story of Sumanas in the Kathasartsagara itself. That being so, how can anybody manintamn that Surana borrowed these two ideas only from Bana and not from the translations of Brhatkatha unless he has other evidences? So long as these evidences are not shown, one cannot reasonably give much weight to this statement :- "The Kadambarı may have suggested to hım (Surana) the remarkable idea of spreading the action of the story beyond a single life time of the hero and the heroine."31 On closer examination, some other faint resemblances, be- tween the two poems in point of characterisation may be seen. For example, there is only one parrot called Vaisampäyana in the Kadambarı while two are introduced in the Kalāpurņodayam. Of these two, one plays only a very minor part, whereas the other 32 assumes the role of the heroie in later births. But introducing parrots as characters cannot be said to have been borrowed from the Kadambari since this is found even in the purānas and other earlier literature. The next vague point of sımilarıty is Vajrayudha, the valiant horse of Candräpida, which finds its distant counter- part in the lion of Manistambha: while the former has an impor- tant role to play, the latter has none Some resemblance more striking than those considered already is to be found between Mahasveta and Abhinavakaumudi. Both of them are heroies belonging to the gandharva class and embodying purty itself. Their husbands die for them and they are reunited with them later on with this difference Mahasveta marnes Pundarika ater he is brought back to life, whereas Abhinavakaumudi marres Kaläpurna who is born with a different body. Both these heroines are chaste and do not permit any liberty to be taken with them. But there is a certain divinity, a sweetness, a supermundane aroma about Mahasveta which is quite absent in Abhinavakaumudı. The latter is more of a human being than a gandharvakanya. Affection and tender feelngs for fellowbeings are not to be found in her. If Surana had been in anyway influ- Studies in Kalapurnodayam

enced by the Kadambari, he would not have missed this point. In short, Bana's characters are only fanciful toy balloons let loose into the air of beautiful metaphor, simile and hyperbole, while those of Surana are creatures moving in human form amidst mortals. Even his gandharvas and raksasas appear as mainly human beings with a slight supermundane tendency about them. This is not, however, to underestimate the greatness of Bana. What is meant here is that they are worlds apart, that each is unnvalled in his own field and that Kadambari cannot be consid- ered at all a source of the Kalāpūrnodayam. Now to continue, the Prabödhacandrodayam can be taken up for discussion. This work of Krsna Misra is a drama present- ing the philosophy of Advaita. Its merts are more of histonc na- ture than of aesthetic value because it is perhaps the first of the now available Sansknt dramas to have santa as the main rasa. What are presented here are not characters in flesh and blood taken from society. They are mere abstractions of human pas- 33 sions and emotions, simple cancatures of castes and creeds. Anticipating the modern drama of ideas and problems, it depicts two kinds of conflicts, one internal and the other external. The first is delineated with great skill by showing clearly how the soul gradually overcomes the temptations and weaknesses and real- ises its own nature of ânanda. The second is developed through the fight with other schools of philosophy and religion like Bud- dhism, Jainism, Kapalika creed and the like. In this sphere the creative genius completely fails the dramatist because the frontal attack made against them loses the sympathy of those not in- clned towards Advaita. This defect may not be evident to staunch Advatins and to others who have no philosophical interest at all. But let it be presented to Buddhists, or Jains, or philosophers other than Advatins; and see the result. The very fact that so many dramas were wntten to advocate various religions and phi- losophies shows their unaesthetic nature. Any work of art true to its nature must attain universality, and must make the crtic or sahrdaya to whatever school he may belong, live again the life that is portrayed. So long as that is lacking it cannot be called a work of art. G. V. Knshna Rao

So the Prabodhacandrodayam is more a propaganda than a drama32. Now could any student of Telugu literature think of the Kalapurnodayam as having for its source Prabodhacandrodayam Surana's work, apart from its profound significance to be explained in later chapters, openly advocates Visistādvaita in many places. But does it wound or antogonise anybody? One may not be able to see eye to eye with the poet, but one has no complaint against hım. Narada, Kalabhāsını, Sugātri, Sarasvati, Manıstambha are not caricatures but concrete, full- blooded characters. The technique, the outlook and the form Surana adopts have nothing in common with those of the Prabodha candrôdayam. Even in point of rasa, tha Kalāpūmodayam completely differs from the earlier work: the prin- cipal rasa in the former is smgara, whereas it is just the oppo- site, 1e. sänta, in the latter. Hence, without the least hesitation, it may be affirmed that 34 the Prabodhachandrodayam could not have been a source at all of the Kalapurnodayam. The resemblance to be found in these two titles seems to be determined only by the preceeding words signifying the moon. In the first case the word udaya means only rise, butin the second it means prosperity also. Besides this, the first title has only denotatve significance while the second sug- gests a vast world.

THE MARKANDĒYA PURĀNA The next alleged source of the Kalapurnodayam is the story of Madalasa to be found in the second and third cantos of Telugu Markandeya Purana of Marana. This story when bniefly rendered runs as folows :- Gālava, a great sage, regularly molested by Patalaketu, a rakshasa, presented the prince Rtadhvaja with a valiant steed Kuvalaya by name, and requested him to kill the demon. The prince undertaking this mission, happened to meet this räkshasa, in the form of a bear, and pursued it. Shot by an arrow, the bear ran for its life and disappeared into a pitch-dark cave. With undaunted courage the prince entered the cave and at last reached a beautful city.

Stuches m Kalapurnodauam

There Rtadhvaja came across a lady, and silently following her, met a beautiful princess. The moment their eyes met they fell in love with each other. With the help of a lady, Kundala by name, they came to know about each other and got marned by Tumburu. Later on the prince killed the rakshasa and carnied Madalasa, the daughter of Visvävasu, to his capital. Tālakētu, the brother of Pātālaketu, wanted to wreak venge- ance on Rtadhavaja at any cost. One day when the prince reached the bank of the Yamuna on his daily routine of protecting the people, Talaketu approached him in the form of a sage and con- trived to get his necklace saying that he wanted it for performing a sacrifice. Leaving the prince in charge of his hermitage, the demon went to the prince's capital, and presenting the necklace told the king and Madalasa that Rtadhavaja had been killed in a flight with an enemy. On hearing this bad news Madalasa fell down dead. The old king performed the funeral rtes of both his son and daughter-in-law. 35

Talaketu returned to his hermitage, and thanking thé prince for his help, sent him away. On reaching the city, Rtadhvaja learned what had happened and henceforth life for him became meaningless. Stricken with gnef, the prince took a vow not to marry again. As time passed on, the naga Princes cultivated his friendship and began to spend most of their time in his com- pany. Their father, Asvatara, came to know about Rtadhavaja and wanted to make him happy. So he performed severe penance by which he got a boon from Sarasvati, the goddess of speech, whereby he became a greatly accomplished musician. With this gift in music he pleased Isvara and obtained in return Madālasa as his daughter endowed with all the knowledge of her past life and yôga. Asvatara arranged to invite Rtadhvaja to his palace and gave him back Madalasa. The prince once agan began to lead a very happy life with her. She gave birth to three boys one after another whom Rtadhavaja named Vikranta, Subahu and Satrumardana. But from their cradle the great mother brought them up in philosophy and taught them the futility of mundane life so that they renounced the world one after another. When the G. V. Knshna Rao

fourth son was born, the father again approached the cradle to give him a name. The mother laughed the serene laugh of a de- vout soul upon which he requested her to name the boy When Madälasa called him Alarka, he asked her why she called him so Thereupon she replied :-

Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

On hearing her explanation the king readily admitted that the name was appropriate, but urged upon her to bring him up as a prince, and she fulfilled it. Now what are the characteristics that are common to both the Kalapurnodayam and the story of Madalasa. Raksasa appear- ing in the form of a boar cannot be said to have been borrowed only from the Markandeya-purana since that is seen in a number of stories in other puranas. The heroines, Madalasa and Madhuralãlasa, are poles apart in temperament, character and antecedents. The former belongs to the gandharva class while 37 the latter is only a human being. Their very names suggest their inherently opposite natures. That the discussion on the appro- priateness of names might have inspired Surana to create the incident of Sarasvati and Brahma cannot be substantiated. The mention of Tumburu and the power of music also do not carry one anywhere. Hence it may not be unreasonable to say that the story of Madalasa is not a source at all of the Kalāpumodayam. There are more than three interesting episodes in the Mahabhärata in which a man or a woman changes his or her form or sex, and even bears children in some cases. One of these is to be found in the seventh canto of Aranyaparva33 wherein Adbhutagni is described as having fallen in love with the wives of the seven seers. Because of their un impeachable character he could not dare to express his feelings to them. Unable to bear the pangs of love he went into the forest. Svaha, the daughter of Daksayani, whom he had formerly refused to marry loved him so passionately that she wanted to get united to him at any cost. So she approached her lover in the form of one of the wives of the seven seers, and Adbhutägni could not detect her real identity. G. V. Krishna Rao

The conversation between the two is really very interesting and provides occasion for flights of poetic imagination But how far this incident mnspired Surana to conceive the idea of Salina lov- ing only a certain aspect of Sugatr's beauty and of Kalabhāsıı approaching Nalakubara in the form of Rambha cannot be deter- mined. It seems, therefore, more a conjecture than an ascertain- able fact. The second episode dealing with the transformation of sex is to be found in the fourth canto of Udyogaparvam of Tikkana's Bhärata34. This tells us how Sikhandın born as a girl later on becomes a youth with the help of a Yaksa The other episode of all depicts how a prince becomes a princess and gives birth to a boy. These two are of minor importance when compared with the fourth episode. It runs as follows :- King Bhangväsana had no child for long, and so he per-

38 formed a particular kind of sacrifice which was not liked by Indra As a result of this sacrifice, he had a hundred sons. The dis- pleased Indra was waiting for a chance to give vent to his anger. One day the king went into the forest on a hunting expedition. The king of Devas by his super natural power made him lose his way in the forest. Roaming hither and thither, Bhangvasana got tired and at last reached a lake. After his horse had drunk, he took a plunge in the water only to find himself changed into a woman. Great was his gnef, and greater was his hesitation to appear before his sons and ministers n that deplorable state At last he went to the capital, left the kingdom in charge of his sons and returned to the forest once more to perform penance. Later on, Bhangväsana happened to live with a sage and begot once more a hundred sons He or she took them to the elder sons and ordered them to share their power and nches with their younger brothers. Dutiful sons as they were, they obeyed the order. Great was the anger of Indra who could not bear the sight of Bhangvasana's prosperty, and he wanted to cause mis- chief. Disguised as a Brahmin, he approached the elder and the younger brothers in secret and sowed the seeds of mutual hatred with the result that both the parties were completely annihilated Studies m Kalapurnodayam

in the end. Bhangvasana, coming to know of their destruction, began to weep when Indra approached her and enquired for the cause as if he knew nothing at all. As she wept explamning the cause of her distress, Indra told her the truth and asked her out of sympathy to choose either the elder or the younger sons to whom he might grant life. She, without the slightest hesitation, requested him to restore the lives of the younger sons telling hm that a mother's love was greater than that of the father. Pleased with this answer, Indra was prepared to grant Bhangvāsana his former sex; but she preferred to remain a woman The cause of this preference, it is said, was that in sexual intercourse the pleas- ure a woman attained was greater than that of a man36. In what way does this story concern one in his study of theKalapurnodayam? Though this incident cannot be treated as a source of the poem, there are certain similarities between the two which suggest that the former must have exercised an influ- 39 ence upon the latter. Just as Bhangvasana loses his natural sex, becomes a woman and conceives, so also Manistambha becomes a woman and gives birth to Kalapurna. If these are the only simi- larties, one can no more regard this story as a source of inspira- tion than the three episodes mentioned already. The very reason which Bhangvasana gave to Indra for preferring to remain a woman finds its echo in Manstambha when he says :

3€

This probably shows that the story of Bhangvasana had some influence on Surana. Moreover, by the underlined word ata in the stanza the poet appears to acknowledge indirectly his indebt- edness.3 Really one should pay a high tribute to him for his hon- esty and his poetic suggestivity. It may be argued that the poet did not directly name the source, but in reply to it one may refer these critics to the stanzas in which he pays his homage. G. V. Knshna Rao

When considering the sources of the Kalāpurnodayam, one cannot ignore the Lingapurana in which the story of Nārada is presented. The credit of tracing this story to its source goes really to the learned pandit Sri Duvvūri Venkataramana Sāstri, who contributed an article to Bharati 39 on this issue. In that article he says that Pingali Surana borrowed this incident, and, avoid- ing what is inappropriate, beautifully summarised this episode. He goes a step further and forecasts that the source of the epi- sode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha may be discovered in any one of the puranas in the near future. As this is mainly a matter of criticism and not of astrology, one can neither deny nor affirm this conjecture. But Mr. Malladi Sūryanārayana Sästri, replying to the above pandit in an article contributed to Bhrati40 says :- "Even if these thirty-nine stanzas (2nd Canto Vs. 66-105) are deleted after inserting a single sentence to provide the link, the basic story of the Kalāpurnodayam does not suffer in the least. 40 When such is the case, we may say that the story dealing with Narada's confict with Tumburu in the Lingapurana may be a source to the episode of Narada in the Kalāpūrnodayam. But by this it cannot be said that the Lingapurana is the source for the Kalāpurnnodayam." He goes further and conjectures that this particular episode might have been Sanskritised from the Kalāpurnodayam and inserted into the Lingapurāna. Unfortu- nately he does not advance any proof of his theory except that Vasucaritra was translated into Sanskrit. But this reply appar- ently cuts no ice. Before one pronounces his judgment on this issue, he should examine the so-called source as is found in the Lingapurana. This story occurnng in the first, second and third chapters of the latter part of the Lingapurâna runs as follows :- "Surrounded by Deväs and taking along with him the sages Kausika and others, Lord Hiranyagarbha went immediately to the world of Visnu. There he saw that Lord Visnu was attended upon by eighty-eight thousand divine persons all jnanayogēswaras, siddhas and devotees of Visnu. All of them breathed piety, each having four hands bearng the symbols of Visnu. Divine lustre and purty shone about them and they were Studies ın Kalapurnođayam

sımılar to Lord Narayana. Waited upon by ourselves, Nārada, Sanaka and others, by vanous Bhutās and by the damsels of heaven, Visnu sat on a beautiful multicoloured seat in the divine car (uimana) which was miles and miles wide. This uimana was studded with beautiful gems and had a thousand gates. Lord Madhava was conducting the affairs of the world. At that time came in Brahma surrounded by Kausika and others and bowed to Hım. Whereupon He talked with affection first to Kausika and then to the others in their order. When that meeting took place, there was wonderful applause. Lord Narayana told Brahma that, because the citizens of Kusasthala helped Kausika, because they heard the songs sung in praise of the Lord and thus knew com- pletely the real nature of knowledge, those Brahmins were made sadhyas and that he should always grant access to other places also as it was done in bringing them to Lord Naräyana. Then he conferred ganādhupatya upon Kausıka. ... At that moment approached Lakshmi smiling sweetly She 41 was adorned with various beautiful ornaments. Experts in han- dling unas and other instruments of music sang melodiously about her. On all sides she was surrounded by billions of ladies On seeing this sıght, ganadhıpās havıng bhusundis and panghās in their hands threatened Brahma and others, and threw out the sages and the gods. All were driven out including Brahma. At that juncture the great sage Tumburu was sent for; and he approached the Lord when he was in the company of Laksmi. He gave them a performance on his vina at the end of which he was presented with beautiful ornaments studded with vanous kinds of jewels and with auspicious and divine garlands. When Tumburu came out so honoured, other seers and Devas saw him. Having seen Thumburu going out thus honoured by Han, Narada was struck with envy and sorrow; he became almost paralysed with gnef. "In what way can I get into the presence of Han and Lakshmi? Tumburu is lucky enough to enjoy it whereas I am denied it. Away with this unlucky fool. While he was able to get into their presence, I was sent out by the Bhutas. After this dis- grace, how can I live and where can I spend my days?" Thus G V Knshna Rao

thinking, the sage began his penance, his mind fixed on Visnu, and continued it for one thousand years of Devas. He was all the while thinking of the honour bestowed upon Tumburu. Thinking of the honour earned by Tumburu and beng pained by it, Närada performed penance even giving up breath- ing for one thousand years of Devas. Then clauvoyance advised him to go to Ganabandhu, an owl, living on a mountain to the north of the Manasa lake, immediately if he wanted to become an expert in music. He did as he was directed, and was received with great honour by Ganabandhu. Narada told him everything and requested him to teach him music. Ganabandhu told him the story of the king. Bhuvanesa who had performed a thousand horse sacrifices and bestowed billions of cows, horses, cars, elephants, girls, clothes, etc., on Brahmins and ruled his kngdom. But the only thing he prohibited in his

42 dommnion was singing about Visnu. When he came to know that a certain Brahmin named Harimitra was regularly doing it, he deprived the poor devotee of everything he had and then expelled him from his kingdom. For this misdeed Bhuvanesa was given a terrible punishment. He had to live in a dark cave eating his own dead body and at the same time suffering from severe thirst and hunger for one whole manvantara. On the other hand, Harımitra was given the highest postion of honour. On seeing this with his own eyes, Ganabandhu realised the importance of singing about Vinu and learned it after labouring for many thousands of years. He definitely told Narada that music could not be learnt through simple penance but only through his personal instruction. Ganabandhu received Narada as his pupil and taught him everything he knew, the principles to be followed and the blun- ders to be avoided. After finishing his education in music Narada granted his guru a boon by which he would have the status of Garuda. Then Taking leave of him, he directly went to Svēta Dvipa, the abode of Visnu, and sang before the Lord. The Lord plamnly told him to approach him again when he would be born on the earth as Sri Krsna. Only then, he was informed, he could hope to learn the fine subtleties of music and excel his rival Tumburu. Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

Before the time the Lord should be born, the sage visited the courts of Devas, Iswara and Brahma sınging about Vısnu. Later on he visited the house of Tumburu and taking his vin he played upon it only to realise the exquusite superionty of the notes ema- nating from it. He left the place at once and learned once again music at various places. Later on he approached Krsna and re- minded him of the promise given to him by the Lord. Krsna asked Jambavati to teach him music. After being taught for a year by her, Närada was again entrusted to Satya who instructed him in that art for another year. He was then taught by Rukmin and her attendants for three years at the end of which Krsna person- ally trained him. At last he was told that he excelled Tumburu in music." Now the question is whether this story is the source of the Kalāpūrnodayam. It is true that the incidents depicted in the part of the poem beginning with the sixty-eighth stanza and end- ing with the hundred and first of the second canto are to be found in this story occurring in the Lingapurana. But can one say that 43 this is the source of the Kalapumodayam ?. Given this story, can anybody who has not read the kalapurnodayam sketch even the rough outline of the poem? So one must agree with Mr. Mallādi Sūrya nārāyana Sastrı when he says that this incident in the Lingapurana may be considered as a source only of Nãradã's confiect with Tumburu described in the poem but not of the whole of the Kalapumodayam. But even in admitting this, one may have his own reservation because the poet unlike other wrters seems always to recognise even his minor indebtedness at least by way of suggestion. This has been pointed out before and is going to be shown hereafter when the occasion comes. In the present mn- stance the poet openly says that this incident is his own creation when he makes Manikandhara say :- " It is known now by these words that you are anxious to excel Tumburu in music."4' If it 1s not so, the poet could have easily omitted this statement without the slightest change of meaning. If it is his own, as he suggests, how is one to account for this parallelism ? Either the poet was not conscious of this indebtedness when he was describing the incident, or that this was purely a coincidence. Anyhow, this is only a conjecture. G. V. Knshna Rao

Now to resume the enquiry, one critic42 says that " there is also indubitable evidence to show that Surana had before him some Telugu poems also to furnish him with material for his plot by way of comparison and contrast." He mentions the Manucarıtra, the Parijatapaharanam and the Amuktamālyada as providing that matenal. To substantiate his statement in con- nection with the first poem he points out firstly, Varuthini get- ting united with the gandharva under a misconception; secondly, the hero being of gandharva class and thirdly, Manorama being pursued by Indivaraksa. To talk of these incidents as providing material for the Kalapūrnodayam is rather strange. This critic seems to forget that the Manucartra is only an adaptation of the story to be found in the Markandeyapuräna and not an orginal creation of Peddana. This statement is not meant to belittle this poet. What is meant is that the Kalapurnodayam owes nothing specially to Manucaritra, or to Parijatapaharanam, or Amuktamālyada. 44 Another writer states that Brahma's love affair described in the second canto Srı-kāla-hastīmahatmyam of Dhūrjati44 is a source of the Kaläpurnodayam. Except that the names of the hero and heroine are Brahma and Sarasvati there is not even the faintest resemblance between these two episodes. The story in the Sri-kala-hastimahatmyam only tells the reader that Brahma requested his sweetheart to assume a hundred forms, and that he lived with all of them forgetting everything with the result he begot thirty-six thousand demons. It is extremely difficult to prove that this was the source of the Kalapurnodayam. In considering the problem of sources of the Kaläpurnodayam one is reminded that there are certain incidents and episodes in Kathasartsāgara of Somadeva which deserve mention Though not regular sources, they seem to have influ- enced the poet alike in his matter and his technique. Before one undertakes to settle the issue one way or the other, it behoves one to examine what they are. The Kathasarıtsägara, explaining its origin, gives the fol- lowing story narrated by Siva to his beloved wife Parvati in cam- era posting Nandin at the gate so that none may enter the private apartment45 :-

Studies in Kalapumodayam

"While Siva was thus speaking to his consort, there arrived a favourte dependent of Siva's, Puspadanta, the best of Ganas, and his entrance was forbidden by Nandin, who was guarding the door. Curious to know why even he had been forbidden to enter at that time without any apparent reason, Puspadanta im- mediately entered, making use of his magic power attained by devotion to prevent his being seen, and when he had thus en- tered, he heard all the extraordinary and wonderful adventures of the seven Vidyädharas being narrated by the trident-bearing God and having heard them, he in turn went and narrated them to his wife Jaya; for who can hide wealth or a secret from a woman? Jaya, the doorkeeper, being filled with wonder, went and recited it in the presence of Pärvati. How can a woman be expected to restrain her speech? And then the daughter of the mountain flew into a passion, and said to her husband, "Thou didst now tell me any extraordinary tale, for Jaya knows it also." The lord of Uma, perceiving the truth by profound meditation, thus spoke :- " 4? Puspadanta, employing the magic power of devotion, entered in where we were, and thus managed to hear it. He narrated it to Jaya;no one else knows it, my beloved." " Having heard this, the Goddess, exceedingly enraged, caused Puspadanta to be summoned, and cursed him, as he stood trembling before her saying : ' Become a mortal, thou disobedient servant.' She cursed also the Gana Malyavan who presumed to intrude on his behalf. Then the two fell at her feet together with Jaya and entreated her to say when the curse would end, and the wife of Siva slowly uttered this speech ; " A Yaksa named Supratīka, who has been made a pisaca by the curse of Kubera, is residing in the Vindhya forest under the name of Kanabhuti. When thou shalt see him, and calling to mind thy ongin, tell him this tale : then, Pushpadanta, thou shalt be released from this curse. And when Malyavan shall hear this tale from Kanabhūti, then Kanabhuti shall be released, and thou, Malyavän, when thou hast published it abroad shalt be free also." Having thus spoken, the daughter of the mountain ceased, and immediately these Ganās disappeared instantaneously like flashes of lightning."

G. V Knshna Rao

Now the similarities between this tale and that of Sarasvatı and Caturmukha can be easily perceived. Both Siva and Caturmukha tell tales to their wives in privacy. In the first, Puspadanta reveals it to his wife whereas the pet parrot imparts it to Rambha in the second. In both the stones the unfortunate creatures are cursed by the goddesses, Parvati and Sarasvatı. But the differences are more numerous than the similarities. The episode of Caturmukha does not start with the avowed intention of telling a tale. It is only a by-product of Brahma's suppressed love; moreover, it weaves all the details of their love-making into a beautiful tale while those of Siva deal with extraneous things. Of course the object of both the heroes is only to please their sweethearts. In the episode of the Kathasaritsagara there is a scene of overhearing which is not to be found in the poem. The curse in the former affects three individuals whereas it affects only one in the latter. Besides this, these curses are different- 46 one is a curse simple and pure, and the other is a blessing in disguse for mortals. Thus any number of differences and subtle- ties can be shown. Hence it may be said that this particular episode in the Kathäsartsägara is not a regular source of the episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha. But when one says that this might have influenced Surana, there is no positive proof to deny it altogether. * This last statement is backed by many positive grounds of which the following is one 46 :- Kālanēmi, a Brahmana, propitiated the goddess of fortune with burnt offerings. And the goddess being satisfied appeared in bodily form and said to him : " Thou shalt obtain great wealth and a son who shall rule the earth : but at last thou shalt be put to death like a robber, because thou hast offered flesh in the fire with impure motves." When she had said this the goddess dısappeared. Kālanemi in course of time became very rich ; after sometime a son was born to him. He was called Sridatta. In course of time Sridatta grew up, and though a Brahmin, he became matchless upon earth in the use of weapons, and in boxing and wrestling. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

One day as he was going along, he saw in the middle of the Ganges a woman being dragged under by the stream, looking like the goddess of Fortune in the middle of the sea. And then he plunged in to pull her out of the water. Then that woman, though he seized her by the hair. sank deep in the water ; and he dived as deep in order to follow her. And after he had dived a long way, he suddenly saw a splendid temple of Siva, but no water and no waman. After beholding that wonderful sight, being wearied out, he paid his adorations to the God whose emblem is a bull, and spent that night in a beautiful garden attached to the temple. And in the morning that lady was seen by him, when she came to worship the God Siva, like the incarnate splendour of beauty en- dowed with all womanly perfections. And after she had worshipped the God. the moon-faced one departed to her own house, and Sridatta tollowed her. Then he saw that palace of hers resem- blng the city of the gods; the haughty beauty entered it hurnedly in a contemptuous manner And without deigning to address 47 him, the graceful lady sat down on a sofa in the inner part of the house, waited upon by thousands of women. And Srdatta also took a seat near her. Then suddenly that virtuous lady began to weep. The tears fell in an unceasing shower on her bosom, and that moment pity entered into the heart of Śridatta. Being strongly persuaded by him, she told him how her grandfather Bali was imprisoned, her father killed in a wrestlng match by Visnu and she impnsoned in that city guarded by a lion. Then she re- quested him : "Subdue that lion, our enemy : it was for that reason that I enticed you here. And when you have overcome him, you will obtain from him a sword named Mrganka, by virtue of which you shall conquer the world and become king." There- upon Sridatta overcame n wrestling that haughty lion. He being freed from his curse assumed a human form, and out of grati- tude gave his sword to the man who had put an end to his curse, and then disappeared together with the burden of the sorrow of the great Asura's daughters. Then the dattya maiden gave Śridatta a ring that destroyed the effect of poison. Then that young man, remaining there, fell in love with her. And she cunningly said G. v. Knshna Rao

him : " Bathe in this tank, and when you dive in, take this sword to keep off the danger of crocodiles." He consented, and diving into the tank rose upon the very bank of the Ganges from which he had plunged in. Now does not the story of Sridatta remind the reader of any incident in the story of the Kalapūmodayam ? Has not Salina who plunged himselfin the lake of the Satataladaghna some thing in common with Sridatta who acquires a sword ? The very fact that the former reminds one of the latter shows that the poet might have been influenced by the former. If this is considered a simple coincidence, another example may be cited. There is a story of The Unfathful Wife in Kathāsarıtsāgara.17 It tells how the son of a merchant has to go to a forest with his wife and lead a hard life. One day he saves a maimed man from the river and gives him shelter. As days pass, his wife who hap-

48 pens to fall in love with the maimed man conspires with her lover and gets her husband thrown into the river The poor husband, however, manages to escape from death and stays under a tree taking rest. Then the story runs thus :- 48 " Now it happened that at that time the king of that city had just died, and in that country there was an immemorial custom, that an auspicious elephant was driven about by the citizens, and any man that he took up with his trunk and placed on his back was anointed king The elephant wandering about came near the merchant's son and, as if he were providence-pleased with his self-control, took him up, and put him on his back. Then the merchant's son, who was an incarnation of a portion of Bodhisattva was immediately taken to the city and anointed king by the people." 49 This incident naturally reminds one of Sugraha once again under the name of Satvadätman becoming king. Though such an incident is common to many a story in purana, it seems better to trace it to the Kathasarıtsagara because the orginal Paisācika text of the latter is older than the puranas and many other sımi- lar incidents are to be found theremn.

Studes m Kalapurnodayam

There is another interesting passage in the story of Suryaprabha telling how he attained sovereignty over the Vıdyädharās.50 One of the wives of Suryaprabha explains to the co-wives why kings marry many wives in this way :- "The good qualities of lovely women are different, varying with their native land, their beauty, their age, their gestures, and their accom- plishments, so no one woman possesses all the good qualities. The woman of Karnätaka, of Lata, of Saurastra and Madhyadēsa please by their peculiar behaviour of theirvarious countnes. Some far ones captivate by their faces like the autumn moon, others, and others by their full breasts, round and firm like golden ew- ers, and others by their limbs charming in their shapeliness. One has lımbs yellow as gold, another is dark lıke a priyangu, an- other, being red and white, captivates the eyes as soon as seen. One is of budding beauty, another of full-developed youth, an- other is agreeable on account of her maturity, and distingushed by increasing coquetry. One looks lovely when smiling, another is charming even in anger, another charms with her gait resem- 49

bling that of an elephant, another with swan-like motion. One, when she prattles, rngates the ears with nectar, another is natu- rally beautiful when she looks at one with graceful contraction of the eyebrows. One charms by dancing, another pleases by sing- ing, and another fair one attracts by being able to play on the lyre and other instruments. One is distinguished for good temper, another is remarkable for artfulness, another enjoys good for- tune from being able to understand her husband's mind." This passage might have inspired the poet to conceive of the peculiar erotic complex of Salina. This, however, cannot be positively ascertained for it is more a conjecture than a fact. Another interesting passage is the dream of Suryaprabha who tells it to his followers ·- "Hear the strongest, wonderful vision that I have had. I remember I saw, towards the end of last night, that we were all carned away by a great stream of water, and while we were swept away we kept dancing; we did not sink at all. Then that stream was turned back by a contrary breeze. Then a certain man of G. V. Knshna Rao

fiery brightness drew us out and threw us into the fire, and we were not burnt by the fire. Then a cloud ramned a stream of blood, and that blood filled the whole sky; then my sleep came to an end with the sight." "When he said this Suvaskumara said to him: "This dream indicates success preceded by struggle. The stream of water is battle, it is due to valour that you did not sink, but danced, and were carried along by the water; the wind, that turned back the water for you, is some saviour to whom men resort for protection, and the man of fiery brightness, who drew you out of it, is Sıva in bodily form. And that he threw you into the fire means that you are cast into a great war, and that cloud arose, that means the returning again of fear, and the rain of a stream of blood, that means the destroying of fear, and the filling of all the quarters with blood, that means great success for you." This passage, though differing both in content and in mean- 50 ing, may remind the readers of the Kalapumodayam of Brahma's story and of Sarasvati's interpretation. Both these incidents fore- tell the future and both contain a story and an interpretation. While the former has not much significance and beauty, the lat- ter has. Apart from these influences there are certain supernatural phenomena in the stories of the Kathasartsagara and these seem to have been exploited to the greatest extent possible in the Kalāpūrņodayam. For example there is more than one story in the former, wherein a Vidyadhara maiden changes her form into that of the wife of the hero whom she happens to love and man- ages to marry him in the end. This strange principle is met with in the Kalapürnödayam when Kalabhäsini assumes the form of Rambha, gets united with Manikandhara who in his turn as- sumes the form of Nalakubara and marries him in the end though in the next birth. But there is this fundamental difference to be noted. Both the heroine and the hero assume altogether different forms from their own and get united. Such an interesting situa- tion as this is not to be found anywhere in the whole of the Kathasaritsagara. Only a mention of a similar situation is to be found in Jayadeva's Gitagovinda and Kadırıpari's Sukasaptati. Studes in Kalapurnodayam

The second principle is that a man or woman who falls or happens to fall into a nver, lake or sea gets swallowed by a fish or crocodile, and reaches the shore alive and later on meets his or her relative. This principle is exploited by Surana more than once when Sugätr is devoured by a cocodile and later on disgorged by it on the shore of the Satatäladaghna. The same is the case with Yajnasarman's wives who leap into the sea. They are first drawn into the stomach of a big whale along with water and then exaled with such a force that they fall alive on an aeroplane passing by. As a matter of fact, the whole episode of Yajnasarman - his pas- sion for charity, his separation from his wives, their conception and giving birth to four chidren who later on become purohitas and their reconciliation with their father - appears for all practi- cal purposes to have been borrowed in toto from the Kathäsarıtsägara. The atomosphere, the incidents, the charac- ters and the technique are sure to strengthen this opinion. But this episode is completely an independent and original creation of Sürana. Such is his creative faculty that, if this is inserted into 51 the kathasantsagara, no one, however great an expert he may be, can probably detect the interpolation. The third principle is the propitiation of God, or Goddess, or a demi-God with terrible adventure, or homicide, or suicide, achieving thereby supernatural powers or desired objects. In many a story in the Kathasantsägara the hero ultimately falls back on ths device and achieves his object. One finds a similar charac- teristic in the Kalāpūrnodayam also when Manistambha, Sumukhāsatti, Kalabhāsıni, Maņikandhara, Alaghuvrata, Salyāsura and Abhinavakaumudi attain their respective ends in the temple of Mrgendravahana. Manistambha acquires the two supernatural powers of duradrsti and dūrasravana - 'sakti by his ternble sacrifice. Sumukhäsatti regains her lost youth in addi- tion to that power by which her very word becomes true. Maņikandhara becomes an emperor by sacrıficing Kalabhāșini. The rest also achieve their objects described in the previous chap- ter. But even here Surana's darng originality astounds the reader. None of the stories in the Kathasaritsagara contains the incident where a character attains any one of the supernatural powers of ditrasravana, duradrsti and avitathavāk. G. V. Knsnna Rao

The fourth principle is the extensive use of curses and boons of Gods, demi-Gods or seers and the spreading of the story over more than one life. The story of Sumanas which is already men- tioned as a regular source of the Kädambar, is a concrete exam- ple. How this principle is utiised in the Kalāpurnodayam need not be explained here, as it has been already dealt with at length in connection with the question of Bana's work as a source. Apart from these similanties, there are other reasons to believe that kathäsartsagara might have influenced Surana. The former work in delineating the story generally, adopts the flash-back tech- nique and often weaves a story within a story. It deliberately avoids elaborate and tedious descnptions, brings in strange but inter- esting incidents and gains tempo by rapid narration. Generally speaking, these stones and episodes belong to the realm of ad- venture - adventure on land and sea, earth and heaven. Not only this earth, but the worlds above, and the worlds below are also

52 brought into the picture. Vanous types of love, adventure, disappoinment, and wonder attract the reader and carry him to the highest pitch of imagination. The same is true of the Kalāpūrnōdayam. As already pointed out, Sūrana adopts this flash - back technique and weaves a story within a story to a moderate extent when he begins the poem with the introduction of Kalabhāsını, Nārada, Manıkandhara, Rambha and Nalakūbara instead of a description of the love episode of Sarasvathi and Caturmukha. When the story continues, the poet makes Manistambha narrate the wonderful episode of Rambha and Nalakubara and their conflict with their respective nvals. While Manikandhara narrates the story of Sälina and Sugatr, the baby in the cradle tells the stones of Sarasvati and Caturmukha, the birth of Kalapurna, the episode of Abhinavakaumudi and the rale of Yajnasarman and his wives. Madhuralālasa reveals the past history of Satvadätman. How the story gains momentum at each step need not be discussed here. That the very temple of Mrgendravahana is the abode of adventure and surprise is well known to the readers of the story of the Kalapurņodayam. Manıstambha, Manıkandhara, Salyasura, Sugātrı, Kalabhāsıı, the wives of Yajnasarman, and Satvadätman with their deeds of Stuces in Kalapurnodayam

adventure and sacrifice carry the readers really to the land of horror and wonder. They are presented not with a single incident taking place in a simple country, but with a multitude of events happening in different worlds, one in Brahmaloka, another in Svarga and yet another on the earth. Added to these, there is a vivid picture ofvarious types oflove. The love between Nalakubara and Rambha, between Manikandhara and Kalabhasıņi, Kalabhāșiņi's approach to Nalakūbara, Salyāsurā's craving for Abhinavakaumudı, the love between Sugatri and Salina, between Sarasvati and Caturmukha, between Madhuralalasa and Kalāpurna, the lustful longıngs of Manistambha for Kalabhāsiņi and the aspirations of Satvadatman for Sumukhasatti are really astonishing alike in the their range of erotic expenence and in- sight into the working of the human heart. So far everything appears in order. Surana may be sad to have been influenced by the Kathäsartsägara. But what is the positive proof to say that the poet has ever read this book? At the 53 very begining of the poem he praises the authors of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata of Sanskrit and Telugu versions. In the avatarika he mentions only fourteen puranās by their names and includes the remaining four in the word, adi As he has al- ready been pointed out, Sürana generally acknowledges his in- debtedness at least by way of suggestion. He has nowhere di- rectly or indirectly mentioned either Kathāsaritsagara or its au- thor Somadeva. Hence, this question demands an answer. Is there any room for such a conjecture as putforth here? What is meant here is that Surana might have read the Kathasantsagara. That it is highly probable can be supported by varous reasons because Brhatkatha was translated by Somadeva as early as the 11th century. Moreover, there are concrete grounds for assuming that the same Sanskrit text or probably the orginal was known to Telugu scholars of the 12th century. Fragments of the Telugu version of the Vetalapancavimsatı, which forms a part of the Kathäsaritsägara and which is said to be written by the Teluga poets of the 12th century, are available. Added to this, there is ample evidence of its being read by the poets of the 16th G. V. Knshna Rao

century. Though not mentioned, Kandukuri Rudrayya used the story of the Bold Gambler Thinthakarala to be found in the Kathäsartsagara52 as a regular source and wrote his poem, the Nırankusopakhyanam Apart from these circumstantial evidences, Sürana is well acquainted with the Alankarika treatises of the Käshmiri writers. This point, as it is going to be discussed elabo- rately in some other chapter, need not be stressed here. Given that Surana had gone through these works, there is no ground for believing that he had missed particularly this important book. Hence it can be safely asserted that there is no positive proof to show that he was not acquainted with the Kathasarıtsagara. On the other hand, as shown above, there is greater scope for putting forth the theory which is here advocated. Before closing the question of sources, another point needs discussion. Some critics have maintained that the Āscaryacūdamani of Saktibhadra is one of the sources of the 54 Kalapurnodayam. This is not an altogether baseless assertion provided all are generally agreed on considering it a source of inspiration rather than a regular source. The story as it is re- lated by Saktibhadra, runs as follows :- While Räma was staying at Pancavati with his brother Laksmana and hıs wife Sita, Sürpanakha, Ravana's sıster, hap- pened to see them, and fell in love with both the brothers. She assumed the form of a beautiful gurl and approached Rama who directed her to Laksmana. The latter plainly explained to her his position and vow, but this served no purpose. She again met Rama, and once again he sent her to his brother. When he re- fused her love, she assumed her real form, and carrying him forcibly on her shoulders, flew into the air with the sole object of gratifying her passion on a mountain. Undaunted by this sud- den attack, Laksmana managed to cut off her nose and ears and she dropped him to the ground in her terrible agony. Later on, to wreak vengeance on them, Sürpanakha's broth- ers Khara and Dūsana, attacked Rama and Laksmana and were finally killed. The sages, thus being relieved of their nuisance, sent a magic ring and a crest jewel as presents through Laksmana Stuces m Kalapumodayam

to his brother and his sister-in-law. These two articles had the peculiar power to enable the wearers by their touch to force per- sons assuming new forms to appear in their true colours. En- raged by the death of her brothers, Sürpanakha persuaded her elder brother, Ravana to take action aganst Rāma. Ravana first sent Marica to draw away Rāma and Laksmana from Sita, and then he proceeded to the cottage in his charot with his sister. As he came near the cottage, he and his chariot driver assumed the forms of Räma and Laksmana. They approached Sita when she was alone and informed her that their presence was required at Ayödhya, for their brother Bharata was threatened with an inva- sion by their enemies. Credulous woman that she was, Sita be- leved them and their words and got into the chariot only to be carried away. On their way, Rävana who had fallen in love with Sita, touched her hair with the result that his assumed form dissolved into his natural one. Though she was able to under- stand the deceit and the real situation in which she was involved, she could not help being carned away to Lanka. 55 Räma also was prevented from coming to her receue, for Sürpanakha, assuming the form of Sita, met him on the way while he was returning. He was not able to detect the fraud and car- ned on a conversation with her as if she were Sita When he saw tears in her eyes, he wanted to console her. Naturally he wiped them with his nnged finger. To his great surprise and disgust, her assumed form immediately disappeared thus revealing her true nature. Laksmana, losing his temper at her treachery, wanted to kill her on the spot ; but his brother dissuaded him from it. Thus she managed to escape from the jaws of death. The rest of the story runs as it is in the Ramayana but with slight changes which do not count much in this context. This episode depicted in the first four acts of the Ascaryacudamani is said to be the source of the Kalapurnodayam. No doubt there 1s some similanty between this and the episode of Maya Rambha and Māya Nalakubara. In both the episodes a man and a woman assume the forms of others that are loved and thus create an interesting situation. In the Ascaryacudamanı, this is brought about by the inherent power of Râksasas whereas in the Kalāpūrodayam it is due to a boon in the case of Kalabhāsını G. V. Knsnna Rao

and to the power of penance in the case of Manıkandhara. But this similarity fades into insignificance when differences are taken into consideration. Surpanakha in the form of Sita meets Rama and achieves her real object of preventing him from saving his wife. But it is quite different with Kalabhasinı who assumes the form of Rambha and gets united only with Manikandhara who happens to be in the form of Nalakubara. It is true that she has love for Manikaridhara but her immediate object is the union with Nalakubara but not with the former. Whereas Rāvana un- der the guise of Rama carries away Sita and achieves his object, Manikandhara partly succeeds and partly fails in his object, for, firstly, he meets the real Rambha and later on the Maya Rambha. Besides these, there are other differences in character and situa- tion which make the episode in the Kalapūrnodayam all the more subtle and intricate. Technically speaking, the principal rasa in the episode of Ascaryacudamani is adbhuta having karuna as ıts

56 accessary. In the episode of the Kalāpurnodayam the principal rasa is hasya attended by adbhuta and smgara. Of course it cannot be denied that there is a tinge of karuna There are also häsya and vira present. The driving force in the first is revenge whereas in the second it is love and nothing else. that is why one cannot regard it as a regular source of the Kalāpūrnodayam. Even granting that the former is a source, it is so only so far as Maya Rambha and Maya Nalakubara are concerned and not of the whole poem. At best it can be considered as one of the many influences that acted upon Surana in relation to the Kalāpūrnodayam. Even to this conjecture, objections may be raised and positive proofs demanded. But these do not and cannot have any weight be- cause Surana himself seems to recognise it by way of suggestion when he makes Kalabhasını say :-

Studies in Kalapumodayam

This incident mentioned in the underlined lines obviously refers to the mischief played by Surpanakha. This is admitted by Mr. Malladı Süryanarayana Sastri“4 in his commentary. This inci- dent is not to be found either in the Valmıki Ramayana or other Ramayanas in Telugu.55 It is obvious from Valmiki's work that Surpanakha has craved only for the love of Rama and Laksmana. There is not even a single hint to be had about her direct partici- pation in the plot to bring about the separation of Rama and Sita. If that is so, to what incident do these lines refer ? Let the problem be approached from another angle also. Assuming, for the time being, that there is such an incident in Vālmılkı Rāmāyana, what purpose does it serve when the poet uses the two words uinabaducunundu ? Has he used them only to complete the line ? No one who is acquainted with Sūrana's mode of expression can admit it. so the reference to some other work than that of Valmiki in which Surpanakha is portrayed as having played this specific role seems inevitable. Then it must be either 57 Saktıbhadra's Ascaryacudamanı or some other work depicting Rävana and Surpanakha assuming the forms of others. There are other grounds for suggesting this interpretation. If one takes the above lines as alluding to the incident in the Ramayana, he will be tempted to say that the poet has not read it at all. Morover, the poet will be considered not only ignorant of the law of asso- ciation but also quite incompetent in handling the language and the metre. On the other hand, if the above lines are taken to refer to the incident in the third act of Ascaryacūdamani, or to that similarly treated in another work, they will tend to enhance the beauty of the poem to a greater extent. The incident referred to will anticıpate the episode of Maya Nalakubara. Of course the poet has already suggested it in the first canto itself,$6 but by the time the reader reaches the 188th verse in the third canto, there is every likelhood of his forgetting the first suggestion. By this prompt allusion the readers' anticipation and cunosity gain more in intensity. Every word and letter, then, becomes all the more significant. The poet also can be said to acknowledge his indebt- edness to his predecessor. G. V Knsnna Rao

And now, as all the so-called sources have been examined, what is the conclusion ? Is the theme of the Kalapurnodayam orginal, or borrowed ? There is no dearth of evidence to show that the Kalapurnodayam is the product of the poet's own imagina- tion. The so-called sources can be interpreted in different ways but it can be maintained that they cannot be called regular sources. At the most, some of them may be considered as having influenced the poet in the construction of one of the world's best stonies ; and those influences of which he is consciously aware hàve been duly acknowledged by him by way of suggestion. If doubt still persists as to its originality, the following points may be considered :

58 XEoRO. 57

Requested by Kalabhasini Narada tells her :-

58

Nor only Surana used the word aprva but, also makes his readers understand that the episode dealing with Sugatri and Salina was described by Sarasvati and handed over to the citi- zens of Saradäpitha. If it was not original, and if he did not feel it to be very beautiful, he would not have attrbuted it so Sarasvatı.59 Moreover, if he had any partıcular source for his Kalapurnodayam, he would have certainly mentioned it as he had done in the Prabhavatipradyumnam. Such mention is not found anywhere in the Kalāpurnodayam. Secondly, tradition mentions Rämaknshna as having ut- tered this line :-

Though it attnbutes unintelligibility to the poem, it definitely ad- mits it to be an orginal work. Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

Thirdly, the Kalapürnodayam presupposes the Räghavapändaviyam, and therefore it could not have been writ- ten by any other person than Surana. This statement certainly requires elaboration. What is meant by it is that the technique adopted in the Kalapurnodayam is simply that of the Raghavapāndaviyam, but it has gained more in subtlety, depth and aesthetic insight. Had he not written the Räghavapandaviyam, he could never have produced the Kalāpurnodayam. This clearly imphes that it could not have been written by any other poet than Surana and it is sui generis. In writing the Räghavapändaviyam, the poet himself says61 that he has adopted the following devices : firstly, use of such words which when taken as those of Sansknt orgin give one meaning, and when taken as of Telugu origin give a different meaning; secondly, adoption of the peculiar structure of words which can be split up in more than one way so as to give different meanings; thirdly, exploitation of the secondary meanings of 59 words; fourthly, creating situations which bestow different senses upon the words; fifthly, exploitation of the anvaya of words which gives more than one meaning; sixthly and lastly, exploitation of all or some of the above devices in combination. These same devices are followedun the construction of the story of the Kaläpurnodayam. Every reader of the poem poem will admit that without the episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha there can be no Kalāpürņödayam. The full growth and development of this particular episode has resulted in the poem62, and if this is removed, it will become only a bunch of incidents without much significance. And this episode which is the soul of the Kalāpūrņödayam cannot be conceived by any other creative gen- ius than one well-versed in the technique described above. Just as the poet in his Raghavapandaviyam brought together the sto- nes of the Rämayana and the Bharata in one poem, so also he has brought together the dalliance of Sarasvati and Caturmukha and the seeds of the plot of the whole poem in one episode. Of course there is a fundamental difference : the former remains as a dvyarthi kavya while the latter becomes the best dhvani kāvya. G. V. Knshna Rao

The second concrete example of this technique is Närada's boon without which the Kalapurnodayam could not have come into existence. This boon bestowed upon Kalabhäsini63 carries two meanings, one that she would be united with Nalakubara and the other that she would be united with one having the form of Nalakubara. The third instance is that of Prathamagama and others get- ting into the service of Madasaya64. Of course this is not so im- portant as the boon of Närada, but without it the story will cer- tainly be defective. The technque used here is of the first type which reveals the remarkable command of the poet of the two languages, Sansknt and Telugu. And finally, the fifth device mentioned above is amply ex- ploited on many an occasion in the poem. The story of Sugatri and Salina, narrated by Manikandhara appears for the first time only as an illustration of a certain tendency in a character but 60 later on becomes an integral part of the story. The charges and counter charges, abuses and counter abuses exchanged between Nalakūbara and Māyā Nalakūbara on the one hand, and between Rambha and Maya Rambha on the other hand, and that too in the presence of Rambha or Māya Nalakubara or Narada, pulsate with more than two meanings. Really this is an unprecedented situation not only in Telugu literature but also in the whole realm of Sanskırt. Apart from its unexampled technical excellence, there 1s another important factor which makes one think that the poem is onginal through and through. The aim and outlook of the poet, as it will be explained in a subsequent chapter, is umque. He wants to depict the relation between life and art, to propound his theory of beauty. Just as Ibsen and other modern writers have taken social, cultural, political and psychological problems for their themes, so also Surana took aesthetic problems as the regu- lar theme of his poem. Because his problems and the solutions he gives are not mere echoes of previous history (ofliterature and philosophy), but are his own, his poem is original and unique. This appears to be generally ignored by many critics perhaps due Studies in Kalapurnodayam

to their conscious or unconscious belief that knowledge is abso- lute and changeless, that there can be nothing new that is not mentioned in Vedas, and that even Brahma, the Lord of of the universe, cannot create anything new which is not in accord with that of the previous kalpa. If this is not so, it is diffcult to follow critics who say that the Kalapurnodayam is as original as Kalıdasa's Sakuntala65. Anyone who has read either the Padmapurāna or the Mahabharata can give at least a rough sketch of the Abhijnana Sakuntala. But can anyone who has not read the Kalapumodayam give even an outline of its theme after going through its so called sources? Certainly one cannot; yet it is amaz- ing that, these are being confidently asserted as its sources. Now to summarse the result : None of the purānas or kāvyas in Sanskrt or Telugu seems to have any claim to be regarded as a regular source. The episode of Narada in the Lingapuräna, the incidents in the third and the fourth Acts of the Ascarya chudamanı, and the story at the very beginning of 61 Kathasarıtsägara may be considered as influences. But even to give a complete account of even these influences is practically an impossible task. The reasons are many. The first is that the his- tory of 16th century in its true sense is yet to be wntten. Sec- ondly, leaving alone the biography, the actual dates of the poet and the complete list of his writings are not available. Even if his complete biography is obtainable, all the influences cannot be exhausted, becuse even the latest discoveries in psychology leave a large part of the human mind yet unrevealed. Even Surana, were he to come back to life, might not be able to tell us all the things that influenced him. So what may be reasonably said in this connection is that he might have been influenced more by the Kathasartsagara than by the puranas Even Mr. Umakantam, who was well known for his puritanical outlook, admitted the originality of the poem66. So this question may be closed with the following epitaph :- "The structure of the story of the Kalapurnodayam is unique. We have not read or heard of another of its kind existing. Such a beautiful construction is so far neither probably seen nor heard of in any country, or in any part of a literary work."67 G. V. Knshna Rao

CHAPTER N THE THREE ALLEGORIES AND

THEIR REFUTATION

This great story of the Kalapürnodayam, manifesting world after world to our unfailng amazement, has set the critics a- thinking. As a matter of fact, the title of the poem itself at first sight is suggestive of a vast world because the compound word of Kaläpurna may mean the moon, or that which is complete with parts, or that which is full of art, or the phenomena or the em- bodied soul. The various characters in the poem such as Satvadātman, Manıstambha, Sumukhāsattı, Svabhāva, Madasaya, Rupanubhutı, Madhuralalasa, Alaghuvrata and Abhmavakaumudı, places and countnes like the temple of

62 Mrgendravahana, Kasarapura, Angadesa and Kramukakanthottarapura, the episodes like that of Sarasvati and Caturmukha, the pursuit of Salyasura after Abhınavakaumudr are also very alluring. Tempted by these words, one critic advanced the theory that the kalapurnodayam contains not one but three separate allegones., According to him this poem of Surana contains the philosophical, the erotic and the historcal allegenes. To sub- stantiate the first, this critic draws attention to three separate passages in the Prasnopanisad with Sankara's commentary thereon. The first passage which forms the first Mantra of the Sıxth Question, when freely translated reads :- " Next, Sukeśa of the clan of Bharadvāja asked hım: ' Venerable Sır, Hiranyanābha the prince of Kosala, came to me and asked me this question, " Well, Bharadvaja, do you know the purusa who is of sixteen kalas (parts) ?" I replied to the pnnce, ' I do not know him, if I do, why stould I not tell it to thee ? He who tells a lie, perishes root and all;so it behoves me not to tell a lie.' He

Stues in Kalapurnodayam

got silently into his chanot and went away. So I ask thee where is that purusa ?" (What is that purusa, according to Sankara.) Here södasakalah purusa or purusa having sıxteen parts means, according to Sankara, the purusa on whom the sixteen parts or kalas are supermposed by Avidya.69 This term is ex- plained by Ramanuja, the founder of Visıstadvata, in another way. (This is not referred to by this learned critic). According to this interpretation it means Jiva or embodied soul coming into possession of sixteen kalas or parts beginning with prana and ending with name or naman Whatever may be the interpretation, ın his opinion Kalāpūrna means Jîvātman. So this poem Kalāpūrņodayam contains, this critic argves, a philosophical al- legory. As further evidence, he refers to phalasruti in this poem playing an improtant role. It says that those who tell the tales of Kalapurna and those who hear them alike would be born as mortals on the earth and live for a long time, enjoying a long 63 succession of children, grand-children, great grand-children and so on, and also wealth and happiness of all kinds.7° This is sim- ply echoing the eleventh Mantra of the Third Question in the Prasnopanisad which says :- " The progeny of the wise man who knows the prana as such never perishes, he becomes immor- tal."71 Sankara commenting en this says :-

கs மாரனய மப ென்ருகளுக ண

Therefore, the cirtic maintains, the poem must necessarily have an allegory. Before proceeding to elucidate it, he explains what these sixteen kalas are. They are, he says, Vision, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch, Speech, Handling, Sex impulse, Excretion, Walking, Mınd, Buddhi (intelligence), Ahamkāra (individualıty ?), Chittam (consciousness), Tejas (understandıng) and prana73 But G. V. Knsnna Rao

the Mantra which he quotes, includes the five elements also 74 One is at a loss to understand why he omitted the five elements. If he includes them, the number becomes twenty-one and not sixteen. In that case he should have relied upon the fourth Mantra of the Sixth Question which exactly gives the names of these sıxteen kalas as präna, Faith, Ether, Air, Fire, Water, Earth, the Senses, the Mind, Food, Vigour, Penance, the Vedas, the Yajnas, the worlds and Name or Naman.75 On the contrary he says that there is a slight difference between lists provided by the eighth Mantra of the Fourth Question and the fourth Mantra of the Sixth Question. The contents of the first list are nothing but an elabo- rate description of the contents of the second. This much can be understood even by the laity. In that case, one has to explain why the critic has deviated from this obvious course. If he ad- mits that Prana etc. are the sixteen kalas, he will have not only to say that the Kalāpurnodayam contains an allegory dealing with 64 the complete emergence of the whole universe, but also to sub- stantiate his statement from the contents of the poem. To avoid such an apparently impossible task he seems to have taken the other course. Even granting that his own list of sıxteen kalas, 1.e., Vision etc. is vald, is he able to explain this philosophical allegory he reads into the poem ? It is interesting to see how he substantiates his theory. " Angadesa is the human body. In this Angadesa, the town of Kasarapuram is the metropolis. Kasarapuram stands for the heart which is the lake or source of supply for the whole body (Hrdaya Kasaram). In the town of Kasarapuram, Kıng Satwadätman was, after a penod of anarchy, the first ruling sov- ereign. That is to say, in the human heart, Intelligence or Buddhi, after a period of comparative ignorance, first reveals itself and assumes control of the human body. King Satwadatman, con- scious of the superior virtues of Kaläpurna, abdicated the throne in his favour and became his prime minister. In other workds, intelligence gradually gives place to the superior power of the soul (Jivătma). Kalāpūrna is thus the human soul (Jivātma or purușha)." Studies in Kalapurnodayam

" This Kaläpurna was the offspring of a Brahmana couple Manistambha and Sumukhasatti. Manisthambha and Sumukhäsatti are the Iswara and Maya, and Kalapumna or the human soul is the manifestation of this union. Manisthambha, the husband, assumed at the time of union the form of the wife Sumukhäsatti, and the wife that of the husband. This only sig- nifies Iswara, the Lord of the universe, pleases himself by coming under the influence of Maya or prakriti and yet retaining his own ndividuality. Sumukhäsatti was the daughter of Swabhava, or in other words, Mäya or prakrti is self-born. Swabhava gave Kalāpūrna a bow and arrows. The bow is the mind and the ar- rows are the senses and by means of the mind and the five senses, Kalapurna or Jivatma could bring into his possession, Madāśaya or the material universe, and Rupanubhūti its capacity to please. Madāsaya, the material universe and Rupānubhūti, its enjoy- ment were the parents of madhuralalasa or the desire for pleas- ure and King Kalapurna's marrage of Madhuralalasa means that 65 the Jivatma enjoys the pleasures of the senses. Before this mar- rıage, King Kalāpūrņa wedded the princess, Abhinavakaumudi, an apsarasa of the moon. Abhinavakaumudi means moonlight or Chitsaktı and just as moonlight is inseparable from the Moon, so also this chitsaktı is inseparable from Jīvātma. This double meaning was brought about by the Slesha in the word Kalapumņa meaning the Moon or the Soul. Abhinavakaumudi means fresh moonlight and is an inseparable power of the Moon. So also, Abhinavakaumudi as Chitsakti is an inseparable power of Jivatma. Kıng Kalāpurna begot on Abhinavakaumudi a son named Suprasada and on Madhuralalasa a son named Sarasa. In other words the human soul by Chitsaktı acquires prasannatvam (be- nignity) and by the desire for pleasure attains Rasikatwam (artis- tic culture). King Kalapurna waged war against King Madāsaya and in the end marned the latter's daughter Madhuralalasa. On the other hand, he rescued the princess Abhinavakaumudi from the fury of Salyasura and wedded her. This shows that the hu- man soul while fighting against the lower pleasures of the senses (Madāsaya and Rpanubhüti) keeps itself free to enjoy the higher G. V. Knshna Rao

pleasures of the world (Madhuralalasa) and at the same time over- comes obstacles to live in the pure enjoyment of the divine glory (Abhınavakaumudi)."76 If the foregoing explanation is really the thing which the poet intended to impart to his readers, probably one will have but uittle respect for the author as a poet and philosopher. What are the relations between the body, the intelligence (mind) and the soul ? All the six systems of Indian Philosophy maintan that the body comes into the world along with Jivatman, that it exists only for its sake, and that it decays with its departure. The Kalapurnodayam clearly makes its readers understand that Angadesa had existed even before Satvadatman became its king, and that it was older than Kalapurna. It futher informs us that Satvadätman makes love to Sumukhasatt who, according to this cnitic, is nothing but Maya or the cosmic illusion. Another thing to be noted in this connection is that the term Satvadātman liter- 66 ally means the good soul of yours. How do these facts fit into the allegory the critic reads into the poem ? If Maņıstambha and Sumukhāsatti are, as this crtic as- serts, Isvara and Maya, Isvara will not be the agent who begets this universe and the embodied souls through his union with Maya as Indian philosophy mamtains; but Mäya herself will be the agent. Otherwise, how is one to interpret the episode of Manstambha and his wife mutually exchanging their sexes ? Why has the poet mentioned this couple as the citizens of Kash- mir, depicted their love episodes and narrated Svabhava's strange history? What purpose does it serve when the poet makes the yogin abnegate his property, leave his wife and daughter behind and hide himself in the lake of the Satataladaghna in the name of penance? How does Svabhäva's bestowing a bow and nine ar- rows on Kalapurna symbolise the mind and the body (the city of nine gates)?77 The words nava-saramulu cannot indicate or sym- bolise the nine gates by any stretch of imagination. The critic maintaıns that Madāsaya stands for matenal universe, while, Rūpānubhūti signifies its capacity to please. Had the poet really this view in mind, he would have used the word Rupanubhavyata instead of Rūpānubhuti.

Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

Another incongruity that is to be reckoned with in this con- text is the nature of 'Chitsakti'. How can she become a victim to the fury of Asuras and be saved by Jivatman? Strange it may appear to be, but all the same it is the logical corollary of this allegory. Let the episode of Abhinavakaumudı speak for itself. She who stands for "Chitsakti" was loved and pursued by Salyasura and later on saved by Kalapurna. How is it possible for Salyasura to fall in love with "Chitsakti"? It must be that he was not an Asura, or she was not really "Chitsaktı." Besides the points mentioned above, he advances another theory. Hitherto it is taught by Indian philosophers that on reali- sation of "Chitsakti" one does not fall a prey to mundane pleas- ures. But the critic simply sublates this theory when he explains that Kalapuma, the Jivatman, marned Abhinavakaumudi, the "Chıtsakti" and Madhuralälasa, "the higher pleasure of the world" and that he lived with both of them and begot Suprasada, 'benig- nity', and Sarasa, 'the artistic culture.' 67 With the foregoing analysis in view, one has to come to one of the following conclusions - either that Surana had rehed upon Prasnopanisad as a source, that he could not understand what the sixteen kalas were even though he had the commentanes of Sankara and Ramänuja on hand, and that he made a mess of the elementary principles and utterly failed to depict the allegory, or, one has to understnad that Prasnopanisad was never the source of the Kalapumodayam and that the poet had never intended his poem to be an allegory. Any one who has read the poem will probably prefer the second to the first. This view will be strength- ened all the more on a closer examination of the love episode of Sarasvatı and Caturmukha. The same critic maintains that this episode also contains an erotic allegory; and as an explanation, he repeats Sarasvati's commentary on the story narrated by Brahma to the parrot.78 After going through this explanation the reader will be at a loss to know what the allegory is. Every reader knows before readıng Sarasvati's commentary thereon that the story is nothing but the sublimation of Brahma's love for her. Sarasvati's commentary G. v. Knsnna Rao

will only confirm the reader's anticipation and enhance hıs aesthetic pleasure. But where is the secondary meaning in the story? What is an allegory if it has not an independent secondary meaning throughout or at least in a part of the narration? It is well known that dhvani or suggestion is worlds apart from allegory. Because an allegorical poem contains more than one important and independent meaning, it appears for all practical purposes to be somewhat nearer to the sustained prakrtaprakrta slesa of the Indian Alamkarkas, but on no account can these two be considered as identical or parallel to each other. And dhvar or suggestion, as Anandavardhana defines79 it, is that in which either the word or the meaning or both subordinating themselves manifest the particular kind of poem. The word manifesting beauty which cannot be expressed in any other way and possessing suggestivity is dhvani. When the various kinds of beauties of the words and meanings, i.e., words, meanngs, figures of speech 68 and gunās have rasas, etc., as their sole aim, it is dhvant. The story narrated by Brahma ın the Kalāpūrnodayam expresses sım- ply his love for Sarasvat and nothing else. It does not propound allegorically any theory of love or philosophy oflove. The lake, the moonlight, the reflected face of Sarasvati in Manistambha, the actions and reactions and their feelings are vibhāvas, anubhvaas and vyabhicars. By their combination rati is being manifiested. Thus the story is only one of Snngara rasa dhvani and not an allegory. The most important thing to be noted in this connection is Sarasvati's commentary on the story narrated by Brahma, the Lord of Creation. The suggested meaning is explained clearly in the cut and dry way of the day to day life.80 According to this explanation the lake is spoken of as Kasarapura and the reflected face of Sarasvatı as the Kıng Kalapūrņa. Kalăpūrna conquering the other kings means that the reflected face of Sarasvati is far superior to all other faces in beauty. Kalapurna getting a bow. arrows and a jewel from Svabhava should be uderstood in the sense that the face was endowed with beautiful eye-brows, looks and lips by nature. While Madasaya stands for the wish of Brahma, Stuches in Kalapumoaayam

Rupanubhuti represents the enjoyment of formal beauty. The delicate smile of Sarasvatı is spoken of as Abhınavakaumudi whereas the beautiful proximity and the jewelled pillar are sym- bolised as Sumukhäsattı, the father and as Manistambha, the mother. Kramukakanthottarapura is nothing but the upper part of the body above the neck. Satvadatman, Prathamagama and others stand for Sarasvati and the four faces of Brahma. Brahma's desire to kiss the lips is signified by Madhuralãlasa. If the poet, as this critic explains, had intended both the allegones, why did he commit himself to one definite meaning in Sarasvati's commentary? Would it not have served him better if he had omitted it? He did not leave the matter there. On the other hand the poet suggests through the character of Sarasvati81 :- "Ah! serving you (the Lord of Creation) as I do, don't I know this much, my lord? These skilful words and these ideas are after all my arts, and I have bestowed them on you." This clearly means :- "After working so long in the field of literature, I know what is 69 what. I am the creator and bestow my words and ideas on you. Take them only in the sense I mean." The poet seems to be very particular on this point. As soon as Sarasvati's commentary is over, he again makes her get the approval of Brahma, the all- pervading soul of cosmos. He crisply says- "That is exactly so, and it cannot fail.""2 Not satisfied with this too, the poet censures cnitics reading their own thoughts into his poem by way of sug- gestion when he makes Sarasvatı say :-

x1

When the poet openly suggests time and again that what he says is true, what right has a sahrdaya to contradict him? The third is the historical allegory84 which this cnitic reads into the poem. He is not sure which historical person is meant by Kalāpurna and openly admits it when he savs :- "Who this per- G. V. Knshna Rao

sonage is cannot at present be exactly stated, first, because of the scanty material in the story, and secondly, because of the meagre knowledge we still possess of the history of the royal dy- nasties of South India and I have only striven hereunder to give the most approximate interpretation of the allegory which, I think, certainly exists in the poem."85 In spite of this uncertainty he deliberately continues his pursuit and tries to explain that Kasarapura stands for Vijayanagaram.86 But this analogy seems to be a mistake because Kasarapura did not get its name because of its proximity to the lake, but the lake itself was spoken of as a city. The poet through Sarasvati says :-

70

And again he describes the words of Sumukhasatti who was no other person than Manıstambha :-

சற்ிவிகன்வைகள

The word E means 'like' but not proximity. The critic, indulg- ing further his imagination, says that Kramukakanthottarapuram signifies Nagalapuram and gives this explanation :- Krshņadevaraya bult a town called Nagalāpuram and made it his capital to all intents and purposes. Thus he may be said to have shifted his capital from Kasarapuram (Vijayanagaram) to Kramukakanthottarapuram (Nagaläpuram) for just as in the former name the word 'puram' is after the word 'kantha' so, in the latter word, the word 'puram' is after the word 'gala' and both 'kantha' and 'gala' mean the same thing.89 This is purely a sole- cism, an ignoratio elenchi.

Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

Then coming to the historical facts, there is definite infor- mation that Krishna Raya had four wives and not two. Besides this, there is neither tradition nor historical evidence to the effect that he was born of Brahminee parents. Nor is it said that he had ever invaded North India. While Krishna Raya had eight great poets in his court, Kalapurna had only four. So there is appar- ently no comparison between the two except that both the em- perors were followers of Visistadvaita cult. It may be argued that one should not search for every minute detail in an allegory as he does in a straight narration. Even granting this, the question still remains unanswered :- Which characteristics or events of Kalāpūrņa make one think of Krishņadeva Rāya or Narasa Rāya? If one must take into consideration only the realistic human ele- ments by detaching them from the supernatural, how can it be sad that the poet only meant Krishna Raya or Narasa Raya? Hence one is forced to agree completely with the Maharaja Saheb of Pithapuram when he says: " ... .. I entirely differ from my 71 friend regarding his theones of allegones, philosophical and his- torcal, in "Kalapurodayam.'I am in very good company, as many eminent scholars of great erudition in Sanskrit and Telugu are in agreement wıth me." Kavısarvabhauma Sripāda Krişhņamūrti Sastri, the present poet laureate, also is of the same opinion.90 Before closing this question of allegories, one has to define what it is, and show how it is an altogether foreign concept to both Sanskrit and Telugu literatures. "An allegory is a trope in which a second meaning is to be read beneath and concurrent with the surface story. Distinguished from metaphor and par- able, it is an extended story that may hold interest for the surface tale as well as for the meaning borne along."91 Thus this second meaning is not subordinate to the surface story, but on the other hand it will be independent of the former. If one traces its origin and historical development, its nature will be all the clearer. To withstand the onslaughts of Rationalism, critics had to defend certain passages and episodes of the great poets and hence be- gan to read a second meaning into them to explain away immo- rality and apparent incongruity. With this activity there develops G. V. Knshna Rao

naturally a misconception that literature should be pleasing and at the same time be instructive. Because they were not able to reconcile these mutually opposite concepts,92 a new literary form came into vogue; and that is allegory. The surface story is meant for pleasure while the latent is intended for instruction. That is why the secondary meaning or story in an allegory will generally be one of ethics or philosophy. This does not mean that there were not historical allegories but they were perhaps of later or- gin. This mode of reading philosophical import into the works of great writers is not uncommon even with the Pauranikas when they explain rasa krida, Draupadı having five husbands and the like. This is quite unaesthetic and never conceded by the Ālamkārkās. Due to the admixture of two different concepts and their inadequate synchronsation, obscunty has become one of the characteristics of the allegory; and this surface meaning can- not be explained unless the second meaning is taken into consid- 72 eration. There can be no greater example of this than Spenser's Faerie Queene. But it is a different story with Sanskrt and Telugu litera- tures. There were days when the same concept of literature, i.e., that it should be at once pleasing and instructive prevailed in both the fields. Bhatti Kavya and the like in Sansknt and so many unpoetic passages in the Mahabharata, Basavapurana, Pandıtarädhys Caritra and the like in Telugu are concrete exam- ples of this notion. But the nature and genius of these languages and the profound philosophical ınsıght of the ālankarikas helped both these literatures to tread altogether a different path from that of the allegory. These two languages are so finely developed (or so primitive as the moderns like to put it), that even two or tree meanings can be clearly expressed by a single sentence. Ex- ploiting this tendency there came into these literatures slesa kāvyās, dvyarthi kāvyās and even tryarthi and caturarthi kāvyas There might have been even anuloma and viloma kavyas. Here the point is that, though they are grotesque, they are never ob- scure. Whatever may be the drawbacks of ancient Telugu poets, they can never be charged with obscurity like Spenser, Browning Studies in Kalapurnodayam

and others. Thus came into Sanskrt and Telugu literatures dvyarthi kāvyās etc. instead of allegorical poems. But this sort of development received a terrible check from one of the world's greatest aesthetician, Anandavardhana, and he forced them to flow into the profound channels of dhvant. In the ninth century itself he clearly defined the soul of poetry as dhvant or sugges- tion, and differentiating it definitely from figures of speech of which lēsa is one, determined the values of various forms of literary expression. Explaining Anandavardhana's view, Abhinavagupta, the eminent philosopher and perhaps the world's greatest liter- ary cntic, pronounced his judgment that rasa dhvan or aesthetic experience is the soul of poetry93 and the poet's primary aim is Ananda94, or that special pleasure peculiar to fine art. Thus into both Telugu and Sanskrit literatures there have come sleşa kāvyas, dvyarthı and tryarth kavyās, which are some- what similar to allegorical poems in English and other continen- tal literatures. The common features between the two forms are 73

that both have more than one meaning and these meanings are not only important but also independent. Both these forms have for their ultimate or immediate object expression rather than the aesthetic experience or Ananda. But at the same time, slēsa kavyas etc. are always plain and without confusion of imagery, while an allegorical poem generally is, though not always, ob- scure. An allegorical poem carries invanably an ethical or philo- sophical or historical significance, but the slesa and dvyarthi kavyās etc. do not have such a limitation. Now it may be examined how Dhavani differs from allegory. Dhvant should not necessanly have a double meaning whereas an allegory should have more than one. Even where dhvani has more than one significance, the expressed one should always be subordinate to, or even annihilate itself in the manifestation of, the suggested; and at the same time it should be beautiful or communicate aesthetic expenence. It is not so with allegory. The surface meaning as well as the under-current are important, and also independent. Instruction is not at all the important aim of G V. Knshna Rao

dhvani as it is with the latter. While obscurity is an arch enemy of dhvani, it is very often an intimate friend of allegory. Dhvani exists even in prefixes and suffixes, consonants, vowels and words, in sentences and in the whole work; but allegory cannot exist even in single sententeces. With these data in view, we may ask what is the place to be assigned to allegory by the alankarika school? Though it differs from slesa and its species, its connections are more with the lat- ter than with dhvani. Those who have direct acquaintance with the allegorical poems of Spenser cannot altogether place him in the calss of slesa kavis. Certain portions of the Faerie Queene come under dhvani, certain other passages come under slēsa and its species and the others are worthless. Now returning to the present topic, can it be maintained that there exists definitely in the Kalapurnodayam an allegory 74 which is different from slesa etc. and dhvani, and thus altogether foreign to both the tradition of Telugu and Sansknt? To summarıse (1) Prasnopanısad is never called Kalapurnopanıshad and the sixteen kalas or parts mentioned therein are not simply vision etc. but prana etc. (2) If this Upanısad was his source, the poet would have suggested through his poem the emergence of the material universe and the embodied soul. (3) The allegory the critic traces, is fraught with many shortcom- ings, and he attributes philosophical ignorance, creative impo- tence, expressional incompetence and gross self-contradiction to the poet. (4) Admission of the existence of allegory means denial of unity in the poem on which the poet set such a high value 95 (5) Above all these considerations, allegory, differing from dhvant, slesa and its species as poited above, is altogether a foreign concept. Therefore, it can be positively said that the Kalāpūrņodayam is not an allegorical poem.

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

CHAPTER V SŪRANA AND HIS CRITICS

The theme of the kalapurnodayam is not only original but also profound. No poem of its length can claim its depth, unity and organic connection. Every incident, character, background and even the names of the personages have much bearing on the whole. It appears as if the poem will not survive even a minor change. That is why it cannot be abridged, as it has been possible with the Kadambari or with the important works of Tolstoy, with- out damage to its significance and beauty. Even the title of the poem is as orgnifically and connected with the poem as in the case of Mrcchakatıka. No doubt some writers have published prose versions of it and that too abndged under different titles. But they seem to be carcatures of rather than guides to Surana's poem. 75

To appreciate any work of art certain minimum conditions are to be satisfied. Beauty, after all, is not purely objective. Even simple perceptual knowledge requires object as well as subject. For example the sweetness of sugar depends not only on sugar but also on the perceiving subject. If the person has fever, it will be bitter to him. The same is true of a work of art. To enjoy beauty certain conditions are to be fulfilled by both the work of art and the reader or critic. If either of the two fails, beauty also van- ishes. After all what is beauty without its realisation, and what is life without beauty? When such is the meaning, every cultured man will try his level best to improve or adjust himself to every work of art so that he may have as full a vision of its beauty as possible. He keeps aside his personal whims and fancies, likes and dislikes, theones and opinions. and closely follows the artist step by step. If any discrepancy occurs, i.e., if the artist appears grossly to contradict himself, the critic with his cultural equip- ment adjusts himself and his psychic distance as one does with one's glasses so that all the apparent contradictions disappear. The result may be one of brilliant and profound vision, or a dull G. V. Knshna Rao

and uninteresting picture. In the whole process the rules and methods followed are strictly those of the artist. So, while the artist has to satisfy the fundamental principles of self-evidentness and self-sufficiency, the critic has to see them as they emerge and pronounce hs verdict. If the things delineated are not self- sufficient and self-evident, he has to provide his reasons, and if they are, he has to state clearly how and from what approach and standpoint these can be had. Such a cnticism is certainly invaluable on the one hand to the creator, and on the other, to the reader. But such healthy literary criticism in Telugu literature is perhaps rather a rarity than a common feature. If the past judged the works of art on the basis of extraneous and dogmatic princi- ples, the present is also probably committing the same mistake by applying a new set of ideologies and idiosyncracies. For exam- ple, Potana, the author of Andhra Bhagavata, is not quoted by 76 the laksanikas sımply on the ground that the former has mixed 8 and ein prasa. Tikkana's Uttara Rāmāyana was not as popular as that of Kankantı Papāraju. Religious bias probably weighed heavy against Nannicoda's Kumarasambhavam and Dhūrjati's Sn-kala-hastımahatmyam. Taking Mammata's statement in the Kāvyaprakäsa97 as the last word on principles of literary criti- cism, one critic condemns Srinätha for having named his work as Smagâra Naisadham. Sımply because Mammata condemned the mention of rasas etc. by their names as a fault,98 the learned pandit censured the poet of Srinätha's calibre very severely. The poet perhaps wanted his readers to understand that the story dealt with in the poem is up to the consummation of the mar- nage of Nala and Damayantı, but never conceivably expected or hoped that they would realise smgara rasa by directly mention- ing the word. If this charge were levelled against Pinavirabhadra for assigning the title of Srngarasakuntalam to his poem, there might be some justification. This deploroble state of affairs in literary criticism is per- haps worse in the case of the Kalāpūmodayam. Many articles and introductions and some books and even a commentary have Studies in Kalapurnodayam

been written on the Kalapumodayam. The common drawback as it appears with all these critics is that they approach the poem with some preconceived notions or pet theones. They seem to forget that here is the work of a poet who might have something to portray, and in consequence fail to judge him on his own prin- ciples. If one tres to approach Shakespeare from the standpoint of the alamkārika, and Käldäsa from that of western literary criti- cism or from personal predisposition, then the works of these world-famous writers are likely to appear altogether in a different light and lose most of their beauty. Unfortunately this sort of approach seems to be gaining ground in Telugu literature. If the past has judged poets from the point fo view of Sanskrit litera- ture, the present is perhaps repeating it from the standpoint of western crtiticism. Added to this, modern critics influenced by the west appear to estimate a poet taking some other poet as an absolute criterion. The most important person to advocate this method is Matthew Arnold. This may be useful in determining 77 commercial values, but does not help in the least in the realisa- tion of aesthetic values. On the other hand, this path is paved with so many graves. Suppose one starts with the conception that Nannaya is the best poet and begins to judge other writers using his lines as touch-stones; the result will be conceivably disconcerting. Tikkana with his limpid and halting style. devoid of all romantic imagery, will cut a very poor figure. His realısm, his deeper understanding of human motives and aspirations, his dramatic presentation, his skill in charactersation, all these will most probably be missed. Not only that; new beauties that are brought to light by adopting the language of the common man and by depicting people who are in the lower rung of life as in the Kanyasulkam will generally be lost sight of. Besides, the selec- tion of the touch-stone itself, when logically viewed, will be arbi- trary and irrational. By this apparently wrong approach critics seem to have contributed more to confusion than to an apprecia- tion of Surana. They have pointed to more than twenty draw- backs which they regard as major blemishes in the theme of the Kalapumodayam. To go through them will certainly throw a flood of light on the object and purport of the poem. G. V. Knshna Rao

The first objection raised by Dr. C.R. Reddy is to the part played by the manihara endowed with supernatural powers. Though a most beautiful creation, he says, it is not without fault.99 The reasons he gives are as follows :- (1) Sugraha who obtained the Manihara as a boon from Visnu lost it even before experienc- ing the truth of it. (2) The Brahmin who happened to pick it up did not wear it but simply kept it in his box for years together, only to present it in the end to Sri Krsna. (3) Really the Brahmin's wife should have been a great woman to stand above these temp- tations. Later on, when it was presented to Manikandhara, he also could not enjoy the benefits of its supernatural powers. Ulti- mately it adorned the neck of the baby with its central gem touch- ing her heart and thus manifesting its powers. It once again man- aged to get out of its place just before it revealed the past history of Satvadātman. Madhuralālasa did not even remember it after her marriage. Added to this, she had it lengthened so that when 78 worn the central gem touched her heart. All these points, he argues, are a mere bundle of accidents; and they are to him as unconvincing as assuming the form of the other. These arguments, on closer examination, appear to have been gathered together in support of his contention that the lat- ter part of the poem commencing from the 189th stanza of the sixth canto is superfluous and unnecessary. Whatever may be the object, is he justified in criticising this part played by the manihara? His main argument is that it is not convincing. For argument's sake let this point be conceded. If this is not convinc- ing, do the supernatural powers attrbuted to it, at least from his standpoint, sustain and strengthen the world of make-believe? What about the divine powers of Mrgendravähana? Has he not taken all these for granted? The very fact that he has taken so much pains proves beyond doubt that he concedes these super- natural powers to Manthara and Mrgendravähana. Then why does he take objection to the part later played by the necklace? Grant- ing these supernatural powers, what prevents him from taking them as probabilities? Is there any inhrent logical contradiction? He has not pointed it out. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

His personal dislike for the latter part of the poem seems to have inspired these apparently untenable arguments. For example, he says that Sugraha was cursed even before he experi- enced the power of the manihara.100 This is apparently an exaggeration. What the poet actually says through Madhuralalasa is this101 :-

102

The underlined words in the above passage clearly show that Sugraha utlised the manthara to ascertain the real motive when the ascetic embraced other idols to conceal his emotions. Otherwise Sugraha could not have so positively asserted his opin- ion and ridiculed his behaviour. The nature of the curse also substantiates this point. The next point which contributes to an air of improbability according to the critic is that the Brahmin did dot use the manhara and find its powers, and that he had preserved it for many years. At least, the critic opines, his wife should have sought to wear it even secretly because the love of jewels in women is naturally great. From the context of the criticism it appears that the critic wants the poet to delineate another episode in which the wife of the Brahmin makes a scene for the manhara. If the poet had done it, fortunately for one he has not, the unity of the poem perhaps would have gone to pieces. Besides, it would have cer- tainly defeated the poet's object, the explanation of which is de- ferred to a subsequent chapter. Above all these, if the poet had G. V. Knshna Rao

done what this critic wanted, he would have violated the princi- ples of psychology of the poor and religious minded couple. Sup- pose, a rich man presents a most beautiful and costly garment to a husband and wife who are in stark poverty and who are always dressed in rags. They are most likely not to wear it. On the other hand, they may even try their level best to get rid of it or hide it. Even in nineteen fifties there are Erukulas who do not and dare not wear complete clothing. So also is this Brahmin couple. They should have been poor and religious minded. Because the manihara is pioked up at the temple, and because it is costly, it 1s kept safely without ever being used. Even if the couple had used it secretly, the chances of finding its supernatural powers were practically nil for they would be manifested only when the central gem touched the human heart. Due to poverty, it is natural for the couple not to know the nature of jewels and how to wear them. Now is that unconvincing and beyond probability? Thus 80 manihara passes into the hands of Krsna. Simply because it falls into his hands it cannot grow in its size. Quoting these lines

103

he questions the appropriateness of the phrase 'ecde'. Twisting the argument, he asks whether the Brahamin presented the manihara toKrsna after he had marned sixteen thousand Gopikas, or before, when he was only a child? He would not have raised this irrelevant question had he not apparently overlooked these verses :-

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

81 30 5. 104

But Visnu did not say that the manihara would adjust its sıze with the wearer. The Brahmin presented that Manıhâra of Bala Visnu to Sri Krsna who had many wives. The same manthara, when presented to Manikandhara and put on, hung close to his neck; but its central jewel did not touch his heart. Where is the mnappropnateness? At this juncture another idea may strike the reader. Just as Madhuralälasa enlarged the manihara so that the central gem touched the heart when worn, so also Mankańdhara should have done it. What prevented him from doing it? Being a gandharva, he cannot be said to be ignorant of jewels. Since he is a devotee of Krsna, and the mamhara a present from him in token of his poetic faculty, it is a keep-sake for hım. Madhuralalasa's position, on the other hand, is quite different. She is deeply in love with her husband and wants to please him by wearing his present in an attractive way. Hence, it may be presumed that there is nothing unnatural, or unconvincing, or inappropriate in it.

G. V. Knshna Rao

The last objection is raised on two grounds. Firstly, even when Madhuralalasa was only a child, she was over head and ears in love with Kalapurna. She should have remembered the manihāra presented to her by her lover. Even if one is able to invent some excuse for this, he cannot explain why she dd not remember it at the time of their marriage. This is clearly a viola- tion of the law of association. Secondly, why did she entertain the idea of enlarging the manthara so that the central gem might tough the heart? These two questions give nse to the thought that the critic might have forgotten the previous incident as well as the heroine's social status and culture. The manihāra was presented to her when she was only a baby of a few months, Further to remember such things in latter life or even in child- hood is a psychological impossibility. Only elders who were present on that occasion might be expected to remember it. They did not remember it because they were not directly concerned with 82 Kalapura but only with Madhuralalasa. If they had been as much worned as Madhuraläsa about the here, they would have cer- tainly remembered it. Or, if they had seen the Manthära, they would have reminded the heroine of it. This latter probability also is ruled out by two causes :- firstly, it was safely kept away, and secondly, they did not feel its necessity due to abundance of jew- ellery. The second adverse reason also loses its force when one remembers that the very form ofjewels suggests to men or women of culture, how they are to be worn. The heroine, devoted as she was to her husband, put on that manthära with slight changes required for presenting a proper appearance without becoming the butt of ridicule. Overlooking these implications, the great crtic pronounces a severe judgment against the poet. He does not stop with this, but prescribes certain general rules even to Surana who had a thorough grasp of these aesthetic problems when he remarks :-

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

This judgment naturally raises many problems like accident, rationality, probability, etc. If what is said above is completely valid, the stories of the Spider, the Elephant and the Serpent in Dhurjati's poem, the dramatic works of Maeterlink, the Brand and the Peergynt of Ibsen and the like must be absolutely worthless. On the contrary, it is generally agreed among the cntics and creative artists that they are of immense value and matchless beauty. The natural corollary is that probability in art or literature is not directly related to naturalism or materialistic realism. Anstotle in his Poetics made a serious ef- fort to define the nature of probability but perhaps with little success ... His approach is more apologetic than revelatory when he says :- 83 Speaking generally, one has to justify (1) the impossible by reference to the requirements of poetry, or to the better, or to opinion. For the purposes of poetry a convincing impossibility is preferable to an unconvincing possibility; and if men such as Zeuxis depicted be impossible, the answr is that it is better they should be like that, as the artist ought to improve on his model. (2) The improbable, one has to justify either by showing it to be in accordance with opinion, or by urging that at times it is not improbable; for there is a probability of things happening also against probability. (3) The contradictions found in the poet's language one should first test as one does an opponent's confutation in a dialectical argument, so as to see whether he means the same thing in the same relation and in the same sense before admitting that he has contradicted either something he has said himself or what a man of sound sense assumes as true. But there is no possible apology for improbability of plot or depravity of character when they are not necessary and no use is made of them, like the improbability in the appearance of Aegeus in Medea and the baseness of Menelaus in Orestes.106 G. V Knshna Rao

Abhinavagupta enumerates seven obstacles in the realisation of rasa of which improbability is one. Bharata devotes a considerable part to analyse the nature and characteristics of the divine, the semi-divine, the human, and the animal worlds, and customs and habits, and dresses and languages in varous societies in his stupendous work Natyasastra.107 But all these seem to leave yet something unsaid and the question eludes satisfactory solution. Perhaps this is due to ever evolving human nature and the existence of vanous levels of mntelligence and culture. Due to these differences, what appears probable to some seems improbable to others. Yet one has to arrive at a fairly good standard by which the differences can be reconciled if one wants to avoid chaos in literary crticism. May it be put like this? :- However impossible an event may appear, and seem to be removed far from truth, scientific or otherwise, it becomes probable and convincing provided it forms an integral organic, 84 and at the same time indispensable part and that it does not contradict directly or indirectly a part or the whole to which it belongs. Of course poetic licences or kausamayas are.an excep- tion. It is well known to artists and crtics that the world of beauty is completely inaccesible to those that do not admit the premises with which a work of art begins. When concession of this is followed by self-contradiction, one can impeach the artist for an improbabihty. In spite of this, incidents may be flat and devoid of beauty. They must be certainly criticised but not on the basis of improbability and unconvincing nature. Perhaps Dr. C.R. Reddy has been msguided by overlooking this aspect. When it becomes probable, one may not be convinced. Such cases are not altogether lacking, but the fault then les not with the poet or artist but with oneself. So Abhinavagupta clearly says that the crtic or sahrdaya must be in such a position as to be able to identify himself with those to be descnbed by the poet. The dispute between Isvara and Natkıra in the Sri-kala- hastimahatmyam108 is worth noting in this context. Since a dis- cussion of this is not the immediate concern of this essay, it is left out.

Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

The second fault attnbuted to this work by Dr. C.R. Reddy109 and indirectly supported by Mr. Malladi Suryanarāyana Sastri110 is that the portion from the 189th verse of the sixth canto to the end of the poem is not only devoid of imagination, genius and poetic faculty, but is also superfluous. The marriage of Madhuralalasa etc., he says, has already been suggested and nothing significant will be gained by describing them once again. Moreovcr, he opines, these incidents are not closely related to the maın story. Mr.Suryanärayana Sastri seems to follow the former in his footsteps when he says that the story of Kalapurna ends with the 192nd verse of the sixth canto, and that the rest may be called The Victory of Kalapurna or The Marriage of Madhuralalasa. It this criticism is right, the poet must be said to have committed a grave blunder, and the theme to have a horrible cancer in its body. So it is of considerable importance to examine the reasons they advance, and the validity they possess. Dr. C. R. Reddy, in dealing with the so-called superfluous part, seems to be contrib- uting more heat than light. The reasons he points out are :- Firstly, how is it possible for Kalapurna to forget Madhuralalasa who had as a baby revealed so many wonderful things, and who was the daughter of his vassal king living in the neighbourhood, Sec- ondly, the love of Madhuralalasa for Kalāpūrna as depicted in this part is mean and inappropriate. Thirdly, how did she recog- nise her lover though she had not seen him even once before? Fourthly, the mother's advice on the eve of her departure to her husband's place is devoid of any significance. Fifthly, there is neither interesting story nor arresting imagination. The jealousy between Abhnavakaumudi and Madhuralâlasa, the cause of Kalāpūrņā's expedition of victory, and Satvadatman's political advice are silly, and only brought in to fulfil the rules presecrbed by the alamkānkas. Had not Kalāpūrna obtained an invincible bow and arrows and subjugated the emperor Madasaya? What necessity is there for him to enter into a nonaggression pact with the Magadha king and undertake an expedition of victory a sec- ond time? Sixthly, using only one of the four forces in every battle G V. Knshna Rao

is unrealistic. Mention of bombs, guns and rifles (28exses, udechet, dd stes) as having been used in these battles is gross anachronism. :Kalāpuma : according to Sūrana, is a contempo- rary of Pariksıt and to descrbe Kalapurna as having become the sole emperor is inappropriate. Whatever creation is quite contradictory to the world-famous stones is not appropriate, Seventhly, the age of Sugraha is beyond comprehension. He should have spent some years to obtain the manihara and some years should have passed before it reached Krsna. From the time it was presented to Mankandhara to that when Madhuralalasa wore it a second time thirty years at least should have passed. So his age is a regular paradox. To these veritable incongruities, he says, one finds no end. Why was not Satvadätman recognised by his own sister Rüpanubhut? If it was due to the curse, it had deprived him only of his me memory but not of his body. Nor can it be supported on the ground that he had no access to the harem 86 and so his sister did not happen to see him because he is said to have met Kalapurna and his wife Madhuralālasa in his harem Under point six another question is raised. When was Dvaraka submerged under the sea, before Kalapurna came to the throne or after that event? If it was before, it was too late, and if it was afterwards, did he fight with Krsna, Balarama, Bhima and Arjuna? Eighthly, Abhinavakaumud who remained a barren woman for many years, gave birth to a son late in her thirties. Her conception creates rather suspicion than revelation of beauty. And lastly, the episode of Laksmı-Narayana-Samvada does not fit into the picture and become an integral part. Regarding the first objection, the poet anticipating the critic has given suggestively a reply111 with which the latter is not satisfied. The time lapse of more than sixteen years suggested by the discrption of the gradual growth of Madhuralalasa from childhood to maidenhood has not convinced him of this probability. He presists in saying that to forget her who has releaved such wonderful things is highly improbable. It may be recollected here that she manifested these supernatural powers only once and that these powers too failed her in the middle. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

This failure might have made Kalapurna and others that were present at that juncture to attribute them to some unknown factor and not to Madhuralälasa. Moreover, she did not exhibit such wonderful powers even once after that event. How could she remain in Kalapūrna's memory even after sixteen years? Even great people who have sacrificed everything to their nation and humanity at large are being consigned to oblivion within a span of three or four years. When such is the clear testimony of history, is there any scope for doubting the poet's statement that Kalapurna forgot everything about Madhuralālasa? Is it not well- known to politicians that public memory is very short ?. Leaving all these arguments, one has, ifhe is a crtic, to believe implicitly in what the poet says as long as it remains uncontradicted by any other utterance in the same work. This point of dispute becomes all the clearer if one takes for example Kalidasa's Meghasandesa. Every student knows that a message to be conveyed to Yaksını is ımparted by the Yaksha to the cloud. Viewed 87 realistically, nothing can be more absurd than this; but one timely stroke from the great poet shatters this improbability to pieces. Voicing the doubt of the cntic or sahrdaya, he replies with an arthantaranyāsa.

க்சதல க்கி: அலஜீ:

ன கறமதகு அவைகிவ் வில 112

If the cntic is not satisfied even after reading the last line, appar- ently he expresses only an opinion as distinct from criticism. Turning to the second allegation that the love as depicted here is mean and inappropnate, the critic seems to overlook the fact that an aesthetic object is quite different from a natural or social object. Characters like Ravana, Sakara, lady Macbeth, Sa- tan etc. are objects of wonder and beauty, but as real human beings in flesh and blood, living amidst mortals, they are not only G. V. Knshna Rao

horrible but also mntolerable. It behoves society to get rid of such. aberrations of creation. Such is the gulf between the objects of beauty and the objects of nature. This statement naturally leads to the consideration of the problem of beauty 119 which is to be dealt whith in a subsequent chapter. For the present it may be sufficient to say that social ethics is quite different from that of Fine Arts. Dr.Reddy appears to attack the poet for depicting this love situation purely on ethical grounds and social progress. This bias might have set up a thick screen between him and the beau- ties to be found in the description of a young bud gradually bloom- ing into the fullgrown flower of Madhuralalasa, in the brisk and running narration in appropnate metres and facile expression. Moreover, given that royal status, there seems to be nothing un- convincing or improbable or mnappropriate in Madhuralālasa. To condem a part containing such verses as the following is rather strange :- 38

Studhes in Kalapurnodayam

The third objection on the ground of impossibility of Madhuralälasa's recognising Kalapurna even at the time of their first meeting loses its force if one only remembers Brahma's words. He says :-

From the underlined words it is clear that Madhuralalasa is blessed with a boon of having an inborn love for her husband. Due to this blessing she is able to recognise her would-be hus- band. This point has not been brought into the picture all on a sudden. The poet has clearly mentioned it not once but twice in describing her childhood. Reminding his reader who is likely to forget Brahma's boon, the poet says :- 89

In her childhood Madhuralālasa is again described :-

xi

When she was able even in her babyhood to recognise and respond to the simple name, what improbability is there when she is said to have recognised Kalapurna at their first meeting ? If this is improbable the episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha becomes all the more improbable and thus the whole of the G V Knshna Rao

Kalapūrnodayam loses all its significance. Whether this concept of pativratya is good or bad, is irrelevant here. The question is whether the peculiar behaviour logically follows from the previ- ous incidents or not. Brahma definitely told that parrot that she would, in her second birth, marry Kalapurna and that the quali- ties of pativratya would be natural and not acquired as the re- sults of psychological process. This boon is confirmed once again by Sumukhasatti118 when she blessed Kalabhasini that she would become a parama pativrata in her next birth. Her words are not simply an expression of her ardent hope because she acquired such supernatural powers from Mrgendravahana that whatever she expressed would become true. Hence this point, Madhuralalasa recognısıng Kalāpurņa at their first meeting, is doubly determined as perfectly consistent and gives no scope for doubt. The fourth allegation seems to be more unjustified than 90 any other mentioned by the critic. Sending away the marned daughter to her husband's house is an important and memora- ble event for a mother even to this day. Even when she marries her daughter to her own brother and sends her to her husband's house for the first time immediately after marnage, tears fill her eyes. This natural emotion and the customary advice of the mother are given expression to by the poet through Rupanubhuti. Even though there is full scope here for teaching the duties of a house- wife, Surana does not indulge in it; on the contrary, dismisses it in only six verses119 taking care not to bring in irrelevant points. The fifth objection appears to have its root in the concep- tion of poetry itself. According to this view, it seems, poetry con- sists only in carefully consturucted story, or incidient, or charac- ter delineation. For those who hold this view simple descriptions of things, moods, emotions, ideas, culture etc. have no value. Fine imagery, beautiful word-music, bewitching melody, subtle rhythm, all these are worthless extravagance. If one accepts this view, Kalidasa's Meghasandesa, Muyura's Süryasataka, Dhuratı's Srı-Kala-hastisvara-sataka, Kasula Purusottama's Andhranāyaka Sataka, Nācana Somana's Uttara harivamsa, the famous odes Studies in Kalapurnodayam

and sonnets in English and Greek literatures must be consid- ered insignificant and worthless. All efforts made by the aestheticians and the ālamkarikas since the time of Plato, ac- cording to this view, will be a colossal waste. Therefore, this theory of poetry is neither supported by the existing works of art, nor upheld by any school of aesthetics. This argument, however, does not concede directly or indirectly that this part of the poem is altogether devoid of story interest. On the other hand, in addition to the interest of the theme, there are beautiful descriptions which are not so conspicuous in the earlier part. For example the child- hood of Madhuralalasa, the jocular way in which the old purohit prattles with the king, the scenes on the battle-field and the feel- ings of the soldiers when they once again come in sight of their native city after a long and protracted absence are more than beautiful. The cause of Kalapurna's expedition of victory which the 91 cntic rdicules is not probably so absurd as it is made to appear if one only refers to modern history of Europe. How many silly causes, personal prejudices, private affairs of the diplomatic per- sonages and mere accidents have precipitated horrible conflicts and disastrous wars ? Hindu polity, besides, insists that a king worth his name should never be satisfied until the whole earth is brought under his domination. Kalapurna, when he undertook this expedition, did nothing more than follow this injunction which has its roots deeply set in the psychology of political leaders. The next question whether the jealousies of Abhinavakaumudi and Madhuralalasa bring them any credit, and whether their respec- tive characters are not marred, does not count if the social and cultural background of those times is taken into consideration. Krsna is depicted as having invaded heaven only to bring the paryata, and Bhima for having attacked gandharvas for the sake of saugandhika flowers. No purpose will be served by viewing ar- tistic creations with the bias of the modern age. Moreover, such outlook is strictly barred by the canons of artistic taste and valu- ation. G V. Knsnna Rao

The satirical remark hurled by the critic at Satvadatman's political advice probably loses it's sting, when its actual content is taken into account. Satvadätman does not teach the A.B.C of politics, but only mentions the points that encourage the king in his mission and openly admits that they are not new to the king well-versed in that science. The next questions which the critic poses as his own, is raised and answered by Satvadätman himself. The critic in hs own way remarks :-

92

One may refer to what Satvadätman says anticipating tnese ob- jections.

No one can say that the critic has not seen these lines and that he thinks that his objection was never in the poet's view. Nevertheless, he raises this point probably to say that he is not completely convinced with Satvadatman's explanation. Keeping the following points in view critics may judge the issue :- Firstly, kalāpūma conquered only Madasaya who had conquered all the Studies in Kalapurnodayam

other kings. He never established his soveregnty over them by practically exhibiting his armed might and prowess. Secondly, defeating the emperor will not bestow sovereignty all the kings are once again subjugated. There can be no clearer example in this respect than the victory of Khaljıs over the kakatıya emperor and the victory of the Sultans of Deccan kingdoms over the em- peror of Vijayanagar. Thirdly, more than twenty years had passed sınce Kalapūrņa defeated Madāsaya. There is sample scope for antagonistic forces to gain fresh strength. Fourthly, somple boons do not automatically establish sovereignty. Though Arjuna ac- quired pasupatastra122 blessed with victory, the terrble war of kuruksetra did not cease to take its disastrous course. The sixth charge brought against the poet is anachronism. Genarally, speaking, lack of historical sense seems to be one of the drawbacks with the Indian writers and especially with the philosophers. But all the same Surana cannot be accused on this score. This critic observes that the poet has committed this blender by mentioning bombs, guns and rifles (poorses, 9:

d, as having been used in the times of Kalapurna. In this context what is more useful than an argu- ment is to go through the account of Salva's attack on Dvaraka described in the Aranya parvam of the Mahabharata.123 There it 1s vividly said that the King Salva carried on an arnal attack on Dvaraka from his Saubhanagaradhya which could fly to any place and the latter, which repulsed the attack, is thus described:

AoS. eoms. e1. .261-263 Thus there is a clear mention of sataghni and other instruments of destruction. It may be argued that the text quoted here is spunous, and that it might have crept into the Mahabharata re- cently. Spurious or not, this passage must have got into the text even before the time of Pingali Surana. The poet, who had thor- oughly studied the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, sımply be- leved in the authenticity of this passage and used the current G. V. Knsnna Rao

names of his time. There are definite references to such instru- ments of destruction in the Sukranitisara125 a treatise on politics, and the Uttaraharivamsam, a poem.126 If there still any error of anachronism at all, it is to be attributed to the earlier writers but not to Surana. The next point that Kalapuma must have been a contem- porary of Parksit certainly true. Because he had great respect for the Bharata, Surana did not even mention the name of Parikshit or others of Kuruksetra fame. To that extent he pre- vented his theme from coming into direct coflict with the story of the Mahabhärata. Strict adherence to historical events and dates is not as important for the poet as creating beauty. The general rule to be followed in this respect is the dictation of beauty. The cntic's dictum, that whatever is contradictory to the world-fa- mous stories is inappropnate,127 seems to be rather a hasty con- clusion. If what he says is nght, even a minor change in a world- famous story is undesirable and repulsive. But there are many dramatists who must be accused on this ground. For example, one dramatist changes one of the most well-known incidents in the Ramayana when he makes Laksmana follow the wonderful deer instead of Rama. Moreover, this effective change is applauded very much by Kuntaka as an instance under Prakarana Vakrata.128 Discussing this problem Dhvanyāloka says :- வி்தரைஸ் லஸ்ககண,

Stuces in Kalapurnodayam

லகக்வி. கக் பன்துை ுரன்க கல்

Here Sürana neither changed the story of the Bharata nor con- tradicted it. He silently passed over the story of Pariksit and that too with a definite object. If he described Kalapuma as having fought with Krsna or Pariksit, it might be regarded as a blunder. Even then before convicting a writer of this charge, many other things have to be taken into consideration. Suppose an English- man wntes an epic in his own language depicting Räma and Rvana in an altogether different light with many changes in the theme; that poem for the English - speaking world does not be- come grotesque. The seventh objection that Satvadatman's age is beyond comprehension and that he appears in this respect to belong to 95 Krtayuga, is hardly convincing. To conceive of Sugraha as losing his kingdöm at the age of twenty two or twenty five and obtaining the manihara in his thirtieth year does not strike one as an im- probability. Even granting that the necklace remained with the Brahmin for ten years, and that thirty years had lapsed before Madhuralälasa came to wear it for the second time which this crtic concedes Sugraha's age does not exceed seventy years. Even learning some more margin, one can take him to be seventy-five years old when he met Kaläpurna and his wife in the harem. The next question why Rupānubhūti did not recognise Satvadātman, suggests that this critic probably did not pay attention to the curse inflicted on Sugraha. It is as follows :-

0 5 .... 130 This means that the past history of Sugraha up to the end of the curse would be forgotten. Not only Sugraha, but also those who know him would not know his past. If the poet had meant only to make him lose his own consciousness up to that event, he would not have wasted so many words, and would have said :- G. V. Knshna Rao

So it seems to be a case of inattention. The eighth objection that Abhinnavakaumudi's conception after many years of married life leads one to doubt her chastity loses all its sharpness if it is only remembered that she belongs to the class of gandhurvas. On each one of the queens a son is bestowed not because the poet wants to be impartial, or to bring about symmetry which the critic ridicules. That the son begotten by Abhinavakaumudi is called Suprasāda, and the one by Madhuralalasa Sarasa, has a greater significance than what the critics have ever tried to probe into. For the present this point is left out only to be discussed at length in its proper context. Now this survey and defence carried on so far is intended only to established that this later part of the poem is free from 96 faults attributed to it by the critic. This is only a negative ap- proach because a faultless poem need not necessarly be beauti- ful. Unless the positive beauties of this part are clearly shown, these arguments do not carry much weight. So this aspect for- sooth needs a closer examination. Suppose the poet had closed his poem with the 192nd verse of the sixth canto as our critic suggests; then the poem would not only be mncomplete but also put the reader in a mood of irritation and dissatisfaction. He would be at a loss to understand firstly, how a baby which was not old enough to laugh could tell so many stories ; secondly, why her supernatural powers failed her sud- denly ; thirdly, why Satvadätman was brought mnto the picture; and fourthly, why Manikandhara was said to have hidden his vina so carefully in the temple of Mregendravahana. There is no point, therefore, in wishing that the poet had closed his poem with the 192nd verse of the sixth canto. Assuming tentatively that the poet had made the baby narrate the story of Sugraha also without a break, would the story suffer in any way? In that case it must also be granted that a baby of a few months can remaned stiil for hours together without moving this side or that Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

side in the cradle. Those words informing the readers that Manikandara had hidden his vina safely in the temple are to be omitted. Added to this one has to think of Brahma as somewhat talkative. If these are the only things with which the readers are concerned, they can be easily adjusted. But the most unfortu- nate thing is that the whole significance and meaning of the poem will be lost. It will only be a fairy - tale to please the young and the old, or a story to be newly added to the Kathasaritsāgara. Not only that. One fourth of the existing poem becomes superfluous and unnecessary. If this is true, the poet must be said to be the most incompetent wnter who does not even know where to end a story. That such an incapable poet can give a story that is atleast marvellous at a certain part is quiet incredible. Even that part which is considered the most beautiful will appear to be maried by many drawbacks if one does not approach it from the correct perspectives. If Dr.Reddy's approach is right, what purpose does it serve to mention the nature of poetry so many times in the 97 poem? Why are Sugätr and Salina said to be the natives of Kashmir and not of some other country? The names of Caturmukha and Sarasvatı can be replaced by Narayana and Lakșmi, or Paramesvara and Parvatı. These points in the story cannot be settled according to this interpretation. The name of Kalāpūrņa is not mevitable. This name can be changed into pūrna Candra. Above all, how is one to account for the failure of the poet in one fourth of the poem? It cannot be said that his Muse deserted him once for all at the end of the 192nd verse of the sixth canto. He wrote another marvellous poem after the Kalāpúrņodayam. These considerations, therefore, lead to the opinion that the cntic might not have approached the poem from a proper angle. Now to follow the crtics in their further accusations. The third fault found with the theme is that the pilgrimage of Maņikandhara to holy places does not serve any other purpose than increasing the bulk of the poem.130 Moreover, it positively spoils, they say, the beauty by enhancing the time gap. Accord- ing to this view Kalabhasini is left in an awkward position. one 1s G. V. Knsnna Rao

at a loss to understand how she spent this period of one and a half years while Manikandhara was on his pilgrimage. This criti- cism ıs partly met by Mr.Süryanārayana Sāstri in his commen- tary on the Kalapurnodayam131 when he explains thus :- Firstly, this pilgrimage is a prelude to his penance, and Nārada had mn- structed the hero to follow his instruction. Secondly, the Kalāpūmodayam is a poem and not a sūtragrantha to leave it to suggestiion. Thirdly, the poet is only making his work good by describing the sacred places of pilgrimage. Added to this, this description is suted to the Prabandha Marga. Fourthly, the poet who has given a story in ten verses sufficient enough for three cantos, cannot be said to be ignorant of what enhances and what hampers the tempo of the story. He is also playing the tune favoured by the people of his age. In spite of this elaborate argument, one may still feel that 98 the objection rased is not properly met. It is true that the poet has some partiality and considers it a sacred thing to go on a pilgnmage. This can be clearly proved by the prominence he gives to Arjuna's tirthayatra at the expense of the story in his Räghavapandaviyam.132 Nevertheless, this description seems to be important not on extraneous grounds but on internal neces- sıty. Kalabhāsını is not a simple and credulous maiden to be easily duped by Manistambha. If the descniption of holy places were omitted by him, could she have believed and implicitly fol- lowed him to achieve her end? He might have exhibited his su- pernatural powers and thus roused her checked ambitions. Well acquainted as she was with the ways of the world, would she have entrusted herself to an utter stranger? Without this de- scnption, what is there for Kalabhasini to have implicit faith in him and to trust him with her life? In order to appear as a pious and god-fearing man Mamstambha took every care to describe all the holy places with such faith and zeal that Kalabhasini did not hesitate to follow him. Even readers who happen to read the poem for the first time do not entertain any suspicion of his ter- nible intention.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

The fourth allegation against the theme is that the child's exposition of Yoga is unnecessary, inappropnate and unpalat- able.133 This is plainly supported by another critic when he says that this is not in any way connected with the main story, and that it only helps to show the poet's knowledge of Yoga. It seems that these eminent critics have not paid proper attention to it. To understand the importance of this exposition of Yoga it ıs to be recollected that the baby, Madhuralalasa, had narrated the wonderful episode of Sarasvatı and Caturmukha with the clue that she, in her previous birth as Kalabhāsini, had seen the Manihara with Manikanidhara. Requested by Alaghuvrata, Kalapurna introduced himself, his minister and the other per- sonages present on the scene. What would be the immediate reaction firstly, of the readers, and secondly, of the characters who heard this story? Because the episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha is a continuation of the previous story, the readers naturally would not entertain any doubts. If they had anything 99 to doubt at all, it would only be how the baby which was not old enough to laugh could know the past and narrate it to the audi- ence. This point is kept in abeyance to maintain suspense. Now what are the reactions of the characters involved? This point appears to be by-passed by both these crtics. Instead of being themselves sahrdayas who have no other business than to iden- tify themselves with those to be descnbed by the poet, they seem to mnisist upon the characters following them. But fortunately, one of the greatest poets and aestheticians that he was, Surana knew that the creatures of the poetic or aesthetic world have their own laws which cannot be violated without they being ban- ished once for all from that world. Possessed with great insight, the poet also portrays the reactions of the characters. Kalāpūrna and his retinue were given the past history of their previous births and ongination. They were put in such a position that they could neither confirm nor deny it. It is true that they were comletely lost in wonder. Their past as revealed by the baby was so amaz- ing and eulogistic that they did not want either to disbelieve or confirm it, because such an action would not affect them and G. V. Knshna Rao

their position in the least. But the position of Alaghuvrata was quite different. He came there with the avowed purpose of hear- ing the story of Kalapuma; and on it his whole future depended. So it was of immense importance for him to verify the truth of the story. Of course the names of Kalapurna and his followers on the one hand, and Manikandhara, Kalabhasini and the Manıhära on the other, closely fitted into the narration of the baby. Yet Alaghuvrata had his own doubts not without justification. Sup- pose you are sitting on the beach along with some others whom you do not know. Presently a stranger comes and tells you and the others present, your names correctly and gives some details of your past births. What will be your reactions? Will you sım- ply believe him and accept all that he tells you? Will you not try to test the astrologer by some other means? The same is the reaction of Alaghuvrata in the story. When doubt arises as to the reality of a thing, there are only two kinds 100 of test open to man-one intrinsic and the other extrnsic. Follow- ing this, his mind at once tned to find incongruities in the narra- tion itself. The only thing that appeared to him incongruent and improbable was the strangeness in the parents of Kalapūrna. Hence he questioned first the king and finally the baby how it was possible for a man actually to give birth to a child. The baby, blessed with temporary supernatural power, could probe into his mind, and after narrating the story of Manistambha and Sumukhasattı exchanging their sexes and giving birth to Kaläpura, asked the audience to get the fact verified if they wanted, from Sumukhasatti and Manistambha living Kasarapura.134 Why did the baby bring in the question of verifi- cation if not to silence the doubts of Alaghuvrata? So this is a direct reply to Alaghuvrata though she asked all of them to verify it. Now the poor Brahmin was disarmed, and had to conceve of an objective or extraneous test by which he could know the truth. What could that be? His brain was working at full speed; and in the meanwhile the baby, continuing the story, told them how Svabhāva gave Kalāpūma a bow, arrows and ajewel. Alaghuvrata, who still had doubts, and who was all the while thinking of a Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

method to test the truth, asked her why Svabhava bestowed all those gifts on Kalapurna. When she explained the connections of Svabhava and Kalapurna and the powers the former achieved through Yoga, Alaghuvrata found a way to test the truth in her narration. Because his father was a Yogin and he had learnt something about it, he wanted to test the knowledge of the baby. Unless she possessed genuine knowledge, she could not know the intricate secrets of sciences and philosophy. If she could give a correct interpretation to the science of which he knew something, then all the things she had been telling them could also be believed. Hence Alaghuvrata, assuming an air of great respect and mod- esty, requested her apparently without any relevinced to enlighten him on Yoga. When she explaied it to them at length, he was completely convinced and was inclined to place immense faith in what she sad. He went on questioning her on such matters as he wanted to know. When, towards the close, she told him that 101 Prathamägama etc .. Were his sons, doubts were once again roused. Nevertheless, he was prepared simply to believe what she was about to say. That is why the poet makes him say in his charac- teristic way :-

Ke . 135 Hence the exposition of Yoga does not seem to be superflu- ous as these critics think. It is presumably necessary from the standpoint of Alaghuvrata if not from that of the readers who want a story simple and plain to beguile the time. But some doubt may occur as to the necessity of such a lengthy expostion. Even this is likely to disapppear if one only remembers that Alaghuvrata is slow-witted.16 This interpretation is apparently supported by two more considerations. The baby tells that Alaghuvrata's father is a great yogin. What purpose does it serve to mention this particular quality in addition to others?>INone. G. V. Knshna Rao

argues that these qualities are mentioned only to represent Somasarman as a great man, it may be valid in the case of any other poet than Surana. The qualities attributed to this charac- ter are only three: his knowledge of the Vedas, his greatness in penance and yoga and his affluence. Except the second, the rest are fully utilsed for the later events. When the first and the third qualities are enough to keep the story moving, what purpose does it serve to mention the second? If they were not meant to serve actually any event in the story, they should have been simply ornaments. But that is not the case because without the first and the third qualities, the story would not have come into exist- ence. When two epithets are endowed with such significance, how can one say that the third is superfluous? Hence the present interpretation is not unreasonable or arbitrary. Finally, if the poet only wanted to show off his knowledge of Yoga or to preach it in order to endow his poem with a sacred 102 subject, (punyavastuvarnanakarnaniya) he could have included the whole exposition in the story of Svabhava or Somasarman who are said to be great yogins instead of introducing it by a special request of Alaghuvrata. These considerations, therefore, lead to the conclusion that the present interpretation is more probable. The fifth point which the critic mentions as the most un- satisfactory thing in the theme is the representation of Kalabhäsını as having been brought to life once again even after she was sacrificed to the goddess Mrgendravahana. The critic's actual words are very interesting. He says :-

Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

Now the question is why the poet represented her as hav- ing been resuscitated. Her actual death rather than survival could have certainly enchanced or intensified karuna as the critic men- tions. Did he fail to exploit the situation to the utmost as he alleges, or were there any other considerations that prevented him from following the open course? The first thing to be noted is that the poet never meant or intended to write a regular tragedy in the Greek sense. His object was quite different, and he wanted to express something else which is to be discussed in the next chapter. Simply because a poet refuses to write a tragedy, no one, if one is fair, can find fault with him. Secondly, given the whole story as it is in the 103 Kalapurnodayam, the partıcular episode of sacrıficıng Kalabhāsini to Mrgendravahana by Manikandhara cannot be a pure tragedy because both of them are destined to become the emperor and empress in their next births. When there is such an ardent hope and assured expectation how can it be a tragedy in the Greek sense ? So the question of making it a pure tragedy does not arse at all. Even the other argument that the poet should have repre- sented Kalabhäsini as being not brought back to life again, can- not be maintained if the whole work is taken into consideration. The edict on the stone in front of Mrgendravāhana runs to the effect, that whoever sacnfices a beautiful courtezan well-accom- plished in music enjoys unrivalled emperorship for long without any trouble. Manıkandhara incurred a curse from Nalakubara to the effect that he would meet his death in short time. As a sacrficer of Kalabhāsıņı, he had to enjoy the frut of the boon from Mrgendravahana and at the same time undergo the curse of Nalakubara. To avoid the conflict between these two, the curse and the boon, the poet had to create or bring to light some other factor. That factor is Manikandhara's hesitation to sacrfice his G. V. Knsnna Rao

love, Kalabhāsini, to Mrgendravahana as a result of which the goddess ordained that he would enjoy enjoy the fruit in his next birth. Without this intervention the whole story would have been ruined beyond repair. The goddess who is sensitive to his hesita- tion cannot be said to be indifferent to Kalabhasini's courage and purty of heart. And hence her survival. If the critic's view is to be taken senously, Caturmukha Krida and the rest are to be given up and the poet to be denied his very nght to express his own outlook. Not only that, the goddess is to be made to react without rhyme or reason. Can such an inconsiderate accusation be accepted? The sixth fault found with the theme by another critic is this :- "We are, however, not taken into the poet's confidence when, how and why the youthful maiden at Dwaraka gave the ghost to be reborn as Madhuralālasa, the princess."138

104 This accusation seems to be inept. Supposing the poet has given some cause for her death which is not in the least a difficult one to invent; in what way will the story be affected, or gain in tempo or richness, or charactensation or rasa? It is a well-known general principle followed from time immemorial by all the great artists to omit all the unnecessary details. Only such details as are absolutely reqwred by the story, charactensation, and rasa are given. This same principle is clearly and precisely expressed by the greatest Alankārika, Ānandavardhana, in hıs Dhvanyaloka.

Not only that. It is also considered as one of the rasa doshas by Mammata. Visvanatha and others. The latter savs :- Studies m Kalapurnodayam

The seventh allegation brought against the theme is this :- "How could the relationshıp of Satvadatman and Madhuralalasa be known to the old Brahmın, the confidant of Kalāpūrna, since even Satvadatman did not know it till Madhuralalasa had told him and the king at the end of the poem." 141 This seems to be a deviation on the part of the critic. No- where in the text is it given that the old Brahmin knew the rela- 10 tionship of Satvadatman and Madhuralalasa. It only tells us that. Sügraha is the brother of Rupanubhuti, and that his wherea- bouts are a mystery. The Brahmin does not identify Satvadātman with Sugraha, nor is single hint given to that effect. Had the poet written that the old Brahmin knew the relationship between Satvadatman and Madhuralālasa, the present accusation would have been nght. But he is too great a poet to commit such a blunder The Brahmin actually says :-

G. V Knshna Rao

This statement in no way conflicts either with the curse Sgraha incurred or with any probability. There is no cause whatsoever for Rüpänubhuti to forget all about her father and brother. Moreo- ver, Sugraha's name had become proverbial for his pedigree. What really prevented them from recognising Satvadatman as no other person than Sugraha was the curse inflicted by the Yatı. Thus there seems to be no error in the theme but only an oversight on the part of the critic. Before this discussion on the so-called defects in the theme is closed, one more point raised by another critic is to be consid- ered. Though he never mentions it as a fault, it is a grave mis- 06 take if it is true. He says by way of mentioning it as a fact that Manıstambha's peculiar powers of claurvoyance and clairaudience come to a close with the end of the 88th verse of the third canto of the Kalāpūmodayam. 143 To put it in plain language, it means that the poet who has created a character with some supernatu- ral powers makes him lose them all on a sudden without provid- ing any cause. If true, it is a case of self-contradietion and incon- sistency. Hence it requires careful examination. To begin with, one has to enquire into the nature and scope of the supernatural powers of Manistambha and how he has come to possess them. One of the edicts written on the stone pillar in the temple of Mrgendravahana announces that whoever pierces his eye and ear with the style (gorugallu) and the arrow respec- tively will acquire the powers of claurvision and clairaudience.144 Sumukhāsattı ınforms Kalabhāsını that Manstambha has ac- quired these two powers by means of those savage deeds. But these powers dūradrstı and dūraśravanasaktı are not to be confused with the divine insight (divyadrsti) which is com- monly mentioned in the puranas and epics.146 Divyadrstı means the capacity of knowing the past as well as the future. If the poet Stuces m Kalapurnodayam

had really this in view. he would not have mentioned it as two separate powers; nor would he have prescribed it as two separate powers; nor would he have prescribed two kinds of terrible sacri- fices to acquire them. Besides, bifurcation of these powers is all the more necessary for the purport of the poem to be explained later on. So these two powers düradrsti and duraśravanasaktı are quite different from divyadrsti. When etymologically inter- preted, the former two mean the capacities or powers of seeing and hearing distant objects of perception. The poet definitely makes his reader understand by distant objects only those of the past and present. Had he menat by these two terms, the capac- ity to perceive the events of the future also, he would have com- mitted a blunder by unnecessarily bifurcating them and giving them two separate new names instead of calling them by the single well-known term divyadrstı Because duradrst and dürasravanasaktı have this specific connotation, one can under- stand why Manistambha undertook his mission of sacrificing 107 Kalabhäsin to Mrgendravahana without any thought of its suc- cess. If he had the capacity to look into the future, he would not have started on this mission. So his powers have nothing to do with divine insight. Deviating from the obvious meanng, the critic says that the powers düradrstı and durasravanasaktı of Manistambha are very limited and that they reveal only those two objects of sight and hearing as they are perceived at the moment but not the changes, and the truth and error.147 This interpretation is per- haps inadvertant since it is hardly consistent with the powers themselves. Moreover, this interpretaton, when logically followed lands one into the theory that perception has nothing to do with truth.148 This is not only untenable but also unscientific. For example, the case of Manistambha may be taken. Ifhe knows all the past history, his past words and deeds of Manıkanidhara, cannot he know the truth about the latter? Scientifically speak- ing Manistambha should have known it. But the story tells, that he does not, because he fails to give an account of Manıkaridhara after his first separation from Rambha. This is not the only occa- G V Knsnna Rao

sion on which his powers fail. He does not know what has become of Kalabhäsıni after he leaves her in fear of Nalakubara. How does he not know what has become of Kalabhäsini after he leaves her in fear of Nalakübara? This failure, as it appears, is not due to the limitation of the powers. They are not properly utilised by the agent. Had Manstambha used them in a cool and collected manner, he would have arrived at the truth and the peculiar changes in the situa- tion.149 But such peace and calm in the exercise of his powers are completely denied to him except on one occasion when he is able to locate Kalabhāsıņi as a victim of sacrifice to Mrgendravähana. He is able also to give correctly the past his- tory of Narada and Manikanidhara and thus gain the confidence of Kalabhäsmi. Later on his failure to know the activities of Manıstambha after his first separation from Rambha is due to his disinclination to exercise his powers but not to his incapacity 108 to know the truth.150 Since his last revelation to Kalabhāsiņi, more than an hour and a half should have elapsed because he himself tells her that it takes an hour and thirty six minutes to reach the forest in which Manikandhara has performed penance 151 During this interval the latter has assumed the form of Nalakübara. There is no wonder in siddha not knowing this later development. Except on the last occasion, Manıstambha has neither peace of mind nor leisure to exercise his powers. So the critic's explanation does not seem to be plausible. The exact words dürdrsti and dürasravanasakti hardly support him in his interpretation. The other statment that Manistambha's powers come to a close with the 88th verse of the third canto does not conform to the textual evidence. When Nalakubara and Mäya Nalakübara have fought for a sufficiently long time, Rambha conceives and idea by which she can recognise the real Nalakübara.152 She parts them; and taking one after the other aside, puts in secret a question to which one gves a correct reply and the other does not. Manistambha cannot be said to be so near to Rambha as to overhear that secret question. If that is true, how does Manistambha come to know this particular Studies in Kalapurnodayam

question? From this it is clearly evident that he has utilised his power of durasravana and has come to know that Rambha has asked them when the reference to Kalūpurna was made. Now some doubt may arse as to why Manistambha does not mention the answers given by Nalakubaras ifhe really knows them. These answers are not required either for the reders, or by any internal necessity. In this connection, there is one point which appears to be missed generally. The manner in which Sumukhasattı recog- nises Manstambha as her husband is rather strange and bewil- dering. The poet here seems to be playing with - or can it be said ndiculing - the memory of his readers. How can Manıstambha endowed with the two supernatural powers of clairaudience and clairvision be expected not to know the cause of dispute between Salına and Sugätri? Sumukhasatti also knows quite well that he has these two supernatural powers. Is she not the very first person to inform Kalabhasıni of this fact? Knowing all this as 10g she does, how is she convinced that Manistambha is her hus- band? If he has given the real cause for the dispute, it may be due to his supernatural powers. On what grounds is Sumukhäsatti able to ascertain for herself that this is not the case? One is not enlightened on this point. But the poet is quite aware of what he is doing. Otherwise he will not follow the technique of politicians who side-track the attention of their nations to other issues when their policies fall. When Sumukhasattı tells Manıkardhara that she is Sugātr, Manıstambha also comes out with his story and tells them that he is Salina. Then the question of establishing their identity anses. She promises first to tell and then to write and thus let Kalabhasıni know the cause of their dispute. Immediately she becomes aware of Manistambha's supernatural powers, and re- quests Manikandhara to get the explanation first from Manistambha and then from her. Because the causes mentioned by both of them agree, they are identified as Sugatri and Salina. The whole thing is so picturesquely painted that the readers are put off their guard. If the poet were not personally aware of the G V. Knshna Rao

weakness, he would not have put up such a pretty long show. The very fact that this present point has escaped notice shows clearly that he has succeeded in his efforts. Really, readers have to thank the poet and laugh at themselves for being taken in so easily. The poet is not altogether without another clue to their identity, but he does not openly use it because probably he is bent upon playing with the memory of the readers. Since it is going to be discussed in some other connection, it need not be pursued here. Now to summarise. Except for the defects shown in the later part of the poem commencing from the 192nd verse of the 6th Canto, the rest of the alleged faults seem to have sprung from indolence rather than from reason. Even those adverse remarks passed against the later part of the poem can be ex- plained away to some extent as attempted in this chapter. How-

110 ever, this makes the events cnticised only probable but does not show their necessity and thereby take the wind out of the argu- ments of Dr.CR. Reddy. Regarding charactensation, there are practically no flaws found by the cntics except in the case of Narada and Madhuralalasa. Those who have remarked that Narada's conflict with Tumburu and his learning music in the harem of Krsna is silly153 seem to have not taken into account the principles of psychology and the existence of such an episode in the Lingapurana. The charactensation of Madhuralalasa is se- verely criticised by Dr. Reddy; but he does not show any inherent flaws of inconsistency, ngidity and lifelessness. So one may beg to differ with him on this issue.

Stuches ın Kalapurnodayam

CHAPTER VI POSITIVE MERITS OF THE KALĀPŪRŅODAYAM

Sūrana's greatness as a poet in general, and the unique- ness of the Kalāpurnodayam in particular, lie firstly in delinea- tion of characters, secondly, in the background provided for the vanous episodes and persons, thirdly, in making the names inte- gral parts of the story, fourthly, in the structure of the incidents and episodes and lastly, in the significant technque adopted in presentation. Of course this list does not include the beauties of style, wordnusic, and description, and the profoundity of the theme. Since these aspects are not immediately concerned with the subject, the delineation of characters can be directly taken up for discussion. 111

Generally speaking, Surana belongs more to that class of poets who dive deep into experience to sound the depths of the human heart than to those who soar high on the wings of luring idealism and fantastic imagination. Hence he must be more real- istic than romantic and more dramatic than narrative. These qualities in turn must necessanly determine and bestow on the work other qualities if it is really to be sui genens. Characters, whatever supernatural powers or abnormal traits they may have, must be definite, concrete and human through and through. The story therefore must be sufficiently broad and deep for the char- acters to have full play. A poet who prescribes for himself these rules cannot escape from being a humamst. That means the characters he introduces, whether they are Gods, or risıs, or de- mons, must be presented purely from the point of view of man. This in its own turn leads to realistic styie and natural expres- sion keeping wordmusic, bewitching phrase, mesmerising exag- geration and awe-inspiring idealisation in abeyance. These are the general tendencies to be met with in Surana's characters. If G V. Knshna Rao

it is not a repetition, one may say that his characters are in- tended more for one's understanding and appreciation than for one's identification with them and imitation.

NĀRADA

These remarks can be fully grasped when the major char- acters of the story are examined. The examination may begin with Närada, the sutradhära or director of the whole play. Tradı- tion says that he is a maharsi well accomplished in music as well as in bringing about conflicts and fights between two parties. He is capable of cursing those with whom he is displeased, and bless- ing those with whom he is immensely pleased. With these quali- ties and halos about him, he appears to belong to the world of the change less, the eternal and the absolute rather than to the world of human beings. The poet brings him down to this world of change and motion, and makes him move among the creatures of 112 flesh and blood without depriving him of his divinity. Neverthe- less, nothing appears unnatural and incongruent. On the other hand, he becomes more human and more lovable. When Narada is approaching Dväraka from the aenal path with his disciple Manikaridhara, the latter is attracted by the beauty of Kalabhasini and her friends swinging in cradles of flow- ery twigs, and bursts into poetic expression. He knows quite well his disciple's unconscious love, and instead of checking it with his strong grunt and reproof, encourages him by his approval. At the same time he takes every care not to let his disciple under- stand his intention. This approval of the statement of Manıkandhara by Narada wounds Rambha's pride in her beauty. Knowing that it is the opinion of Närada, the great seer, she is neither able to accept it in silence, nor burst into a passion. Along with her lover she pays homage to the seer when he blesses them with ever-increasing mutual love. She takes that opportunity to express her real heart in a subtle manner. The great seer is neither insensitive to nor tolerant of such vanity and petulance. If it had been Durvasa or some other maharsi, he would have flown into anger and boisterously cursed them. Narada's tem- Stuces m Kalapurnodayam

perament is quite different, and he speaks just like a cultured man without appearing offended in the least. For all practical purposes his reply appears to be pure and simple, but in reality it is a terrble curse inflicted on the divine coulple. The seer does not leave the events to take their own course. When he meets Kalabhasini, he understands her ins and outs and sympathises with her ambitions instead of hating her caste and the wrong course her love takes. He wants to use her as a medium for the materialisation of his curse on Rambha and Nalakūbara. What is more interesting in this sıtuation is that Kalabhasini thinks all the while that she is achieving her ends with the help of Narada, and Närada knows not only her mind but also his personal inten- tion He accepts her as his disciple to carry the vina into the harem of Krsna and does everything to encourage love between Mankandhara and Kalabhäsin in such a way that the latter is unaware of it. Another interesting thing is that, in spite of his proficiency in music, Nrada is said to have been visiting Krsna only to im- prove his knowledge of this art. This point has created antipathy in more than one critic. They seem to reckon without their host because music is one of the fine arts whose scope is infinite, and however well-accomplished one may be, there still remains some- thing more to learn and master. If this is conceded, there is nothing silly or absurd in Närada learning it from Krsna who is an incamation of the Lord Visnu. After he finished his education in music, he expressed his doubt to his disciples about his profi- ciency in spite of the unreserved compliments of Krsna and his wives. Is it worthy of a maharsi to doubt the very gurus who taught him music? Cannot he know whether the compliments are meant to be sincere or only to please him? Having dıvyadrsti, he cannot be said to have really doubted them. His main pur- pose is to humour Kalabhāsini's ambition, and thus create con- ditions for the fulfilment of his curse upon Rambha. The irony of the situation is she does not know her gurū's motive, but only gloats over the boon she gets from him to achieve her ends. G V. Knshna Rao

Rewarding Kalabhāsini for her sincere service, he sends her away and then gives proper advice to Manikanidhara as to how he should make use of his poetic faculty and musical talent in the service of the Lord Visnu. He tells him pointedly that there is no easier path than music to enter into the grace of the Al- mighty. He illustrates this point from his personal history, his conflict with Tumburu, his jealousy of his nval, his long penance and final achievement after a labonous struggle. This episode reveals the human heart at its very root. Even maharsis and devas are no exceptions to these jealousies and passions. They may not react so vulgarly as common folk do, but all the same they too are victims in their own way. Then Manıkaridhara bids his guru adieu and cuts his lonely furrow. After more than one and a half years Narada once agam meets his disciples involved in a very interesting situation. This

114 really provides one with an opportunity to understand the great soul in its true colours. Since his curse materialises and Rambha reaps the fruit of her insolence, Narada dances with joy. But there are two more questions to be taken into consideration. His very disciples are involved in such a dangerous situation as would spell utter ruin of their present lives. On the other hand, the real Nalakūbara is made to bear undue punshment for no fault of his. Added to this, ethical decency is thrown to the winds. How is one to understand Närada's bursting into laughter over this incident? Has he no compassion for his disciples, nor respect for ethics? He is not so simple and insensitive a being as he appears to be. Rambha deserves her punshment, and so he does not hesi- tate to rdicule her even in her pitiable condition. He taunts her with this remark addressed to Maya Nalabkūbara :-

யல் ஸ் நல்ைய் ஸ்கஸ் ஸூ bவ்கc ரி

Stdes in Kalapurnodayam

Though he has affection for his two disciples, he does not try to save them nor reprove them for their improper behaviour simply because he knows beyond doubt that both of them have to incur curses in order to have a more glorious future. When this tolera- tion is mistaken for approval, and when he is requested to help in detecting the real Rambha, Narada gives a serious but suggestive rebuff to Maya Nalakübara :-

Thıs for Māyā Nalakūbara means: "Why do you talk of real- ity and unreality, when you yourself assume such a false form? You fool, don't talk of it any more." And for the other two it means: "Why do you raise the question of reality and unreality? Do you think that this form is natural? Nothing is real in this 115 world." When Māya Nalakūbara receives this reply, he shakes in his shoes and sends him off as soon as possible. Warning him not to overstep the limits, Närada leaves the scene only to ap- proach the real Nalakubara and inform hım of Maya Nalakūbara's love affairs with his beloved and to send him immediately to that spot. Why does he take so much trouble? Is it out of a perverted nature of rejoicing over others' quarrels and feuds? If that is the reason, why does he not appear on the scene as on the previous occasion? So this attribute (3385 5 di ode ač8"is not to be taken too literally. He wants justice prevail on the one hand, and does not like his pupils to come to grief before his very eyes on the other. Moreover, Rambha has received sufficient retribution for her insolence. There will be no more sense in allowing the scene of sin to continue. Narada, therefore, sends Nalakubara to the spot to put an end to it. Such is the character of Narada as he appears in the Kalāpūrņodayam. In spite of his divine qualities, he is human through and through. Though his supernatural powers prevent G. V. Knshna Rao

the readers from completely identifying themselves with him, they feel him to be one moving amidst them, understand his jealousy, crave for his affection, fear his anger and applaud his nghteous- ness.

MANIKANDHARA

Manıkandhara, the hero of the Kalāpürnodayam is a gandharva by birth and a lover of beauty by temperament. When he hears the poems in praise of the Lord Anantapadmanabha, his heart throbs with so great a joy that he wants to acquire that inimita- ble faculty. Goaded by this inner urge, he goes to the temple of Mrgendravahana, and cutting off his tongue with a sword as pre- scnbed by the rites mentioned in the inscription on the pillar, he acquires the poetic faculty.156 He exhibits this divine gift in praising the Lord and receives the blessing of the devotees. Mere acquisi- 116 tion of this poetic gift does not satisfy him; his vanity or one may call it his poetic sincerty, compels him to get it tested by the famous alamkārkas of Käshmir. But this object has to be post- poned sine die due to the tragic disapearance of Sugätri and Sälına. With lapse of time Manikandhara develops a taste for mu- sic which makes him the disciple of Närada. Daily he accompa- mies his guru to the court of Krsna where he happens to meet Kalabhasini for the first time. It may be presumed that Kalabhasini's wonderful talent of recapitulation of the poem (dandaka) composed on Krsna by Manikandhara has drawn his attention and appreciation though the poet does not say so ex- plicitly. After a few days, while he is on his aerial path to Dvaraka he is attracted by the beauty of Kalabhäsini swinging along with her mates in the flowery twigs and bursts out-

கர்ககுகஸகள ாவு்சை க515 Stuches m Kalapumodayam

This unconsious love of Manikandhara for Kalabhasini is approved by Nārada. Later on, as Kalabhasını becomes the disciple of Närada, both the hero and the herome come into closer contact. But this mntimacy never precipitates itself into open love due to their great respect and fear for their guru. Thus this love of Manikandhara remains altogether suppressed. After Närada and Manıkandhara have achieved their object of learning music, the former advises the latter before his final departure to dedicate his tow great faculties to Lord Vısnu and lead a life of piety and pilgrimage. The hero, being virtuous by temperament, follows the instructions of his guru to the letter, and at last takes to penance in a forest to the west of Anantasayana. The inherent weakness of his artistic tempera- ment makes him a victim to the allurements of Rambha's beauty and when he comes to know her love for Nalakūbara from her own lips he feels hurt. But his affection for Rambha does not lelave him in rest until he assumes the form of Nalakubara and 117 gets united with her. The most interesting and character - revealing episode in the life of Manikandhara is that of Rambha and Māya Rambha each claiming his love Though he perfectly knows that Rambha loves only Nalakübara and that she has spent some time with him only to achieve the object of Indra, he does not hesitate to assume the form of Nalakubara. In his passionate craving for her he loses all self-control and oversteps the bounds of decency. Chance or destiny, as it may be called, ensnares him in his own meshes when Kalabhäsini enjoys his company in the form of Rambha. Circumstances do not leave him there in the net of lust and deceit of his own creation. They bring the real Rambha into the picture so as to reveal the horror of his action in retrospec- tion. When he sees the two Rambhas quarrelling before his very eyes he is baffled. He seeks the help of Narada who has come to riducule Rambha and enjoy the funny situation, and receives only rebuff and a hint that one of the two is Kalabhasini. Now the important question is whether Manikandhara has grasped Naradā's suggestion and understood that one of the two is G V. Knsnna Rao

Kalabhāsini his co-disciple. Mr. Mallādi Sūryanārāyana Sāstn positively asserts that he does158 and this is not altogether with- out reason. When Narada curses Rambha 159 and blesses Kalabhasini with a boon,160 Manikandhara is present. Hence there is ground for the readers to believe that though Manıkandhara is not able to recognise the real Rambha, he should have known that one of the two is Kalabhäsini. If this interpretation is vald, his character is certainly not pure and praiseworthy. Judged from this angle, he appears to be selfish through and through without the least trace of sympathy even for a co-disciple with whom he has moved and whose friendship he has cultivated for more than four years. Even after he has known that Kalabhasını is involved in the ugly situation, he does not try to prevent their quarrel. At least he should have prevented Rambha from inflict- ing a curse on Kalabhäsinı who has been loving him sincerely. On the contrary, he not only approves of the curse of Rambha 118 but also insults Kalabhäsin by demanding from her her name. 161

Commenting on and at the same time supporting the strange behaviour of Manıkandhara, Mr. Sūryanārāyana Sāstrı says :- "By the words of Narada, Mayā Nalakubara certainly knows that Māya Rambha is Kalabhäsin. Even then, what does it matter? This is not the tıme to take freindship into consıderation. Kalabhāșıņı can never guess that it was Manıkandara that necked her out. She has never come there because of her love towards Manıkandhara. He has not enjoyed with her under the impres- sion that she has been Kalabhasinı. Though the story tells us that they both meet once again, they, in their present circum- stances, cannot anticipate further meeting. Nor is there any scope for either of them to think that they would become husband and wife in their next births. Apart from these considerations the real Rambha has undergone much trouble and agony. Ifhe does not neck her out who has been the cause of her gnef how can Rambha be relieved of her grief? How can she believe him to be the real Nalakubara? How can he who is still craving for Rambha restrain himself from punshing the Maya Rambha who has with- Studies in Kalapurnodayam

out any justification inflicted so much pain? Though he knows Mãya Rambha to be Kalabhāsini how can he avoid pretending not to know her? Can he burst into sympathy saying " Oh! poor creature why have you come and fall him into the snare?" If he utters this the whole aesthetic effect will be shattered to pieces. The curse which is later on to be inflicted by Nalakūbara or some other punishment greater than this would have been hurled at by Rambha there by damaging the structure of the story beyond repair".162 This comment is scholarly but unfortunately does not seem to throw light on the matter. One does not question the probabil- ity of Manıkandara behavıng as he does towards Maya Rambha even after an intimate frendship of four years. What concerns us here most is this if it is maintained that Manıkhandara have behaved ın that manner knowing Mayā Rambha to be Kalabhāsın, can it explain his later behaviour without any mnconsistency? This is not a question of ethics, but of aesthetics. 119 'If the commentator is right, i.e. if Manikandhara is to be understood as having behaved in that manner knowing quite well that Maya, Rambha is Kalabhäsinı, he is selfish to the core. Ner- ther friendship nor comparision for the unfortunate, nor love for truth, weighs with him where self interest is involved. These qualities are utterly absent in his later behaviour. On the con- trary the oppossite traits are met with. When he meets Kalabhasıni in the temple of Mrgendravähana after long seperation he be- trays not merely simple warmth but also great emotion. He puts a volley of questions which shows his attachment to and deep love for Kalabhäşını. Even a horrble person like Maņıstambha who tred not only to sacnfice Kalabhāsını to Mrgēndravāhana but also to rape her, his shown some leniency and consideration. If these actions are meant only to please others and to keep up decency and civility what necessity is there for Manıkandhara to reveal himself as the person who has enjoyed the love of Kalabhäsını? It cannot be argued that he feared a curse from her because he had already received one from Nalakubara. Moreo- ver, ifhis sympathy and love for Kalabhāsin are only a pretention G. V. Knshna Rao

he would not have taken so much pains as to narrates the story of Sugathri and Salina in order to assure her of his belief in her words. Even supposing that all these arguments are not suffi- ciently strong why does Manikandhara hesitate and even make delay in sacrificing Kalabhasıni to Mrgendravähana? By that sac- rfice he would enjoy a vast empire unhampered. That hesitation and delay cannot be a mere make belief, becuase the goddess Mrgendravahana herself certifies it and even says that he would become that an emperor only in his next birth, because of his hesitation and delay. Added to these, there are two more inci- dents which reveal his true character. Of these two, the first is his requst to Svabhava to show him the means by which he would not fall a prey to weaknesses and sins that genarally follow in the wake of wealth and power.163 The second incident is that in which he willingly meets his death to save Abhinavakaumudi from Salyāsura. 120 Hence it does not consistent with the later events to main- taın that manıkandhara knows Māya Rambha to be Kalabhasım and consciously behaves in that unconscientious manner. Now another question may araise in this context. Even supposing that Manikandhara does not know that Maya Rambha 1s Kalabhäsini and hence he has behaved so callously does it posi- tively show that his character is not unimpeachable? How can anyone defend Manikandhara when he assumes the form of Nalakūbara and deceives Rambha? Can he be considered to be compassionate when he humiliates a poor creature like Kalabhasin who has been sufficiently punished for her sın ?. Before these questions are answered it is necessary to re- capitulate the whole situation. At the behest of Indra, Rambha has managed to spoil his penance and draw him into the ecsta- sies of love. Very soon to his great grief he fiends that her heart completely belongs to Nalakubara Had he wished he could have continued his dalliance with her in his own form. But his desire to please her and thus take possession of her whole heart en- courages him to assume the form of Nalakubara. Now at this juncture comes in Mäya Rambha. He does not who she is, nor is Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

he able to find any justification for her to appear on the scene This strange position gives him complete freedom of conscience and action.Hence he remains as a simple spectator to their quar- rel and even complains about it to Närada, when his guru gives him a rebuffhe become alert and sends him away. When the real Rambha inflicts a curse on impostress he not only feels relieved of his anxiety but also thinks that simple justice has previled. Had he stopped there would have been no complaint. But driven by curiosity he oversteps the limits of decency when he demands from Maya Rambha her real name. For this one weakness the poet puts forward a justification saying :-

164

Thus this interpretation that Manikandhara does not know 121 the impostress to be Kalabhäsini is quite consistent with his later behaviour. But all the same there are two more things to be cleared. Firstly, how has he, who was present when Rambha was cursed and Kalabhäsini blessed, failed to grasp the suggetion of Närada that one of the two Rambhas ıs Kalabhäsini? Secondly, why does he refer to Kalabhäsini secret desire when he meets her in the temple of Mrgendravahana if he does not know her to be impostrss? If these questions cannot be answered, the commen- tator's explanation is to be accepted. If this explanation is ac- cepted, the inconsistency in the character of Manikandhara also has to be admitted. To avoid the two horns of this dilemma one has to find answers to the two questions. It is true that Narada gives a clue to find out that one of the two Rambhas is Kalabhasını. But Manikandhara who is too much enamoured of Rambha is more anxious to identify her and dally with her than to know who the impostress is. That is exactly the reason why he requests Närada once again :- G. V. Knsnna Rao

Had he really grasped the implications of Narada's sugges- tion as to the identity of Kalabhasini, he should certainly have been taken by surprise. But, such a reaction on his part is com- pletely absent. On the other hand he requests Nārada to point out the real Rambha from the unreal. Even this deliberate sup- pression of one's own feelings is possible only in consummate villains. But the story as it goes no where hints at this possibil- ity. Hence it can be positively said that Manıkandhara has not grasped Narada's suggetion immediately. He has practically no time left to think over matters because event after event follows 122 in such rapid succession that he cannot even breathe. He finds time only after he receives a curse from Nalakubara. That tragic event makes him review the immediate past - the quarrel of Rambhas, the words of Närada, the curse inflicted on the impostress and finally his fate. At this juncture, the thought that the impostress is Kalabhasini dawns on his mind. He is so much taken aback by this thought that he is not able to believe it completely. His guru Narada is a great seer, and so, he cannot be expected to give false information. It is true that Kalabhāsını had acquired the power to change her form. But how did she manage to know that Rambha was spending her time with him, and that it was the most opportune moment for her to meet Nalakübara? Even granting that she knew it somehow, how could she come all the way from Dväraka to the first lying far far away from her native city? Due to these considerations he is neither able to believe Narada's words, nor completely ignore them. When he meets Kalabhàsını in the temple of Mrgendravähana, he re- fers to her secret desire in his conversation more to allay his doubt than to taunt her for her infdelity.

Studies in Kalapumodayam

This explanation seems to be more plausible. Anyhow it is for the judicious readers to decide. There is perhaps nothing more to comment upon the character of Manikandhara than what has been said in other contexts.

KALABHASINI

The character of Kalabhasini is profoundly conceived and beautifully presented. It stands unique in Telugu literature and demands a high place among the characters presented by San- skrit drama. Vasantasena, the heroine of the Mrcchakatika, ap- pears to be ngid and affected when compared with Kalabhasını. Given the shortcomngs and infidelity of Kalabhâsını, no other poet could have produced in the readers so much sympathy and understanding. What is more astounding is that no other poet of those times, when chastity was considered as the highest virtue to womanhood, would have dared to accept her as the herome of his work and at the same time could have dreamt of making her 123 a success. How does Surana achieve this almost impossible task? The answer lies in the critical analysis of this character of Kalabhasını. She is a beautiful maiden belonging to the courtezan class and well accomplished in fine arts. As a regular visitor to the court of Krsna, she comes across Manikandhara, the disciple of Närada. His poetic faculty draws her affection and friendship. But she suppresses these tender feelings because of the gulf between their respective classes and her fear of Narada. One day it so happens that she perceives Nalakūbara and Rambha, and overhears their conversation with Narada The beauty of Nalakūbara and Nārada's curse on Rambha, stir her suppressed love to throb with a new life. She wants to get her desire fulfilled with the help of that great seer. She prostrates herself before him and offers her services as a disciple to carry his uinainto the harem of Krsna. Though she takes every care to conceal her real intention, Närada understands everything and accepts her as his disciple for his own ends. Four years of devoted service to Narada bestow on her a gift of unsurpassed music and at the same time G. V Knshna Rao

earn for her the goodwill of Narada and the deep friendship of Manıkandhara. Before his final departure the seer out of sympa- thy for her and determination to bring about the fulfilment of hıs curse, expressses his apparent desire to know the real opinion of the wives of Krsna regarding his proficiency in music. Grasping this opportunity, she tells him that she can find it out provided she has the power to assume the form of any woman she likes. Narada readily grants this power knowing full well the conse- quences. Kalabhäsinı performs what is exactly wanted of her with the result her guru gives her his blessing :-

After parting from her guru and Manikandhara, she sits at home with an aching heart for her lover. However hard she may 124 think, she finds no way to achieve her much-cherished goal. Thus more than a year.and a half passes in complete agony, where- upon Manistambha appears on the scene as if he were the sav- iour. With the supernatural powers of clairvoyance and claraudience, he gives a full account of Manikandhara, his piligrimage, penance and union with Rambha. In spite of her caution, tact and sagacity, she becomes a victim of Manıstambha. The evidence given by the parrot and the elaborate description of holy places of piligrimage suggesting Manıstambha's devotion to God and his religious bent of mind inflame her strong and secret passion. Throwing away her caution, she explains to him her love for Nalakübara and begs hm to take her on his hion to her lover. While she is on her way, her suspicions are roused by the information that the Rambha is not with Manikandhara at that juncture. Her heart sinks within her, but soon she realses that no amount of despair and lamentation will save her. With a throb- bing heart she proceeds only to be left in the temple of Mrgendravāhana where she comes to know the real intention of the Siddha from Sumukhasatti. She swoons, recovers, wails and Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

ultimately begs Sumukhäsatti to come to her rescue. When Manstambha raises his sword to cut off her head, Sumukhasatti forbids him to kill her in the name of the goddess. Unheeding the old woman's pleading, Manisatmbha proceeds in his evil design only to be thrown far away along with the herome on to a flowery bed in the neighbourhood of Manikandhara's hermitage. Even this supernatural intervention does not put an end to her trou- bles. Attracted by her unsurpassed beauty in her state of terrible fear, he tries to violate her chastity when she shneks aloud for rescue. No sooner does she wail for help than comes the assur- ance of help from Nalakübara. The Sıddha runs for his life pur- sued by Nalakubara. Utilisıng the boon bestowed on her by her guru, Kalabhāsıņi meets Māya Nalakubara in the form of Rambha and manages to release Siddha Now these are the most blissful moments never to be had once again in her present life. Soon the real Rambha appears on the scene with the result a quarrel ensues between them. It is of immense beauty, unique 125

in Telugu literature and unsurpassed by any other thing in San- sknt. True to life, it presents a comedy of immense beauty. The charges and counter-charges, denunciations and condemnations, and proofs and counter-proofs that are exchanged between Rambha and the impostress astound the readers. This episode 1s really a testimony to Kalabhāsini's intelligence, courage, pres- ence of mind and tact. In spite of all these qualities, her fraud is detected, and the curse that she will fall by a sword is pronounced on her. Her short-lived romance thus ending in tragedy, Kalabhäshini with a stout heart reconciles herself to her fate and returns to the temple to die peacefully before the altar so that the siddha may have his wish fulfilled. How many people can do what she does? What amount of calmness and determination is needed to do it! Another characteristic trait of hers is revealed by another event. The siddha who has been a spectator to this as- tounding comedy narrates the whole episode, and then asks for her story subsequent to his flight. There is no necessity for her to G. V. Knshna Rao

tell him the truth for it will only betray the looseness of her char- acter. Nor is there anybody who has seen it or can guess it. Narada is the only person to know it definitely and he cannot be expected to reveal it. As regards Manikandhara, he is still in doubt as explained already. Nevertheless she comes out with the truth that she was the Maya Rambha. Why does she reveal it to those who do not know it and thus condemn herself to shame? She does so either because she is too good to hide the truth, or because some sole aim of her life should have been so much thwarted that she loses her balance and bursts into grief. The first cannot be the reason for her self-exposure, for she has not revealed her real intention even to Närada her guru, or to the siddha at the outset. So the latter must be the cause of her despair. Now what is that aim which she values so much? She has loved Nalakubara and has undergone all this trouble only to get united with somebody whom 126 she does not know This wounds her feelings beyond description. Life for her seems not worth living: The determination to sacnfice herself to the goddess so that the siddha may acquire a great empre takes possession of her. Hence she reveals herself to be the impostress and expresses her great gnef over her union with an unknown person This purty ofheart and sincerity of her love are at once reciprocated by Manikandhara s admission that he is the person who has violated her chastity. This intormation taken together with the recollection of the parting woras ot the great seer, enables her to psycho-analyse her whole love affar before her auditors, Manıstambha, sumukhasattı and Manıkandra When she came across the latter, she fell head -long in love with hım. But her fear of Narada that he might take senous objection to it, has played havoc with her love and has caused the whole tragedy. This unconscious fear shows her the partial sımilanty in the names of Manikandhara and Mangriva, brings for her into limelight the temble curse infucted by Narada on the latter and his brother, and thus checks the natural course open to her love She sees in Nalakübara some faint resemblance to Manikandhara and naturally comes to think that the latter is the real object of Studies in Eatapuroaayam

her love. Thus her deep and sincere love ends in a tragedy of sublimation, simple and pure. She knows quite well that her expla- nation will not easily convince others, and she says in de profundis :-

. சஜ்ணுயை அடைகலைலயல்

127

Sıncere and true, this explanation moves Manikandhara to tears. He assures her of the truth and relieves her gnef by pointing to the parting words of Narada and substantiating her explanation by the illustration of the story of Sugatr and Salina. One interesting point in this context is that this psychic process is not generally appreciated. Mr. Mallādi Sūryanārāyana Sāstr does not believe it to be true and comments that kalabhasin speaks cleverly rather than the truth itself 167 Dr. C. R. Reddy, 168 on the other hand. thinks that Kalabhāsini has loved equally both Manikandhara and Nalakubara, and raises the question whether it is possible for one to love two persons at one and the same time. He says that is is possible and cites an example. But both these views appear unconvincing. From the beginning to the end Kalabhasin has loved only one person and that is Manıkandhara. This sincere love suppressed by the fear of Nārada and misdirected by the faint resemblance in form between Manıkandara and Nalakubara has sublimated her craving for the G V Knsnmna Pao

latter. To deny this is to deny the laws of association enunciated long ago169 by Vatsyayana, the great commentator of the Nyaya Sutras, and established beyond doubt by Freud and his school. Not only that. To misunderstand this is to misunderstand the characters of Manikandhara, Manıstambha and Sumukhasattı. Especially a great and firm character like Sumukhasattı cannot be expected to agree to have Kalabhasinı as her daughter-in-law if the latter is as loose in her morals as these critics suppose her to be. Nor is Mankandhara a social reformer of the modern age to accept her as his wife in his next birth. Above all, this tragic event loses all its point and intensity if Kalabhasini's account is not taken to be true. Hence it is apparently difficult to accept the explanation offered by Mr. Sastn and Dr. Reddy. Now to resume, Kalabhäsini s greatness reveals itself in fac- ing death coolly and calmly at the hands of Manikandhara. In her next birth she is born as Madhuralalasa in a royal family. 128 From her very childhood she develops a deep and devoted love for her would-be-husband. There is nothing more to say than that she has achieved the ideal of Indian womanhood by being faith- ful to her husband Kalapurna both in thought and action.

SUGATRI

If the character of kalabhäsini is the result of profound con- ception, the character of Sugatr is the culmination of delicate handlıng. What Kalıdāsa has achieved in his Parvati in the realm of romantic idealısm, Pıngalı Sürana has achieved in Sugatrı in the realm of naked realism. Had this character been handled by any other poet than Surana, it would have been not only insipid but also vulgar beyound description. How the poet has achieved this marvellous beauty is to be examined. Though Sugätri is the only daughter of her parents, she has never become the victim of indolence. Intelligent, sensitive and cultured that she has become, she is marned to a bashful youth called Salina who is required to stay for ever in his mother- in-law's house. And there is no other man to look after the affais of that family. By temperament Sugatri's mother is self-assertive Studtes in Kalapurnodayam

and proud of her riches. Her only ambition still unrealised is to have a grandson and dote over him. But this is for all practical purposes upset due to strange circumstances. On the first night of their prescribed union, Sugatri is sent to her husband gor- geously decorated and fully ornamented but he retires within him- self without having even a glance at her. This odd behaviour, on the next morning, becomes the general talk among Sugatri's mates. The mother-in-law reproaches them for indulging in such silly talk and sends her daugther to her husband next night also only to be treated as on the previous night. This state of affairs continuing without any end in view, she gets completely disap- pomnted and disgusted with her son-in-law. Sugätri, who should have been really more aggreved than her mother, reacts altogether in a different manner. Instead of feeling insulted or repulsed, she becomes all the more attached to her husband as it is the way of a Hindu wife. Her devotion to her husband whose likes and dislikes, whims and fancies, tem- 129 perament and character she does not know, clearly shows be- yond doubt that she has acquired some yogic tendencies of her father. Otherwise she could not have concentrated her complete love on her husband and made him the guiding star of her life. This great power of concentration makes her reconcile herself to the situation. Nevertheless she has to face another problem equally acute if not more. Her mother, who has developed a disregard and even antipathy to Salina whom she considers to be quite impotent as well as useless, begins to find fault with him indı- rectly in the earlier stages and later on censures him directly. This antipathy of hers finally leads her to treat him as no better than a household servant and a gardener. This is really a crucial test of Sugatri's affection for her mother, love for her husband and consideration for the family prestige. Torn between these three loyalties. she does not despair, lose her balance and self- possession. She reacts promptly, correctly and vigorously. She faces her mother boldly when her husband is absent, and firmly admonishes her for her attitude towards her son-in-law in such a manner that neither the neighbours nor her husband come to G. V. Knshna Rao

know of it. In spite of this remonstrance, she is not able to prevent her mother from sending her husband off to the garden. She should have gone over to her husband and have lived with him there; but her shyness - the shyness of a recently marned girl restrains her. Crushed thus between shyness and love, her mental agony knows no bounds. Some time or other she must get out of it if she is to survive. How she overcomes her shyness is the secret of an astounding poetic genius. One day a terrble cyclone sweeps over the country blowing away roofs and tiles, and pulling down huge trees and buildings. The thunder roars unceasingly; and the rain pours down in tor- rents. Sugätri's anxiety for her husband practically living in the garden becomes unbearable. She prays to her family deity, Sarasvatı, with her heart and soul to protect her husband. This does not leave her in peace and so goes to the garden all alone without the knowledge of her mother; not even her husband per- 130 ceives her arnval. To her great surprise and relief, she finds not even a single creeper damaged. Thankng the goddess for the miraculous escape ofher husband, she returns home before any- body knows about her secret visit. This unpremeditated event leads to other events as a consequence; emboldened by this visit, she gets nd of her shyness and goes to the garden in open defi- ance of her mother She works with her husband helping him to water the plants in the garden. Her natural charm shining in its prstine beauty unhindered by omnaments and decorations, her devotion and sympathy manifesting itself in the gentle rse and fall of her breasts in physical exhaustion awake in Salina a spon- taneous but profound love for her. He takes her in his arms in the esctasy of that passion. Her heart throbbing with joy, she goes home only to get her happiness detected by her mother and friends. That night again she is sent to her husband in her heavy make-up with the result that he does not care even to look at her. This attitude of her husband perplexes her innocent heart. She, in her tender love, appeals to him in one of the most delicate and fine passages in the world's literature sayıng :- Stuces in Kalapurnodayam

கோுகை த்ல்கார் ல்ஸ்ன S,

க். நவை பியவ துக றகக்ஸ் ாy.

This finds no response in him whatsoever as he falls into a sound sleep. On the next day she once more visits her husband in the gaden and wins his love with the beauty of her physically ex- 131 hausted body in its natural state. This behaviour reveals to her intelligent mind for the first time the true temperament and pe- culiar susceptibility of her husband. As a result of this under- standing the barners between the two souls disappear once for all to the great joy of her mother. She later on advises her daugh- ter to bring her husband home and have a life of ease and happi- ness.

As days pass by in complete bliss, there occurs an event of minor magnitude which disturbs once more Sugatn's married life. While she gets a boon from Sarasvati that she may have a baby by her husband, the latter also gets another that she may not conceive at all. When they come to know about each other's boon, Salina fles into a passion. Unable to control himself he jumps into the Satataladaghna. For her hfe without her husband is dark and void. Hence she too throws herself into the lake only to be swallowed up and later disgorged on the bank unhurt by a huge whale. Meanwhile every effort is made to recover his body with no result. With great gnef, Sugätr spends her life with her G V. Knshna Rao

mother, till she has her summons from God. Left with no more attachments, she starts on a pilgrimage and in the end reaches the temple of Mrgendravahana where she comes across her hus- band. Her doubt about the survival of her husband on the one hand, and the strange powers of a siddha on the other prevent her from recognising him. Added to these, manistambha, as that is his new name, has betrayed a new temperament which she has never seen in her husband. He has pierced his ears with an arrow, and his eyes with a style to acquire the supernatural pow- ers of clairaudience and clairvoyance. To her great horror, he brngs Kalabhasini to the temple to sacrifice her to the goddess of Mrgendravāhana. Now anses an opportunity to see another aspect of Sugatn's character. When she meets Kalabhasini, she is moved to tears. She explains to her the siddha's motive in bringing her to the 132 temple and openly and dispassionately censures him :-

....

Thus she shows a sympathetic heart and a fine judgmnt on ethi- cal problems. When Manistambha raises his sword to cut off Kalabhäsini's head, she intervenes to save her forbidding him to strike her in the name of the goddess and ultimately dies only to come to life again in a youthful body. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

. Her penance at the feet of the goddess, and the sacrifice of her life bestow on her such a power that whatever she utters becomes true. Later on Manıstambha, Kalabhasıni and Manıkandhara meet and tell her their respective stories. The re- marks exchanged between Sumukhäsatti and Manstambha on the character of Maya Rambha are really jewels of unsurpassed beauty. Later on the siddha and Sumukhasatti recognise each other when the former explains the cause of his dispute with his wife. Great is her wonder and greater her joy over this unex- pected meeting. But soon her heart weeps over the curses in- curred by Manıkandhara and Kalabhasini. Requested by them, she blesses them to be born in their next birth as her son and daughter-mn-law. Later on, at the request of her husband, she exchanges her sex with him and becomes the father of Kalapurna. These in short are the high lights of her character. Thus the poet, taking hold of a time-old concept of a faithful wife, blows in it the breath of a 133 poet and gives it a soul that is really great and lovable.

MANISTAMBHA, ALIAS SĀLĪNA

Manıstambha, alias Salina, is another character that de- serves a close study. Barring those of the Mahäbharata, there is no other character in Telugu literature left more to suggestion than Salfna. What baffles one is the identity of Salina and Manistambha who at first glance, appear to be poles apart. Whereas, the former is bashful, (as the name itself denotes) sub- missive, unambitious and spiritual-minded, the latter is aggres- sive, ambitious and unscrupulous with an unquenchable thirst for power and nches. How can these opposite qualities go to- gether to give one single character of complete unity? Really, it 1s a genuine question worth answering for a proper understanding of the Kalapurnodayam. When he is of marriageable age, Salina, the bashful, 1s brought into the family of arcakas of Kashmir and marned to Sugätr. He must have come of a poor family because he agrees to leave his parents and live with those of his wife. The other reason G. V. Knshna Rao

for this conjecture is his ignorance of and aversion to costly clothes, jewels and their beauty.172 Thus his marriage not only puts him in strange circumstances but also paralyses his understanding. Added to these, he should have also experienced the dictatorial temperament ofhis mother-in-law. Under these circumstances it is no wonder that his heart sinks within itself without betraying his real temperament and appears to be completely bashful. This tendency is again strengthened by another circumstance. On the first nght of his marriage with his wife, Sugatri appears in his bed - chamber in such a heavy make-up that he dare not look at her. He sees no sympathetic partner in her, and on the contrary, he is repulsed by the gorgeous dress and jewels. With his love thus suppressed, he falls asleep leaving Sugätri to her own con- clusions. This reaction towards his wife is naturally followed by its

134 logical consequences. His mother-in-law's ambition to have grand- children being thus frustrated, she develops an antipathy to him and later on goes even to the extent of treating him lighter than a servant. He neither revolts nor protests against it. He completely resigns himself to his fate when he is ordered to look after the garden. What else can he do when he has to depend entirely on her property? To escape this unpleasant state of affairs his mind develops a deep devotion to Sarasvati and great interest in gar- dening. But this is not the only silver-lining in his life. Had Sugatn's character been different from what it is, his life would have been utterly miserable. Devoted as she is to her husband, she goes to the garden and offers him a helping hand and her exhausted body, which in its peculiar charm awakes his sleeping love for the frst time. He loses no time in deriving full pleasure from it. What is surprising in him is that he does not care even to look at her with whom he has spent a happy day when she visits him that night. She waits and waits in the chamber in the fond hope of being called to bed, but he does not appear even to be aware of her presence. At last she takes courage into her hands and says :-

Stuches in Ealapumodayam

The brief dialogue that ensues therefrom is as beautiful as it is staggering. It runs as follows :-

Sugätri, Unable to control herself any longer bursts into a pitiful appeal which falls only on deaf ears. On the next day when she works again with hum, Salina once more dallies with her as on the previous occasion. This incident opens her eyes to his psy- chosis namely hatred for heavy make-up and ornaments as well as his special sensitivieness to quivering beauty. Once this sexual complex of his is understood, everything goes on smoothly for 13 both Salina and Sugatn. When their mustual love is known, the old woman no longer cracks her whip of authorty. In spite of this happy turn in his life, he never manages to overcome his poverty complex. As days pass by, he comes to know that his wife has obtained a boon from Sarasvati that is com- pletely opposed to him. His anger surges forth; yet he dares nei- ther rebuke nor give a senous punishment to his wife as he is economically dependent upon his mother-mn-law. Unable to in- flict pain on his wife, his impotent rage drives him to self-mortifi- cation as a result of which he throws himself into the Satataladaghna, a fabulously deep lake. By this plunge he reaches the depths where Svabhava is practising yoga. Svabhava receives him kindly, enquires about him and finally sends him away gıv- ing him a miraculous sword and a lion to rde on. Later on Salina with a newly acquired name, Manıstambha. visıts the temple of Mrgendravahana and happens to see the in- scription on the pillar. His bitter expenences of life and the prom- ise held out by this inscription, goad him to action by which he can acquire both power and wealth. He pierces his eyes and ears G. V Knsnna Rao

with a style and an arrow hanging in the temple acquiring thereby the powers of elairvoyance and clairaudience. Once thirst for power and wealth is roused, there will be neither limits nor scruples. Not satisfied with these two powers, he wants to come into pos- session of a vast empire which can be had, as the inscription prescribes, by sacrificing a young beautful courtezan well accom- plished in music. He searches for such a victim with his two supernatural powers only to find her in Kalabhasim. Riding on his lion, he reaches Dväraka in no time and meets her mn secret. His account of Manikandhara, and the elaborate and skilful de- scription of the latter's pilgnmage, Rambha's successful efforts to spoil his penance and the arnval of Nalakubara at the forest - all these gain her confidence in him as well as rouse her tempta- tion to secure union with Nalakübara. All this he does in such a skilful manner that Kalabhäsinı of her own accord begs him to take her to the forest on huis lion. As a precaution he appears at 136 first to hesitate and finally carries her away. On his aerial path he comes across the fnends of Rambha who, on being questioned, ınform Kalabhäsın of Mamkandhara's disappearance and Rambha's union with her lover Nalakubara. This rouses Kalabhäsin's suspicion whereupon he promises to get her desire fulfilled in a short time. His manner of landing in the vicinity of the temple of Mrgendravahana revenis once more his tact and capacity to play upon the psychological weaknesses of others. There can be no greater testimony to this characteris- tic than the implicit faith of Kalabhasim who cannot be smd to be devoid of intelligence and understanding However, his renl mo- tive is revealed by Sumukhäsatt as a result of which he had to drag Kalabhäsi by her hair into the presence of the goddess to sacrifice her. Wishing to lose no time he wields his sword only to cut off Sumukhasattı's head. Before she dies for Kalnbhasmn, she forbids him to kill the latter in the name of the goddess. Not heeding this oath, he again tnes to stnke when he and Kalabhasmi are flung far away with such a force that they fall upon a bed of flowers in the neighbourhood of Manıkandhara's hermitage. Due to this sudden awe-inspirng incident Kalabhāşıni begins to shiver Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

in that bed by his side. Perceiving her quivering beauty, his psy- chosis is once again set in motion; he loses control over his emo- tons, and in spite of himself, tnes to violate her chastity. A maiden of character that she is, she cries aloud for help whereupon Maya Nalakubara appears on the spot and catches him after pursuit. The latter threatens him with severe punishments if he does not show him the lady that has cned for help. How can Manstambha show hım Kalabhäsin who has assumed the form of Rambha? Maya Rambha in her own interest secures his release from Māya Nalakübara who depnves the former of his miraculous sword. Detamned thus for his sword, Manstambha remains there as a spectator to the conflct that goes on firstly between Rambha and Māvā Rambha, and secondly, between Nalakubara and Māya Nalakübara. Awr and wonder reach such heights that he wants to impart them to some one else. He hastens to the temple of Mrgendravahana with his sword to tell the most wonderful story to hıs audience, Sumukhisattı, Kalabhaşıņı and Manıkandhara 137 who are mtroduced to him in proper time. His cunosity is satis- fied when Manıkandhara and Kalabhasinı admit that they are imposters Later on Manikandhara in his senous effort to console kalabhasmn narrates the story of Sugatri and Salina, and remem- berng that Sumukhfisatt hails from Käshmr, asks her how she does not know about it. Thereupon she reveals that she is no other than Sugatn when Manstambha claims himself to be that very Salina. These contessions rousing new hopes, Sumukhasatt demands proof of Manstambha's identity. Now a senous problem props up almost beyond solution. This cannot be solved satistactorily on the basis of Samukhasatti's proposal that Manistambha should first tell Markandhara in secrecy the cause of their cispute, that she also should do the same after that, and that, if their accounts tally, they should be considered the same old couple. Though he may not be Salina, he can divine the secret cause of their dispute and tell it by virtue of hs supernatural powers Nevertheless, this very same procedure is followed to establish their identity. Why does the poet resort to such an G. V. Knshna Rao

apparently invalid procedure? If it is maintained that there is no other way, it will certainly be a grave fault. On the other hand, if it is argued that there are other things which prove their identity, why does not the poet bring them into the focus? Does not this negligence betray a weakness in his creatve faculty? The answer is not perhaps as difficult to find as it appears to be. As pointed out at the outset of this examination of the character of Salına, it has been traced back to his weakness for quivering beauty which is characteristically his own. This is too well-known to Sumukhasattı to be forgotten. She should have recognised her husband the moment he told his audience about the effort he made to violate the chastity of Kalabhäsinı. Though this identity cannot be guessed when Manistambha tells them about his strange behaviour, it can easily be grasped after one hears the story of Sugätri and Salina. Thus this weakness for quiverng beauty is probably the only point which establishes the identity 138 of Manistambha with Salina. As to the next question why the poet does not bring this point into the focus when identity is required to be proved, the reply offered here may not be very convincing. Howerver, the following seems to be the only plausi- ble explanation. Having already established their identity beyond doubt, through this weakness for quivering beauty, the poet in his humorous vein seems to be joking at the readers' intelligence so as to keep them on their guard. Now to resume, Manistambha practises yoga along with hs wife Sumukhasatti for some time in the temple. Thereafter accompanied by his wife, he sets out on a journey to places of interest. As he sees the ocean, his sexual passion is once again roused. Drren by his peculiar psychosis, he manages to exchange his sex with his wife endowed with he requisite power and gives birth to Kalapurna. After this event he once more regains his sex and conunues the practice of yoga Viewed thus, the character of Manistambha is not only very interesting from the point of view of psychology, but also human through and through. Some of the incidents in his life may not Stmes 1n. Kalapurnodayam

appear strictly realistic, but the complexes, motives and ambi- tions are strictly natural and human. Surana's greatness lies in depicting those deeper corners of the human mind. When psy- cho-analysis was still a science unknown, how many poets and wrters of fiction had probed into such profound depths?

CATURMUKHA ANDH SARASVATI In the order of their appearance, though Sarasvati and Caturmukha come next, they are in fact the divine source and fountain-head of almost all the characters, events and episodes of the Kaläpurnodayam. And as such they occupy a position of the highest importance. From the standpoint of poetic creation also they are unique. Nowhere may one find such heights of im- agination akin or parallel to theirs whose thoughts and deeds develop into a most beautiful world of space and time. In conceiv- ing them Surana blends the ideal wth the real, the noumena with the phenomena, the abstract with the concrete. This blending as 139 achieved and presented in Sarasvatı-Caturmukha-Krda, does not degrade the noumena to the level of phenomena, or exaggerate the phenomena to that of the noumena. How he does it is the secret of his poetic genius which eludes any imitation or scien- tıfic analysıs. One day Caturmukha, the Lord of Creation, and his love Sarasvatı, the goddess of arts and sciences, happen to spend a happy time in an adjacent garden. Attracted by her beauty, he takes her into his embrace and gives her such hard kisses with his four faces in succession that she appears to be offended and will not allow him to carry on his dalliance any longer. His desire thus being thwarted, he requests his pet parrot perching on the branch of a tree before him to tell him a story. Pleading her in- ability to tell a story, the parrot begs to be the listener instead, whereupon he weaves all the deeds of their dallance into a story and gives it as follows :- In the city of Kasara there lıves a kıng named Kalāpūma. He is powerful and conquers all the kings in the world with the least effort. The peculianty with him is he has become a vouth G V. Rnsnna Fao

the very moment he is born and is presented with a jewel, a bow and arrows by a sddha called Svabhava. with the help of these gifts he has defeated Madasaya, another king, and has made him and his wife, Rupanubhauti his regular slaves. When the story has reached this point, Sarasvatı who has been closely following his narration, instructs the parrot to ask the Lord for the rest of it. He informs the creature in all serious- ness that Abinavakaumudi has been married to Kalapurna and that Sumukhasatti ıs his father (Kalapurna's) and Manistambha his mother. Because the father is said to be a female and the mother a male, Sarasvati cannot but laugh. She directly requests him to continue his story. Utilising every detail of their dalliance the Lord tells her as follows :- Kalāpuma is anointed and declared as a mighty emperor by his minister Satvadatman while Madasaya builds a fortress 140 for him, and thus enjoys his goodwill. Before long, due to the influence of the emperor's jewel Madasaya begets a daughter Madhuralalasa by name by his wife, Rapanubhuti. Madasaya's four purohits, attracted by the jewel, remain in the emperor's service. One of them presses the jewel too hard to be tolerated. The emperor drives them away with the result that Madasaya also leaves his court along with his wife and the baby. As his daughter fares ill day by day, Madāsaya once again returns to the court. Once the jewel comes into the sight of the baby, she recovers her health. The purohits also once more enter into his service. Thus everythng ends in happiness when Madhuralalasa is married to Kalāpūmņa. Sarasvati appears to be offended with her lord because her actions have been made the subject matter of the story. He tries to dodge her allegations by asserting once again that it is no more than a simple story; whereupon she explains it with refer- ence to every detail of their dalliance and makes him admit the truth ofher explanation. Thus drawn closer to each other in their love, they completely forget the parrot which manages to escape from their presence.

Stuches m Ealapumodayam

After some time, Rambha, the celestial beauty, comes on a visıt to pay homage to Brahma and Sarasvatı, and hears the par- rot repeating the peculiar sound, the maruta, she has heard emerg- ing from Sarasvati at the time of their dalliance. In her cunosity she extracts from the parrot word by word the whole story of Kaläpurna and of the love of the divine couple when Sarasvati appears on the scene and curses the poor parrot that it will be born as an unchaste woman on the earth. In her great fear Rambha hides herself behind a pillar nearby. How natural is her reaction: the very nature and mode of cursing reveals the woman pounc- ing in rage upon one of her own sex. Just at that time Caturmukha appears on the scene and comes to know from his wife about the curse inflicted upon the parrot. Pitying the poor creature, he consoles her with the assur- ance that in her second birth she will be born as the daughter of Madāsaya and Rupanubhuti, that she will marry Kalapūrna and that, as the most chaste woman will live a long life realising all the chenshed values. This takes his wife by surprise, and she 141

asks hım whether he ıs stıll dreamıng of Kalāpūrņa, Madāsaya and others. Beaming with smiles, he assures her that everything in the story is sure to take place, and that even the strange phe- nomenon that the father will be a female and the mother a male cannot fail to occur. She knows quite well that her lord's words come true to the letter. On the one hand, she is very much pleased with her lord for his love for her; and on the other, she is very much worned that her love affairs will become the talk of the world. So she forbids him to let it out and deprives the parrot of her knowledge of their love in her first birth. In her anxiety to keep the whole affair a secret she calls forth Rambha into her presence and threatens her with senous consequence if she dares to reveal it. But Caturmukha intervenes sayıng:

G V Knshna Rao

This is really a beautiful passage which is a curse from the stand- point of divine beings and a boon from that of the mortals. This utterance cannot but make Sarasvati laugh. Thus the poet presents these two divine characters as an ideal couple without depnving them at the same time of their spirtual halo. With every thought and action, with every feeling and emotion' with every word and grimace of theirs, one loses one's individuality and completely merges oneself in them. One forgets oneself so completely in the experience that even the idea of judging it to be either high and noble, or low and vulgar does not arıse.

SALYĀSURA AND ABHINAVAKAUMUDI

The characters dealt with so far do not complete the list; there are still some more luminares. They may not play a major role, and yet they are too alive and concrete to be ignored. Of 142 these, Salyasura, Abhinavakaumudı, Rambha and Alghuvarta are important from many points of view. The first of this second list is the son of Mahisasura's ma- ternal uncle. He is a simpleton endowed with immense physical power; tact and diplomacy, thought and foresight are quite for- eign to him. Nevertheless his capacity for love or hate is tremen- dous. These qualities naturally require perseverence for their manifestation. Under the influence of this complex disposition, he resolves to wreak vengeance on the goddess who has killed his uncle, but his fear of Visnu prevents him from translating it into immediate action. As he goes on searching for ways and means of escaping from this punishment, he meets Abhinavakaumudi, an apsarasa maiden, and falls in love with her. Her character and temperament being different from his, she refuses him and his love. Though his love is not reciprocated, he does not give it up, but on the other hand he persists in it doggedly. So showy and sincere is his love for her that he even threatens her with ternble consequences if she should reject him. No one, he warns her, will dare to love her as long as he is alive. But Abınavakaumudi is not a weak-kneed maiden to be cowed down by threats. She has a Studies in Kalapurnodayam

mind of her own, and a strong will too. Enraged by his threats, she swears in his very presence that she will marry only him who klls Salyasura. His love for her is too deep to be offended at this condition. He simply laughs over it and leaves her with the fond hope of winning her love in course of time. Later on he happens to visit the temple of Mrgendravahana where he reads the inscription informing him that one, who cuts off his head with the scissors in the temple, will not only come to life once again, but will also kill the enemy who makes an at- tempt on his life. No time is lost by him to undergo this sacrifice and acquire this special power. Now, as Visnu cannot kıll him, there is apparently no hindrance to his translating his resolve into action. He is bent upon destroying the temple of Mrgendravähana. Just at this juncture Abhinavakaumudi, who has been searching for the hero capable of kıllng Salyasura, hapens to come to the temple. When he sees her, his love takes posses- sion of him. He plainly tells her of his newly-acquired boon and 143

begs her in all humility to give up her meaningless efforts to avoid him and accept his love. This revelation leaves her in complete bewılderment. In despair she runs into the temple and seeks the protec- tion of the goddess who advises her to take the sword hidden in the temple, to lead the demon to the Srisaila and get him killed by Manikandhara by the same weapon. That is the only path open to her, the goddess informs her, if she wants to keep up her oath. Losing no time, she emerges from the temple with the in- strument of destruction. Salyasura, who is too simple to know her intention, thinks that she is going to attack him, courting death thereby. Sincere lover that he is, he warns her of its conse- quences and even forbids her to attack him in the name of the gods. However, following the instructions of the goddess, she leads him on tempting him with the prize of her love. His attachment to her is so strong that it is not until he has travelled the whole distance from the temple of Mrgendravahana to the Srisaila that he understands her real motive. But what does it avail him when G V. Ansnna Rao

fate itself is in deep conspiracy against him? Deceived by love, and blinded by hatred of superor powers, he has in the end to face death at the hands of Manikandhara whom he kills in turn. Abhinavakaumudi is not a soft-hearted maiden to be moved by tender feelings. Her will is too strong and her love too rigid to yield to pity. On the other hand, she feels very happy and gladly awaits the rebirth of her husband. When Manikandhara is re- born as Kalāpūrņa, she tells him everything and marries him. In her married life she does not exhibit any new qualities.

RAM BHA

Rambha, the celestial courtezan of Indra and the love of Nalakūbara, is too proverbially beautiful to be commented upon. Her main traits as seen in the poem are, firstly, inquisitiveness about the sexual affars of her superiors; secondly, the tendency 144 to imitate those whom she deems to be beautiful; thirdly, con- sciousness of her beauty; fourthly and lastly, her pride in having Nalakübara as her lover. The first charactenstic manifests itself clearely when she hears the peculiar sound (mantta) reproduced by the parrot in the world of Brahma. She questions the indis- creet creature :-

She does not hesitate to extract the whole story of Sarasvati- Caturmukha-Krida and get the sound repeated by the parrot. Unluckily the latter is caught red-handed and condemned to be born as an unchaste woman on the earth. Though Rambha is no less a culprit than the parrot, she luckily escapes this fate due to the timely arrival of Carurmukha. Only a strict warning is given to her. Later on when she is reminded of Brahma and Sarasvatı by the presence of a white cloud near the sun, she imitates the mantta which pieases Naiakubara immensely.

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The last two traits are made evident by her reaction to Narada's approval of his disciple's statement that the beauty of Kalabhäsini and her maidens appears to exceed that of the celes- tial women. Her pride in her beauty is wounded. Though she knows that the remark is endorsed by no less a person than Närada with immense power, she is not able to acqiesce in it in silence. She wants to make him withdraw his approval and admit the superiorty of her beauty, or at least wants to let him know her opinion. She draws the attention of her lover and says :-

Then paying the seer a befitting homage, she invites him and his disciple into the plane and, when he blesses them, she displays 145 her insolence saying :-

Närada, being neither thick-witted nor lenient to improper be- haviour, demands an explanation. Thereupon she hears once again what the seer has said and remarks in her intolerable pride :-

G V. Knshna Rao

The seer in his jocular vein inflicts a curse upon her when he says :- "When your lover is in such deep love with you, you can rightly say whatever you like. But time always does not pass alike. Do you know that you are going to have a rival in your love affairs in the future? When one assuming your form and another his make their appearance, a grave situation may arise causing too much anxiety. So it is not proper to be very proud of this sort of immensely pleasing beauty."180 Immediately she comes to her senses and begs him not to continue it any further. Later on Rambha reaps the consequences of that curse when Kalabhäsini appears in the form of Rambha. The quarrel that ensues between them shows how the real Rambha, in spite of her dıvinity, is in no way better than Kalabhāsini. It reveals more her womanly temperament and character than her divine culture. What is more interesting is that one sympathises with Kalabhàsini 146 rather than with Rambha.

ALAGHUVRATA

Before this discussion is closed, there is one more charac- ter for study which is not altogether un interesting. That is Alaghuvrata, alias Yajnasarman. He is born in a cultured and spiritual-minded family with a silver spoon in his mouth. His father is well-versed in the Vedas and an expert in yoga. Despite his meticulous care, his son, Yajnasarman, becomes quite inca- pable ofreceiving any education. This is not due to any indolence on the part of his father but to his own negligence. To compen- sate for this deficiency he has acquired two qualities, firstly, im- plicit and strong faith in his father's words, and secondly, his repentance for not having acquired any education. To make him forget the latter, his father gets him marned to four beautiul girls with success. Before he dies, he leaves defimte instructions with his son that he should continue feeding pious brahmanas at any cost. Yajnasarman puts them into practice with the result that his property in cluding the jewellery of his wives disappears

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before long. Becoming as poor as a church mouse, he does not know how to carry on his father's instructions. At last a new idea flashes across his mind. In his anxiety to get money he does not ponder over its merits and demerits, or his capacity to put it into use. He accepts money from a rich merchant and takes his wives on to his ships under the pretext of going on trade. Just at the moment when he has to part with his wives and to leave them to the merchant, he bursts into loud lamentations over this unthought of separation with the consequence that the faithful wives, suspecting foul play on the part of the merchant, jump into the sea. Because he has broken the contract, the merchant takes back his money and pushes him out. Thus the poor fellow loses not only his money, but also his wives whom he supposes to be drowned in the sea. Left alone, he goes from country to country seeking means oflvelihood. Though reduced to terrible poverty, he does not give 147 up his principle of feeding brahmanas. In this hard-pressed ton- dition he happens to visit the temple of Mrgendravahana where he learns from the talk of Kalabhäsini that one who hears the story of Kalāpūrna enjoys riches, prosperty as well as long life and becomes the head of a long and illustrious progeny. Manikandhara presents him with the manihara which he has received from Krsna. He immediately sits down to penance. At the end of two years he is thrown into the court of a king to whom he presents the manihāra. Adorned with this garland, Madhuralalasa tells him the whole story of Kalapurna, his past history, the fate of his wives, and finally identifies the four Agamas with his sons. Thus, to his great surprise he finds himself in the midst of his sons and riches. From the foregoing survey of Surana's characters in the Kalapurnodayam it may be said that they are not mere ideas or sketches, but are conerete and living. They have their own ambi- tions and aspirations consistent with their mental make-up There

G V. Knshna Rao

is nothing static or stagnant about them; they act upon and re- act to circumstances as well as to their society. Though some of the incidents in their lives owe their origin to supernatural pow- ers, their minds and hearts are essentially human and completely true to nature. Even gods, goddesses and rsis evince these hu- man tendencies without the least inconsistency with their divine nature. Another peculiarity to be noted is that the characters do not outshine the plot; nor the plot the characters.

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CHAPTER VII POSITIVE MERITS OF THE KALĀPŪRŅODAYAM (Contd )

Turning from characterisation, one may take up the next item for examination namely the background provided for the vanous events, episodes and characters. On a closer study, its organic connection with the theme will be obvious. Without it there will be neither the story nor the characters; they simply refuse to move, to appear before the mind's eye. As in the works of other poets, it is not simply an appendage, a colour-giving stuff, a mere means of making concrete the when, the where and the how of ideas, but an integral and inseparable part of the whole. This background in the Kalapurnodayam, for the sake of analy- sis, can be divided into two, one provided for the events, and the other for characters. Under the first come the reign of Krsna, the 149

participation of Närada, the temple of Mrgendravahana and Kash- mir. Under the second come the geographical, cultural and so- cial background ofKalabhāsini, Manikandhara, Yajnasarman and Abhinavakaumudi. To take up the first section, the first scene of the Kalāpūrņodayam commences in Dväraka when Srikrsna was rul- ing over the world. Why does the poet select this particular pe- nod and place, and in what way does it help the story? Mr.Süryanarayana Sastri in his commentary on the Kalāpūrnodayam giving three kinds of reasons enumerates all the important events that take place at Dväraka. Under the sec- ond he provides three reasons from the stand point of the poet. They are firstly, because the poet promises the readers to give a poem worth hearing by virtue of the delienation of sacred and pious theme or things(Sesa so o5e), he begins the poem with the description of Dvaraka one of the seven famous cities capable of bestowing moksa. Secondly Nandyala Krsnabhūpati to whom the poem is dedicated is a Vaishnavite. To please him G. V. Knsnna Rao

the poet has begun with the description of Dvaraka. Thirdly, it manifests the poet's faith in Vaisnavism. Under the third he says that Dvaraka helps a great deal to give puranic colouring to his story of pure invention181. Under the first the commentator does not tell us clearly the invariable connection between Dvaraka and those incidents. Why cannot they take place in some other city than Dvaraka? The second, as he himself says, is not of intrinsic nature. The reason mentioned under the third is prob- ably not important to aesthetic experience because there is no necessity for the poet to give puranic. colouring to the story. On the contrary the poet openly says at the outset that he is giving a completely new or a very wonderful ( 010 SScboa) story. Moreover, the theme also does not positively require such a colouring. Thus the question why Dväraka alone is spoken of as the opening scene of action remains still to be answered. For rea- 150 sons to be mentioned later on, Narada is essential for the story. His regular visits to some body or to some place for a sufficiently long time are also utterly necessary. Otherwise Kalabhasini and Manikandhara cannot be expected to meet each other and de- velop mutual attachment and love. Narada is not an ordinary mortal to be dragged to any place or person at all. Which place or person can require from him regular visits for a considerable pe- nod? It cannot be sacred places of pilgrmage, or monarchs well known for their power and devotion, because Narada is a maharsı far above the needs and wants of mortals. What can attract him, a released soul, is pure devotion to God and music of a high order. Though Rama is an incarnation of God, he is not known for his music. Moreover, Krta, Treta and Dvapara ages do not give any scope for making Kalapūrna a powerful monarch. So avoiding other incarnations and yugas the poet has selected Srikrsna and the later part of his reign. What more can be de- sired on the part of Narada than attending upon Srikrsna, the very incarnation of Visnu. Does not Visistadvaita establish be- yond doubt that released souls attend upon Lord Visnu? Thus along with Srikrsna Dvaraka cannot but come into the picture. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Coming to the second point, why is Narada brought into the story? To play his role, one must be a divine person with powers to curse and bless, and be proficient in music. He must also be in a position to command respect and honour from the celestial beings such as devas and gandharvas Besides, he must be capable of knowing everything in all the worlds, the past, the present and the future. His temperament must be such that he takes some sort of dignified interest in clashes and conflicts. Who can satisfy all these needs? Had the poet brought in or created a character de nove and endowed him with all these powers, the story would have certainly grown in bulk beyond proportion and the unity would have been ruined, because such a thing demands creation of many events to establish all these characteristics. Even if some other maharsi of puranic fame had been brought in, he would have lacked proficiency in music and interest in clashes and conflicts which are of vital importance to the story. Supposting Tumburu had been assigned this role of Narada, could he have 151 done justice to it? He is well known for his proficiency in music. The answer is an emphatic no, since he cannot be expected to command respect from devas Secondly, he cannot know the story of Kalapurna which Nalkubara himself is unable to guess. Lastly, he is not said to be anxious to bring about quarrels and feuds Thus all these considerations leave no other alternative than the selection of Narada. Regarding the importance of the temple of Mrgendravahana, Mr. Sūryanārayana Sāstr gives a fairly good explanation when he comments :-

G V. Knsnna Rao

and what purpose does it serve? Will the story be affected by giving them some other country nearer to that of Mrgendravahana? Would not proximity to the temple have helped a great deal to secure unity of place? No, it would have on the other hand spoiled two things. Sumukhasatti would not have taken a long time and become very old by the time she reached the temple; nor the terrible speed of the lion could have been manifested clearly to the readers. If it is purely a question of providing a long distance, the poet would have done well to select Nepal or Assam or the southern most point of South India. But he selected Käshmir and that with a definite purpose. Manistambha comes of a Brah- min family, and brahmanas are, generally speaking, spuritual- minded with great aversion to deeds of bloodshed and horror. But Manstambha not only pierces his eyes and ears with a style and an arrow, but also tries to sacrifice Kalabhasiņi to Mrgendravahana. How can this behaviour be reconciled with his 154 caste and up-bringing without any damage to probability which is the life of poetic creations? But for those deeds there would have been no story. And hence, the poet, it may be argued, would have done better to have kept silent over the history of his family. Even this would not have helped him because he and his wife had to practise yoga which used to be imparted in those days only to brahmanas. The result is that Manistambha should be a Brahmin and at the same time perform those horrible deeds. To reconcile these apparent incongruities without infringing the laws of probability, the poet had to assign them Käshmir which is thought to be the seat of kaula sampardaya. Tradition says that this sampradaya is prevalent among Käshmiri Brahmins and that it enjoins on them such tantric rites. Nowhere else in ancient India such a thing is found among the brahmanas. Hence, Manistambha and his wife are described as natives of Kashmir. Above all these, there is a more weighty consideration which is deffered to the next chapter. Now to turn to the importance of the social background provided for the characters. Kalabhäsini is said to belong to the courtezan class because of the following reasons. She has to Studies in Katapurnodayam

visıt the court of Krsna so as to come into contact with Narada and Manikandhara, and learn music from Krsna and his wives. Secondly, she has to go along with Manistambha to the hermit- age of Manikandhara without the least hindrance from her rela- tives and friends. Lastly, Sarasvati curses, her that she will be boin as a courtezan. This curse, in its turn, is determined by the nature of the fair sex. In the case of Manikandhara there is no such predetermi- nation. Nevertheless, he is said to have come from the gandharva class. Had he been simply a human being, it would have been impossible to travel by the aerial path along with his guru, Nārada. Besides this. he has to retain his spring time of yough without ever growing old. This trait of his may seem to have no role to play in the story. But a closer study will reveal its necessity. By the time he visits Kashmir to get his poetic faculty tested, he should have at least been a youth of twenty or twenty-five sum- mers. At that time Salina should have been thirty or thirtyfive 155

years old because the latter's dallance is described as follows :-

ரல் சகக கல த்துுதாலகி

eK 3. 185 When one sees her at the temple of Mrgendravahana, her age is de- scnbed in the following stanza :-

G. V Ansnna Rao

These lines show clearly that she must be more than sixty. That means more than thirty years should have passed between Manikandhara's visıt to Käshmir and to the temple of Mrgendravahana. This makes him more than sixty years old

156 when he made love to Rambha and Kalabhasini. Not only that; he gives a terrible fight, more terrible than a youth can to Nalakubara.187 If Manıkandhara is simply a human being, this 1s practically incredible and much less probable. If the foregoing are the only considerations, Manıkandhara could as well have been spoken of as belonging to the class of devas, or kınnaras This argument will lose all its significance if it is only remembered that his class has to be subordinate to that of dêvās so as to receive a curse from Nalakūbara, and that gandharvas are more well-known for their music than any other class of celestial beings. Thus all these necessitate that he should be a gandharva. Even the same meticulous care is bestowed on Alaghuvrata alias Yajnasarman. That he is the son of a Malabar Brahmin, nch, spiritual-minded, well-versed in the Vedas, and thoroughly grounded in yoga is necessary and significant. It is helpful not only to give colour and life but also to sow the seeds for future development.188 Had not his father been spirtual-minded and nch, Alaghuvrata would not have been requested to carry on annadana. If his father had not been a yogin, Alaghuvrata would Studies in Kalapurnodayam

not have heard something of yoga by which, as explained before, he was able to know the veracity of the story narrated by Madhuralälasa. Because he is said to be a native of Malabar, it has become possible for him to sell his wives to a merchant car- rying on trans-oceanic trade. Abhinavakaumudi is said to be an apsarasa of the moon so that she may be able to marry Manikandhara in his next birth wothout giving rise to any feeling of incongruity. Does the social, political and geographical background provided for Madasaya and Satvadātman carry any significance as in the above cases? One can neither positively assert nor deny. It is yet to be enquired nto.

With this survey in view, what is one to conclude? Does it not clearly reveal that the backgrould provided for the events as well as for the character is not simply an appendage, a colour- gving stuff, a mere means of making concrete the when, the where 157

and the how of ideas, but an integral part of the whole? How many poets and creative artists have been able to achieve this as Surana has?

NAMA VAKRATA

Pingali Surana's peculiarity is not confined only to provid- ing significant background; the very names of his characters are a marvel. They reveal beauties, unheard and undreamt of, unattempted and unachieved. Had vakroktikara the opportunity to have the Kalapumodayam before him, he would have certainly included a separate chapter in his treatise under the title, nama väkrata. But he was denied that opportunity, for he came centu- nes before Sürana. A crtic who was alive to vakrata in the very title189 ofa poem could not be said to be mnsensitive to namavakrata. Then why he did not include it in his treatise is, he had no poem from which he could illustrate his point. Now what is this pecu- Lar beauty which Surana :sreals?

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Many are the ways followed by parents in naming their chil- dren. They may name them after the gods or goddesses they like and worship, or after their own deceased parents or elders, or after the heroes of the epics or puranas, or after the heroes for whom they have immense regard, or in accordance with the plan- etary positions at the time of their births. They may acquire new names in the later part of their lives on account of their deeds and achievements. But the method generally followed by poets is somewhat different. They assign names to the characters in their books in accordance with their character or origin or an event in their life, or they name their characters as their fancy and ca- price dictates with the only provision that they do not appear improbable or unreal. The names such as Rama, Bhima, Bhisma etc. are in accordance with their character while others like Sıta, Sakuntala denote their origin or an event in their life. Names such as Prataparudra, Perigādu, Girisam, Buccamma come un- 158 der the second category. The first method followed by poets has too much artificiality. Nevertheless, idealists still have a soft cor- ner in their hearts for this method which may be traced to their unconscious leanings to self-evidence and self-sufficiency. The second method being neither positive nor negative, does not re- quire commendation or censure. Some poets have followed an- other method by way of utpreksa; they have tried to establish a definite connection between the name of the character and his or her life though there is apparently nothing of that sort between them. There can be no more beautiful example of this point than Kalidāsa's famous verse :-

But Surana blazes a new trail in this matter. He follows neither the first method nor the second. The names of his char- acters are not the result of apperception as in the first, or of arbitration as in the second. They are completely determined by the inner events of the story. Every event every word and ges- ture, every feeling and emotion, every action and reaction in the Stches in Kalapurnodayam

dallance of Sarasvati and Caturmukha becomes a name and a lıvıng character Kalāpurņa, Satvadātman, Madāsaya, Svabhāva, Manstambha and the four Agamas are the reflected face and the soul of Sarasvati. the heart of Brahma, nature, the jewelled pillar in the lake, and the four faces of Brahma respectively while Madhuralalasa, Rupanubhuti, Abhinavakaumudi and Sumukhäsatt are the desire, the enjoyment derived from the for- mal beauty by Brahma, the smile on the face of Sarasvati and the close proximity of Sarasvati's face to the pillar in the lake,191 Thus these names of characters arse out of the incidents of the story making everything self-sufficient and self-evident. There is noth- ing of improbability, artificiality or unnaturalness which wipes out the make-believe world of art. This is not the only peculiarty with the names of Surana's characters. Their very names play an important role in their lves, they even determine their fate to some extent. Has any- 15g body ever heard of such things in the annals of history or social science or psychology? What is known is that castes and creeds have plaved and are still playing havoc with the lives of men. The rehgious uifferences in medieval Europe the caste system in India, the race hatred in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, the segregation laws of South Africa and the "brain wash" policy of the Commumsts in Russia and China are outstanding examples. Surana, with his profound psychological insight, goes a step fur- ther when he reveals that even names play such a role. This is too subtle to be accepted, and too ingenious to be believed. Un- less illustrated, no one can honestly admit this to be true. The names of Manikandhara, Manistambha and Sumukhasatti are concrete examples of this unusual function of names. Supposing the hero of the poem had some other name than Manikandhara, would Kalabhäsini have met with the same fate and the story taken the same course as they do in the story taken the same course as they do in the poem? Certainly not. Kalabhäsini. in that event. would not have been reminded of G. V. Krısnna Rac

Manigriva and the ternble curse he received from Narada. Con- sequently she would not have been afraid of the seer's curse, and much less bothered by Nalakubara. Thus she could have avoided becoming a victim of Manistambha and of the curse of Rambha. On the other hand, she would have awaited her chance which would ultimately lead to her marriage with the hero. Hence, Kalabhasinı's whole fate and the curse of the story are deter- mined to a very great extent, if not completely, by the name Manikandhara. Similar is the effect of the names Manistambha and Sumukhasatti. Had not Salina and Sugatr acquired new names and had they introduced themselves to each other by their old ones, the events from the fifteenth verse of the second canto would have followed altogether a new line. One may say that even the whole story would have gone to peices. The reason for this is not 160 too difficult to be grasped. Had they known each other by their onginal names, they would have immediately managed somehow or other to recognise and be reconciled to each other. In that case there would have been no attempt on the part of Manistambha to sacrifice Kalabhasini to the goddess Mrgendravahana. The later developments also would not have taken place. Thus these two names also have in their own way contributed to the struc- ture of the story. In this connection a doubt may arse as to how these difer from disguise and false names which are very com- mon to the comedies of Shakespeare and of Sansknt play-wrights. In the latter, they are assumed with a definite purpose in view, whereas they are quite unintentional in the former. Sugatri and Salina never thought of assuming new names; on the other hand, those were bestowed upon them by the society in which they moved. And hence, disguises and false names do not have any- thing to do with the present problem. Thus the poet, Surana, blazes a new trail in creative litrature by making the very names of the characters play an important role as well as by making them an integral part of the story. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

STRUCTURAL BEAUTIES

In the construction of plot and arrangement of events, Surana perhaps is second to none. Nobody knows better than he where to begin a story and where to end, which details to be brought in and which to be omitted. Even the twentieth century which boasts of its advance in techniques has nuch, it seems, to learn from him. There are no less than fifteen parts or episodes in the story of the Kalapurnodayam. They are :- (1) The earlier life of Kalabhasini, (2) Närada's conflict with Tunburu, (3) Manikandhara's pilgrimage, (4) The episode of Manistambha, (5)The comedy of errors, (6) the story of Sugatri and Salina, (7)the dallance of Sarasvati and Caturmukha, (8) the story of Svabhava, (9) the birth of Kalapurna, (10) the episode of Abhinavakaumudi and Salyäsura, (11) the tale of Alaghuvrata, (12) the marriage of Kalāpûrna and Madhuralālasa, (13) Kalāpurņa's expedition of con- quest, (14) the past history of Satvadätman and finally (15) Liksmi- Nārāyana-Samvāda. That these parts are not arranged in order 161

of their chronology is evident from the very opening of the story. Chronologically speaking, the beginning is the middle, and the middle is the beginning. The poet deliberately adopts this ar- rangement so that readers may find themselves directly in the mid-stream of the story and become all the more curious to know the succeeding events. To bring about the same effect, this is not the only way. Instead of beginning the story with the introduc- tıon of Kalabhasini, Nārada, Maņikandhara, Nalakūbara and Rambha directly himself, the poet could have made the baby, Madhuralalasa, narrate the story as it stands. Such an alterna- tive is not altogether ruled out, because the baby has that divine vision. This new arrangement of course involves some changes which are not too difficult to be effected. Why does not the poet follow the latter course instead of the former? Has he gained anything by this method? Worlds he has gained and nothing he has lost by his own method. Ifhe had followed the second alternative, the story would have become al the more complicated. Instead of securing sus- G. V. Krıshna Rao

pense, this would have contributed immensely to confusion and thereby to tediousness, because this would have landed him in the muddle of weaving a story within a story. That means, the contents of the first four cantos will be nothing but a story within a story. That is rather an aberration than an artistic creation. Secondly, the advantages of dramatic presentation, i.e., directly perceiving the characters as they move, act and struggle, will be altogether denied. Thirdly, the special significance which Madhuralālasa's narration bears will be lost beyond repair. Fourthly, all realism with which it is suffused will fade away into the supernaturalism of the fairy tales. (This statement does not mean that fairy tales are not bealutiful, but what is meant here is that one will have anything but not the poets heart and soul). Fifthly, it will become only a third rate imitation of Bana's Kādambari without its word-music and beautiful imagery. In a 162 word, Telugus and Telugu literature are lucky enough in this that Surana did not fall into the snare of the second alternative. Another interesting point in the first part is the reference to the story of Kalapurna and to the result that accrues to narrators and the audience without revealing even a single part of it. This is technically known as bindu which intensifies curiosity and se- cures suspense and continuity. This first part on the Whole in- troduces to the readers all the important characters and sug- gests the coming events. Nowhere in Sanskrit drama is this so finely introduced as in the present work. The second and third parts, i.e., Narada's conflict with Tumburu and Manikandhara's pilgrimage to several places are considered by some critics as inappropnate and unnecessary. But these arguments are hardly convincing. If they had been ommitted as these critics advocate, there would have been no cause for Narada's regular visits to Srikrsna on the one hand, and Kalabhasin would not have been so easily duped by Manistambha on the other. Besides, there are other considera- tions also which need not be discussed in this context.

Stuthes in Kalapurnodayam

Coming to the fourth, the story of Salina and Sugatri is not brought in and narrated by Sumukhasatti to Kalabhasinı because of three reasons. Firstly, the tension of feelings so far roused in the minds of readers will be shattered. That is, Karuna which is the rasa in that context will be nullified by the digression into new avenues resulting in akandaccheda.192 secondly Manikandhara will be left with no means to express his sincere belief in Kalabhasini's explanation. Thirdly, the element of sur- prise will lose much of its intensity if the story of Sugatri and Salina and their recognition and reconciliation are separated. As a matter of fact, such separation will not be helpful to Manstambha and Sumukhäsatti to recognise each other. If the incidents, on the other hand, are transferred in toto to the earlier part, the whole story will have to be something quite different from what it is. In that case it will be a demand on the poet to wrte according to the taste and fancy of other individuals-a de- mand ethically immoral, aesthetically ugly and politically totalı- 163 tarian. Why does not the poet commence the comedy of erros proper with the conflict between Nalakubara and his counterpart, and end it with Rambha's curse on Maya Rambha? It is true that the comic element will not suffer in the least by the transposition. The other changes to be effected are also practically nil. Just when Kalabhasini cries for protection, Nalakubara himself may be made to appear on the scene and meet Maya Rambha first and Maya Nalakubara later which will result in the conflict. So far it is good and probable. But the trouble comes in distinguishing the real Nalakubara from the impostor. How can Maya Rambha be expected to tdo it? She has never had before any contact with Nalakubara which can provide a clue to his identification. Nor can Nalakubara convincingly prove his own identity to a com- plete stranger. Even granting that he or she can overcome this obstacle by some way or other, the transposition is quite unaesthetic because the character of Kalabhasini suffers terri- bly. In the latter case she will have to spend some time at least with real Nalakubara. This is not wanted by the story. Secondly G. V. Ensnna Rao

such a behaviour on her part will destroy all our sympathy for her and defeat the purpose of the poet which is to present the psychological workings of a particular kind of soul in a particular environment. The reasons for making Sarasvati-Caturmukha Krida the seventh part instead of relegating it to some other part of the story are not very difficult to find. If it is narrated after the birth of Kalāpurna, the story of Svabhāva, the episode of Salyasura and the other parts, Alaghuvrata will be presented as meeting his sons and wives. Besides, he will be seen as rolling in rches thereby contradicting the boon of Caturmukha. That means he will be shown as enjoying all the fruits ordained by Brahma even before hearing the story of Kalaprna. Secondly, if the dalliance of Sarasvati and Caturmukha is not given at the head of the above-mentioned parts, the element of wonder and suspense will

164 be lost and the story will become unspeakably tiresome. Hence this episode is given this particular place in the story. The next three parts, i. e., the birth of Kalapurna, the story of Svabhava and the epidode of Salyasura and Abhinavakaumudı are arranged strictly in accordance with the laws of flash-back technique whose sole am is to maintain curiosity and interest. Why the tale of Alaghuvrata follows these parts and does not succeed the marriage of Madhuralālasa, the conquest of Kalapuma and the story of Satvadätman is evident on its very face. Its postponement requires a cause to be invented. Such an inven- tion will make the story unnecessarily complicated, without add- ing any new interest. Nor such a thing will serve any purpose. The last four parts which comprise the marriage of Madhuralalasa, the conquest of Kalapurna, the story of Satvadatman and the discussion between Laksmi and Nārāyana are intimately connected with each other. Critics headed by Dr.C.R. Reddy have censured the poet for bringing the marriage and the expedition of conquest of Kalapurna and Lakshmi Nārayana-Samvada into the story. Their arguments are that they have already been suggested in the episode of Sarasvati and Stuces in Kalamumodoyam

Caturmukha, and that by describing them once more in an elaborate manner no purpose is served except making them tedious and flabby. If these arguments are valid, of course they are not, the tale of Alaghuvrata should have been immediately followed by the story of Satvadatman. Even this, as has been pointed out, is not advocated by them. Omission of the story of Satvadatman makes the work incomplete and defective. Hence, the question where the sotry of Satvadatman should be inserted depends on the importance of the remaining three episodes, the marnage, the conquest and the Lakshmi-Nārayana-Samvada. If the latter are important and should find a place in the body of the Kalāpūrnodayam, it is natural for the story of Satvadatman to come after the expedition of conquest. That is the only way of maintaining the interest of the readers and of creating suspense. It may be asked why this cannot be narrated at the very end of the poem. Such an arrangement, it may be argued, will augment suspense all the more. This is not followed because of two rea- 165

sons. Firstly, the Lakshmi-Narayana-Samvada is known by the hero and the heroine with the help of the manihara. Without seeking an answer for the immediate question of Satvadatman's past history they well seek after something which does not con- cern them immediately. For such a thing there must be a cause, and that is lacking. Secondly, it is a custom with all the ancient Indian writers to close their works with benediction. There is an injunction from Patanjali that a work must have an auspicious beginning, middle and end. What can be more auspicious than ending the poem with the Lakshmi-Narayana-Samvada. Hence the poem closes with it. Now one has to face the question whether the marriage, expedition of conquest and the Lakshmi-Narayana-Samvada are important and intemally needed. Critics have mentioned that they are superfluous and not necessary to the plot. With the foregoing survey in view, can one fall in line with these critics? Can one say that the poet who has given such a close-knit story in the preceding twelve parts has failed in the last three inci- G. V. Knsnna Rao

dents? Can one attribute mefficiency and lack of creative faculty to one who has provided the readers with such a gallery of beau- tiful characters, significant background and above all nama vakrata which plays such an important role in the inner events of the story? If one should admit that the poet's genus has faled him in this part, he must account for it. As long as this is not explained, his conscience cannot remain at rest In this context Dr.C.R. Reddy says that the poet has become a victim to alamkara sastra in the later parts of the poem. Why should he commit the blunder at the fag end? So one must beg to differ with the critics on their judgment that the last three episodes are unwarranted and superfluous. Against this view it may be argued in this way. It is true that the first twelve parts of the story are closely knit and form a coherent part. But that does not positively prove that the poet has not failed in the last three episodes. Is there any rule that a man who has succeeded on ninety-nine occasions 166 should not fail on the hundredth occasion? At the most what one can say is that the probability of success at the hundredth time cannot be completely denied. That is exactly what is being hinted Because the poet has given such beautiful parts and characters significant background and nama vakrata, he may have some object in view, some purpose to be served, some internal neces- sity to be satisfied. What that object is, one has to investigate and explain. So judgment on this issue may be deferred in the meanwhile.

THE BEAUTIES OF PRESENTATION

Now Surana's methods of presentaton and the beauties therein can be taken up for examination It is well known that there are altogether three methods of presentation, firstly. the dramatic method, secondly, the narrative method and thirdly, an admixture of these two. Again each one may adopt the flash- back technique or the common techmque of proceeding from the beginning to the end. None of these methods in nself is beauti- ful. People may like one method better than the others just as some prefer a certain colour to others Ths Hlang or preference Stres in Kalapumedauam

is more a question of temperament or personal predilection tnan one of beauty. If one is to attribute beauty to the method itself, he has to consider that some literary forms are more beautiful than others. As a matter of fact this view is upheld by some lterary critics like Vämana193 when he says that plays are better than other forms of creative literature. The reason he advances Is also rather strange. In his opinion the play (rūpaka), as it contains all the excellences, is attractive like a painted cloth. With due respect to Vamana this question may be put forth. Is the reason self-evident? Is there any rationale in that the Abhıjnanasākuntala is more beautiful than the Kumarasambhava simply because the former is a play and the latter a Mahakavya? Another example which brings out the fallacy more clearly may be provided. If Vämana's judgment is right, the Prabodhacandrodayam of Krsna Misra must be more beautiful than the Kumarasambhavam, or the Pratima of Bhasa than the Rämayana. One may be accused of hiding the real reason pro- 167 vided by Vämäna for the supenorty of a play over other literary forms. Let that also be considered He says that a play is supe- nor to others, because it is the source from which other forms emerge and because all the other literary poems are the result of the ten kinds of play. Now, is this too valid? Simply because one happens to be a father or mother, can anybody say that he or she is invarably superior or better than his or her progeny? It may be argued that the main reason according to Vamana for consid- ering the play to be superior to other literary forms is in its hav- ing all the excellences, namely, the fourfold abhinaya. This also is untenable because aesthetic experience or rasa as supported by Abhinavagupta and others is not an effect, and so, aesthetic expenence is neither intensified nor lessened directly by the vari- ety of abhinayas. When this point is not conceded, the conse- quences willl be appalling. There will be no necessity for plural- ity in fine arts. Nor can other literary forms or fine arts ever be expected to reach the heights of the play. This is exactly the reason why perhaps one of the greatest aestheticians of the mod- emn age, Corce, says :- C v Ansnna Rao

"Granted different arts, distinct and limited, the questions were asked: Which is the most powerful? Do we not obtain more powerful effect by uniting several ? We know nothing of this: We know only, in each individual case that certain artistic given intuitions have need of definite physical needs for their repro- duction, and that other artistic intuitions have need of other physi- cal means. We can obtain the effect of certain dramas by simply reading them; others need declamation and scenic display: Some artistic intutions, for their full extrensication, need works, song, musical instruments, colours, statuary, architecture, actors; while others are beautiful and complete in a single delicate sweep of a pen, or with few strokes of the pencil. But, it is false to suppose that declamation and scenic effects, and all the other things we have mentioned together, are more powerful than simply read- ing, or than the simple stroke with the pen and with the pencil; because each of these facts or groups of facts has, so to say, a 168 different object, and the power of the different means employed cannot be compared when the objects are different."194 Hence neither beauty nor superiority can be validly attrib- uted to the mere method of presentation. If any preference is shown in this respect, it reveals merely the personal predilection of the critic and not anything concerned with beauty proper. Having the preceding conclusion in view, how can any one attribute beauties to the methods adopted by the poet without contradicting himself ?. It is true that beauty is not confined to any particular method when taken by itself. But when a poet has many methods at his disposal to present a theme, and when he selects only one at one place, and another at another place, he is definitely showing certain preferences. These preferences in the case of great poets cannot be arbitrary and temperamental; on the other hand, these will be deliberately chosen in view of the aesthetic expenence. Threfore, to talk of beauties in the methods of presentation in a poem when there is ample choice, is neither selfcontradictory nor irrational. Now, what are these beauties one comes across in the Kalāpūrnődayam? Stumes m Kalapurnodayam

Pingalı Surana begins his poem with the dramatic presen- tatıon of Narada, Manıkandhara, Nalakubara, Rambha and Kalabhäsini. Of course as a prelude to this he gives a description of Dvaraka and Kalabhasını in the manner of dramatists giving stage directions necessary for the creation of proper atmosphere. Why does he follow this method instead of resorting to direct narration? The reasons are firstly, almost all the important char- acters can be presented immediately thereby creating immense interest for the readers; secondly, the bulk of the poem well be reduced to the minimum, and thirdly, the bija can be brought to the forefront immediately thereby rousing cunosity and creating suspense in the minds of readers. The next phase of the story, i.e., Narada's meeting with Krsna. his cultivation of music in the harem and his boon to Kalabhāsıni, is presented by the third method. That means some portions are narrated and others dramatised. This has resulted in bridging the gulf of four years and in concentrating on the 169 important events by shutting out all the unnecessary details. The succeeding phase begins with a scene in the garden of Kalabhāsıni when Manistambha appears all of a sudden. No stage drections regarding the attire and appearance of a character can be more crisp and pointed than the following lines'-

ஜம்ன் மப்து்விலஸ் சக்வ்ரி் வவ்லடரகன்வலல்

Through the conversation of these two characters one comes to know the conflict of Narada with Tumburu, the former's advice to Manikandhara who afterwards goes on a pilgrimage and finally G. V. Knshna Rao

his (Manikandhara's) penance in the forest. These are all past events which are being now recounted by the siddha to the hero- ine. This flash-back technique is utilised for two definite pur- poses: firstly, this helps to impart to the reader all the necessary information required to follow the story without taxing his pa- tience; secondly, it occasions surprise in the reader who will be- come eager to know how this new character who will become eager to learn all these things and in what way he is going to have a part in the story. The elaborate description of Narada's conflict with Tunburu on the one hand, and the pilgrimage of Manikandhara on Ithe other, may appear to be undramatic in form. But it cannot be helped. The poet who is alive to this handicap gets the former narrated by the siddha in the form of a monologue. The second is deliberately undertaken by Manistambha so as to convince Kalabhasini of his spirtual bent of mind. 170 The fourth part of the story, i.e., Manikandhara becoming victim to physical lust, is directly taken by the poet for narra- ion. Why should the poet introduce a sudden change in the method of presentation? Why has he not made Manstambha narrate this too along with the previous incidents? The reasons are quite obvious. The siddha has already talked long enough to blunt the edge of surprise. Secondly, a true siddha cannot be expected to indulge in the description of amorous deeds. Had he done this, throwing away this decency to the winds, Kalabhasini would have immediately suspected his horrible intention. One may take objection to the second reason pointing out that the siddha has withont the least hesitation described the union and that he has given out the secret words exchanged between Manikandhara and Rambha. In support of this argument he may even quote the following lines :-

3லி8மதீத கதி. 196 Studies in Kalapurnodayam

197

But this is beside the point, because the siddha does not narrate these events of his own accord. After being requested more than once, he reveals these things taking every care to show his de- tachment at every step. Let the words of the siddha speak in his behalf :-

171

The underlined words suggest clearly his detachment, his disap- proval of Manikandhra's deportment and self-confidence in his moral superiority. Therefore this part cannot be narrated through the medium of Manistambha. It may be true that the siddha is not the appropriate character to narrate this episode in detail manifesting srgara rasa, pure and simple. Nevertheless he can, it may be argued, narrate the event suggestvely without his de- tachment being impaired in the least. This argument has no grounds because such a narration under these limitations will be G V. Knshna Rao

completely devoid of that particular rasa twhich can be mani- fested by those incidents. Besides, the temperament and char- acter of the siddha will gain greater importance than that of the hero proper. Hence the poet seems to have taken the strings of the story into his own hands. In the succeeding part the poet once again reverts to the dramatic method which gives not only relief but also a concrete pıcture of Kalabhäsını enquiring after Manikandhara's penance and the whereabouts of Nalakubara, and of Manistambha pre- paring the ground to encourage her to follow him to the forest. The sixth part consisting of the travel and arrval of Manistambha and Kalabhāsin at the temple, the former's attempt to sacrifice her to Mrgendravahana resulting in their terrible fall on a flowery bed and the meeting of Sumukhāsattı, Kalabhasini, Manıstambha and Manikandhara, is presented by the narrative method. This device has enabled the poet to bring in so many incidents in such 172 rapidity that one almost forgets even to breathe. The tempo thus gained and the economy of space thereby effected so compete with each other that it cannot be said which gains the upper hand. Next comes the 'comedy of errors' presented through Manistambha. In so far as it is told by the siddha, it is a narra- tive, but from the mode of presentation it is highly dramatic. The method provides relief after the previous part and helps to make the present episode concrete and picturesque. The real question in this context is, why has the poet selected Manstambha alone and not Kalabhäsini or Manikandhara to present this comedy? As a matter of fact the poet himself could have directly presented it in the form of a drama. There are weighty reasons for not following such a course. Had the poet selected Kalabhasin to present this story, one would not have the full-fledged comedy because, firstly, she did not know anything about the conflict between Nalakubara and his counterpart, and secondly, her quar- rels with Rambha couldl not be a comedy from her standlpoint. If that cannot be a comedy, can it not at least be a tragedy? And what objection is there to turning it into the latter? There are Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

altogether two considerations: firstly, it is necessary to provide the reader with a proper perspective of the situation as well as characterisaion, and secondly, proper background or contrast is to be supplied for the coming tragedy so that it may gain more in intensity. The same considerations hold good for not selecting Manıkandhara also as the agent to present this comedy. Of course there is this difference: while Kalabhäsini is present inthe first part of the comedy, Manikandhara participates in the whole play. Above all these, the element of wonder and surprise would have been lost thereby making the latter portion dealing with identifi- cation monstrously dry and drab if the poet had presented it ei- ther through Kalabhasini or Manikandhara. As for the last ques- tion, why the poet himself has not directly presented it, the rea- sons are not too difficult to grasp. Were the poet to undertake the presentation of the 'comedy of errors,' he would have to nar- rate the part also relating to the identification of Sumukhāsatti, Manıstambha, Māya Rambha and Maya Nalakubara with Sugatri, 173 Sālina, Kalabhașıni and Manikandhara. In that case the whole contents of the third and fourth cantos will have to be presented by the narrative which by reason of its unwieldy length will grow slow and torpid. Moreover, such a presentation will not be con- ducive to minimising the psychic distance between the reader and the characters to be presented. In other words, such a nar- rative method will not help the reader to identify himself with the characters. In view of all these points, it seems, the poet has presented the 'comedy of errors' through Manistambha and has given a work that is superb and unique. The succeeding part which is a simple revelation from the beginning to the end, is given through the baby Madhuralālasa. The method generally followed in the fifth and sixth cantos is narrative with intermittent questions posed by the other charac- ters. There is no question of adopting the dramatic method here because so many incidents taking place in different worlds at different times are to be brought together within a very short compass. For example, the episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha G. V. Knsnna Rao

takes place in the world of Brahma, while the birth of Kalapurna, the episodes of Salyasura and Yajnasarman take place in the world of human beings at different times. Such episodes natu- rally canot be summed up in one or two scenes or acts. As a matter of fact rules of drama do not permit it.199 Hence the poet has followed the narrative method. Now one has to answer why he has selected the baby to narrate these events and not some other character. It is well known that celestial beings are pre- cluded from narrating the story of Kalapurna by Brahma's words. For mortals it is a closed book and one cannot know it unless he is aided by the manihara. Suppose the goddess, Mrgendravāhana, had instructed Alaghuvrata how to wear the manihara and know the story of Kalapurna. It would not have helped him in any way, because, in that case also Pratimagama etc. would have lacked the means to recognise their father. Instead of cre- 174 ating another event leading to this reconciliation, the poet makes the goddess fling Alaghuvrata into the court of Kalāpūrna and thus achieves compactness and intencity of emotions. Even if Alaghuvrata were made to narrate all the relevant events in the king's court with the help of Manihara, Kalapurna, Prathamāgama and others would not have believed him. They would have on the contrary grounds for suspicion and foul play. The same thing would heve happened if any one of the courtiers or officials were to narrate them. Supposing the kıng Kaläpurna got the Manihara enlarged and then wore it, he would not have told every detailed that is wanted because such a revelation would not in confirmity with his character. Thus Alaghuvrata, Kalapurna and the cortiers have disqualified themselves to be the narrators. There is one more point to be cognised in this context. The events to be re- vealed are intimately connected with the dalliance of Sarasvati and Caturmuka, and to describe such a dalliance or sexual un- ion of devas is considered to be a great fault and hence strictly forbıdden by the alamkarikas. So far, reasons for not selecting other characters than the baby, Madhuralalasa, alone are given.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Now, it may be examined why the baby, Madhuralālasa has been assigned this role. Because she is a baby, she cannot be suspected of any motives in narrating the events. Secondly, the Manihara to manifest its supernatural powers to her does not require any enalargement or lapse of time. Thirdly, recounting of Sarasvatı-Chaturmukha-Krida through her will not involve the narration in the alankārikadosa mentioned before. Fourthly, by way of narrating the events the baby will describe the personal history of her would-be -husband. This means she will behave in a manner that is expected of a parama patwvrata and thus will make Brahma's words effective.200 Lastly, the events to be nar- rated are mainly of wonder and surprise. To get them narrated by a merel baby will greatly enhance their effect. Hence this selection. The theme except for the story of Satvadatman and the dialogue of Laksmı and Narayana, is presented by direct narra- tion. Here and there, there may be very brief scenes, but they do 175

not matter much. Why the poet relies on this method is not at all difficult to understand. No amount of ingenuity can help to drama- tise the growth of the baby into a beautiful maiden. Much less do the expeditions of conquest lend themselves to this method. This does not mean that it is absolutely impossible. There are drama- tists like Eugene O'Neill who have thrown to the winds all the rules advocated by the ancient crtics on dramaturgy and yet have succeeded. What is implied here is that the dramatic method cannot be easily adopted. The reason why the last two episodes are narrated by Madhuralalasa is evident and needs no further elucidation. The foregoing survey thus reveals how the poet has made the best of all the methods of presentation taking every care to avoid monotony, to provide contrast and to bestow the highest significance or suggestivity on the narrator. How many poets can claim this credit?

G. V Knsnna Rao

CHAPTER VIII KALĀPŪRŅŌDAYAM AS A MAHĀKĀVYA

The critical survey conducted so far should have made it abundantly clear that the characters, the background, the theme and the mode of presentation are intimately and organically con- nected with each other, that dislocation of any one of them will be detrimental to the whole and that it is self-sufficient and self- evident. Though this review may reveal and establish that the Kalāpūrņodayam is a great poem, does this prove it to be a Mahakavya? Now, before answering this question one has to recollect what is said about the characteristics of the Mahākavya. In addition to the type of the hero, the elements to be described the principal rasa and the nature of the theme, it is necessary to look into some other aspects which have been just passed over. 176 That is the structure of the plot. Under sections two and three of the first chapter there is a definite reference to it, but it has not been discussed as elaboratley as it is required in the present context. So the threads left loose there are to be taken up once more.

A story, whether it is short or long, simple or complicated, active or passive, deals with something begun and something achieved. Such action should be complete in itself resulting in a whole having parts. These parts may be two in some cases, three in some, four in others and five in the rest. Whatever may be the number of these parts, the action presented in a story must be complete without any deficiency. The five parts, or to put it more correctly, the five stages are the beginning, the effort, the possi- bility of achievement, the certainty of achievement, and finally the achievement.201 To differentiate clearly one stage from another it is neces- sary to know what each division contains.202 The beginning is that which merely records eagemess about the final achievement of the result with reference to the seed. Striving towards the achievement proper when the same is not in view, and showing Studies in Kalapurnodayam

further eagerness about it, is called the effort. When the achieve- ment of the object is slightly suggested by an idea, it is to be known as the possibility of achievement. When one visualises in idea a sure attainment of the result, it is called certainty of achieve- ment. When the intended result appears in full at the end of events and is consistent with them, it is called the achievement. Now every action presupposes a motive and a cause. It must receive help and support before it attains frution. Such causes or means leading to the result are technically called the arthaprakrtıs.203 They are according to Bharata and other Indian writers on dramaturgy five in number- the seed, the Bindu, the Sub-plot, the Minor-plot and the Denouement. The seed is that which scattered in a small measure, expands itself in various ways and ends in fruition. "That which sustains the contnuity till the end the play even when the cheif object is (from the time being) suspended, is called the Bindu.204 To be more clear, Bindu is that which, whenever or wherever there occurs a breakdown in 177

the story due to the introduction of other necessary events, pre- vents such a sapping and sustains the continwty. As such this may be met with, according to Bharata, any number of times till the end of the play. Abhinavaguptha brings out one more rel- evant point when he says that the sustainer of the continuity of the story must be pertaining to the hero of the play.205 While other wrters on dramaturgy seem to limit it to the earlier parts of the play, Saradatanaya cofines it to the parts between the Seed and the Denouement.26 The event which is introduced in the interest of the main plot and is treated like it is called the Sub- plot. When merely the result of such an event is presented for the purpose of the mam plot and it has no anubandha, it is called the Minor-plot.20" The efforts made for the purpose of the Main- plot introduced by the experts, is called the Denouement. Again, the story worth its name must have some magni- tude however small it may be. Everything having magnitude must naturally have some parts and these parts anticipate each other. The relation between the various parts brought together in view G. V. Knsnna Rao

of the particular results is called sandhi.208 There are altogether five parts having relation with each other in full-length plays like the nataka and the pakarana and in the Mahakavya. They are the mukha, the pratimukha, the garbha, the savimarsa or vimarsa and the upasamhti or nirvahana. That part of a play in which the creation of the seed as the source of many objects and senti- ments takes places, is called in consideration of its body, the opening or the mukha 209 Uncovering of the seed placed in the mukha after it has sometimes been perceptible and sometimes been lost is called the pratimukha.210 The sprouting of the seed, its attainment or non-attainment and search for it is called the garbha.211 Dliberation or pause over the seed that has sprouted in the garbha on account of some temptation, anger or distress is called the umarsa.212 Bringing together the objects of the sandhis such as

178 the mukha etc., along with the seed, when they have attained fruition is called the nirvahana.21. Now how far does the kalāpurnodayam conform to these general rules enunciated by Bharato and others. Every action that is comprehensive and complete withun itself is said to pass through five stages. This is specificall' true in the case of the Kalapurnodayam. Kalabhāsiņi, as it was explained, thinks that she is in love with Nalakubara; and to achieve this particular object ofhers she requests Narada to accept her as his disciple in these words :-

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

Because this beginning is made to realise her supposed object, this is what is called prarambha. There is one peculanty in this poem. Owing to peculiar circumstances Kalabhasini at first does not know that she loves only Manikandhara, and thinks for a certain period that she loves Nalakūbara. To relise this mistake, it takes her more than five and a half years. When once she defi- nitely knows it, she loses no time to achieve her object. There- fore, unlike in Sanskrt dramas and narrative poems, the prärambha is made for the achievement of something which is other than the real object meant by the heroine. This pecularity which starts in the mukha sandh continues nearly up to the end of the garbha, i.e., to the end of the fourth canto. 179

The second phase of the action is reached when Kalabhasıņ appeals to Manistambha saying :-

xi

G. V. Knshna Rao

She leaves her home in haste in order to meet her supposed lover Nalakubara.216 Hence this is Yatna. On her way, when Kalabhāsini comes to know from Rambha's friends that Rambha is spending her time with Nalakübara, the possibility of attaining her object becomes dis- 186 mal. Later on as she hears the real motive of Manistambha from Sumukhäsattı, her hope altogether dsappears. When she gets united with Maya Nalakubara, she feels that she has achieved her object only to know from Manistambha that she has been deceived and her chastity violated. Manikandhara's confession opens her eyes for the first time, and she realises that her real love is for Manikandhara and for nobody else. Even though Manikandhara is prepared to accept her love, fate appears to be aligned against her. Thus the possibility of the attainment ofher object practically disappears. At this Juncture, Sumukhasattı who has obtained a boon from Mrgendravāhana blesses Kalabhāsiņi with these words :-

...

š.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

This blessing reveals the posibility of attainment of her object i.e., getting married to the very hero whom she loves. Hence the blessing is nothing but praptyasa. The fourth phase of the action i.e. niyatapti is revealed by these words of Kalapurņa :-

The last phase of the action, the phalayôga, is depicted in the marriage of Madhuralālasa and Kalāpurna, and the latter's con- quest. Thus all the five phases of action mentioned by Bharata and his followers are to be found in the Kalapurnodayam. Now coming to the means or causes leading to the result, the seed is to be seen in Manikandhara's description of Kalabhasini swinging in the cradle of flowers and twigs. He says :-

181

As this suggests his love for Kalabhasini and provides the cause for Rambha being offended and Närada inflicting a curse on the latter, this is really the seed out of which the whole theme of the Kalāpūrņodayam emerges. The news about Kalāpūmna (Kalāpūmuni suddi) which Kalabhasini tries to know from Nārada is the bindu.220 Without it there would have been no story, i.e., the theme would have faced a virtual breakdown. Neither Rambha could have recognised her lover nor Alaghuvrata would have tried to know the story of Kalāpūrņa. Because of this importance, it is referred to again in cantos three and four. The episode of Sugatri and Salina is not nly helpful to the frution of the main action, blt also spreads over the third, fourth and fifth cantos. Hence it is the pataka. The story of Satvadatman is another example because it extends over the fifth. sixth. sev- enth and eighth cantos. G. V. Knshna Rao

Regarding the prakäri there seems to be a slight difference of opinion. According to Bharata as cited before, the hero of the prakari will achieve no object of his own, but helps the hero, whereas according to Dhananjaya, his story is confined to one part only.221 In other words, Dananjaya followed by Visvanatha holds that the difference between pataka and prakariis that, while the former spreads over more than one part, the latter is con- fined to one only. But Bharata, on the other hand, stresses on the difference of the minor hero achieving or not achieving his own object besides being helpful to the hero of the main plot. If he achieves it, that episode is to be considered as pataka, 1f he has no particular object of his own to be achieved, but is helpful, that is prakari. According to both these schools the story of the parrot confirming the information passed on to Kalabhasını by the siddha is a prakari. Because Alaghuvrata has his own object to be achieved, his story is a pataka according to Bharata. It is 182 so according to Dhananjaya also, but the reasons are different. What makes it a pataka according to the latter is its extension over the fourth, fifth and sixth cantos. In the Kalapumodayam the denouement is acmeved by the marriage of Madhuralalasa and Kalāpurna, and the latter's con- quest. Now, coming to the five sandhis or parts, the Kalāpūrnodayam being a great poem portraying vast expenence in all its colours and shades, contains all of them. The first canto forms the mukha sandhi becuase the seed, the beginning and the condition for the sprouting of the seed are more than amply pro- vided. Besides, Rambha's pride in her beauty, Nāradā's curse in a very mild form, and Kalabhasini's supplication to the great seer suggest a number of beautiful bhavas. This canto, therefore, forms the mukha sandhi. The second canto and the earlier part of the third which contain the effort and further progress,222 form the second part or the pratimukha sandhi. When Narada expresses doubt about the sincerity of the wives of Krsna in their high compliments paid Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

to him, Kalabhāsini rises to the occasion and manages to get a boon from him. After sometime Manistambha appears, and the scene provides information about Manikandhara and his pen- ance. She leaves her house for Manikandhara's bermitage in his company. The rest of the third and the whole of the fourth canto deal with the fluctuations in the possibility of Kalabhäsini achieving her object, namely, her sublimated love of Nalakubara; she for the first time comes to know her real object and the possibility of its realisation. Generally speaking, all the other poets and play- wrights depict their heroes and heroines as definitely knowing their objects and striving for their achievement. In the present case it is quite different as pointed out on so many occasions. Due to peculiar objective and subjective conditions Kalabhāșıņi thinks that she is in love with Nalakubara, whereas in reality her heart and soul are craving for Manikandhara. In this present part Kalabhäsini gets rid of her misconception and becomes quite 183 conscious of her real object. The possibility of achieving this end Is clearly shown. In addition to this, the pataka, the episode of Sugātri and Salina are introduced. Hence, these two cantos form the third part or the garbhasandhi, 223 The fifth and the major part of the sixth canto deal with the episodes of Sarasvati and Caturmukha, the birth of Kalāpūrna, the story of Svabhava, the episode of Madasaya, the history of Salyasura and the reconciliation of Alaghuvrata with his wives and sons. The end of the fourth canto leaves the reader entirely in doubt though the possibility of the achievement of the result lurks in his mind. When one comes to the end of the garbha sandhi, one begins to wonder how Kalabhäsini can obtain her object and how Manistambha and Sumukhasatti beget a son with- out the latter not conceiving at all. The fifth and the major part of the sixth canto solve these problems. This survey carried on up to this point reveals how most of the difficult obstacles are overcome one after another thereby making the achievement cer- tain. But the ground is not completely cleared because the ba- by's supernatural powers come to an end by the time she is about G. V. Knshna Rao

to take up the story of Satvadatman. Thus this failure is another obstacle to be overcome. In other words, Satvadatman has yet to know his past history while Kalapurna has to lead an expedition of conquest. Above all, how a mere baby of not more than two months is able to know all these things is still a question to be answered. This part, thus, shows a further development over that of the garbha sanddi, establishes the certainty of achievement and at the same time leaves another obstacle yet to be overcome. Hence this is the vimsara.224 The fifth part, the nirvahana sandhi, commences from the later part of the sixth canto and closes with the end of the eighth. What is suggested by the words of Manikandhara at the very beginning of the poem, the real love of Kalabhasini, the conquest of Kalāpurna, revelation of the past history of Satvadātman and the knowing of the super-natural powers of the manihara materi- alise so completely that there remains nothing deficient or want- .84 ing. Everything that is begun, and every thing that has propped up during its course comes to-a close. The limbs of parts or sandhyangas introduced into the kaläpurodayam can be seen from the following table :- Name of the Name of the canto in which senal No of

Sandhi sandhyanga. it is intrroduced the verses .*

Mukha Upaksepa 1 149

Parikara 1 151

Parnyāsa 1 179-180

Vilobhana 1 188-189

Yuktı 1 170-172

Prāpti 1 193

Samodhāna

Vidhana

Paribhāvana 1 204-207

• The senal numbers of the verses refer to those in the text edited by Mr. K. Subbaiah Sastry. Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

113 Udbhēdana 1 180

Karana 1 191-192

Bhēda 3 182

Pratimukha Vilāsa 3 61

Parisarpa Vidhūta225 7 234

Tapana 6 104 63 Narma 3 212-213

Narmadyutı 5 64-66

Pragamana 5 59-70

Nirodha

Paryupasana 4 26-39

Vajra 7 228-231

Puspa 7 130 185

Upanyāsa 7 130

Varnasamhāra

33436 Garbha Abhutaharana 3 82

Marga 3 92,94-96

4 19-25

Rūpa 3 98-99

Udāharana 6 37-38

Krama 3 53-54

Samgraha226 6 64

Anumāna 3 99

Prarthana227 3 284

Akşipta278 3 246

Totaka 3 261

Adhibala 2 43 & 46

Udvēga 3 159

Vidrava229 3 262

G V. Knshna Rao

3657636 Vimarsa Apavāda 3 106

Samphēta 6 19-20

Vidrava 5 217 Sakti 7 236

Vyavasāya 6 37

Prasañga 3 140

Dyuti 6 40

Nisēdha230 6 53

Virodhana

Ādāna

Chadana

Prarocana 5 The episode of Sarasvati &

186 Caturmukha

Nirvahana Sandhi

Vibodha 8 150

Grathana 8 152

Nirņaya 8 194-195 Paribhāsaņa Dhrti

Prasāda Ananda 8 104 Sama

Upaguhana 8 The episode of Lakshmi Nārayana Samvāda and 206 Bhasana Pūruavakya321 8 268

Kavyasamhara Prasastr32

Stuches m Kalapurnodayam

A closer observation of the above table shows that some limbs are wanting while some of the introduced find place in some other part or sandhi than in the specified. This aspect in no way violates the principle of the alamkårikas because Bharata in his Nātya Sastra says :- "Having rasās and bhavas in view, poets who are experts in their art should introduce these limbs into appropnate sandhis." Now, how many of the topics prescribed by the alamkarikas are introduced into this poem? On referring to the table given below, it will be evident that none of the objects specified by them for description is missed. Another peculiarity with the poet is that he does not bring in all these for their own sake. Generally speaking, every student of the Kalapurnodayam will find that hey are really wanted by the situation. That is why these descrip- tions are cnsp and pointed and enhance the beauty of the story to a great extent. As it has already exceeded the limit, the pro- 187 found depths the poet thouches in his descriptions cannot but be passed over.

Name of the Canto in which it Serial Number of the

object. is introduced. verses describing .*

Sandhyas 8 7 - 10; 29 - 30

The sun 8 35

The moon 6 269 8 14 - 18; 27

Night 6 122

8 23 - 25

The Dusk 8 11 - 13

Darkness 8 11

Dawn 8 35

• The serial numbers of the verses refer to those in the text edited by Mr. K. Subbaiah Sastry. G V. Knshna Rao

56547136 Midday 5 187

Hunting 6 236 (incidentally referred)

Mountain 5 185 - 190

Seasons 4 87- 89

7 176 - 191

141 - 147

Parks 17 - 18

6 224

The sea 4 200 - 205

6 110 - 112

198 - 201 137 Amorous dallances 3 180 - 182; 42

188 7 154 - 175

Pangs of love or 6 213 - 223; 247 - 275

Vipralambha 9 - 10

Sage 3 12 - 13

Heaven 2 174 - 183 mentioned as

the scence of action.

The world of 5 Only mentioned as

Brahma the scene of action.

214 - 232 81256368 The world of Visnu 8

107 - 128

City 138 - 155

108 - 112

Yama 172 incidentally referred.

276

Battles and war 17 - 24

8 48 - 135

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

87758 March of the army 8 31 -49

Marriage 7 58 -88

Diplomacy 7 244 - 277

Burth of Princes 5 134-135

8 260

Sports in water 6 227 - 234

Drinking bouts 1 126 - 135

Gamblıng 6 118 - 124

Coming to charactersation, the hero of the Mahakāvya,as poited out in the second section of the first chapter must be a dhirôdatta. The word dhirôdatta is a technical term which means a person having certain characteristics. According to the ālankānkas dhurodätta is a person who does not indulge in self- laudation. He is neither depressed by adverse conditions nor elated by success, His prowess and steadfastness are as great as his 189

clamness.No amount of trouble and suffering can sever him from his intent and purpose. His temperament is profound and his pnde always latent 233 How far these qualities are to be seen in the hero of the Kalapūrnodayam can be easily grasped if one only reflects once again over what is said in commection with the characterisation of Manıkandhara.Here,the hero is a daksinanāyaka because he equally loves abhınavakaumudi and Madhuralālasa.

THE RASAS IN THE POEM

The principal rasa in the Kalāpumodayam,as it should have been evident, is smgära. It is mainly sustained and strengthened by adbhuta which also pervades the poem though in a lesser de- gree. This does not mean that other rasas are altogether absent. All the rest are there, but they do not dominate. They are brought in only as parts contributing to the manfestation of the principal rasa. This statement will become all the clearer whem illustrated from the poem itself. G V Knshna Rao

The episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha, the passion of Rambha and Nalakubara for each other, the conjugal love of Sugatr and Salina, the married love of Mdhuralālasa and Kaläpüma, the svayamvara husband, the amorous activities of the celestial couple and dalliance of Maya Rambha with Maya Nalakubara-all these manifest sambhoga śmgara. Even by the laity it can be clearly understood that these represent various types of love-love of different shades and colours, of different de- grees and values. Nätyasastra, the fountainhead of the Alankarıka School,also distinguishes one from the other,but its method 1s quite defferent from the layman's approach. Ālankārika tradiuon mentions it to be of three kinds-dharma-smgara, artha-srngara and käma-Srgara "When one in discharging the duty arrays his much desired well-being accomplished in many ways and in this connection means like observing vows,austerities and penance 190 are adopted, it is to be known as dharama-śrgära. Love in which attainment of material gain occurs in various ways is called artha smgara, or it may be that love in which the enjoyment of pleas- ure with women is for the purpose of some material gain. Kama- smgara includes the seduction of a maiden and it causes secret or excited intercourses with a woman.234 Judged by this criterion,the love between Sarasvati and Caturmukha, between Rambha and Nalakubara, between the di- vine couple, between sugatri and Salina and between Madhuralalasa and Kalapurna represents dharama-srngāra. The love between Rambha and Manikandhara and between Abhınavakaumudi and Kalapurna is illustrative of artha-srngara because both the heroines have gained some other object. While Ramnbha has spoiled the penance of Manıkandhara, Abhınavakaumudi has had Salyasura killed by the gandharva and then has marned the hero in pursuance of her vow. The love between Maya Rambha and Maya Nalakubara comes under the last category. This cannot be srngarabhasa because both Manikandhara and Kalabhasını have been loving each other from Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

the beginning. Since their union is not in conformity with dharma and since they gamn no other material object,it cannot but be kama-śrgara. There is another kind of srgara depicted in the poem. Sugatri's appeal to her husband in the bed-chamber,her separation from her husband and Yajnasarman parting from his wives come under this division,1,e., upralambha-srngara When the lovers are separated from each other by some cause or other once agin,it is said to be vipralambha. When the hope is not there,it is simply karuna according to the alankarikas. Because Salina and Sugatri on the one hand,Yajnasarman and his wives on the other,have been assured of ther meeting by Sarasvati's boon in the fromer case and Somasarma's prediction in the latter,both come under vipralamnha-srrigāra The love of Kalabhāșiņi and Manikandhara Should come under this category if the foregoing definition is valid. Do not they chensh the hope of becoming lov- ers once agin and getting united,if not in their present birth, at 19 least in thier next birth?Is it not blessed by Brahma and once again assured by Mrgendravahana and wished for by Sumukhäsatti? In spite of all these considerations,it does not come within the scope of vipralambha the reason being the death of both the lovers. Get one of them to survive, and you will have vipralambha. Of course it will be slightly qualified resulting in karuna-vipralambha. There is one more variety of love which is to be seen in the cases of Manistambha who has exchanged his sex with his wife and Satvadatman, Salyasura and Abhinavakaumudi, and Manistambha and Kalabhasin. Yati's passion for the figure of a woman carved in stone is also to be included in the above list. The peculiarity in these cases excluding the last is this: it is one- sided love and thus not reciprocated. In the last instance,a man who has to maintain celibacy loses his self-contorl and embraces not a woman in flesh and blood,but a figure in stone. Hence all these are instances of srgarabhasa .-- 5

G. V. Knshna Rao

Coming to the next predominant rasa, the nature of the story of Kalapurna as mentioned by Narada, Manistambha's rev- elation of the past events to Kalabhäsini, the old woman Sumukhasattı once again becoming young, detection of the fraud played by Maya Rambha and Maya Nalakubara, the reconcilia- tion of Sumukhasatti and Manistambha, the baby Madhuralalasa narrating the past histories of Kalapūrna, Svabhava and Alaghuvrata, Salyasura's death in spite of his boon the miracu- lous escape of Yajnasarman's wives, the four Agamas gaining access to Madasaya, Satvadätman being recongnised as the ma- ternal uncle of Madhuralälasa-all these are instances of adbhuta. Karuna finds its manifestaition in the curses inflicted on Kalabhäsini and manikandhara and in the confession and final death of the former. Vira according to our alankarıkas is genrally236 of four kinds-daya-vira, dana-vira, dharma-vira and Yuddha-utra.237 192 The expedition of conquest undertaken by Kalapūrņa has pro- vided ample scope for the expression of Yuddha-uira, whereas manikandhara's fight with Salyasura illustrates dharma-utra Daya-vira and dana-vira are manifested in due order by Sumukhasatti's death in her efforts to save the life of Kalabhasıni and by the perseverance of annadana even in his poverty by Yajnasarman. The quarrel between Rambha and the impostress and the prattle of the purohit of Kalapūrna are instances of hasya. Here an objection may be taken to the inclusion of the former as an instance of häsya on the ground that there is no presentation of unseemly or ridiculous words,actions etc.238 This cannot be maintained because it actually contradicts the real experience of the reader. Even the sastra is not against it if one only remem- bers what Bharata says regarding hasya rasa. These are his ac- tual words :- "Now hasya has for its sthayin hasa. It is manifested by the vibhavas such as unseemly dress, ornament, impudence, greediness, quarrel, defective limb, use of irrelevant words, men- tioning of different faults and similar other things. By the anubhavas such as the throbbing of the lips, the nose and the Studies in Kalapurnodayam

cheek, opening the eyes wide or controlling them, perspiration, colour of the face and taking hold of the sides it should be repre- sented on the stage. The vyabhicanbhavas in it are indolence, dissimulation, drowsiness, sleep, dreaming, insomnia, envy and the like239.Against this,it may be argued that, though some of the vibhavas, anubhavas and vyabhicans are to be found in the con- flict between Rambha and Maya Rambha and'Maya. Nalakubara, the motive force behind it is not nasya and hence it is not and cannot be an instance of hasya It is true that both the parties have fought in all senousness,but yet the quarrel is so repre- sented that one only laughs without identifying oneself with ei- ther of the characters. It is a case of atmagatahasya If this is so, how is one to account for this peculiarity? All rasas, when delib- erately and explicity mimicked, become hasya. This has been said by Bharata himself,and this is exactly what is meant when the author of the Rasarnavasudhākara says :- 193

240

While bibhatsa is manifested by the descrpition of the battlefield strewn with the dead bodies of soldiers,horses and elephants, bhayanaka is depicted through the activities performed in ac- cordance with the rites mentioned in the inscrption in the tem- ple of Mrgendravahana Kalapurna's expedition of conquest has provided the background for full manifestion of raudra. The in- struction of Narada to Manikandhara, the latter's pilgrimage and Laksmı-Nārayana-Samvāda are clear instances of sānta. Thus there are all the rasas in the Kalapurņdayam and the poet has achieved more than what he promised in his intro- duction.241 To summarise the theme of the Kalapurnodaym is not only onginal, but also contains the five sandhis and their limbs.

G V Knshna Rao

The hero is a dhirodatta and srngara pervades the poem attended upon by all the other rasas. The poet seems to have followed the injunction of Säradatanaya to the letter.242 In a word,it is a Mahakavya in which every quality mentioned in the following definition given by Bhoja in his Smngāraprakasa is present :-

194

Studies in Kalapurnodauam

CHAPTER IX ON THE MEANING OF THE POEM

The foregoing survey should have abundantly made clear the subtleties, the depths and above all the greatness of the Kalāpurnodayam. But,if they were the only things to be revealed and apprciated, this essay would have never been written. What is the driving force or the central theme of the essay? As it has been pointed out on many an occasion, the central idea or the theme of the Kaläpürnodayam is the complete emergence of art. That is to say the complete process by which a work of art con- ceived by the poet in accordance which the laws of beauty finds outward artistc expression. That is the keynote of this thesis, that isthe uniqueness of the poem.Had the poet not been mspired by this single idea,the Kalapurnodayam might not have come into existence at all. The intricacies of the story, the highly com- 19 plicated nature of the various episodes, the psychological depths manifested through the mental workings of the varous charac- ters, the profound unity of an organic nature-all these are the results or by-products of this one single idea. To overlook this idea is to overlook beauty itself. Not only that;the poet in the reader roused by certain marvellously beautiful passages in the poem will be irritated by the apparent lack of unity and he will severely attack the poet Surana as Dr.Reddy has done. The other possible alternative is to develop a cold indifference. These remarks are likely to appear to be selfcontradictory in view of the statement that the word, the pigment, the medium, the content taken in itself and by itself has nothing to do with Beauty. A poet or any artist in general has to work in some medium,has to take some theme or other to produce a work of art. Neither the medium nor the content can by itself make a work beautiful. When that is accepted, how can anybody say that simply because the poet has taken the theory of the complete emergence of art as his theme, the poem has become unique? G V Knshna Rao

Every poet or artist must have some content or other; one may. take social problems, another political problems, another those of religion and a fourth man those of philosophy.If one begins to evaluate beauty in terms of themes, there can neither be univer- sality nor objective cntenion by which one can measure and judge. Moreeover, a thing which cannot be expressed quantitatively can- not be an object of science. There is no difference of opinion on this point, but what is meant by the above statement is this. The beauty, the organic unity,the depths of experience and the full significance of the poem cannot be perceived if the content is not taken into account.For a proper perspective and a correct understanding,the idea of the complete emergence of art is necessary. This idea only reveals the unque nature of the Kalapurnodaym. Is this contra- dictorv to what has been constantly harped upon?

196 If what is said above is agreed to,one has to face the last question which is more important than any orhter thing discussed so far. How can it be said that the guiding idea or the creative force of the Kalapurnodayam is the idea of the complete emer- gence of art? Is it not a notion of one's own creation? It it really belongs to the poet,and if he wants his reader to approach hs work from that angle,why have not the critics seen it so far and not adjusted themselves accordingly? Does not this fact show that the poet, if he had really this idea in creating his work,has miserbly failed in his attempt? Instead of appreciating the work itself,is not the author of such a theory betraying his own predi- lection and there by his ignorance? If the main thesis is borne out by the poem,one need not bother about the prevaling non-cognition of this significance. Therefore,it is of primary importance to show that the subject- matter or content of the Kalapurnodayam is the complete emer- gence of art. This point is not a pure creation or concoction but by nine solid facts, all internal not external and hence doubtful or polemical. They are firstly, the highly complicated nature of the poem, secondly, references to nature of poetry and phalasruti; Studies m Kalapurnodayam

thirdly, Manikandhara's antecedents and subsequent activities; fourthly, the names of Manistambha and Sumukhasattı, their native conunty and their family deity; fifthly, the episode of Sarsvatı and Caturmukha; sixthly, the names of Kalāpūrna, Abhınavakaumudi, Madhuralālasa, Suprasāda and Sarasa; seventhly, introduction of philosophy; eighthly, the poet's ardent hope of getting publicity for his poem through the coperation of sastravyasanātidhanyas and finally, the very title of the poem. Unless explained and illustrated, all these points are sure to be unintelligible.Let these facts be discussed point by point so that one may arnve at the correct perspective. What is meant by the highly complicated nature of the poem is this :- The poem con- tains so many episodes that, for any casual reader, it is very difficult to remember them a few days after their first reading. As a matter of fact,even at the time of first reading;some may find it difficult to follow the story without often referring to the preced- ing events. Why should the poet make it so compplicated as to 197

tax the memory of the readers?Had he the mind,he could have made it simple and given a number of beautiful poems. Nothing could have prevented him from making each one of the stores of Kalabhāsını, Sugātri, Alaghuvrata, Salyāsura, Sugraha, 'the comedyof errors', Kalapurna and Nārada self-sufficient. The changes required for this transmutation are not at all insurmount- able to a poet of Sürana's calibre. Moreover,he perfectly knows that even a single sentence giving aesthetic experience or rasais a poem. This knowledge of alankära sästra is evident when one of his characters describes the poetic qualites :-

G V. Knshna Rao

198

When he describes the character Sucimukhi in the Prabhävatipradyumnam, he is indirectly telling us about himself in the following verses :-

00

Stuces ın Kalapurnodayam

So the poet cannot be considered to be ignorant of such a possi- bility. At this juncture one my suggest by way of objection that the Mahakavya was the order of the day. The poet, being a child of his age, was tempted to write a Mahakavya. If he had split these stones as above, there would not have been any scope for the Mahakavya. Hence, the point brounght into focus is clearly a case of reading one's own thoughts into the poem. This sort of argument does not stand the test of reason, because, if the po- 199 ets's sole object was only to write a Mahākāvya, that object could have been as well served by Kalapurna's love and conquest. That alone would have provided him with ample material for the Mahaprabandha. Strictly speaking, the rest of the episodes are not demanded by this literary form. Ergo the question is valid, and the answer proposed here seems to be the only way out. Thus the poet through the poem as it stands,is hurling world afterworld upon the baffled reader. To say that all this is done with no purpose in view is too much to be believed in the case of Sürana. Besides, all the nine rasas with all their vaneties, as shown in the previous section, are brought in. What has deter- mined or necessitated such a manifestation? It cannot be said that the Mahakavya wants all rasas and their vaneties to be manifested because it is sufficient if the prncipal rasa s srňgăra or utra or santa attended upon by some or all the rasas Now here is it mentioned that all the rasas and their various types should be suggested, or that a Mahakavya would become all the greater and more beautiful by such a suggestion. Alamkārikās from Dandin to Visvanatha have stressed more on the importance of G V Knslmnaa Rao

quality then on quanitity. Pingali Surana is not such a novice as to be ignorant of it. When he does it in spite of their explicit ruling, it means that he must have a difinite purpose. And what is that purpose if if is not to portray or depict the complete emer- gence of Art? Moreover,there is another thing to be taken into considera- tion. To make the theme unnecessarily involved and complicated is a senous fault which has been universally condemned by the alamkarikas. As a matter of fact,the poet is very much aware of it when he says :-

If this is denied,one has to accuse the poet along with Dr.C.R.Reddy that he has become a victim to his ambitious scheme and spoiled the poem. On the other hand, if the stand advocated here is accepted, this so-called fault will become a merit of the highest order because it will be suggesting directly the highly 200 complcated nature of the emergence of Art which requires con- stant reading and careful recapitulation. Now the choice is be- tween the two alternatives: either the poet has no other purpose than to wrıte a Mahakavya and failed in so far as he has made it highly complicated and thus kept it far from the easy grasp of the reader; or the object of the poet is to treat the complete emer- gence of Art, and the highly complicated nature of this conception is beautifully suggested by the complicated nature of the theme. To be more simple, is one to see ugliness in the poem and con- demn it or to see immense beauty and thus take aesthetic pleas- ure in it? The above thesis has another support in the repeated refer- ence to the nature of poetry and phalasrut in the body of the poem. At the request of Narada, Kalabhāsini repeats the dandaka written by Manikandhara and remarks :-

Stuches in Kalapurnodayam

201

The only purpose that can be served by this is the estab- hshment of the unconscious love of Kalabhasini for Manikandhara. It may be pointed out here as Dr.Reddy does, that Surana takes an opportunity to review his poetry and its merits. This is extra- neous to the poem in so far as it does not serve any other internal necessity than the above. The greatness of any poet is not re- vealed by what he boasts of, but by what he actually achieves through his direct expression the poem. So the secound point does not carry any value except suggesting Surana's conception of poetry. One has,therefore,to consider the first point only. Now the question is this :- Is there no other method of suggesting and establishing the unconscious love between Kalabhasin and Mamkandhara than praising the latter's poetic qualites? A nega- tive answer will be highly inconceivable. This can as well be done by making her describe some other qualites of his. Here this ars G. V. Knsnna Rao

gument may be interrupted by a counter suggestion that Kalabhasini, belonging to the courtezan class and being well accomplished in the fine arts,has responded to the poetic qualites of Manikandhara and has thus revealed her high culture. To this the answer is rather simple :- Is the class of courtezans insensi- tive to,other values, and high culture confined only to apprecia- ton of poetry? This objection, therefore,cannot be taken seriously. Now, to continue the exposition,why does the poet select this particular way of makıng Kalabhasin describe the nature of poetry when there are other ways open to him? This selection cannot be due to mere chance or accident because poetic faculty is utilised for securing service in the court of Madasaya for the four Agamas. This also could have been effected by other means. Moreover,there is one interesting point to be noted in this context. Śrotryās and old mimāmsakās, as definitely told by our alamkankas, are quite insensitive to poetry or any fine art.1 Yet, 202 Surana,in his enthusiasm to present his idea of the complete emergence of art in concrete shape, overlooks this general charactensitic of srotriyas and bestows on the purohits this poetic faculty. For what purpose is this done if it is not for depicting the complete emergence of art? How this actually serves the idea of the poet will be discussed later on but it is sufficient for the present if it is conceeded that this utilisation of the poetic way is not arbitrary or accidental. This thesis is again reinforced by two other major factors, one music and the other sculpture. That these two also belong to the realm of fine arts requires no elucidation and comment. The only quesiton is whether the role given to music in this poem can be assigned to some other thing so that music may be got rid of altogether? Of course this is not an impossible task provided one is prepared to accept some radical changes in the story. In that case,one will have to delete the entire conflict between Narada and Tumburu and a substantial cause has to be invented for the former's regular visits to Krsna over a sufficiently long time. As a consequence of this,Manistambha has to be deprived of his Studes in Kalapurnodayam

dürasravanasaktı If however it is felt that these changes are too many and too drastic to be accepted, and that they spoil the very organic nature of the poem, one may in all fairness concede that point. But this concession does not in any way preclude one from saying that the idea read into the poem enhances the beauty and joy of music and bestows greater value on it. The same thing cannnot be said about the mntroduction of sculpture when the Yati embraces the beautiful woman in stone. The only purpose it serves is to inflict the curse on Sugraha. This can readily be brought about by so many other methods followed in the puranas The fact that it it can be dispensed with once again underlines the present theory. The phalasrut which forms an intergral part of the story is also favourable to it. Through this the poet is clearly revealing the social function of Art. It plainly says that it bestows on the people. children, grand-children,great- grand-children, so on and so forth, and also long life, increase of wealth, prosperity and happines. If one excludes the first item" 203

regarding the progeny, every other function is defintely sanc- tioned by Bharata also when he says :-

,

Hence, if the present interpretation is conceded, this phalasruti gains all the more in significance. The third important factor in support of this theory is the character of Manikandhara. He is represented as having acquired poetic faculty by the grace of Mrgendravahana, and gone to Kash- mir with the avowed purpose of getting it tested by those critics G V Knshna Rao

there. It is also mentioned that he is presented with the manihara by krsna himself. To what extent are these factors wanted by the internal necessity of the story? Suppose Surana has not depicted Manikandhara as a poet. In what way does the story suffer? There are only four things to be considered in this context. Firstly, the nte prescribed by the edict in the temple of Mrgendravahana for acquiring poetic fac- ulty should be deleted. One will probably concede that this omis- sion will not be detrimental to the beauty of the poem. Secondly, Kalahbhäsint has to find some other quality than this poetic faculty in Manikandhara to express her unconscious love for him. This is neither very difficult not altogether undesirable as it has been already pointed out. Thirdly, comes the manihara. It is practically impossible to dispense with it in toto if the story is wanted. Without it,the theme will completely break down at the

204 end of the fourth canto. Suppose the manihara lost by Sugraha is "represented as having been kept in the temple of the goddess and later on flung into the court of Kalapurna along with Alaghuvrata. This change also does not considerably affect the story or its beauty. Fourthly,Manikandhara's visit to Kashmir and Laksmi- Nārāyana-Samvāda,are to be accounted for in a somewhat differ- ent way which is not altogether difficult.The hero can be said to have visited that country in that context of his pilgrimage to holy places while the authorshıp of is LakmiNarayana-Samvada can be attributed to Narada without the least incongruity. But all the same,that the poet does not follow this method clearly shows that he has his definite purpose of portraying the complete emer- gence of Art in veiw. Conceding this,how does the poem as it stands help him to present this idea? Why,a great deal. The mode of Manikandhra's acquring the poietic gift clearly suggests that for one to become a poet divine grace is essential, and that no amount of hard culti- vation without that grace will make him a poet. Krsna's presen- tation of the manhara to the hero makes it clear beyond doubt that poetry,or as a matter of fact any creative art,should be in- Studes in Kalapurnodayam

.variably associated with comprehensive knowledge of the past,of the present and of the future, The significance of Manikandhara's visıt to Kashmir and his poem dealing with Laksmi-Narayana- Samväda will be explained later. The fourth factor which upholds the present view is the very names of Sumukhasattı,Manistambha, their native county and their family deity. The first two names as pointed out in the section on nama vakrata, are internally determind by Sarasvatı- Caturmukha-Krıda Yet the selection of these names has also been influenced by the outlook in question. Mani does not mean a simple jewel or ratna. Only that kind of jewel having supernatu- ral power is called a man. This intepretation is not an invention or an innovation. Ancient poets and scholars have explicitely men- tioned it. Consequently Manstamnbha verbally means a jew- elled pillar having supernatural or peculiar powers. The word Sumukhäsatti, when literally understood means eager proxim- ity. With these two explanations in the backgorund, it is to be 205 recollected that Kalāpurna is born to this particular couple. Does not this event suggest someting of aesthetics? Leaving the mat- ter here one may turn to what Bharata has to say on the nature of Drama :-

G V Knshna Rao

These lines clearly show that Drama-as a matter of fact Fine Art in general-is the result of a close study and imitation of the world and its ways.254 By depicting Kalâpurna as the offspring of Manstambha and Sumukhasattı,Surana is suggesting the same with this modification. Simple imitation will not do. Of course a close study of the world and its ways is necessary. Along with it a Mind255 or Atman or Soul having supernatual or divine power is all the more essential. When such a Mind comes into closer con- tact and union with the world and its ways, Kalapurna or a full- fledged work of Art results. The next point,namely, the importance of Kasmir,has been to some extent discussed. When the significance of the background which is provided for vanous characters and episodes in the Kalāpurnodayam is examined, the most important thing in this context is this. Käshmir is the country which has produced al-

206 most all the greatest alamkārikas.25 Bhamaha, Udbhata, Bhattanayaka, Bhattlollata, Sri Sankuka, Bhattataura, Anandavardhana, Rudrata, Mukula, Indurāja, Abhinavagupta, Ksemendra, Mahimabhatta, Ruyyaka, Mammata-all these illus- trious stars in the firmament of alamkara-sastra belong to Käsh- mir. So it is no wonder if one says that it is the very home of literary criticısm. That is why Manikandhara is spoken of as hav- ing visited that country to get his poetic feculty tested. It is also mentioned that Käshmir at that time was plunged in grief due to the tragic end of Sugatn and Salina who are no other than Sumukhasatt and Manistambha.257 Do not these events suggest something? If they do, that is well and good, and if they do not, the next point may be taken up for consideration. The other point in support of this theory is the specific mention of Särada-pitha and Sarasvati as the diocese and as the family deity of Sugatri and Salina. Why sould Sarada-Pitha and Sarasvati be specifically mentioned /f the poet has not this Particulaar idea in View ? Some may promptly contradict this argument by drawing attention to the following words of Brahma to Sarasvati :-

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

This again may raise the question, why sould the episode of Krida be attributed to Caturmukha and Sarasvatı and n;ot to some other god or goddess? In criticism of this question it may be asked: why should the poet select only the idea of concrete emergence of Art and not some other idea? The final answer is that all the events, episodes and characters are ultimately con- nected with this idea only and that these cannot be explained from any other point of view. In other words this particular idea is the ultimate source from which all the others emerge and gain significance. If doubt still persists, attention may be paid to an- 207 other episode. It should have been already quite obvious that without Sarasvatı-Caturmukha-Krıda there is no Kalapurnodayam. Now the question is, why should the poet select only Sarasvati and Caturmukha as the heroine and the hero of this episode ? With- out the least change, the same events could have been as well connected with either Parvathi and Isvara, or Laksmi and Narāyna Ths Particular selection, in the light of the foregoing comment and explanation, cannot be definitely attributed to mere chance and accident it must be due to some definite purpose of which the poet is abundantly conscious and to which he gives a very high value when he says :-

Now What is that purpose if it is not giving expression to the idea of the complete emergence of Art ? Demial of this planly implies denial of the depth and significance of the poem, and denial to G V Knshna Rao

oneself the righty to enjoy beauty. How the very; names of Sarasvathi and Caturmukha serve the idea when it is expressed need not be elaborated here because the reader for himself can understand it very easily. The sixth factor in support of this view is the names of Kalāpūrna, Abhınavakaumudi, Madhuralālasa, Suprasāda and Sarasa in addition to the hero's conquest. All the names men- tioned here have been shown in a previous chapter to have been largly determined by the events in the episode of Sarasvat and Caturmukha. In spite of it, the name of Kalāpurna can be re- placed by any one of the synonymous names in Sansknt for the moon. One may protest in this connection that words like Sasanka, Sasin, dosakara and the like do not fit into the context because they invanably have the suggestion of some fault or other. He may point out that words like Sitamsu, and Purnacandra are also

208 barred from being incorporated because if they are used the poet will have to name his poem as Sitamsudaya or Purnacandrodaya which necessanly suggest names of Âyurvedic medicines. Of these two arguments, the first is really valid, and hence such words as have the suggestivity of some fault are strictly to be avoided. The second argument is not as valid as the first because the reference to Aurvedic medicines can be easily avoided if the word abhyudaya is used insted of udaya. Therefore, the name Pūrna is inot abso- lutely necessary if the poet has not the idea of complete emer- gence of Art in his mind. Regarding the last two names, Suprasada and Sarasa, they have no direct bearing whatever on the episode of sarasvati and caturmukha. And yet the former is said to be begotten by Kalapurna through his first wife, Abhinavakaumudi, and the lat- ter through his second wife, Madhuralalasa. Firstly, why should the poet select these two names for the sons, and secondly, why should he assign the first name to the son of Abhınavakaumudi and the second to that of Madhuralalasa ? Is there any necessity to point out that, when one discusses the nature of a Poetic com- position and art, navyata, madhurya, prasâda, sarasatva are in- Studies in Kalapurnodauam

_variably referred to ? In the light of these explanations does not the conquest of Kalāpurna appear to be more significant? Leav- ing the sahrdayas to draw their own concllusions, another factor may be taken up. It is well known that references to yoga and to its theory and practice abound in the Kalapurnodayam to an extent that causes wonder and surprise. Besides, there are not only crystal- clear references to Visistâdvaita but also vehement arguments in support of it. There are even condemnations of other schopdls of philosophy. If there is any doubt, the following passages may be noted :-

20g

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210

30

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As a matter of fact the whole episode of Laksmı-Narayana-samvada overflows with the philosophy of Visistadvaita. While in the former verses the cause and the theory of Visıstadvaita is advocated and explained, in the last verse strong language is used against other schools of philosophy asserting that Vaikuntha can never be attained by their followers. Strctly speaking, are these things required by the poem proper,and if not, why has the poet brought them n ? Dr.C.R. Reddy has chastised the poet for brıngıng ın Lakshmi-Narayana-Samvada,260 the exposition of yoga261 and the elaborate description of Manıkandhara's Pilgrimage.262 Another cntic says that these things 211 are included only to secure the favour of Nandyala Krsnabhūpati, a staunch Vaisnavite and patron of the poet, when he says :-

These sentences clearly appear to reveal more his own sen- timents than anything else. It is felt, therefore, that these philosophical digressions are not occasioned by the internal neccessity. What can be said in this context is, that this very fact strongly supports this thesis. If the poet has not the idea of portraying the complete emergence of Art, these excursions into philosophical realms are unnecessary and superfluous. Which is to be preferred-this view, or the other view which maintains that all the philosophical references are superfluous ? It may be asked in this context, what has philoso- phy to do with the idea of the complete emergence of Art or the G V Knshna Rao

value of Art in life ? All problems, social, political, ethical and aesthetic, and all human values of science, art and morality in their ultimate analysis depend on epistemology. And epistemol- ogy is the very basis of philosophy. Without it there can be no philosophy except dogma and blind faith. How can one explain away the problems of beauty when one is not able to know the nature of the object he perceives, and the nature of the knowl- edge he experiences ? Even if one tries to propound his theory of art without taking them into considertion, as many modern liter- ary cntics are doing, such a theroy cannot be sound and ra- tional. And a theory without the support of reason is in no way better than a dream, or a dogma, or a fleeting thought of fancy.264 The eighth factor in support of this theory is the ardent hope of the poet expressed when he says :-

212

The above verse clearely says that, for the eternal publicity and appreciation of his poem in each and every country the poet de- pends on two things, one, the grace of Tändava Krisna, and the other, the sympathy of those many people who are blessed or become nch by their assiduous devotion to the sacred Sastra or science. In the present context one concerned with the reference to the sacred Sästra. To which sacred Sastra does the poet refer, to the Vedanta Sästra, or to the Alamkara Sastra ? Because the poet has prefixed the adjective sacred to Sastra. it may be ar- gued, he means only the Vedanta Sastra and nothing else. But this interpretation is unconvincing because there is no reason why ardent devotees of Vendanta sastra should take so much interest in or show regard for the poem whichd does not throw any newer light or explain things more clearly than those books already in the field.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

_If, on the other hand, it is argued that because the poem deals with Vishnu-bhakti and the sacred places for the Vaisnavites, devotees of Vedanta should sympathise with him, then the poet would have done better to hope for the sympathy of the devotees of Vishnu than for that of the former. If this argument is valid and true, the word Sastra here must refer to the Alamkara Sastra. This evidently supports the thesis that the central idea of the Kalâpurnôdayam is the complete emergence of Art. Because the poem has for its theme the complete emergence of Art, the poet is more than justified in hoping for the sympathy of those who are assiduously devoted to Alamkāra Sastra. Thus, this point also is in support of this theory. At the top of all these considerations comes in the very title of the poem which gives the highest support to this interpreta- tion. Let the compound word, Kalāpūrnodayam, be referred to any sanskrt Pundit who has never heard of, or read the poem, or its translation, or adaptation, or an essay on it, for its meaning. He will immediately give two meanings, firstly, the nse of the moon, and secondly, the complete emergence of Art. Ifhe has got some touch with the Alamkära Sastra he will immediately with- draw the first because he cannot conceive of anybody using a round-about expression to note the simple moon-rise. so he is sure to yield the palm to the second meaning. Hence the central idea of the Kaläpürnodayam is the complete emergence of Art. Turning to the other side, not even a single argument to throw doubt on this theory is to be found. The only other way to refute this theory, then, is to show the utter impossinbility of tracing such of theory in the poem. That cannot be done either because that theory is not only going to be traced, but also going to be given a clear exposition in the following sections. Therefore, may one be permitted for the present at least to quote this Karika of the Vakroktikara 2

G V. Knshna Rao

CHAPTER X SŪRANĀ'S PHILOSOPHY

Any theory of Art, if it is to be sound and differentiated from mere opinion, must have its roots in epistemolgy. To know Surana's theory of Art and its emergence, therefore,requires a careful study of hs philosophy. It has been observed in the previ- ous chapter that the poet was a staunch Visitadvitin as he manı- fests himself in the Kaläpurnodayam. Consequently it is neces- sary to know the epistemology, cosmology, ethics and the nature of Release or Moksa as advocated by Visistādvaita and then aes- thetics. Before these things are taken up for study, one has to examine a question raised by a cntic.266 He says and strongly holds that Surana was not a Visistadavaitin as he pretended to

.214 be in the Kalapurnodaym, that he was an Advaitin through and through and that he had masqueraded as one, only to please his patron, Nandyala Krsnabhûpati. As a further explanation,he points out that with the ancestors of the poet devotion to the Sun and Siva and practice of yôga were prevalent. Though the poet was an Advaitin, the critic argues, he was more devoted to Sıva and that was why desciptions pertaining to Siva and that was in his works, the Raghavapandaviyam,the Kalāpurnodayam and Prabhävatipradyumnam. He draws attention also to the fact that vertical caste-mark is even now predominat among the members of Pingalı family and accounts for it as being the result of the poet's advocacy of Vaisnavısm n the Kalapūrnodayam, Another reason which he brings forwards in support of his theory is that the veritical caste-mark is not a sure sign of Visitadvaita be- cause there are a good many Advaitins who are in the habit of using it. From these remarks two things clearly emerge,firstly,that Surana was an Advaitin, and secondly, his advocacy of Visistadvita was only a mask. In support of the first, the critic points firstly to the description pertaining to Siva in his works,and secondly,to Studies in Kalapumnodayam

Advaitins putting on vertical caste mark. The two reasons put forth by the critic are really surprising. Nobody who has studied the Pandurangamahatmyam can say that its author was not a Visistādvaitin simply because descriptions pertaining to siva and Parvati are found in that work. Nor is the second reason less unfortunate than the first because its deduction is like this :- Some cows are black;this is a cow and therefore this is black. And this 1s logic! Even the argument so far pursued is only negative,and one has yet to prove the positive aspect,whether he is an Advaitin or a Visistādvaitin or the follower of some other school of philoso- phy. The more dependable guides than histoncal facts and cir- cumstantial evidences in this respect are the very passages which bear direct or indirect refernces to metaphysics and epistemology in his works,and these are not lacking. Suppose one work, con- tains passages referring to one shcool of metaphysics whereas another work gives evidence of interest in another school-in that case one has to conclude that there is a change, real or assumed 215

in the poet's outlook. Generally speaking the change is genuine because no one play with his cherished values of human life un- less he is dilettante or a crook: Let the same method be applied to Surna's works so as to arnve at the school of philosophy which he favours. In the Raghavapandaviyam,the introduction contains the following passages which bear direct references to the poet's phi- losophy in general :- "May Brahman who is known by the name Virupaksa, who wears the folwer that is bom along with the Goddess Laksmi,and that is full of sweet nector,who is well-known to have his abode in Pampahēmakuta and who abides in the heart of Venkatādn of Akuviti Timmaprabhu protect the worlds."267

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Does any one of the above verses contain specific reference to the epistemolgy and the nature of Isvara,Jiva and Moks pecu- lar to Advaita? Moreeover,as there is nothing contray to the prin- ciples of Visistadvaita,the poet, by the evidence of these verses cannot be called either an Advaitin or Visistadvaitin. Now the text of the poem proper may be examined to see what it says on this aspect. The first canto of the Raghvapandaviyam contains these verses which have some bearing on Philosophy:

217

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These verses also fall in line with the above,i.e.,these do mot refer exclusively to the metaphysics of Advaita or Visistadvaita. Either way these can be interpreted. The second canto contains only two verses which have philosophical implications and they are :-

These two also do not throw any positive light on the prob- 218 lem. The word budhnavat, if one is to acept Pedaramayya's interpretation,means growing,and knowledge according to Advaita cannot be said to grow or decrease. Hence this point is more favourable to Visistdvaita which attributes increase and decrease to knowledge. Anyhow,this connot be said to be a clearer indica- tion of the poet's leanings towards Visistadvaita. There are five verses which have some metaphysical implications. and these are to be gone through to see whether they throw any light on this question. They are as follows :-

1கவ ஜம் ஜாக் கைவலிலகி திகவல் ஃஸ்லை 5

கானகஸ்க்ஸ் கஸ் நள்பு ணக! Studies in Kalapurnodauam

ஜுரஸ் கலர ஸ்வாச் ாகசேகயுன

219 These, too, do not put one in any better position than the previous stanzas. The closing verses of the last canto also do not reveal anything more than what has been noted above. After go- ing through the whole of the Raghavapändaviyam what are the conclusions? Though the poet dedicates his poem to Virūpāksa, there is nothing positively antagonistic to the philosphy of Visistadvaita proper. Nor are there any specific references to the philosphy of Advaita. To argue that the poet must be considered as an Advaitin because he not only dedicates his poem to Virupaksa on the one hand, but also praises visnu in it on the other, is to make too large a claim. If this argument is valid, Rämakrsna who praises both Krsna and Siva in the panduranga mahatmyam must also be considered as an Advaitin and this 1s more than an untenability on its very face. One may protest against this point saying that the case of Rämakrsna is quite different on the ground that he clearly reveals his adamant faith in Visistadvaita by expounding as well as advocating its philoso- phy. If that is so,the ultimate factor which determines whether G. V. Knshna Rao

one is an Advaitin or Visistadvatin is his philosophy. This can be understood only when the different comceptions of Advaita and Vissistadvaita regarding Jiva,Isvara and Bhakti are greasped. The fundamental principle of Advaita is that Brahman alone is absolute and real, and that the Universe, Jiva and Isvara are unreal. This does not mean that Jiva and Isvara do not exist at all. They do only from the standpoint of the phenomena. Just as a dream is real in that particular state and unreal in the state of wakefulness, so also jiva and Isvara are real in the state of samsāra and unreal in the state of the absolute,Brahman. This is beauti- fully presented by Vidyaranya when he says :-

When Jiva and Isvara are unreal and when they are con-

220 sidered to be the products of Maya(V.P.Chapt. 6,S.155), Brahaman becomes naturally the absolute goal. To realise it,i.e.,to become one with Brahman,Advaita advocates Bhakti as a means. The worship of Saguna Brahman,according to this school,leads to the ultimate goal,Niguna Brahman. This is made clear when the au- thor of Vedāntaparibhasa says :-

சுஸக வதக-

=x !! (Chapt. 8)

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Therefore. Isvara,and devotion to him are not absolute re- alities but only means to the absolute goal. Thus both begin of transitory value, the devotion of an advaitin in spite of his com- plete dependence upon the mercy of his cherished God will sug- gest the ultimate goal, Nirguna Brahman. Actually this is the case with Tikkana when he addresses Hariharanatha to whom he dedicates his work in the following verse:

(Ss., e.4, 435 ) This is not a rare verse,and,as a matter of fact,any number of verses having this purport can be eited from the asvasānta padyas The same is true not only of Potana,but also of most of the poets who are Advaitins through and through. 221

With the Visistädvatin it is quite different. For him the Self and Isvara are absolutely real and have not transitory but absolue value. Even in the state of Relese,as will be explaied in the next chapter,the self does not lose its individuality and become one with Brahman.On the contrary,it attains the communion (sayujya) which is quite different from salökya, sarupya. samipya and svarüpaikya. In that ever blissful state, the self employed in its special duty will attend upon the supreme self. That mens its former devotion continues on a higher plane without being liqui- dated as in the case of Advaitic Moksa. Thus Bhakti as advocated by the Visistadvaitin has abso- lute value, and it is an end in itself,whereas Bhakti, as advocated by Advaita is of transitory value and only a means whose neces- sity disappears completely in the state of Release he conceives. When this transitory value of Bhakti is suggested by the refer- ence to the belief in Nirguna Brahman,etc. in a work,then alone the author of that work can positively be said to be an Advatın. G. V. Knshna Rao

On this ground alone Tikkana,Potana,and other creative writers,whose philosophy is otherwise unknown, are consiedered Advaitins. Similarly,if Surana,whose philosophy is under discussion,is to be considered positively an Advaitin there must be atleast one feference to his belief in Nirguna Brahaman or to the nature of self or knowledge or Realease as conceived by Advaita. Is there even a single reference in the Raghavapandaviyam? So this philosphy of Surana,as seen in the Raghvapāndaviyam,1s neither Advaita nor Visistadvaita. When facts disclose this what grounds can there be for stamping Sürana as an Advaitin? If not the Raghavapandaviyam, the Prabhavatıpradyaumnam, may present the poet as an Advaitin and so it is to be examined to see to what extent this particular work testifies to this effect. This work which was dedicated to the poet's own father throws no more light on this problem than the Raghavapandavivam

222 : The introduction to this poem provides the following iniorma- tion - Subsequent to Kalapurnodayam, though the poet wrote many works which were well received by the people,he was not satisfied with them because none of them contamed an account of his father and his family. To repay this debt to his father, he wrote and dedicated this poem to his father. The geneology of his famly was traced from Gokanamantri of Gautamagotra By his great yogic powers this Gokana had secured pekz, a gandhrva woman. as his slave and wrote nandaka stava which earned for huim a great name.271 His wife having no children for a long time, praved to the Sun who appeared to her in her dream in the guise of a Brahmin and gave her a cucumber plant Thereafter this tamily increased by leaps and bounds. The names of the poet's grandfa- ther was Suraprabhu while that of his father was Amarest ara and both of them were devotees of Siva. The poet's father was initiated into the devotion of Sıva by one named Somaradhya. No where had the poet proclaimed himself or any member of his famıly as an Advaitın or Visitadvaitin Were he really an Advaitin as the critic maintains, the poet should have contradicted what he had said in the Kalapurnodayam or at least should have ex- Studies in Kalapurodauam

pressed his strong faith in Advaita in unabbiguous terms One does not come across such an open statement in the whole of the Prabhavatipradyamnam. On the contrary the poet has mentioned the fact that Gokanamantrı wrote nandaka stava which is a defi- nite custom with Visistadvatic poets and not with Advaitins There can be no clearer example than Krsandevaraya and Ramakrsna who had praised the weapons of Visnu at the very beginning of their works The other fact is that only the poet's father and grand- father were said to be devotees of Siva while there is no mention of the faith of their predecessors and other members of the same line. So there is reason to think that the Visistadvaita cult which was followed from the very beginning by that family was the cause of the use of vertical caste-mark by the memberes of the Pingali family at the present day After all, this may be only a conjecture and one is not immediately concerned with it because the point under discussion is not dependent upon its truth. The fact men- tioned by the poet that his father and grand-father were devotecs 223

of Siva,degs not tell us that they were purely Advaitins. On the other hand. the ven fact that Surana's on the father had been initiated in his devotion to Siva by Somaradhya indicates that his father had embraced the Aradhya faith. Even ignoring this and granting that thev were Advatins, it does not preclude the poet from becoming a Visistadvaitin. Therefore,if one is to prove that the poet is an Advtn or a Visistadvatin, he has to depend en- tirelv on the poet s own words bearing philosophical implication and on nothing else. Except one, none of the verses describing his father's greatness has any reference to philosophy. Even this verse implies only such a general principle that one cannot defi- nitely say whether he was an Advaitin or not. The theme of the poem which deals with the story of Pradyumna,the son of Krsna,also is not helpful in any way. There are altogether three verses which refer directly to philosophy and they too do not say anything about the leanings of the poet. Recently a pandit has pointd to the following verse sayng that it contains a difinite reference to pratyabhijna school of philosophy. G V Knshna Rao

Because this verse occurs in the context of medittaion on an ob- ject previously descrbed, it appears to be a refernce to Kashmir Saivism, but in fact it cannot be . If the poet was really in favour of this school, he would have certainly suggested the implication of this metaphysics on more than one cocasion. As a matter of fact,he had much scope for it because his Raghavapandaviyam, was dedicated to Virūpakksa and hıs Prabhāvatipradyumnam to his father, who was a devotee of Siva. But such references are completely lacking, and hence, it connot be said that the poet was in sysmpathy with kashmir Sawism.

224 What does the foreging survey reveal? There is not even a scintilla of evidence to prove that the poet was an Advaitin. Sec- ondly even the Rägahavapändaviyam and the Prabhavatıpradyumnam do not positively say that he was not a Vissitadavaitin, whreas his kalāpurnodayam as shown in the previous chapter definitely proclaims his leanings towards Visistadvaita.276 Given these facts, can any one agree with the cntic's judgment that the poet masquaréded as a Visistadvaitin only to please his patron, Nandyāla Krsnabhupatı?

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

CHAPTER XI VISIȘTĀDAVITA AND ITS THEORY OF BEAUTY

As Surana is a Visistādvaitin, this theory of Art and his comcept of its complete emergence cannot be understood in the correct perspective without knowing the philosophy of Visistādavita. Threfore, it is necessary to examine the fundamen- tal tenets of this philosophy in so far as it throws light on the nature of Beauty and Art. Visistādvaita which is wrongly inter- preted as qualified monism is in fact, a philosophy of monistic pluralsm. If one is to present its epistemology in the language of the lay man without invloving oneself in its technicalities, it may run as follows :- I preceive a sheet of paper,white, soft and smooth. This per- ception of mine consists of three factors,the agent that is percev- ing, the object that is being perceived and the perception itself. 225

Now what are the relationships between these three factors? The sheet of paper which is the object in the present case can be said to be either a creation of my mind.or an object exsisting inde- pendently of my mind. If the former is valid, I can know only a universe which is filled with entities of my own mind. This means that objects as such do not exist independently of our minds, that all of them are produced by individual minds, that there are as many universes as there are minds without anything common between thåm, and that there connot be common values or inter- communication between the vanous minds. As these things are contradicted by expenence, and as this theory cuts at the very root of enquiry, this cannot be accepted. Moreover, this theory starts with the presupposition that our minds do not exist and this is a self-contradiction, simple and pure. The second theory that objects do exist independent of our minds may be once again divided into three classes :- The first maintains that the objects are not known as they are in them- selves but only as they are presented by our minds. The second G. V. Krshna Rao

only as they are presented by our minds. The second theory up- holds that the objects are essentially of one and the same nature,that they appear to be differnt and manifold due to the superimposition of Avidya and that their maniflodness and van- ety is neither is nor is not,nor both and thus indefinable. The third theory argues that the objects are real and manifold, and that they are revealed to us through the function or vrtt of the mnd. The first cannot be accepted because firstly,it presents two worlds,one knowable and the other unknowable,and secondly,the unknowable will be the cause of the knowable. The second theory that the objects are the result of superimposition of Avidya 1s refuted on seven grounds. They are firstly, āsrayanūpapattı, sec- ondly, tirodhananupapattı, thirdly, svarūpānupapatt, fourthly, anırvacanıyānupapattı, fifthly pramānānupapattı, sıxthly,

226 rurvartakanupapatti and lastly, nıvrttyanupapattı. The seat of Avidya should be either the Jiva or Brahman, neither of which is con- ceivable. It cannot be the jiva as jiva itself is the fictitious crea- tion of Avidya, nor can it be Brahman as Brahman is selfillumined and can never be enveloped by Avidya. To trace the locus of Avidya to the jiva and that of the jiva to Avidya is to commit the fallacy of mutal dependence. 2. Brahmasvarüpais mana and self-luminous. Either it is pure consciousness or not.If it is the former,it cannot be obscured, obstructed or destroyed by nescience. 7u dya> 3. Avidya is either real or unreal. If it is an entity or mulasvarupa,then it is inherent in Brahman as mūldudya and cannot be destroyed.If it is unreal there is no mulauidya or tulaudya as one or many. 4. Theonsing activity is the actual work of thought and to say that there is a theory which is ındefinable (sadasaduilaksana) is meaningless. 5. The theory of Avidya is not supported by sastraic authonty or any other pramana.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

6 Amnana cannot be sublated or dispelled by mana, as mana is itself the effect of amana But if it is something given,it can be removed only by spiritual discipline and not by the mere knowledge of self-ıdentity. If Brahman is ever existent and Avidya a non-existent, then the tern mumukastava Eonveys no mening at all. 7. Brahmajnana is not the jnana of Brahman, but it is jnana that is Brahman. It is said that jnāna stultifies ajnana and than stultifies itself;if so jnana is an act of spiritual sucide. With the vanishing of Avidya,jagat and Iśvara also persh. This theory of Avidya or Mäya, therefore, cannot be accepted. The third theory that the objects are manifested by the mind through its function or urtt makes souls and Isvara superfluous and the world process simply mechanical. Such a theory gives no assurance of the eternal bliss or complete release from the cycle of samsara And such a theory,Visistadvaita maintains, 227 cannot be accepted. It follows from the above examination that objects do exist in their own nght. Now what is the relationship between knowl- edge and its object? Since the object or prameya is relatively in- dependent and has its own existence, and since it presupposes knowledge, the latter cannot be either the cause or the effect of the former. The distinction of cause and effect in empircal life 1s due to mere having the particular anterior state and the particu- lar posteror state. The designation of a new categeory rght up to earth takes place when an element attains a different kind of state by abandoning its andteror state.2 Knowledge, therefore,1s as real as the agent who cogmses and the object that is cognised. It is neither materal nor spintual but immateral(ajada). By ım- matenality it is meant that knowledge illumines itself as well as the object for another but never for itself.278 It is self onginated, self-valıd279 and sui genens. That consciousness is self-luminous is inferred in the following manner :- "the consciousness, it is dis- puted, with reference to its own empincal usage, affects some- G. V. Knshna Rao

thing independently, because it is the case of empincal usage independent of anything in its own class, like an object, or a sense organ or a lght. Between sense of sight and light there is no similarity of generc character; for there is distinction between them because of the difference as that of ahamkara and of tejas "280 When it illumines itself, it is unconscious substance,and when it manifests objects,it is of the nature of substance-attribute or dravyaguna This statement naturally leads to the quesion: How can one and the same thing be both a substance and a quality at the same tume? A substance according to Visistadvaita, is the matenal cause and the matenal cause is the locus of states. It is the substratum of attributes.281 Whereas non-substance is that which is devoid of conjunction,282 consciousness is of the nature of attnbute, because it is dependent upon soul like the attnbutes of a substance. It is also a substance since it undergoes contra- diction and expansion. "It need not be doubted how conscious- 228 ness, an attnbute of the individual self, can become a substance because there is no contradiction between one and the same thing being both a substance and an attnbute like light. Sub- stance is the abode of states. The extension of consciousness beyond its substrate is possible in the case of light. A syllogism may be framed in the following manner .- Attributive consciousnes is a substance, because it possesses the attributes of diffusion etc. like a lumious substance. And moreover, consciousness is a substance, because it is the cause of cognition (bhavana), being different from the non-substance of conjunction and the unseen effect (adrsta) lıke an individual self."283 When such is the nature of knowledge it cannot be momen- tary or cannot be considered as existing for three moments as Buddhists advocate. Nor is it illusory in empircal life and in the phenomenal as maintained by the Advaitin; nor is it extrinsically valid as postulated by the followers of Nyaya and Vaisesika, nor consciousness itself is the self as asserted by the follwers of Sankhya and yoga. Thus jnāna, mati, prajna, samvit, dhisana, dhi, manışa, semuși, mēdha, buddhi' and such other terms are Studies in Kalapurnodayam

.synonyms of consciousness. Consciousness itself owing to the differnce of the limting adjunct, takes the form of happiness, sorrow, desire, hate, endeavour, etc. There is no evidence for the assumption of consciousness as distinct from and as a cause for generating happiness etc. The empirical usage I desire ', Thate', is accounted as an attrbute of consciousness like I remember' which is also a different form of consciousness. "when it is said that desire, resolve, doubt, faith, want of faith, firmness, want of firmness, modest, intelligence, fear and all these are but the mind, it is not really so. Because mind is the associate of consciousness, it is figuratively said that mind is all. "sımılarly, perception, inference, verbal testimony, recol- lection, doubt, misapprehension, error, discrimination, effort, infatuation, attachmet, hate, insobriety envy, courage, flckleness, arrogance, covetousness, anger, pride, stupefaction, treachery, persistence, disgust,joy, etc. and good state of mind, bad state of mind, affection, contentment, exaltation, peace, non-attachment, 229

enjoyment, friendship, compassion, desire, for liberation, mod- esty, forbearance, enquiry, desire for victory, delight, forgiveness, desire for art aversion, reminiseent forgiveness, desire for art, aversoion, reminiscent impression, hypocrisy, detraction of the qualities of others, desire to kill, inordinate hankerng, cupidity, past impression, dicussion, faith, devotion to God, self-surrender to God, etc. are the attributes of the individual self and they are innumerable, they are but particular modes of the attrbutive consciousness"284 Since objects are real and have independent existence,and since knowledge manifests or reveals itself as well as the object, our thoughts and experiences are trustworthy. The subject of cognition is as real as cognition and cognitive act. Real objeets independent of the mind and corresponding to their contents, are alone known. Therefore, reality of objects is reckoned as ab- solute. This view is known as satkhyätt, since what exists is cog- nized.285 If what exists alone is cognized, how can one explain illusion, error, opinion, dream etc. which are quite different from G V Knsnna Rao

valid knowldge? In the case of mistaking a rope for a snake,it 1s as real as the cognition of a rope itself. But the differnce between the two hes in this, the former consists in invalidating the workabilty of an object (axcsss:sdar) whereas the latter leads to successful activity. Now it may be questioned how one and the same subject can have two different cognitions when it comes into contact withe one and the same object? This is explaned by Vissitadvaita on the basis of quintuplication or pancikarana. "By the process of quintuplication, all the elements are present in all the elements like earth etc. Therefore, owing to the presence of a small portion of silver nacre, the object of that consciousness (1.e silver) is true. But as the portion of silver-content in the nacre is infinitesimal, it cannot serve the purpose of practical life; hence that cognition is bhrama. It disappears because of the knowledge of the preponderance of the nacre content in the object". "The cognition of dream etc. is also real. From the Srut we 230 understand that the Supreme person creates chariots etc. sub- sisting for a certain ume only,for the expencence of the particu- lar individual self mn accordance with its spiritual ment and de- merit."288 "In the case of the cognition, the conch is yellow, the expla- nation is as follows :- The visual rays of the eye which are in con- tact with the bile of the eye enter into conjunction with the conch; then the whiteness belonging to the conch is over-powered by the yellowness of the bile and hence not cognized. Therefore arises the cognition', the conch is yellow like a gold-gilt conch. The yellownesss issuing from his eye, owing to this extreme subtlety,is apprehended by him alone and not by others."289 From the above explanation it follows that knowledge is always of the real. But what differentiates valid knowledge (anyathajnäna,) and contrary knowledge (uiparta-jnāna)ıs this :- the former reveals or manifests the object as it really is and serves practical need whereas the latter do not.290 The sources of such valid knowledge according to Vsistadvaita are only three: per- cepton, inference and verbal or scriptural testimom Perception Studies ' Kalapumnodauam

or pratyaksa is the instrument of valid and immediate knowl- edge.291 It has for its object something always charactersed by difference, as it is impossible to perceive anything without any difference. Even if some one says that a state of consciousness without any differnence is possible, such a determination is al- ways marked by some attribute or other. Perception is of two kınds, determinate and indeterminate. Indeterminate perception does not mean the apprehension of an object bereft of all distinctions. For, whatever enters into human expenience under any circumstances appears with some elemnets of spatial and structural relations. Even the perception of an ob- ject for the first time involves thinking and discrimination as this'or 'that'. Visstadvaita, recognising the necessity of concep- tual factors in any expenence, defines indeterminate perception as the cognition of an indvidual for the first time with attributes, configuration etc. When the object of the same class is perceived for the second or the third time with the notion ofits gennc char- 231

acter, the perception is called determinate "The mode of perception is as follows :- Atman is joined with the mnd, mnd with the sense organ and the sense organ with the object of knowledge; as a rule,the sense organs do their func- tion by coming into contact with the object to be cognized ( s ed5 a). Therefore, when the visual sense is in contact with an object, in the form of a jar etc., ocular knowledge arises in the form 'this is a jar'.292 According to Visistadvaita yogic perception is not an inde- pendent source of knowledge. Smrt or recollection, pratyabhijna or recognition, abhava or non-existence, conjecture or uha, doubt or samsaya and genius or pratibha of holy personages are in- cluded in perception. The reason for this according to Srinıvasadasa, the author of Yatındra Matadipika, is as follows :- "Even if recollection is admitted as pramana, it has to depend on reminiscent impressions (samskära); since perception is the ori- gin of recollection, it is brought under perception, and so there is G V. Knshna Rao

no need to regard it as a separate pramana.293 Just as recollec- tıon is included ın pratyaksa, recognition (pratyabhijna) also in the form of 'this is that Devadatta' is included in perception. In our system since non-existence is nothing but another form of existence, the knowledge of non-existence of the jar is the floor itself. The antecedent non-existence of the jar is clay itself. The destruction of the jar means pot sherds."294 The scound source of knowledge which is inference pro- ceeds from the knowledge or pervasion (vyapti) between the per- vaded (vyapya)and the pervader(vyäpaka). In a case where fire pervades smoke, fire is called the pervader and smoke the per- vaded. When there is cognition that smoke is pervaded by fire, the knowledge of the pervader, namely,fire is obtained as in the inference,"wherever there is somke there is fire" To ascertain the relations of pervasion between two phenomena, a single observa-

232 tion is not sufficient. Therefore Visistadvaits emphasises the need for repeated observation to establish the universal pervasion be- yond doubt. The syllogism is not restricted to five menpers only. In som cases three-membered sysllogism serves the purpose,and in other cases even two-membered syllogism is recognised as suf- ficient.295 Visistdāvaita includes analogy (upamana) and presump- tion (arthäpatti) in inference. "Analogy is the knowledge of a fig- ure qualified by co-similarity which is accomplished by the recol- lection ofthe meanıng of an assımilatıve statement (atıdesavakya). A person though ignorant of the meaning of the word gavaya, hears from a forester that gavaya is similar to a cow; he goes to a forest and remembers the meaning conveyed by the assımilatıve statement. When he sees the figure qualified by co-similarty,then there arses in him the knowledge of the figure qualified by co- similatity, accompanied by the recollection of the meaning of the assimilative statement heard before. That knowledge is said to be anaolgy or upamana This is included in perception, since it is of the nature of recollection. It is brought under inference, as it depends upon the cognition of pervasion. And it is included in verbal testimony also, since it is generated by sentence.296 Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Visistadavita along with Nyäya,Sankhya and other Schools refuses to recognise presumption as a separate means of knowl- edge, since its purpose is served by inference. For instance,in the syllogism "Devadatta eats at night, because he is fat without eat- ing by day," "eating" is the pervasive concomitant of fatness," since whenever fatness is seen, there must be eating also. As it is known that Devadatta does not eat by day, the inference 1s that he must eat at night.

The third source of knowledge is sabda or verbal or scnp- tural testimony. The highest reality which is the sole cause of *he univere is Ramanuja maintains, not the object of perception or inference, but is known only through the sastras 297 Brahman is not an object of perception.298 No generalisation from expercnce can prove or disprove the reality of Brahman.299 Its reality,to which intelligenc points, lies in a region beyond that which intel- ligence points, lies in a region beyond that which can be actually 233 observed or understood by finite intelligence. Scripture, this theory maintains, is the only source regarding supersensuous matters, though reason may be employed in support of scripture. A state- ment is authontative when it is uttered by a trustworthy per- son, when it is free from errors due to defects of sense organs or when its menamg is not contradicted by any other cognition. The two sections of the vedas, namely, Karmakanda and jnanakanda, do not contradict each other. The earlier section or the Karmakanda treats of the vanous modes of upasana or wor- ship and the latter is devoted to Brahman, the object of worship. Hence both the Kandas of the Vedas constitute one homogene- ous subject. Unlike the Mimamsa school where validity of verbal statement is restricted to those Vedic texts which have for their scope what is yet to be accomplished (sadhya), in Visstadvaita the Vedic texts which denote Brahamn as existent realiity(siddha),are also of equal authority. The pancaratragama and the Vakhanasagama, which do not contradict the Vedas are authontative in toto according to this system.

G. V. Knshna Rao

All statements, whetherfVedic or secular, are of two kinds, one having primary denotative funcion, and the other havng scondary denotative function (gaunavrtti). Primary denotation is abhidhavrtt, and it is manifold because of such differences as yoga. rudhi etc. When the meaning indicated by the primary de- notation is stultified the meaning nearest to it is denoted and that denotation is the secondary one . It is of two kınds, laksana and gauni Just as all words denoting "body" have their final mean- ing in the owner of the body, so also all words, whether they denote spirit such as Brahma, rudra, Agni, indra etc. Who con- stitute the body of Bhagavan, or matter such as praknt, kala, akasa, prana etc, which constiture His body, have their final mean- ing in the owner of the body, Sr Narayana, the Supreme self. All knowledge, whether perceptual or inferential, or of ver- bal testimony, manifests objects as having at least one quality

234 apart from the quality of pure being. When I perceive a leaf, I perceive its colour, shape, structure (samsthana) etc. but not its simple and pure being. It is the same in case of inference and verbal testmony also . Even scrptual testimony which says that Brahman is devoid of qualites means only that He is devoid of bad qualites. He is not pure consciousness bereft of all qualites. Since knowledge reveals what is existing and real, the qualities we apperhend must have a locus . If it is not the reality.the ob- jects manifested by our knowledge,what can be the substratum of these qualities? Therefore, there is not and there cannot be even a single object or thing without a quality. Everything tran- scendent or immanent must have some quality or other.

PRAMEYA

The object of valid knowledge is diveded into two main cat- egories as substance(dravya) and non-substance(adravya). Sub- stance is not only the meterial cause but also serves as the locus of changes. There are six substances - prakrti, kala, dharmabhuta- mana, nityvibhuti, jiva and Isvara. Non-substance which is an at- tribute, is always dependent on substance. While non-substance Studies in Kalapurnodayam

as an attribute is subject to change,the substance as the sub- stantive element does not undergo any change. A characteristic feature of Visistadvaita is that non-substance is sometimes viewed as both substance and attribute. For instance, though light (prabha) is an attribute of a effulgent object, it serves also as a substace, since it is subject to contraction and diffußion, and possesses colour as an attribute. From the absolute standpoint Isvara is the Substance,and the world of matter and selves are Hıs attributes. Isvara and jiva viewed as substantıve elements, are not subject to modifications, while prakrti, kala, dharmabuta- jnana and nityavibhut as attributwve elements undergo change. The non-substances are ten in number. Sattva, rajas and tamas are the qualites of prakrtı Sound, touch, colour, taste and smell are qualities of prakrti. Sound, touch,colour,taste and smell are the qualites of the five elements (bhūtās) like akasa etc. Conjuncion or samyöga is the external relation between sub- stances. Saktı or potency is the effecting agent of causation in all 235

causal substances.

PRAKRTI AND KĀĻA Prakrtı, characterised by the three gunas, constitutes the stuff out of which the universe evolves. It is the abode of indı- vidual self in mundane existence. It is called mulaprakrt sınce it is the primordial cause of the cosmos. It is known as "akaśa" as it is eternal in spite ofits manifold changes and modifications. It is termed as avyakata, as it is very subtle mn its causal state. It is called audya as it is opposed to the knowledge of Reality, and is known as mäya, as it is the cause of cosmic wonders. When matter is in an extremely latent state Without dis- tinction of name and form, it is known as pralaya. From prakrti, known as tamas in the begnning of evoluton, mahat appears with the three states of sattva, rajas and tamas Mahat evolves into ahamkara with the same three states called sattuikāhamkara (vaikarıka), rajasahamkāra (tajasa) and tamasāhamkāra, (Bhutadi) From sattvikahamkara, aded by rajasāhamkara, proceed the G. V. Knshna Rao

eleven senses, five conative senses, five congnitive senses and mind or manas. "Manas is that sense organ which is the cause of memoty etc. It resides in the region of the heart and is denoted by such terms as buddhi, ahamkara, citta etc., it is the cause of bondage as well as deliverance.300 It is not only the inner sense organ through which consciousness flows to the senses but also the sense commune which receives and co-ordinates sense knowl- edge. It is called buddhi when it is engaged in the function of decıdıng (adhyavasaya); ahamkara or abhumana when it conceives womgiy-for instance when the atman is identified with the body- and citta when it thinks. " These indnyas are subtle. They follow the individual self in its entry into other bodies and other worlds etc. In the state of liberation as they are unable to follow the individual self to the transcendental realm, they stay here till the time of dissolution. Or, they are taken by others who are devoid

236 of such organs. The view that the conative senses are destroyed along with the conative senses destroyed along with the destruc- tion of the body should be abandoned as it is opposed to the Sribhasya and other works."301 From tamasahamkara, aıded by rājasāhamkāra, arıse the five gross elements of akasa etc. through the media of the five tanmatras of sound, touch, colour, taste and odour.

The entire process of cosmic evolution is noting but change of states, The distinction between cause and effect is not real. A particular anterior state is called the cause and a particular pos- terior state is called the effect. Every effect connotes a pre-exist- ing cause. The doctrine of satkaryaväda affirms the non-differnece of cause and effect.

Kāla or tıme ıs eternal and all pervasıve. Unlıke prakrıtı, 1t is devoid of the three gunas of sattva, rajas and tamas Time as effect,which we expenience in our ordinary life,is changing and non-eternal. Months and years according to human and divine standards, the four yugas, the birth of Manus etc. and nitya, nauuttika and prakrta dissolutions are dependent on time. It serves

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

as an instrument in the cosmic functions of Isvara. Though time has independence in the lilavibhuti (playmamfestation), it has no independent status in the ntyavibhuti(eternal-manifestation.)

NITYAVIBHUTI

Nityavibhuti is the immaterial, infinite domain beyond prakrti and its three gunas. It is selfluminous and is characterised by what is known as suddhatattva, different from the sattva of the three gunas. It is known by the differnet names of paramapada, tripadvibhuti, anandaloka etc. Vaikuntha, the city of God, is situ- ated within the realm of nityaubhuti. It is the stuff out of which the bodies of Isvara, the eternal, and the liberated selves are made. It is the means for the enjoyment of the liberated selves. The five saktis of sarva, nivrtti, visva, purusa and paramēsthin and the six attrıbutes of jnana, saktı, bala, aisvarya, virya, tejas manıfest themselves in this eternal domain of suddhasattva. Though it iS 237 beyond prakrtt it is capable of descending and permeating the consecrated images (arcavataras) in sacred pleaces.

DHARMABHUTAJNANA

The nature of Dharmabhutajnana or attrbutive knowledge has already been discussed. It is eternal and all -pervasive in respect of Isvara and jivas. It embraces the paths of karma, jnana and bhakti, and constitutes the root of religious expenence. Fi- nally, when the religious experience develops into firm medita- tion which is compared to the uninterrupted flow of oil, it be- comes the means of realising the beatific form of the Divine. Thus the religious consummation is absolutely dependent on the per- fect manifestation of dharmabhūtajnana. "Karmayoga, jnanayoga and other yogas, which are said to be the means for liberation, are the means to moksa through the medium of Bhakt alone What is called karmayoga is a special kind of activity which a person possessing true knowledge of the individual self and the Highest received from the instructions of G. V Knshna Rao

the preceptor, performs according to his capacity, it is non-pro- hibited action without any regard for the fruits, and is in the shape of kamya, nitya and nauittika actions. It is divided into worship of God penance, pilgrimage, charty, sacrifice, etc. this by destoying the impurites of the individual self, generetes jnana, and through it or directly becomes the producer of bhakti What is called manayoga is a special kind of meditation on the real nature of one's own self as distinct from praknt and as existing for the purpose of Isvara,after having attained purty of mind by the discipline of karmayoga This is useful for the direct realisa- tion of bhakti. Likewise the manner in which other means also are useful for generationg bhaktı may be understood. Bhaktiyoga is a continuous stream of remembrance, of God, uninterrupted like the fldw of oil,and is charactersed by the eightfold limits of yama, nıyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharma and 238 samadh It is generated by the sevenfold disciplıne of vwēka (dis- crimination), uimoka (detachment), abhyasa (constant practice), knya (good action), kalyana (virtuous conduct) anavasada (cheer- fulness and anuddharasa (non-exultaion) 302 Bhaktiyoga is the classical pathway to liberaton. But there is an alternative path to release for those who find it difficult to practise the austere dıscıplınes of sādhana-saptaka and astānga yoga, and who are not qualifed to receive instuction in the Vedas and the Upanisads. This may be follwed by anyone irrespective of his or her limitaitons, physical, mental or social. This is known as prapatt The heart of prapatti is absolute self-surrender with the firm faith in the saving grace of Isvara The main charactens- tics of prapatti are "to conceive what is in conformity with the will of God, to reject what is disagreeable to Him, to have firm faith that He will save, to seek Him alone as the protector and to sur- render one's self to Him in all meekness. A single act of self- surrender in all sincenty is sufficient to bring about release at once."

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

JIVAS

Since knowledge as pointed out is self-originated, su generis and eternal, the substratum of knowledge,iva or individual self, must be of same nature. Like Isvara it has the characterstics of self-consciousness, sentiency, self-hood, agency etc. "What is called self-consciousness is to illumine oneself. Sentiency con- sists in being the locus of consciousness. Self-hood consists in having invariable relation with the body. Agency consists in be- ing the locus of volitional consciousness.303 it is monadic (anu) in size and has consciousness for its attrbute. It is subsidiary (sesa) by nature to Brahman, the principle (sesin). Diffeent as it is from the body, sense organs, mind, vital breath etc., it is eternal. When it is said that an individual soul is born and it is dead, it means that jiva has taken newly a gross body and that it has been severed form it. It is different in each body. "Although the souls, as biging parts of Brahaman and so on,are of essentially the seme character, they are actully separate;for each oftem is of 239 atomic aze and resides in a separate body. For this reason there is no confusion or mixing up of the individual spheres of enjoy- ment and existence."304 By nature it is blissful, but it is caught in the wheel of samsara due to its audya karmas accumulated by it in its previous births.305 Not only it is the agent but also the enjoyer. From the point of view of matter or prakrti it is the body. It is not only sentient but also of the essence of ananda In the state of bondage jnana and ananda are obscured, but in the state of re- lease they fully manifest themselves. When such is the nature of Jiva, it refutes the theones of Buddhısts, Carvakas, Jaınas, Sānkhyas, Yadavaprakasa, Bhaskara and Advaitins, whether they are ekajwvavådins" or anekajivavadıns *306 The Jivas, which are innumerable, are of three classes the eternals, the liberated and the bound. The eternals are those who are never caught in the samsara, and who have from eternity been enjoying ananda in Vaikunta. The liberated are those who have attained liberation through bhakti and prapatti The bound

G V. Knshna Rao

are those who are not liberated from samsara due to avidya and karma. At the moment of giving up the body, the jiva which has attained the knowledge of Brahman issues out of the body through the aperture in the crown of the head and moves upwards through the ray of the Sun. The released self ultimately reaches its superme goal and enjoys ananda for ever being established in the com- munion whith God. Moksa is essentally of the nature of Sāyujya (communion) and not sāloka (co-exıstence), sārūpya (similarity) or sampya (intimacy) or svarupakya (identity with Him).307 Each employed in his special duty will attend upon the Supreme Self. The power of the liberated soul is devoid of cosmic functions. He can assume manifold forms and wander all over the worlds.

IŚVARA

ISvara is the controller and the principal (sesin) of all; He is

240 the bestower of all fruits,the sustainer of all and the supreme cause of all effects. He is the ultimate object of every act of wor- ship. The material universe and all the innumerable souls form His body and draw their sustenance from Him. If Isvara is the whole matter and soul are its parts; if He is the substance, they are the qualites; if He is the soul, they are the body. Both "cit" and "acıt" have a meaning and value only in Him but not apart from Him. The universe depents on God as its ground, its ratio essendi but not as its cause. "Since consciousness presupposes a consicious self,the Reality is not identical with consciousness. Hence Isvara is not pure non-differenced being, nor pure consciousness,but the highest self, characterised essentally by consciousness and unsupassable ànanda. He is the sole cause of the universe since he compre- hends it within Himself in latent from prior to creation, and then by His will manifests what is latent. "The conception of God as the Supreme person and creator raises the following question. How can the Supreme Being be eternally perfect if he manifests Himself as the world? Will not the imperfections of the world adhere to the perfect Being also? Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

Ramanuja meets this question when he syas: "According to our view, Brahman has for its body all sentient and non-sentient be- ings in the subtle and in the gross state. In the effected as well as in the causal condition, it is free from all shades of imperfection, and is an infinity of perfections. All imperfections and sufferings and all changes belong not ot Brahman but only to the sentient and non-sentient beings which are its modes."30s This clearly shows that Visistâdvaita attempts to solve this problem by its doctrine that the relation between body and soul. It is the doc- trine of sarira-sarin sambandha. Brahman has the individual soul and matter for his body while he is the universal Self of that body. The world-body has two states, the causal and the effected, the nature of which are contracion and expansion. These states belong to the world-body alone and not Brahman Himself. Ex- pansion is evolution and contracion is involution. Brahman be- comes or manifests the world in the sense that he evolves the body which is his attribute. Not that the essence of Reality is in a 241 state of flux. The notion of a Supreme person,whose attribute only is in a stste of mainfestation, makes the divine Being,the substantive element, the ground of all existence. The entire proc- ess of evolution in the from in which Isvara manifests himself in and through the world-body is an opportunity given to jivas to attain a life of perfection and communion with the Supreme. "Just as the imperfections of child-hood, youth, etc. adhere to the body only and to the embodied soul, so also the imperfectionts of the "cit" and "actt" do not extend to the highest Self who has the sentient and the non-sentient as His body."309 Granting that the Visistadvataitn's conception of substance, quality and time is logical and valid,it naturally follws that the imperfections and changes to be found in the case of matter and selves do not affect the Absolute, that Brahman is beyond change and that He is both transcendental and immanent. Thus this theory of Visistädvaita refutes the views of the followers of athe- ısm, Sankhya and Mimamsa. "Since natural causaltity is admitted, the theones of the followers of the schools of Yoga, G. V Knshna Rao

pasupata and Nyaya are refuted, for Isvara is admitted by them with reference to efficient causality only. Just as in respect of the effect (i.e.cration), Isvara is the material and the efficecnt cause,so also it is possible for him to become the agent, the impeller, the controller, the revealer, the helper, the unconcerned etc."310 "And Isvara is essentially of the nature of all pervasiveness (vibhu) which is of three kinds. Pervasiveness by His essential nature, by the attributive consciousness, and by His body. And he, it is said, is infinite. What is called infinite is to be free from the three kinds of lmitations-limitations of space, time and ob- ject. "Truth, consciousness, bliss, purty, etc., are the attributes which determine the essential nature of Isvara Knowledge, power, etc., are the attribbutes of the essential nature so determined Omnscience, omnipotence, etc., are the attributes which are

242 useful for the act of creation. Love, excellence of disposition, easiness of attainment, etc. are attributes which are usefull for providing refuge (to the devotees). Compassion and others are the attributes which are useful for the protection (of the good) 311 Isvara is the creator, the protector and the destroyer of the un- verse. He abides in a fivefold form as para, uyūha, vibhava, antaryamın and archavatara "What is called para is Narāyana, who is expressed by such terms as parabrahman, Paravasudeva, who is qualified by the mnfinite, auspicious attributes such as knowledge, power etc., whose presence is being enjoyed by the eternals such as Ananta, Garuda, Visvaksena, etc and other Sama-singing liberated selves who is the possessor of a divine, auspicious figure who is four-armed, who is accompanied by Sr Bhu and Nila, who is equipped with the divine weapons such as conch discuss, etc. who is adomed with divine ornaments such as a crown, etc., who is seated on Sesa who is upon the throne composed of eight legs such as dharma, etc., in the mahamanimandapa with in the divine abode, attended by the gate- keepers such as Canda, Pracanda, Bhadra, Subhadra, Jaya, Vijaya, Dhatr Vidhatr, etc. in the divine city called Vaikuntha, Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

within Tripadvibhuti, protected by the city gtards such as Kumuda, Kumudaksa, Sumukha, Supratısthita, etc who are equipped with the divine weapons, ornaments, attendants and other paraphernalia." "What is called Vyuha is the highest Brahman himself abid- ing in a fourfold form as Vasudeva, Samkarsana, pradyumna and Aniruddha for purposes of mediation (by the devotees) and for creation of the universe."313 "Vibhava is the descent of Isvara among beings by means of forms similar to genus. It is of ten kinds; they are those particu- lar avatārās such as Matsya etc.314 The cause for incarnation is nothing but Isvara's own will He is above and beyond karmas The object of such incarnations is protection of the good and destrucion of the wicked. "Antaryämın ıs that form of Isvara which abides in the re- gion of the heart which stays with the individual self as its friend, 243 in its states of expenence, such as heaven, hell, etc and which is perceptible to the yogins Though He in the form of Antaryamin co-exists with the individual self, He is untouched by the taints inherent in it, 1.e. the individual self 315 "What is called Arcavatara is that special form which re- moteness of space and time accepts for its body any substance chosen by the devotees, and descends into it with a non-meterial body, He becomes dependent on the worshipper for bath, food, sitting, sleeping etc. He bears everything and is replete with knowl- edge and other attnbutes. He is present in houses, villages, towns, sacred places, hills, etc.315

NATURE OF BEAUTY

With the preceding analysis in view one can now roughly formulate the principles underlining Beauty as conceived by Visistadvaita. It is not, as Plato conceived, an Idea or Universal of which the beautiful things in the world of time and space are only fleeting copies of ephemeral value. Nor is it ,as Aristotle as- G. V. Knshna Rao

serts, a Form which faces resistance from Matter as a conse- quence of which we have beautiful things of various grades and degrees. Nor is it, a judgment, as Kant argues, mediating be- tween the activity of Pure Reason and that of Practical Reason. Norisit a sensuous idea, as Hegel,advocates, progressing through the oppoistes only to merge itself in Religion and finally to be-lost completely in the sands of philosophy. It is not an object ofinfer- ence and there by mediate as Nyaya.and Vaiseşika claim to,be.It is not a characteristic of purusa which is pure consciousness as Sankhya maintains. Much less is.it the Absolute of Advaita which is in fact abstract and which makes the world of ours an illusion and life a meaningless drudgery.318 If Beauty is not a Universal, a Form,an Idea, a Judgment, a characterstic, then it must be substance or relation. This is not so, Visistadavaitin asserts, because it is a quality of the Absolute.

244 Since Beauty is a form or mode of knowledge, and since knowl- edge is essentially of the nature of attributive consciousness,it is purely a quality-a quality of the Absolute, Brahman. It is already seen that the real ground of the universe is changeless, eternal, infinite, having truth, goodness, ananda etc. as its essential qualites. The logical corollary is that Beauty, the quality of the Absolute is also if changeless, eternal and inifinite." As Brahman is the identical subject of all specific meditations, the contempla- tion of one essential quality comprses other qualites as well."319 Beauty, therefore, comprises truth, goodness, knowledge, ananda, etc. As Brahman is not and cannot be the object of perception, recollection, recognition, inference, analogy and presumption,320 Beauty as its quality is also of the same nature. Neither can it be known through negation. The individual self can experence it through intuition or vision which is immediate and which gives infinte bliss "As a man embraced by his beloved wife knows nothig that is without and nothing that is within, so this self when embraced by the intelligent praja or self knows nothing that is without and nothing that is within."321 Such is the state of the soul when it intuits Beauty. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Since Beauty is changeless,eternal and absolute,it does not evolve,nor does it admit of divisions,or grades amd degrees. It is universal having noting to do with personal prejudices and predi- lections. Its intution does not change from society to society. Neither time and space nor customs and habits can tell upon Beauty. The poet speaks nothing but truth when he says, "A thing of Beauty is ajoy for ever." That is why works of art pro- duced in distant times and different climes are being appreci- ated and enjoyed even to this day. Changes in circumstances,ideas and ideologies are not able to bring destruction upon them. Be- cause Beauty is infinite, any number of expressions,forms and manifestations cannot exhaust it, something more stands over and above all the mynads and myriads of forms that have come and that are yet to come. As Brahman is not dependent upon others such as souls and matter but others depend on it for their very existence and sustenance and as it is selfevident, so also Beauty as its quality 245 is not dependent on minds conceiving or intuiting it and it is self evident. That means, Beauty is independent of mind and souls; their success or failure to grasp it can neither prove nor disprove its existence. Just as light shines by itself and does not require any thing to show it,so also Beauty shines by itself and does not stand in need of some other thing to reveal it. Just as judgment consists of subject and predicate and denotes a single unity of sense,so also Brahman has sentients and non-sentients as his body and they denote and have meaning in the unity, Brahman. In the same manner, Beauty, the quality of the Absolute com- prses unity in diestincts or variety. From this it follows that Beauty never manifests itself through simple colour, word, note, moment, etc., devoid of unity in veriety. That means, intuition of Beauty is always a whole having distinct and finite parts which entirely depend and exist on account of the whole. The latter live in and for the whole. When parts happen to dominate the whole,or the whole depends on the parts, it may be anything but Beauty. That is the reason why Beauty is not an object of percepton or infer- ence it is mainly and purely an object of intuition or revelation. G V Knshna Rao

Brahman is the real of the real and the light of the lights And reality is determinate(savisesa)and not indeterminate or rurusesa. Truth, knowledge, inflnity, will, that in unsullied by kama (or desire), etc. are qualities. Because He has the will divine He creates the worid out of Himself and reabsorbs it in Himself purely out of sport or lila. Just as a tortoise puts out of its limbs and withdraws them once again into its own shell, and just as the spider spins out fine thread in vanous forms and winds up,so also the Absolute in sheer joy of self-expression creates out of Himself the world of namarupa without Himself undergoing any change in the least and then reabsorbs it once again. This activ- ity is not due to any avidya or karma but due to His own free will Just as the spontaneous self-expression of the artist is though a result of recreation or sport,enwraps the critic or sahrdaya in bliss and enlightens him,so also His creation helps the souls which are sullied by audya and karma to get themselves purified. Thus

246 the Absolute which is both immanent and transcendental abides in five forms, the transcendental or para, the infinite or vyūha, the incamational or ubhava, the immanent or antaryamin, the idol or arcavatara. As Beaty is a quality of Brahman, it manifests itself in this five-fold form. "What is called para is Narayana who is expressed by such terms as Parabhahman, Paravasudēva "322 Vyuha is the highest Brahman, Himself abiding in fourfold form as Vāsudeva, Sankarasana, pradyumna and aniruddha for pur- poses of meditation by devotees and for the creations of the Uni- verse."323 "Vibhava is the descent of Isvara among beings by means of forms similar to that genus. It is of ten kinds;they are those particular incarnations such as Matsya, etc"324 "Antaryamın 1s that form which abides in the region of the heart, which stays with the individual self as its fnend even in its states of expen- ence such as heaven, hell, etc.and which is perceptible to the yogins."325 "Arcavatara is that special from which without remote- ness of space and time accepts its body and substance chosen by the devotees and descends into it with a non-natural body."326 When the nature of Beauty is conceived to be as stated above, many doubts are sure to arise. Ifit is absolute, chageless, eternal and infinite, how is it that human experience reveals only Studes ın Kalapurnodayam

partial minifestations? Why are certain works considered to be beautiful in one age and ugly in another? What is beautiful to one must also be beautiful to all if what is said above is valid, but this is contradicting experence itself. Moreover, Brahmanis causa sut of the universe and everthing depends on him for its very existence and sustenance and Beauty is essentially His quality. The universe is the mode or manifestation of His creative activity and every object in it is pervaded by Him; He lives in the heart of each and every object. If this is true, the universe as well as every object in it must be absolutely beautiful with no scope whatso- ever for shades or degrees. But there is so much ugliness, vulgar- ity, sorrow and pain, and even the beauty one experiences is not altogether stainless. It is only relative, ephemeral and admits di- vision and degrees. This judgment is true and is in no way incon- sistent with the theory of Beauty, if one properly understands the metaphysics of Visıstādvaita. In the previous section it is seen that individual souls are 247

caught in the wheel of samsara only due to their audya and karma acqired in their past birhts and that they in that state are deprived of their all-embracing knowledge This knowledge thus is subject to contration and expansion. As souls in bondage,our knowledge is not all pervasive and thus it is subject to illusion and error. Because of these limitations we do not see the uni- verse as a whole as the eternal surs do.Hence we find so much ugliness, vulganty, sorrow and pain in the universe in which they intuit nothing but Beauty, Goodness, Truth, auspicious qualites,etc. This can be more clearly understood if illustrated from the "comedy of Errors." Because Rambha, Nalakūbara, Kalabhasını and Mankandhara have lımited knowledge deeply coloured by their passions and emotions they are quite unable to know the situation in which they are caught and thus have un- dergone ternble agony and unbearable pain, whereas Narada,with his divine insight, is able to experience immense joy out of the ludicrous incident. Hence degrees of Beauty with its imperfec- tions and blemishes on the one hand, and the ugliness of objects G. V. Knshna Rao

on the other, are the results of avidya and karma of individua. souls. And another point to be noted is that all these imperfec- tions and blemishes are real and in no way attributable to the Absoulte. Though the imperfections and blemishes are due to avrdya and karma of the individual souls, the creation and dissolution which are by nature of Beauty Absolute emerge only from Brah- man. Even eternal suris do not have any part in cosmic process They can only assume any number of forms and wander through all the worlds which are the manifestations of Isvara.327 All the worlds and all the objects in them, therefore, however imperfect their beauty may be emerge form the Absolute. He is the cause and reason of them, and the imperfections and drawbacks are the results of their audya and karma If Brahma is said to be the creator of the universe,Visnu to be the sustainer and Siva to be

'48 the destroyer it is only He that does all these things and they are only instruments. Similarly all the works of Art, whatever may be their merits and dements, are essentially His creations and the individual artists are their authors only in name. Through them He creates, He expresses Himself. and the entire beauty in those works is His manifestation whereas the limitations and draw- backs are entirely those of the individual souls having audya and karma to their credit This point cannot be more clearly ex- pressed than by the follwoing line of Potana :-

8c ec 328

Though the poet is an Advaitin,he has exactly echoed the sentiments of a Visistadvaitin and has given a clear exposition of the standpoint of the latter. Since creative acivity entirely belongs to Brahman, indi- vidual works of Art, whether they are spatial, temporal or ideal, have their ultimate cause in Him only. The individual artist is Studies in Kalapurnodayam

merely an instrument in its emergence. Though He is immanent in the heart of each individual soul, everyone is not an artist in the sense that he is the instrument in the emergence of a work of Art. Experience clearly gives us this fact. Only those who have acquired merit and through it the Divine Grace are selected as the instruments of creation. With this grace lacking,no one can produce a work of Beauty however hard he may struggle,frisk and flutter. The emnbodied soul through the process of karmayoga and jnanayoga enters the state of bhakti and in that state he develops in him the power to identify himself with the Absolute. That means, he will be able completely to surrender himself to Brahman when He creates or manifests the work of Art. This work of Art, as it has been already pointed out, will be self-suffi- cient and self-evident having unity in variety or unity of distincts. It is never unity simple and pure, devoid of distincts or variety as some monists hold. Just as Isvara cannot be intuited by embodied soul steeped 24g in sin and lust,so also Beauty cannot be intuited by people who are untrained and uncultured, and too much infatuated by ego- tism. They must receive training, carry on self-culture and be- come bhaktäs with all their qualites before they can have an in- tution or vision of Beauty. Thus only can they qualify themselves to see Beauty and appreciate it. As long as this is lacking, a work of Art will be a sealed book for them. In this contextit may be doubted how individual souls whch are distinctly different from Brahman can know and appreciate Beauty which is purely a quality of the latter. But this will no longer trouble one if one remembers only that both jiva and Isvara are of the nature of consciousness and have consciousness as an attrbute. And hence it is possible for Jiva to intuit the beauty of Isvara The nature of Jwva being such, no one is completely and for ever debarred from becoming an artist and a sahrdaya As a matter of fact, every human being is a potential artist and a critic or sahrdya and to become one in reality,what one has to do is to qualify oneself for it. As Jiva has freedom, there is nothing that prevents him from achieving it. G. V. Knshna Rao

One eminent exponent of Visistadvaita commenting on the nature of the emegence of a work of Art writes-" The aritist in a mood of inspiration catches a glimpse of Beauty or Brahman or Syamasundara, and his work of Art is the out-pouring of his mystic ecstasy. Poetry has the closest affinity to mysic expericet and the poet who has a soul-sight of divine beauty communicates by the magic of his words,his inner vision to the sahrdays or responsive minds and induces the same exalted mood in them."329 This in- terpretation is more in line with the philosophy of Plato than with that of Visistadvaita. If the above is true, art is merely an imita- tion and this is quite foreign to Visistadvaitic conceptions of Beauty,soul and cosmology. What happens is,as it has been al- ready ponted out, Brahman manifests Himself through the artist or the poet. In connection with the discourse on the nature of Jiva, Isvara and liberation, it is pointed out that the ultimate object of the 250 embodied soul caught in the traps of births and deaths, is to exhaust its audya and karma acquired in its past births, to reach the Absolute abode of God and to be in eternal communion with him. The released soul then will be in direct contact with the infinite beauty of Brahman and will be expenriencing bliss that is complete and infinite. That state, as the author of the Panduranga- mahatmyam explains, is akin neither to that of a stone nor to that of sound sleep 330 It is pure ananda unsullied and unadul- terated. A work of art, either plastic or formal, will reveal to the responsive thrill and makes him crave for it. Thus it gives him a foretaste of the absolute and encourages him to seek the eternal In doing so, it disciplines the warrng instincts and desires in man, regulates them and directs them towards Brahman Man has fallen from his eternal abode not because he has passions and desires but simply because he has been unable to control them and put them in proper channels. When he is able to regu- late and direct them towards the absolute, he is sure to be re- leased from samsara. The Bhagavata says --

Studies in Kalapurnodauam

A work of art actually induces the responsve mind to do this, and as such, art is important in life. It has at least as much value as science or philosophy, if not more. Given such value, a work of art true to its grain cannot indulge in sheer moral depravity, ob- noxious nihilism and unbearable pessimism. If it does, it ceases to be a work of art. It is invariably the result of nıskāmakarma on the part of the artist. Neither economic considerations nor politi- cal motives should determine its compostion or emergence. In that pure spirit of dedication to the Almighty who has bestowed the Vedas on us, it must be composed. In this context it is to be remembered that to follow the rites and commands prescribed by sastra ıs certainly a nışkamakarma When such is the nature and value of Art, when it is thus given a utilitaran role to play, hierarchy n the field of Arts must result. Approached from this angle, poetry holds the sceptre among the Arts, spatial, temporal and ideal, because no other Art can claim so much clearty of thought, enlightenment of the soul, 251

width of experience, comparative absence of the limitaion of the medium, and preoper discipline of the passions and emotions as poetry dees Next comes music which is merely a temporal art And this is followed by painting and then sculptre; architecture and other arts can claim only a position next to sculpture. The above exposition of the nature of Beauty and Art has nowhere touched the subject of rasa which had been invarbly discussed by almost every Indian wrter on Alamkara Sastra Has Visistadvaita nothing to say on this subject, or is it completely incompatible with this philosophy? Neither of the two surmises is vaild because rasa is not in any way antagonistc to Visistadvaita Just as Naivayıkās, Vaisesikās, Sānkhyas, Trikavādıns and Advaitmns have interpreted rasa sutra in the hght of their schools,332 so also Visistadvaita can read its own philosphy into it. But be- fore one tres to interpret it in the light of Visstadvaita, one has to consider the expositions of Abhinavagupta who was a Käshmiri Saıva of Pratyabhijna school, and Pandıtaraya, an Advaitin, pure and simple. G V Knsnna Rao

The aphorism of Bharata on rsa in the explanation of which, the battles that were fought in the field of epistemolgy were con- tinued, runs as follows :- .333

Both Abhinavagupta and Panditaraya agree on the points that the words samyoga and nispatti in the above sutra mean sugges- tion (dhvani) and realisation (prakasa or carvana) respectively but they differ in accunting for this experience. While the former explains it from the standpoint of Realistic Monism, the latter interprets it from that of Advaita. Abhinava's theory regarding aesthetic experience, to give in a few words, may be explained thus: Every one of us is born with some innate qualites (vasanas) and these remain in the mind in latent from. When we read a poem or attend the performance of a drama,the vibhavas, anubhavås and vyabhicars there in get into our mind. The three

252 kinds of bhavas which in the day-to-day life are of the nature of causes, effects and associates (sahacans) become ideal (aloukıka) when they are grasped by the mind. This transmutation is due to imagination which is roused to action by the suggestivity of the presented. Set to work, this imagination which is otherwise called bhavana or pratibha universalıses the three kınds of bhavās on the one hand,and deindividualises the subject or percepient on the other. By this process the vibhavas etc. are cut off from time, space, relationship, intent and purpose. The hero. the hero- ine and their activites, when presented by imagination, lose their partculartty and direction. Suppose we are reading the Abhijnana Sakuntala and durng that time what we see in our imagination is not the particular ındıviduals, Dusyanta and Säkuntala. Their individualities disappearing,we see only forms or ideas of the non- mundance (aloukıka) nature. These peculiar entities presented by the imagination are not of the nature of mundaness (loukikatva, error (mithya), indescnbability (arrvacya) and similarity to world- liness. Nor are they of superimposition."34 By the same process the subject or percepient also becomes deindividualised. He for- gets his individuality, his name, position. ego, personal disposi- tion, likes and dislikes,and intents and purposes. His knowledge Studies in Kaiapurnodayam

becomes unconditioned and it may be said that even the five sheaths of kāla, vidya, raga, niyati and kala encasing the soul or Atman fall back revealing it in its true nature. In this state the subject is neither opposed to or disinterested in the pure forms presented by the imagination. As these pure forms develop and their suggestivity internsifies, the subject which is now the universalised consciousness begins to dentity itself with them. As the process intensifies, the basic mood or sthayibhava which is being suggested also rises to a higher pitch. Because universalised consciousness is pure bliss, and because the four bhavās, vibhavas, anubhavas, vyabhicans and sthayin become its qualities due to the process of indentification,the latter are also pure bliss or ananda.335 Even after the complete identifica- tion, the object does not disappearaltogether. It is still a unity in duality. This contnuous realisation of universalised conscious- ness is vimarsa and camatkara, rasana, carvana, nırvrti, pramatrunsrantı, svarupavisrantı, ananda, and paramabhoga are 253 its synonyms. Such is the aesthetic experience which comes un- der the second category, Saktı of Pratyabhijna school, as distin- gushed from Parama Siva, its first category. This exposition of rasa, though highly complidated,is more satisfactory than any other theory and completely accords with experience. Ifthere is to be any difference of opinion, it should be purely on grounds of its philosophical implications. Coming to the interpretation of Panditaraya it may be ex- plained as follows :- "When an aesthete reads a beautifull poem of appropriate and sweet (lalita) compositon (sannwvesa), it evokes ideas in him as a result of his mental activity. These will be in the form of Dusyanta, Säkuntala etc. Due to the imaginative fac- ulty of the mind these ideas become free from the particularty of Dusyanta, Säkuntla etc. and become ideal so much so that they can arouse the latent impressions (vasanas) in him. In this state they are called ideal vibhavas, anubhavas and vyabhicaris which have been already existent in the form of causes, effects and asociates. What happens in the present is they arise afresh hay- G. V. Knshna Rao

ing this ideality about them. By these three ideal bhavas there arises an activity of non-mundane (aloukika) nature. The veil that covers the blissful (ananda) aspect of the subject will be removed resulting in the disappearance of its limitedness and other su- perimposed qualites. The subject now shines in its self-luminos- ity and blissful nature and at the same time illumines rati etc. Which is already existent in a latent from (vasana). This which is being manifested or illumined is rasa 336 This explanation of aesthetic expenence, though fitting beau- tifully into the philosphy of Advaita, is unsatisfactory because it brings down this unique expericence to the level of error. It may be protested that this is blissful,but all the same it is an illusion,a dream. This is clearly admitted by Panditaraya himself when he asys that the vibhāvas, anubhavas and vyabhicaris presented by bhavana are not in their natre opposed to horses etc. seen in a

254 dream or the silver on the stage.337 No one after reading a beauti- ful poem or after attending the performance of a drama feels that he has a sweet dream or a beautiful illusion.338 Abhinavagupta has expressed only an undeniable fact when he says :- 330 8s e "Even Panditaraya's further elucidation that aesthetic expenence is similar to that of savikalpasamādhi340 does not improve the position because the prop or alambana which the yögin takes for his contemplation is practically insignificant. Can one attribute the same to a work of Art which is the reason of the aesthetic expenence? This may be platable to those egoists and solipsists who mantain that the subject is everything and the object a mere nothing or illusion, but not to them that give some value to the object.34) This review naturally leads us to the approach of Visistadvaita. It is therefore necessary to examine what it has to say on this problem. As already observed, Visistadvaita maintains that every in- dividual object in the space-time world has not only a body and a soul but also the Absoulte which is all-pervading in its heart. It is also to be rememhered that mind is the seat of latent impres- sions, tendencies and memories, and has imaginative faculty or Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

pratibha in addition. Besides these it has the three qualities of sattva, rajas and tamas. Due to the attachment of this mind, Atman's knowledge is limited. With these points in view let us see what happens in an acsthetc when he reads a beautiful poem, 0.Why it is called O and not X is this, it is an object having body, soul and the Absolute within O The soul S in the aesthte comes into contact with O through its mind M. The object O is real and as such has real power. Due to the suggestive power in O, the imaginative faculty of M is awakended when sattva predominates over its two asocates, rajas and tamas Because sattva is of the nature of knowledge, rajas of activity and tamas of moha or iner- tia M becomes pure and acquires the nature conducive to con- templation. There will be, at this stage, neither motor activity nor mertia or moha. The conditionedness of S is removed with this new development. It sees through M which has become ideal or aprakrta. As these ideal bhavas develop, suggest the unity un- derlying, and reveal Brahman, S will be thrilled; the dominant 255 mood (sthayin) corresponding to the bhavas being latent in M nses to the highest pitch. Because of the presence of Brahman whose very qualities are reality, consciousness and bliss (ananda) the manifested sthayin is transmuted into that of ananda. Thus S will be completely filled by Brahman. It rests in Brahman. Such being the nature of aesthetic experience, it is Bhagavadusranti or paramatmavisranti as contrasted with atmavisranti, or svarüpavisranti and pramatrvisrānti. Visiștāndvaitin agrees with the Kashmir Saiva when he says that camatkāra, rasana, nirvrti, paramabhöga and ananda are sysnonyms. Entirely differing with the Advaitin who completely denies the activity of tadatmya or identifications, Visistadvaitin agrees with the Saiva on this point but says that complete identification resulting in oneness never occurs. The distinctness of the two pensts according to the former, whereas it disappears in the final stage according yto the latter. Such, in short, is the nature of rasa as can be explainted by the Visstadvaitin. Nevertheless he has as any real aesthete would have,certain reservation in accepting rasa as the soul of poetry or work of Art in general.Firstly rasa when defined as the G. V. Knshna Rao

manifested sthayin, bhava and their semblance or abhasa etc. does not include vastudhvani and alamkaradhvani which are in no way insignificant. As a matter of fact Panditaraya severely criticises Visvantha's definition342 that poetry is the sentence hav- ing rasa as its soul. When Abhinava said that there is no poetry without rasa343 or that all poetry lives by rasa alone, he did not rule out vastudhavani and alamkaradhvani from the province of pextry.3 Rasa, therefore, in its strict sense does not cover the whole province of Beauty. Secondly,there is difference of opiønion regarding the number of rasas. Abhinavagupta and others, strictly following the authority of Bharata, maintain that rasas are only nine and try to fit devotion (bhakti), affection (vatsalya) love (preman) and others into them by including the latter either under any one of the said rasas or under the bhavas.345 But this,if one is to speak the truth, is quite arbitrary. To try to explain human experience 256 from certain preconceived instincts (Vasanas) or complexes (manomalinyas) is ignoring the richness and infiniteness of the Mind itself.36 This is exactly the reason why Gestalt psycholgy along with Behavioursm is now-a-days gaining more ground than purposive psychology and psycho-analysis. The arbitrariness infixing the number of rasas is more clearly revealed than any- where else when Panditaraya gives his ruling:

Sாகி. வரதுமுகணண் மல்

ஸ்ாஞுஸ்க ஜூரஸ் :. 347 Whether this ruling is justified or not,a Visistadvatin who be- lieves in and gives the greatest value to Bhakt cannot admit or reconcile himself to the theory which does not concede rasatva to Bhakti, Dasya, Sakhya and Vatsalya. Because of these two con- siderations he is neither opposed nor strongly attached to rasa theory. Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

Now to summarise the conception of Beauty according to Visıstadvaita, it is the quality of the Absolute and as such univer- sal, changeless and infinite. It is not an object of perception or recollection or recongnition or inference or analogy or presump- tion. It is a quality of which Jiva can have an intuition or vision which is immediate and which gives infinite bliss, truth, good- ness, softness, coolness, sweetness, etc., the co-existing quali- ties of Brahman. The intuition of one of them, therefore, com- prses all the other auspicious qualities. The Absolute being both immanent and transcendental manifests itself in five forms para, vbhava, vyuha, antaryamin and arca. They are the modes ofIsvara of perfect Beauty. The universe is a result of His sport or Lila and also helps to Brahmanise the individual souls steeped in visayakama. Thus Beauty has not only intrinsic value but also utility. Due to this latter valued poetry occupiies the highest po- sition whereas music, painting and other fine arsts come next only in due order. The beauties of nature and the fair forms of 257 human and celestial beings are but partial revelation of the un- surpassed beauty of Brahamn. Reality is essentially beautiful,but the world being steeped in sensuality and sin renders it ugly. Creators and lovers as they are, artists and aesthetes are mainly devotees. The artist is only an instrument selected by God for the creation of a work of Art,and the drawbacks and the blemishes, if there are any, are entirely those of the instrument. Without di- vine grace no one can become an artist, but all the same cultiva- ton and training are necessary. Theory of rasa, though not in- compatible, does not cover the whole province of Beauty.

G V. Knshna Rao

CHAPTER XII SURANAS THEORY OF BEAUTY AND OF ITS EMERGENCE

Before proceeding to enqune mw me nature of Beauty as conceived by Surana, it is important to bear one point in mind. Kalāpūrnodayam is mainly a poem and not a treatise on aesthetics,and hence it deos not deal with the subject directly topic by topic as logic demands, but simply suggests it as dic- tated by relish or carvana. Creation of Beauty thus being the end in view,one should not expect either an elaborate and critical exposition or citattion of past and contemporary theones as in a regular treatise such as Dhvanyaloka, Resagangädhara etc. When such is the case one has to be careful not to miss the various

258 suggestions about Beauty and theory of Art scatterd over the whole length and breadth of the poem, and at the same time every precaution is to be taken so that one may not read one's own thoughts into these suggested ideas. Only to avoid this par- ticular danger, the fundamental principles of the philosophy of Visstadvaita and its conception of Beauty are given. So long as these points are kept in view, this enquiry will not be futile. The first suggestion about theory of Beauty is given to us when Kalabhasini admires Manikandhara's poetry in the follow- ing terms: "Moonlight is both cool and beautiful but lacks fra- grance. Crystals of camphor have coolness, beauty and fragrance, but they do not have softness. All these qualities are to be found in the gentle breezes emanating from the Malayaparvata but they are deficient in one thing .If they have only that sweetness, the words of this poet may be imagined to have equals in them."348 Here the objects brought in for comparison with the words of the poet are the moonlight, crystals of camphor and the gentle breezes which are all physical objects and which are deficient in one way or other when compared. That means Beauty in poetry is not an object of perception. In this context what are considerd are cool-

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

and therefore Beauty is only a quality which cannot be grasped by perception. Then this question naturally arises, of which sub- stance is it a quality? Before answering it one has to consider another point also. If the poet thinks Beauty to be a quality, why docs he bring in the above and not the ten qualities or gunas Does not Dandin in his Kavyadarsa clearly say this?

Only two qualities mentioned by the poet are to be found in the list of the Alamkarikas and the other two have completely noth- ing to do with them. Therefore these four do not refer to Kāvya gunas and must belong to some other thing. If one only recollects what has been said in connection with the philosophy of Visistădvaita, it will be clearly evident that splendour, beauty, fragrance, tenderness, loveliness, youthfulness, softness etc. are 259

the qualiitiss of the divine and auspicious body of Brahman.350 Now it can be clearly seen that Beauty is a quality of Brah- man and that it is not an object of perception. The word 'Jo85' in the original text plainly indcates that it is revealed through im- agination and nothing else. At this juncture there may be a suspicion of reading one's own thought into the stanza. But this will be dispelled immediatly ifit is remembered that this idea is expressed by no other person than Kalabhasini who is not only a citizen of Dvaraka and a staunch devotee of Krsna but also a courtezan well accomplished in so many fine arts.351 Therefore Beauty is quality of Brahman and not a substance colour, sound, or word. Nor can it be grasped through perception or inference. Imagination only reveals it, and except this there is no other means of experiencing it. That Beauty abides in the five forms of Brahman,the tran- scendental, the incarnational, the vyuha, the immanent and the arcavatara is clearly suggested throughout the poem. In connec- G. V. Knshna Rao

tion with the fundamental principles of Visistadvaita and its. concept of Beauty,the nature of these five forms has been explained. In view of this one can easily understand the signifi- cance of ıntroducing Laksmı Narayana-Samvāda, Sri krsna, and the descriptions of the sacred places of piligrimage and the gods thereat. In the former the poet has given a graphic picture of the transcendental or para and in the second he has described one of the most important incarnations of Visnu. The elaborate de- scription of Manikandhara's pilgrimage gives various sacred idols or arcavataras of Visnu. The immanent aspect of Brahman is revealed through all the characters. None of them, however bad, is completely devoid of goodness,and none is represented as an embodiment of evil,pure and simple. The poet has every opportu- nity to paint Salyasura black without any trace of whiteness in him. But the very fact that the poet humanises him, as Dr.Reddy has pointed out, plainly shows that God is present in each and

260 very creature in the universe however ugly and censurable his form and character may be. Due to this conception alone on the part of the poet one finds the spark of true love in Salyasura. Not only in this character but also in every other person that appears in the story one sees something divine and lovable about him. The form uyuha of Brahman is only for the purpose of crea- tion of worlds etc. as it has been cited on more than one occa- sion. The poetic canvas of Surana extending over the three worlds- the worlds of Brahma, Indra and the mortals-suggests beyond doubt this form of vyuha. Had he not this in view, he would not have these three worlds as the scenes of action and would not have conceived the story in such a way that there appears to be no unity of place. Thus according to the poet Beauty abides in five forms. Because Beauty is a quality of Brahman, and because a quality does not exist apart from its substance, a beautiful object is a mode of the Absolute. Man or nature, therefore, cannot be its cause. Brahman alone is its cause, the one who is generally con- sidered to be the cause or agent in its manifestation is only an instrument and nothing else. This idea is clearly brought out by the follwoing lines: Studies in Kalapurnodayam

When Beauty is a quality and a beautiful object a mode of Brahman, the artist is only an instrument seleeted by Him for its manifestation. One will be selected to be an artist either by one's great merit or by divine grace. Barring these two,there is no other way open to become a genuine artist. One may devote all his energy and skill to the cultivation of his mind, but without this divine grace it is of no use. This point is clearly suggested by more than one episode in the story. Narada,the divine seer,in his anxiety to excel Tumburu in music tries every means at hand, studies under each and every teacher well. known for music but fals to achieve the standard required. At last, through his severe penance, he wins the grace of the Lord and becomes a perfect musician. Even though all this trouble is not undergone by Kalabhasını and Manıkandhara, they also become great musicians because they have earned the grace of Sri Krsna. This is plainly 261 brought to the forefront when Narada says :-

Manikandhara becomes a poet only after acquiring the grace of Mrgendravahana by cutting off his tongue with the sword in that temple. This information is gained when he says :-

ஸ்வில கனரை கக் ஸஜ்

G V Knshna Rao

Prathamagama and his three brothers are able to indulge in vicitrakavitva because they are the embodiment of the four Vēdās.355 Since Beauty is a quality of Brahman,and since it mani- fests itself by divine grace through the instrumentality of the in- dividual artist, the artist and the aesthte must be devotees. There cannot be any other relation between the Absolute and the indi- vidual self who entirely depends on Him to get his sustenance. This aspect is clearly illustrated by Narada, Manikandhara and Kalabhasini. All the three are devotees and artists of the highest 262 rank. Narada, is musician. Kalabhāsini has, on the other hand hand, mastery over painting, dancing and music. As Brahman is the ultimate goal and the very basis of the universe and as the creative faculty is the gift of divine grace, the poet or any artist must create in a spirit of complete devotion to Him. No other ulterior motive, pecuniary, personal, social or par- tisan gains should weigh with him in his creative activities. To portray Brahman, to please Him and to adore Him and to dedi- cate himself to Him he must devote his faculty. This is exactly the advice of narada to Manikandhara on the eve ofhis departure when the former says:

This is once again repeated when the vaisnava devotees advise Manikandhara in the following manner :-

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Answering the doubt regarding the utility of such an action they say :- 263

358

This poetry or any Art devoted and dedicated to Brahman will certainly, Surana opines,put the agent on the path of bhakti, the royal road to release or Moksa. It may not take place immediately and in the very same birth, but nonetheless it will have its effect at some point in the continuum. Can the sastras do more than this to their followers? Hence genuine Art has as much value as Sastra or philosophy if not more. We have seen the value of a work of Art from the standpoint of the artist. Now it is necessary to enquire into its value to the aesthete or other individuals who do not participate in its crea- tion but only enjoy it. This aspect of Art is not dealt with directly as in the previous instances but suggested in a roundabout man- aevbxAsrdapruna's conquest. Kalapurna signifies, as it is going

to be explained under the theory of emergence of Art, only a full fledged work of Art and nothing else. The poets's elaborate de- scription of Kalapuma's conquest of the kingdoms of Gauda of Kalāpūrna's conquest of the kingdoms of Gauda, Utkala, Kalınga, Dravıda, Pāndya. Kērala, Ghurjara, Kuru, Kasi, Pragjyotisa and other countnes bears a twofold significance, one in the context of the emergnce of Art and the other in the context of its objective value. Because the second aspect is under consideration,it is nec- essary to see what the poet suggests in this respect. From the above list of the kings conquered by Kalapurna,it is evident that a genuine work of Art will not only overcome the barriers of space but also of language and custom.It subdues unruly passions and emotions and establishes a rule of order and peace. This conception of the universality and utility of Art is not in any way peculiar to Surnan alone. Almost all the Älamkankas359 have invanably expressd the same opinion. There 264 may be one two writers like Panditaraya360 who have not stressed upon its utility, but nevertheless they do not deny it altogether. More valuable than the above practical use is than spir- itual aspect. With the gradual development of taste the sense of Beauty in the aesthete also develops. The craving for Beauty and quest for it increases in him as a result of which he acquires the spint of enquiry into its very nature. This search naturally leads him to see the truth that it is the quality of Brahman and there by to try to achieve that particular state which will enable him to be in eternal communion with the Absolute in which Beauty abides. Thus a good work of Art helps to realise the spirtual values,to leave behind the lusts of the flesh and thus to lift one- self above samsara. This is what is meant when the Vaisnavites informed Manikandhara that his composition would put him on the path of bhakti. After the survey of the nature of Beauty in general as con- ceived by Surana one can now turn to his theory of poetry. Before dealing with the subject, it is not out of place to mention that there are two divergent opinions. The first opinion which claims Studies in Kalapurnodayam

to be in regular contact with the traditionsl views of Alamkāra Sastra argues that though the poet has not much to say about the nature of poetry in the Kalapurnodayam,he has tried to say something in his Prabhavatpradyumnam. It adds further that the poet's suggeston as to the imagination required on the part ot the reader to enjoy his later work hints at the poet's acquaint- ance with dhvart.361 The second opinion which does not seem to know the very significance of the Alamkarka terminology which the poet uses,maintains that Surana's conception of style had changed in the Prabhävatipradyumnam for the better. While in the Kalapurnodayam, according to this opiion, the poet was much attached to the Alankara Sastra, in the latter he evinced no such taith.362 But it is unfortunate that both the opinions should miss the truth and thus belittle Surana's achievement. If the first opin- ion ignores that Surana is the precursor to Panditaraya, the sec- ond does not perhaps realise that there is practically no change in his theory of poetry. 265 Before one takes up Surana's conception of poetry, one has to recollect that the Absolute conceived by Visistadvaita is, un- like that of Advaita and Kashmir Saivism, not abstract but con- crete having qualities and body. Though it is distinct from the body, it does not exist apart from the body. Similarly the body also is distinct and different from the Absolute, but it does not and cannot exist separately from the Absolute. It lives and ac- quires value and meaning as the body of the Absolute, and not as an independent entity. Every object in the space-time world is only a mode of the Absolute drawing from it its sustenance and breath .From the standpoint of Advaita these objects are not real but illusory where as for Käshmir Saivism they are real. For both of them these objects ultimately become one with the Absolute thereby losing their individuality. Visistadvaita,on the other hand, belives that though they attain the nature of Brahman they do not lose their individualıty. This conception has inspired Surana to come out with a new definition of poetry. As it has been observed on a previous occasion, every object consists of a body, soul and the all-pervad- G V. Knshna Rao

ing Brahman. Though these three factors have different values, one cannot exclude any one of them from reality, and reality con- sists of these three factors. A poem is an object and as such must consist of these three factors, the body, the soul and the Absolure. If the word is the body, the content is its soul, and beauty its Absolute. Because all the three factors are real, a poem cannot exist without any one of them. To stress the equal impor- tance of the body, Surana defined poetry as the composition of words fitting into each orhber like strings of pearls strung into harmony.363 This vague definition becomes clear with the relative position given to dhvani, rasa, riti, guna and alamkara pertaining to both the word and the meaning. Though noboky seems to have taken pains either to understand or explain this definition, it 1s clear that what the poet means here is that a self-evident and self-sufficient composition of words having unity in variety is po- etry. This is not reading one's own thoughts into the poem be- 266 cause he himself explains his definition in the Prabhavati- pradyumnam when he says through Sucimukhi :-

To put it in other words,while grammatical purity of words is nowhere neglected, affinity among the words should exist manly in view of the richness of meaning. Thought must be very clear,

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

involving no difficulty for the reader and at the same time there should be no repetition whatever is necessary for understanding it should be supplied without losing oneself in unnecessary details by leaping from one point to another. What is important in the context should be established firmly. With reason pervadıng, and with no contradictions between the preceding and the succeeding, the various parts, sentences and purports must be in complete unity with the whole, the Mahavakya or the Mahakavya. All this is implied when the poet says that poetry 1s a compositionof words fitting into each other like strings of pearls strung into harmony. As a matter of fact he strictly followed the principle to the letter as discussed and explained in Chapters 5 and 6. When he gives this definition he is quite well aware of the various theories of dhvani, rasa, riti, guna and alamkara which were advocated by his predecessors. This is quite obvious from the fact that the poet not only mentions them, but also assigns them their respective places in his theory. In the verse "XcX 267 S3585' he comes from the highest principle to the lowest which is sabdalamkara. What he means there is that a poem is a com- position of words which is self-sufficient,self-evident and manı- festing unity in diversity. This is brought about, he thinks, only through dhvani. And dhvanikara and Abhinava have already es- tablished how riti, guna and alamkara are subordinate to dhvani. He borrows this picture in toto and attaches it to his theory to make it both comprehensive and at the same time synthetic. Just as Panditaraya accepts the theory of dhvani and defines poetry as the word that manifests beautiful meaning, so also Surana accepts dhvani and defines it as a composition of words that is self-sufficient, self-evident and at the same time manifesting unity in deversity. Thus he makes poetry a mode of the Absolure, more concrete and definite that of pandıtaraya. Now coming to the second opinion that Surna betrays no longer any attachment to Alamkara Sastra in the Prabhavati- pradyumnam, one can say that it has no textual support. If the second opinion is true, why should Sucimukhi announce with pride that she has recived the title upama-tisayokti-kamadhēnu G. V. Knshna Rao

from Sarasvati? Ifhe had no respect and attachment to Alamkara he would have made Sucimikhi inform us that she had recived some other title than upama-tisayôktı-kāmadhénu Besides,as ex- plained in the previous paragralp the poet is only making ex- plicit what is implicit in the first line of the verese beginning with c 38a5 ..... . If this is not conceded, sucimikhi's title can- not be consistent with the conception of poetry defined in the verse beginning with edod7d3w .. . which occurs in the very same book, Therefore the second opinion appears to be only an opinion, not based on facta and understanding. Suruana's con- ception of poetry and Art as revealed in the Kalapurnodaym had not changelby the time when he wrote his Prabhavatıpradyumnam because, as had already been pointed out, there was no changed in his outlook on life. What is to be seen is only, as Dr.Reddy points out, matunty of his style in the Prabhavatıpradyumnam. It had gamed more mn crspness, ease, depth and naturalness 268 that is all. Before considering the relative merits and dements of Surana's definition of poetry,one has to understand his theory regarding the emergence of Art which occpies a predominant position in the Kalapumodavm. There are many theones defin- ing Art and explaining aesthetic expenence but there seems to be not even one apparently accepatable theory regarding the emer- gence of Art.

EMERGENCE OF ART

Art according to Surana is neither imitation nor reflection of Nature. The artist,he firmly believes, does not hold the murror up to Nature and produce thereby a permanent record of fleeting images of life. Much less does he select certain portions of it that are universal and record them through his medium. He does not echo simply what is felt and thought by the majority like politi- cian. Nor does he create out of an empty brain something daz- zling and attractive. For him artistic creations are not in any way illusory or erroneous. Both a Realist and an Individualist that he Studies in Kalapurnodayam

s, he not only admits the pluralistic world and its influence on the artist, but also concedes it as the ground for the emergence of Art. His own contribution lies in the realisation that a work of Art results through the artist's reaction to life that is going on with- out and within. Without this individualtity reacung and creaung,there cannot be Art. Individualistic expenence, there- fore, is the sine qua non for a work of Art. But it is not the be-all and the end-all because, in that case, an individual's pnvate ex- penences, illusions and drems also become works of Art. What is meant is that artistic creation begins here and it is the first stage. The second stage commences with the sublimation or transfor- mation which is again owing to subjective conditions such as the artist's outlook, reaction and culture on the one hand, and to the objective conditions such as events in the world and its conven- tions and regulations on the other. Even at this stage, this crea- tion will not differ in the least from our day-to-day life. Nor does it possess grater value, higher reality or deeper significance. In the third and final stage, the artis's imagination makes it self-suffi- 269 cient and self-evident. In this stage of development what are im- plicit in the experience of the second stage are made explicit and vice-versa as demanded by the two principles of self-sufficiency and self- evidence. Even new things and events may be added for fulfilling the two principles. In this process, at this stage, objec- tive life will play to some extent its own role. By the time when this expenence emerges as a work of Art, imagination sees to the other aspect of making the unity in diversity very clear. Thus a full-fledged work of Art, as it emerges is neither pure subjective experience like a dream nor pure unversal expenence like that of mathematics or any other exact science. It is sui geners, a unique fusion of percept and concept. According to Surana it is only universalised individualistic experence and not a univesal expe- nence made concrete as pure idealists maintain. Now one may wonder whether such a theory is really put forth by Surana anywhere in the Kalapurnodayam. But the fact is he has done it, and in a more deataild manner too. It is necessary,therefore, to examine how he does it and what other minute details he provides. G. V. Knshna Rao

To every student of the Kalāpūrnodaym it is well known that Sarasvatı-Caturmukha-Krida is the very seed out of which the entire theme of the poem emerges. Without this there is neither unity nor value. In one word, Brahma, the divine artist, is the reason and ground for the whole creation. Out of his personal expenence emerges the whole story in all its aspects. How does this occur? Has he created it out of his pure imagina- tion with nothing to guide him and no material to mould? This is far from the truth and facts speak aginist such conclusion. His dalhance with his beloved in the garden near the lake, with a manistambha in its centre, is the very substance which is sublimated or transformed into the basic elements of the story. Sarasvatı and her various actions and reactions,the parrot in the cage,and the lake with its pillar reflecting the beautiful face of the goddess are really there and Brahma puts them together. Why does he do it? Does he want to puclaim his creative power 270 or impart some message to the anxiously awaiting universe at large? These considerations are not felt at all. He simply reacts to the beauty of Sarasvatı, his love for her sublimates every ele- ment into some other thing. As the various incidents in that epi- sode are already touched upon in one of the preceding chapters, they need not be repeated here. What concern us here are the vanious froms they assume in the pocess of sublimation. The reflected face of Sarasvatı, the poet himself tells us, 304 is the King Kalapuma. Her arched eye-brows, and sidelong glances are the bow and arrows bestowed by a siddha named Svabhāva on the king, whereas her beautiful lip becomes the jewel. The lake easily gests itself transformed into a city called Kasārapura. Brahma's desire, expenience of formal beauty and courage are changed into the Kıng Madāsaya, his wife Rupānubhuti and his minster Dhirabhava, while the four faces of Caturmukha be- comes the four purohits of Madasaya. Sarasvati's self is spoken of as Satvadātman, the minister of Kalapurna. Her proximity and Manistambha are transformed into Sumakhasatti and Manistabha, are transformed into Sumakhasatti and Manistambha, the fa- Studies in Kalapurnodayam

ther and mother of Kalapurna respectively. The gentle smile on the face of the goddess becomes Abhinavakaumudi, the wife of Kalapurna. Brahma's sweet solicitation assumes the form of Madhuralalasa, the daughter of Madasaya and the second queen of Kalapurna. With these transformations and new realtions sarasvatı- Caturmukha-Krida sublımates itself into the following story :- There lives in the city of Kasārapura a kıng named Kalapurņa. He conquers all the contemporaneous king without the least ef- fort. The moment he is born he becomes a sturdy youth and re- ceives a jewel, a bow and arrows invested with supernatural pow- ers. In course of time he comes across Madaya, and he not only defeats him but also makes him his vassal. This hero is later on loved by Abhinavakaumudi whom he accepts as his wife. Sumakhäsatti and her husband Manistabha are his father and mother. With the help of his minister, Satvadatman, he becomes 271 the anointed kıng of Angadēsa which has Kramuka-Kanthottara for its capital. Madasaya, having constructed golden fort around the metropolis, earns the sympathy of the monarch whose jewel bestows on Ruppanubhuti a bady called Madhuralālasa. Attracted by the jewel, the four Agamäs also attend upon the monarch when it so happens that one of them offends Kalapurna by fondling with it too much. Getting wild, Kalapurna drives away the four purohits and demolishes the fort built by Madāsaya. Unable to bear this insult, the latter leaves the court along with his wife and child and goes to Madhyadesa. On his way he comes across a pair of beautiful pots which gives him much solace and pleas- ure. But in the meanwhile his baby, Madhuralālasa, loses her health whereupon he once again returns to the court of Kalpurna. To his great surprise, the baby recovers immediately. Naturally Maaasaya attributes this spontaneous recovery to her love for Kalapurna and requests Kalapurna to accept her as his wife. By this time she has attained proper age and enjoys the fruit of con- jugal love with Kalapurna.

The later events in the love episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha are beautifully fitted into the story by Brahma when he consoles the curesed parrot with the boon that she will in her second birth he born as Madhuralalasa and marry Kalapurna. At the same time he utters a warning or a blessing that one reveal- ing this story will be born on the earth and enjoy a long and prosperous life. Now the question is why and how this sublimation or tranformation has taken place. Only one thing is known beyond doubt-every word and phrase suggests the love affair between Sarasvatı and Caturmukha. Why does the divine artist suppress facts as they are and burst into the language of symbols and suggestion? This question has been touched upon by Prof. S.Kuppuswamy Sastri and discussed at some length when he says :- "What is the secret of the force of vyarjana as an artistic

272 principle? I refer to the suppressed elements in the case of sug- gestion. Why should there be a suppressed elements at all even in ordinary sentences? We wish to create a minimum degree of interest possible in the minds of heares. Wighout interesting the hearers to some extent at least, we cannot create anything like a desirable impression on the minds of the readers. Even to attract attention, a minimum degreee of interest we should provide, and the elements of suppression is necessary. Now this element of suppression may be enhanced in its value, this element of sup- pression may be intensified, may be improved upon in various ways; in poetic expression, it is this element of suppression and the principle of suggestion that rests upon it that prove all im- portant. In fact it was discovered in the 9th and 10th centuries A. D. by Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta that this is the centre, the soures of poetic charm. Well, what is the secret of this attraction? What is the secret of this force? Some people would say that there is an element of novelty in vyanjana or suggestion. The suggested idea is envisaged with a certain degree of novelty. What is suppressed and let out, and what is suppressed and suggested may appear novel or may be envisaged with a certain Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

putlook of freshness for the time being. Is this the element that is the real source of attraction? I do not think it is the real source of attraction. It is suggested by a Sanskrit writer that there is scope for some sort of intellectual quest in the process of vyarjana, quest provided in vyanjana certainaly leads to some conquest. Now these two things, quest and conquest, are enough to create some interest. Well, is it decause of the scope for quest and con- quest that we have in vyafyjana that it proves to be attractive? There is some truth in this explanation but it is not the whole truth. The same idea is expressed in some works on Sanskrt poetics in another way. Something is concealed for the time be- ing, and concealing for a moment and withholding from your view might tend to enhance the degree of charm, like distance, con- cealing and withholding might lead to enhance its charm-gudham sat camatkarotı. Like the charms of an attractive beauty which do not obtrude upon notice in an immodest way, but which are pre- sented through a veil and in a properly concealed fashion, like 273 the physical charms of a modest beauty, then suggested element when it is presented, when it is disclosed after some degree of concealment proves to be attractive. This is also true to some extent. But it is only a poetic way of presenting the other expla- nation. There is scope for quest and conquest here. But the fact is, as far as I have been able to gather, that vyanjana makes it possible for art, for every suggestive art to re-live its life in itself through a purely artistic process and to find its fulfilment and consummation in a definitely artistic purpose. That is the secret of the force of the whole charm of vyarjana". 365 All these points are too true to be denied,and as amatter of fact,Sarasvati's reaction to this story clearly substantiates them. The only thing, however, lacking in this explanation is the sub- jective aspect. It does not give the clue to the workings of Brahma's creatve faculty and the necessity for such a sublimation. This wonderful imagery can only be explaned if one takes Brahma's profound love for Sarasvati, the temporary check it receives from the latter and the characterstics of the language and the traditon G. V Knshna Rao

The later events in the love episode of Sarasvatı and. Caturmukha are beautifully fitted into the story by Brahma when he consoles the curesed parrot with the boon that she will in her second birth he born as Madhuralālasa and marry Kalāpurna. At the same time he utters a warning or a blessing that one reveal- ing this story will be born on the earth and enjoy a long and prosperous life. Now the question is why and how this sublimation or tranformation has taken place. Only one thing is known beyond doubt-every word and phrase suggests the love affair between Sarasvatı and Caturmukha. Why does the divine artist suppress facts as they are and burst into the language of symbols and suggestion? This question has been touched upon by Prof. S.Kuppuswamy Sastri and discussed at some length when he says :- "What is the secret of the force of vyanjana as an artistic

272 principle? I refer to the suppressed elements in the case of sug- gestion. Why should there be a suppressed elements at all even in ordinary sentences? We wish to create a minimum degree of interest possible in the minds of heares. Wighout interesting the hearers to some extent at least, we cannot create anything like a desirable impression on the minds of the readers. Even to attract attention, a minimum degreee of interest we should provide, and the elements of suppression is necessary. Now this element of suppression may be enhanced in its value, this element of sup- pression may be intensified, may be improved upon in various ways; in poetic expression, it is this element of suppression and the principle of suggestion that rests upon it that prove all im- portant. In fact it was discovered in the 9th and 10th centuries A. D. by Anandavardhana and Abhinavagupta that this is the centre, the soures of poetic charm. Well, what is the secret of this attraction? What is the secret of this force? Some people would say that there is an element of novelty in vyarjana or suggestion. The suggested idea is envisaged with a certan degree of novelty. What is suppressed and let out, and what is suppressed and suggested may appear novel or may be envisaged with a certain Studies in Kalapurnodayam

putlook of freshness for the time being. Is this the element that is the real source of attraction? I do not think it is the real source of attraction. It is suggested by a Sanskrit wrter that there is scope for some sort of intellectual quest in the process of vyanjana, quest provided in vyafyjana certainaly leads to some conquest. Now these two things, quest and conquest, are enough to create some interest. Well, is it decause of the scope for quest and con- quest that we have in vyafyana that it proves to be attractive? There is some truth in this explanation but it is not the whole truth. The same idea is expressed in some works on Sanskrt poetics in another way. Something is concealed for the time be- ing, and concealing for a moment and withholding from your view might tend to enhance the degree of charm, like distance, con- cealing and withholding might lead to enhance its charm-gudham sat camatkarötı. Like the charms of an attractive beauty which do not obtrude upon notice in an immodest way, but which are pre- sented through a veil and in a properly concealed fashion, like 273

the physical charms of a modest beauty, then suggested element when it is presented, when it is disclosed after some degree of concealment proves to be attractive. This is also true to some extent. But it is only a poetic way of presenting the other expla- nation. There is scope for quest and conquest here. But the fact is, as far as I have been able to gather, that vyanjana makes it possible for art, for every suggestive art to re-lve its life in itself through a purely artistic process and to find its fulfilment and consummation in a definitely artistic purpose. That is the secret of the force of the whole charm of vyanjand" 365 All these points are too true to be denied,and as amatter of fact,Sarasvati's reaction to this story clearly substantiates them. The only thing, however, lacking in this explanation is the sub- jective aspect. It does not give the clue to the workings of Brahma's creative faculty and the necessity for such a sublimation This wonderful imagery can only be explaied if one takes Brahma's profound love for Sarasvat, the temporary checkit receives from the latter and the charactenstics of the language and the traditon G V Knshna Rao

behind. Had Brahma to express himself in some other language, the story he gives would have been altogether different. On the other hand, if he had not such a strong desire there would have been no story at all; the lake would have continued to be a lake and Kalåpürna would not have been born. Therefore, it is abun- dantly clear that the very basis of the artist's creative activity is his strong reaction to life. He does not receive it calmly and coolly like a scientist. Much less does he resemble a camera, automati- cally recording whatever goes on before it. On the other hand, he transforms every event of his experience in such a way that it is loaded to the full with significance, attitude, feeling and unity. Every work and event in the story of Brahma speaks of his love to Sarasvatı and nothing else. The next question how this sublimation takes place 1s really a great problem which has been to some extent tackled and

274 solved by Sigmund Freud in his interpreatation of dreams. It is enough if one knows that it is the result of symnbolisation, inver- sion, displacement, fusion, condensation, overdetermination and the like.366 A Various forms of dhavant are nothing but the vari- ous techniques which the creative activity of the mine assumes. As space and scope are limited one cannot go further into these details. To return to the subject, the episode of Sarasvati and Caturmukha along with the story narrated by the latter com- prses only the first two stages in the emergence of art. That means, the whole train of events that takes place in the world of Brahma is only ordinary life. This statement in view of the story given by Brahma may be surprising. When there is so much of wonder, novelty and suggestion, why does it not become a work of art? Is it not said that suggestion or dhvani is the soul of poetry? Moreo- ver, why is it not different from ordinary life? When it is said that all the events happening in the world of Brahma are only the first two stages and that they do not differ form ordinary life,the meaning is this :- Life is a never-ending process; and as such, the preceding event badly wnats the Studies in Kalapumnodayam

succeeding, and the succeeding entirely depends on the preced- ing. Thus it will never be complete and self-event The events occurring in the world of Brahma are also of the same nature having no completeness and self-evidence. If it is argued that these events do differ from ordinary life on the ground that the former contain sublimation or transformation or suggestion, it 1s better to recollect from one's own experience that even ordinary life does not lack such sublimation. A mother, when her child becomes impetuous and puts up a strong resstance, cajoles it with its own story as Brahma does. Even in dreams one does the same thing by fantastic creation of one's wish-fulfilment. These are also parts of ordinary life. Simply because there is suggestion or sublimation t does not become an aesthetic experience. Supose two people who have no mutual goodwill happen to cross each other on a narrow stair-case, and suppose the first says impu- dently that he would not give way to fools while the other promptly retorts that he would. In this case there is ample suggestion-they 275 are calling each other fool. Does this exchange of workds become aesthetic experience for the two people involved in it? Even for others as spectators, it cannot be because they will wonder why there is so much acrimony exhibited. Therefore suggestion, sim- ple and pure, cannot be aesthetic expenence .It must have what Abhinavagupta calls atma-uisränti or self-sufficency and self-evi- dence. These are the only characterstice which differentiate life, private or public, from aesthetic experience. When it is said that the events in the world of Brahma are merely events of ordinary life, it means that they are not self-sufficient and self-evident. Now the question is, in what way is the story narrated by Brahma not self-sufficient and self-evident? That Kalāpūrna 1S born to his father Manıstambha by his mother Sumukhasattı and that he has become a youth the moment he is born are not self-evident. Such things do not happen in this world of space and time. Why does Svabhava bestow a jewel, a bow and arrows on Kaläpürna? How is the parrot born into the world of mortals and in what circumstances does she become an unchaste woman? G V Knshna Rao

Is that looseness of character an inherent or acquired quality? Above all, how has the story come to be known by mortals when there is the specific prohibition by Brahma? The accounts of abhimavakaumudi, Madhuralslāsa, Manıstambha, Sumukhāsattı, Madāsaya, Svabhāva and Satvadātman are too sketchy to give complete satisfaction. In the third and final stage of its emergence all these short- comings are overcome. Everything is made self-suffcient and self- evident. The story becomes a unique whole having unity in van- ety. For this purpose only the story of Narada, the temple of Mrgendravähana and the episode of the manihara are futher added though there is not even the slightest suggestion of them in the onginal. What are implict in the second stage are made explicit in the final. The story of Kalabhasını, Sumukhasatti, Abhinava- kaumudi, Alaghuvrata, Satvadātman, Madāsaya etc. becomes

276 concreate as explained in an earlier chapter. To what extent so- cial realıty, ālankarka tradıtion and ideological inhertance in- fluence the artist in this stage can be understood by the reader himself when he reads the episode of Sugātri, the marnage of Madhuralalasa and chapters 3, 8 and 11 of this essay. With this final phase, there emerges a fullfledged work of Art which has meaning and values not only to the artist but also to all who know the tongue. Thus it is not an imitaion of life but a creation and improvement on life is so far as it is self-sufficient and self-evident.

Now there is one thing more to be noted so that one may not misunderstand Surna's theory. Just as the story of Kalapurna is a self-expression of Brahma and just as he has not gained anything new except self-satisfaction, so also the artist, it may be thought, will not gain anything but this simple self satisfaction. But this is clearly a case of misunderstanding his theory. What is to be remambered is that the artist is only an instrument in this selfexpession of Brahman. Brahman alone does not desire or ac- quire any worldly gains. This manifestation or self-expression gives him self-satisfaction and nothing else. The artist, on the other Studies in Kalapurnodayam

hand,who is an instrument or medium not only gets this self- satısfaction but also acquires worldly gains such as wealth, fame etc. As mentioned by the alamkānkas The above survey gives Surana's conception of Beauty in general and poetry in particular It also explains his theory of emergence of art and its value in life. Now one can proceed with the consideration of the relative merits and demerts of considera- tion of the relative merts and demerts of his theory. As it has been repeatedly said that as the theory of Beauty entirely de- pends on epistemology,its merits and demerits also depend on it. Sınce Sürana's theory ıs based on Vısıstādvaita, its relatıve mer- its and demerts will be found in his theory too. It is now, there- fore, incumbent on one to probe into them before one pronounces judgment on the poet's theory of Beauty. The one fundamental drawback in Visistadvaita is its conception of substance,quality and time. To conceive that quality has substance for its locus and that substance is ths sub-stratum of quality is not only un- 277 scientific but also illogical. If this theory is true, quality requires substance to have a locus. Now the substance simlarly must require some other thing for its locus. But Visistadvaita does not concede this. On the other hand,it says that substance exists by itself. Why cannot the same thing be conceded to quality? Secondly,it maintains that dharmadhutamana and the like can both be a substance and a quality at the same time. This is a simple vildation of the law of contradication unless qualty is identical with substance. One wonders why this school takes strong objection to Advaitin's conception Maya. Thirdly, to say that time is a substance is another fallacy similar to that men- toned under the first. Foutthly, how can the Absolute be both transcendental and immanent at the same time? Changing with- out change is as inconceiveble as reaching a different place with- out any kind of motion. Fifthly, to say that reason cannot reveal the transcendental or the noumena and that the latter can only be known through the scriptures is to send free thought and enqurry to the scaffold. It is making philosophy the hand-maid of dogma and blind faith. Sixthly and finally, cosmology and the

G. V. Knshna Rao

transcendental as conceived by Visistadvaita are only probble and not logically necessary and as such, they are little better than fiction. If the above objections are conceded, then Beauty cannot be a quality as Surana maintains. Aesthetic expenence in its high- est stage which was long ago noticed and pointer out by Abhinavagupta denies it. In this context one has to think of one's own exper- ence. When one reads a poem, one experriences ananda. Even after one ceases reading, the ideas still continue for some time in one's imagination. These gradulally sınk below completely and a stage will be reached when there is nothing but änanda. How can this be explained if Beauty is a quality and that too of Brahman who is quite different from Atman? Hence it cannot be quality at all. That Beauty has five forms, the transcendental, the incamational, the vyuha, the immanent and the arcavatâra is 278 only metaphysical. To give the highest place to poetry and estab- lish hierarchy in arts is also unjustified because each is uniqe and important in its own way like our five senses. The function of the ear can never be discharged by the eye. To have a full view of the universe all the five senses are essential. Similaryly life can never be complete and comprehensive without any one of the fine arts. That a work of Art invanably bnngs fame, confers wealth and fights out evil is rather doubtful. How can one explain the fact that we have recovered the works of Bhsa, Nannecoda, etc., only during recent times? How many poets and artists have died in utter penury and need? Why does Peddana enjoy more popularty than Surana and Ramakrsna? Recent census shows that literacy and cultivation of arts have increased. Is there a corresponding decrease in evil? All these alleged utilities of Art are probably a defence in support of its unique value which is purely intrinsic. Setting aside these drawbacks, Surans's conception of poety is really satisfactory as well as comprehensive. Whatever may be one's outlook and philosophy, one cannot deny the poet's defini- tion that poety is a composition of words having unity in vanety, Studies in Kalapurnodau in

self-sufficiency and self-evidence. Even suggestion, as explained above, when it is devoid of the latter qualities cannot become poetry. This definition is far better than that of Visvanatha because it admits vastudhvani and alankaradhvant also as poetry. It is more realistic than that of Panditaraya because the latter's conception of ramaniyata is rather abstract and melaphysical. Above all these things, Surana's conception of the emergence of Art merits the highest consideration. He does not yield to idealism that says" the mind is its own place and in itself can make a heaven of hell and hell of heaven." Nor does he succumb to gross materalism claming tha matter is everyting and spirt nothing. He holds the blance between the two and gives his correct judgment. His deeper insight into human psychology helps him to probe into the mystenous depths of the creative mind and give a real picture of the artistic process. There may be 279 many things which admit of improvement but the facts he gives cannot be denied. The three phases in the artistic creation may not be as distinct and separate as he indicates. Nevertheless,they have to take place at some time or other before the work of Art emerges. Its birth is not only logical but also psychological. This is really the greatest contribution Surana has made to aesthetics, perhaps as great as Abhinavagupta's to the explanation of aesthetic expenence. With the foregoing survey in view one can say this much.Hıs main idea in writhg the Kalapurnadayam is to depict the complete emergence of Art and he has conceived it from the point of view of Visistadvaita. Misssing this point is missing the central idea of the poem and its unity as well as its beauty. If one is to judge a work of Art by the object the poet sets for himself to acheve, Surana must be declared as having achieved complete success. Even this is not a proper criterion for the judgment of a work of Art. The object or idea which the artist select for

G. V. Knshna Rao

depiction must also be self-sufficient and self-evident. When viewed from this angle, Kalapurnodayam is not altogether without fault. The episode of Laksmı-Narayana-Samvada is definitely out of place and betrays one-sided outlook while the description of Manıkandhara's piligrimage, Madhuralalasa's marriage and Kalapurana's expedition and conquest are some what lengthy. Apart from these three minor faults Kalāpurnodayam is superb and unique. In conception and presentation,in plot and character delineation, and in breadth and depth,it is marvellous and occupies a high place in the best literary works of the world.

280

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

APPENDIX - III

தலை சீல் கிலவிலக கன்வ்கதுளகனய்வி் கலலூ லக் கதஃ்லா கஸ் கை்்.

வஸ ய ரe வரsவலகc லலலதி

லoரஸ் லுனனரவ்லல் கஜில ஸுதலககல்.

ந. (SK?) மனுகய ஜல் மககதம் ஜசககஜல்தி 329 வில்் லவ்ல கக்தபவிலை தலைரைல்த்க3ல

ஸ்ஸ்டகைலல் ஸழன்ஸ்கல் அ302

ர கியகல - கிவி லை

க். லேலை திலவிலரரகிளில் லை சல்சகர் கக ஜுய்விை கம் வகரகககஸ் னகவுக் சில் தஸ் றல்இரக லனகன்வன

968-2லஜர்ஸ்ஸ். க். ல சகைக்ஸ் ஏப்சத லலுகி க லு ம னக லக் ஸஜ கிஜ

குஸல் .... கீதனுக் வய சில் தகிறறை 38.

G V. Knshna Rao

BIBLIOGRAPHY SĀNSKRIT

Abhijnana Sakuntala Abhinavabharatı, Commentary on Bharata's Natyasastra, Vols. 1 & 2. Ascaryacudāmani

Dasarupaka

Dhvanyaloka

Gıtagovinda of Jayadeva

Kadambari

Kavyadarsa Kavyālamkara Sutra Vrttı

Kavyanusasana 330 Kavyaspraksa

Kumarasambhava

Lingapurana Nātyasastra : 1. Kasi (Benares Edition) 2. Kavyamala Series. Nyaya Sutras with Vatsyayana hasya - Chowkhamba San- skrıt Series. Prasnopanisad with the commentaries of Sankara and Ramanuja.

Prataparudrıya Ramāyana Rasagangadhara

Rasarnavasudhakara

RAtnavali

Sahıtyadarpana

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

Sn Bhasya Vakroktı jıvıta Yatındramatadıpika Yogasutras with Vyasa s Commentary and Vacas pati's Glossary. Vedantapancadasi Vedāntaparibhāsa Bhaktırasayana - Madhusūdanasārasvatı

ENGLISH

Arstotle's Poetics Comparative Aesthetics Indian Philosophy - 2 Vols. Dr. S. Rädhakrshnan \Interpreta- ton of Dreams - Sigmund Frued Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 48 Sanskrıt Drama - Keith 331

The Ocean of Story - 10 Vols. translation by Tawney The philosophy of Visistadvaita - Srinivasachary The philosophy of the beautiful - Do. Aesthetics - Croce, B. Social Psychology - Prof. Solomon E. Asch

TELUGU

Amuktamālyada Krıshnadevaraya Andhradhvanyalokamu V. Tiruvengalāchāryulu Andhra Bharata

Kavıta Vımarsnamu ... K. Ramakrishnaiah

Andhra Bharatamu Kavitraya

Andhri ... A Telugu Journal (now defunet) Vol. 2, Nos. 3, 4, 5 & t

Appakavıyamu .. Appakavi

G. V. Knshna Rao

Bnagavatamu Potana. Bharatı ... Monthly journal (1924 - 1952) Bhāskarāramayanamu Kavikarnarasavanamu Nrusimha Kavı Kavitvatattvavicaramu C.R. Reddy ... Kāvyalamkara Cudamanı Vinnakota Peddana Kāvyālamkarasangrahamu Bhattumurtı Krsnabhāratamu ... Sripāda Krıshnamurti Sāstrı Kumarasambhavamu Nannechoda Manucharitra Peddana Mārkandeyapuranamu Mārana Palnati Véracantra Edited by A. Umākāntam Pandurangamahātyamu Tenāli Ramakrishna Ranganātharamāyanamu Srı Kala-hasti-Mahātmyamu Dhūrjati 332 Sukranıtisaramu P. Mallayya Sastrı Vasucartramu Rāmaraja Bhūshana Uttaraharıvamsamu achana Soman Pingali Surana Andhrakavıjivitamulu G. Srırāmamūrtı Andhra Kavula Carıtra K. Veeresalingamu Essay on Pıngali Sûrana - ın Telugu ... Dakshınāmurty Pngali Surana-ın English ... T. Achuta Rão WORKS Raghavapandavıyamu ... Vavilla Edition with Commentary Prabhavatıpradyumnamu ... Published by the Maha with Commentary by Rajah of Pithapur P. Mallayya Sastrı Do. ... Vavilla Edition with Preface by Sūryanārāyaņa Rao Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Kalāpurnodyayamu (Manuscripts) GOVERNMENT ORIENTAL MANUSCRIPTS LIBRARY, MADRAS D. 435. Paper - Complete

D. 437. Paper - Complete - Noe by C. P. Brown 443. Palmleaf - do. D. 436, 438, 439 - 46 - Incomplete 438 and 445 contain seven cantos 447. Kalāpūrņodaya gudharthasamgrahamu Notes on selected stanzas in 5th and 6th Cantos Kalapurnodayamu with commentary to the end of 3rd canto R. No. 1059 - paper - complete TANJORE LIBERARY, TANJORE : Kaläpurnodayamu with commentary to the end of 4th canto 333 No. 146 Palmleaf - Complete 146 Do - Incomplete

Printed Editions Kalāpūrņodayamu with Introduction by K. Brahmayya Sastry - 1906 Do. C. R. Reddy - Vavilla Edition Do. M. Suryanarayana Sāstri Do. K. Subbaiah Sastry (Published by the Maharajah of Pithapur)

Summaries CP. Brown - in English T. Venkatakrishna Rao - in sisamalika G. Sriramamurty - Prose

G. V. Knshna Rao

Kalāpurnodyayamu (Manuscripts) GOVERNMENT ORIENTAL MANUSCRIPTS LIBRARY, MADRAS : D. 435. Paper - Complete

D. 437. Paper - Complete - Noe by C. P. Brown 443. Palmleaf - do.

D. 436, 438, 439 - 46 - Incomplete 438 and 445 contain seven cantos 447. Kalapurnodaya gudharthasamgrahamu Notes on selected stanzas in 5th and 6th Cantos Kalapurnodayamu with commentary to the end of 3rd canto R. No. 1059 - paper - complete TANJORE LIBERARY, TANJORE : Kalapurnodayamu with commentary to the end of 4th canto 333 No. 146 Palmleaf - Complete 146 Do - Incomplete

Printed Editions

Kalāpurnodayamu with Introduction by K. Brahmayya Sastry - 1906 Do. C. R. Reddy - Vavilla Edition Do. M. Suryanarayana Sastri Do. K. Subbaiah Sastry (Published by the Maharajah of Pithapur)

Summaries CP. Brown - in English T. Venkatakrishna Rao - in sisamalika G. Sriramamurty - Prose

G. V. Knshna Rao

NOTES CHAPTER - |

1. V.C., Canto I, V. 19. 2. Appendix 3. 3. See Bibliography, Manuscripts. 4. Tadakamalla Venkata Krıshma Rao. 5. K.P., Avatarika Pr, and Vs.9, 13, 16, 106; Asvasantagadya; Canto8, V.269. 6. N.K.S., Canto 12, V. 224. 6-a. The actual word used by the poet is prabandha and not Mahaprahandh (N.K.S., Canto 1, V.48), but all the same the latter alone is meant. 7. A.B.K.V., pp.377 - 80. 281

, 9. For further deatails Vide Chapt.8, pp., 230 - 231.

் கனளக் ணலரக் ஸ்கி,

SSSeoso. 1-19-23.

G. V. Knshna Rao

12. wowoச wss Sans ssr e4ms, மகயன்ண த்த ்வலலல்.

கரக ந0வ தி33 வது: க்தி னவைத லனசீகஸ் :. ப் ண கக்சன்கஸ்க்

85கனன3 கலப். 6802s5,

82 ஸ் கரன்தி லவ் சகஸ்் 3a5க: சலக8. ஐககக. 14-20

13. 3 2035 8388

யலகஸகலஸ் சனS

14. ாக 5(0ஸ- கல்3த3. க0ர3 ந50 கிகலக் வதும்:

ல்கரகன எக்லஸலணம்

Stuches In Kalapurnodayam

15 ஆுசாஸனத கன அரக்குல்

யசனுஇதுல் ஸத கவ்ர ஜ கனுவ க்தன

சலள, தாலை. 92 This author considers the word prabandha as a synonym of Mahākāvya, 1bıd., 91.

16. S.D., Chapt 6, Ks. 315 - 324. 17. Comparative Aesthetics, Chapter 3, p.173.

17. வ்ல்தானகது்ைல- 283

ப் சுககி. ர ஸ்லன் wssSsS.

ப்பக ககலசரஸ்தக ல்ன.

குக வர ரை பக ்பு்வி ..

Sமுகவர மபலச தன்லம் .... ்9

G. V Knshna Rao

5S0, 2 283.4.

, 0ao 1-2

284

S5ு நதஜ்வழல் யப் கீலரகி. sdx(5) :. 1-1-5

21. See Natyasastra,Srgaraprakasa and Bhāvaprakasana on classification of rasas (causal and derivate), their presiding deities, nāyikās and nāyakās. 22. Poetics, Tr. by Ingram Bywater, pp., 40 - 41. 23. P.V., Intr. to the first edition, p., 71. 24. Poetics, Tr.by Bywater, pp., 82 - 83. Studes in Kalapurnodayam

CHAPTERS II AND III

25. Vide infara pp., 165 - 168 26. P.S., pp., 78 - 83 27 BH., Dec. 1941. 28. Bh., Vol.24 Issue No 4 29. Bh., Vol.24, Issue 2.

30 Introduction to K.

31 P.S., p., 78. 32. None the less it would be idle to pretend that the play has any dramatic force. S.Dr., p., 253. 32-a. M P., Canto 3, vs.110 - 116. 33. The Krshna Bharata, Aranya Parvam, p., 361 - 363. 34 Udyôgaparva pp., 310 - 313. 35. Tıkkanā's Anusāsanıka Parvam, cantol, pp., 27 - 29 285 (vs. 287 - 308).

exe ., e. 1, 3. 307. 37. K.P., Canto 5, v.106

38. This interpretation may appear to be far-fetched,ingemous and arbitray; but all the same it seems to be true, because the expenence referred to by Manistambha is not his per- sonal or immediate expenence Nor is he said to have re- ceived that idea from some one else. Besides if it is a soli- tary case, the allegation may hold good,but there is more than one occasion when this sort of suggestion occurs. And to consider them all as mere accidents is hardly rational unless life is reckoned as one such bundle. See pages 75- 77 and Chapt XII. G V Knshna Rao

39. Bh., Dec1941 ._ 40. Bh., Vol.24, Issue 2

க கலரலகஸ்; ல் ஸ் கஜ் ழனுகத? S., 2 e., 67 .

42. P.S., pp., 81 - 83. 43. Bh., Vol. 1, pp., 6 - 7. 46. An abridged version of O.S., Vol. 1, pp., 106 - 110. 47. O.S., Vol.5, pp., 153 - 156 48. Ibid., p., 155 49. O.S., Vol.4., p., 58 50-a. O.S., Vol. IX, pp., 17 - 25.

286

52. O.S.,Vol IX, pp., 17 - 25 53. K.P., Canto 3, p., 161, v.188. 54. K.P., Ed, By M.S., p., 208. 55. Valmıki Rāmayama, Aranya Kanda Cantos 17and 46. Ranganātha Ramayana, Aranya Kanda, lines 384 & 440 and 940 -1010.

K.P., Canto I, v. 167 57. K.p., Canto 1, p., 6. 58. Ibid., p., 50. 59. Ibid., p., 226 60. Quoted by Mr. Malladi Sruyanarayama Sastri and Gurajāda Srirama Murthi. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

61. R.p.,Canto 1, v.17.

62

287

S S., e. 5., 3. 3. 60-61.

s. S., e. 2., 3. 45.

64. K.P., Canto 6, v.162. 65. Vide Dh. A, Udyota 4. 66. A.Dh.A.p.722 67. Inroduction to the second edition, P.V .. , p., 36. Introduction to the first edition, P.V., pp., 53-54.

G V. Knshna Rao

CHAPTER - IV

xe56.1. 69.

288

70. k.p., Canto 1, Vs. 201 & 204

73 P.S.,p.,318.

74. S குதுக், ல்ல்றஎலன்டு, கசசவன்

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

3025, 4. 3., 8. 0

76. P S., pp., 85 - 88 77 P.S., p., 323 78. P.S., p., 101

79 289

80. K.P., Ed. by K. Subbaiah Sastrı, pp., 261 - 264.

šes., e. 5., 45. 82. 80 .بحكه دنن داركة تركع الذق s. 57, 5e., 3.63

G. V. Knshna Rao

83. K.P., Canto 5, v.63 84. P.S., Vıde pp., 91 - 98. 85. Ibid., p., 91. 86. Ibid .. p .. 94. 87. K.P., Canto 5, v.45. 88. Ibid., v.110. 89. P.S., p., 98 90. Andhn, Vol.2, Issue No.3. 91. Dictinoary of World Literature, Ed.by Shipley J.1.,p., 21. 92. This is still the case with so many of our Indian critics. Even Bharata,Anandavardhana and abhinavagupta did not altogether escape this muddle because their differentiation of rasābhāsas and bhavabhasas and the classification of nayakas or heroes under four types is defintely coloured by their absolure utilitarian ethis. But their great merit lies

290 in admitting even rasabhasas and bhavabhasas to the class of rasa

s: 31

5S55533. 3213.

55333. 14. Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

e. é., e. 2., ;. , 3. 291

CHAPTER - V

96. Ap., Canto 2, V. 234 97. K.Pr. Chapter 7, k.60.S.D echoes the same in chapter 7, Ks.12 - 15. 98. That Mammata was misguided on this issue has been ably presentd by Srı V. Tiruvengalacharyula garu in his A.Dh.A.See pp., 548 - 557. 99. K.T.V., part 2, Chapter 1, p. 143, 100. K.T.V., p.143 102. K.P., Canto 8,vs 175,177and 178 103. This reading is mnept. The word Koa suits the context better. 104. K.P., Canto 8, vs.167, 168 & 171. 105. K.T.V., p., 145. 106. Aristotle's Poetics, Tr.By Bywater, pp., 91 - 92. 107. N.S., Chapters 14, 18 and 23. G. V. Knshna Rao

108. S.K.M.,Canto 3,vs.157-171. 109. K.T.V., p.143. 110. K.P., Ed.by Sūryanārāyana Sastrı, p.488.

109. K.S., Sarga 1, SI.5. 113. For a detaild study of this problem the present wrter's Jēgantalu parts 1 & 3 may be consulted . 114 K.P., Canto 6, vs.202 and 204. 115. K.P., Canto 5, v.59. 116&117. Ibid., Canto 6, vs.195 - 196.

292 118. Ibid.Canto 4, v.185. 119. K.P., Canto 7, vs.91 - 96 120. K.T.V., pp., 238 -9. 121. K.P., Canto 7., vs.274 & 275. 123&124. Krıshna Bharata, Aranya Parvam, Canto 1, vs 261 -263 125. SN., p., 116. 126. Nachana Somana's Uttaracharıvamsam,Canto 2.v.91

K.T.V., P. 242 128. V.J., p. 42. 129. Dh.A., Udyota 3, p. 183. 130. K.p, Canto 8, v.178. The text is the same in all the editions. 130-a. K.T.V., pp., 145 - 6. 131. K.P., pp. 115 - 122. 132. R.P., Canto 2, vs. 93 - 100 133. K.T.V., p.147.

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sey .. , e. 5., 8. 136. 135. K.p., Canto 6., v. 77.

S., e. 6, x. 79. 137. K.T.V., pp., 210 - 11. 138. P.S.P., ... 139. Dh.A. Udyota 3. 140. S.D., Parıcchēda 7, Ks.12 - 15. 141. P.S., p., 116. 142. K.P., Canto 7, Vs.43 - 45. 143. K.P., Ed .by M.S., p.172. 144. K.P., Canto 3, v.118. 145. Idbid., Vs.114 - 115.

146. K.p., Ed.by K.S., Canto 3, Pr.44 seems to be an unneces- sary interpolation.

148. If the interpretatation of the cntic is true,an object under constant observation,when it undergoes a radical change should not be recognised. When there can be no such rec- ognition, the law of causality is absolutely impossible. Added G. V. Knshna Rao

to this, the above interpretation goes against the satkaryavada and satkhyatwvada of Visistadvaita which is going to be proved to be the philosophy of the poet in a subsequent chapter. However, all these considerations would have been thrown overboard if the poet had men- tioned that Manistambha would not be able to recognise the persons in their assumed froms. But such a statement is nowhere to be found.

149. This may appear to be contradicted by the following words of Manistambha :-

K.P.,Canto 3,v.178. 294 In view of the consideration mentioned above these words of Manistambha are to be taken as the result of his illu- sion.

150. K.P., Ed byM S.p., 168.

151. S NSe 2

K.P., Canto 5, v. 65.

s. 3., e. 3, 3 283. 153. Vide Andra Kavı Jivitamulu, pp., 348 - 9 and P.S., p., 104

Studies ın Kalapurnodayam

154. K.P., Canto 3, v. 212 155. Ibdıd .. v. 222.

155. It is interesting to note here that Indian thought maintains that poetrv is the result of genious,study or scholarship in various branches of Knowledge and constant practice put together. But Pasnditaraya asserts that poetry is the result of genius alone and nothing else and that this peculiar char- acter of genus may be had either by the grace of a deity or a seer,or by peculiar study (soze Ss)ø) and constant practic of writing poems.Vide Rasagangadhara, Chapter1. 157. K.P., Canto 1, v. 149.

158

(1-60) (2-46) 295

K.P., Ed. by M.S., p. 192.

s. S7., es1, 3.160-167 160. 83e

G. V. Knshna Rao

Sy .. , e 3, 3. 246. 162. K.P., Ed.by M.S., p. 231 163. K.P., Canto 5, vs.199 - 202. 164. K.P., Canto 3, pr.246. 165. K.P., Canto 3, v.221. 166. K.P., Canto 4, vs 23 - 25.

296 . Sn. r., s. ., 5. 258 168. K.T.V., pp., 207 - 208 169. Nyaya Sutras, Chowkamba Sanskrt Sence 3 - 2-4', p.609. 170. K.P., Canto 4, vs.117, 118 and 120. 171. K.P., Canto 4, vs.92, 94and 106 172. K.P., Canto 4, pr.145 173. K.P., Canto 4, v.113 174. K.P., Canto 4, v.114 175. K.P., Canto 5, pr.70. 176. K.P., Canto 5, v.52. 177. K.P., Canto 1, v.154 178. Ibid., v.159. 179. K.P., Canto 1, vs.164 and 165. 180. Ibid., vs. 166 and 167.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

CHAPTER - VII

181. K. P., Ed. by Suryanārāyana Sastri pp., 29 -30. 182. K. P., Ed. by M. S. pp., 179 - 181.

182. 0

297

.,=3, 3.86

,e3, 3.90

185. K.P., Canto 4, vs.47and 48 186. Ibid., Canto 3, v.91. 187. Ibid., pr.276.

G. V. Knshna Rao

3s°s4.24.

190. K.S., Canto 1, sl.26. 191. K.P., Canto 5, pr.46. 192. S, D., Chapt.7, Dosaprakarana, Ds.12-15.

சகவரகி. வவலர கிகஷத்: - 3மி லகs .

Kayuālankārasūtravrtti, 1 - 3, 30 - 32.

194. Aesthetic, pp., 190 - 191. 195. K.P., Canto 2, vs. 50 - 51. 298 196. K.P., Canto 3, v. 45. 197. Ibid., vs.51 - 52. 198. K.P., Canto 3, vs.48, 50 & 51.

195. 20

வல லுர்ல். 21

22

24

31

32

Studes in Kalapurnodayam

39

40 N.S., Chapt., 18.

200. லல 5om5 c 83 383 354) 38 லம் வ்வனகல் ஸ்கைலில ல ஜாக் கவ்கி ஸலககுர் ஸ்ஸ கலதி

க் ஸ்ஸணர ககல்ல சைலலஸ் ஸ வலஸ் நதுதக் 5 ல்யை. வவ ல ல வக்ஸ்கக த oo

கயஸல் த8 5வல்லம 38553 தல ஜல்ஸ். K.P.,Canto 5, pr.59. 299 CHAPTER - VIII

201. es:,

(sூத) யைஞ. e. 21. 202. சடகரிகைு ஸ் வவர லரக்,

மலகர3: ல்ரைக்ல வி் ரு

சல்(குழ்ற ு மி க

எஸ்டசாக்வகல் கலலை மஜ்க்கி.

(sுத) னயசஞு. . 21.

G. V. Krishna Rao

e. 21. 300

205. See foot note 220. 206. Bhāvaprakāsana Adhıkara, 7.

Šošš sž. 1.13. For further explanation of the distinction between pataka and prakan see pages 235 - 236.

Studies in Kalapurnodayam

212. ,

301

தள் சல்சீஸ்கைஸ் கி. 214& 215. K.P., Canto 3, vs.61, 62and 67.

čaryš. (s 1.20 217. K.P., Canto 4, Pr.183 and v.185. 218. Ilnd., Canto 6, pr.187. 219. Ibid., Canto 1, v.149.

e332r819, Quoted by the author of Comparative Aesthetic, G. V. Knshna Rao

222. There is a difference of opinion regarding the pratımukha sandhi. According to Dhananjaya the development must be partly perceptible and partly imperceptible (eeaddxs (oaae „3. Dasarupaka Prakasa 1, s1.11.) But Abhinavagupta does not accept this. According to him the various sandhis represent the differnt states of the seed and the visiblity is the only thing to be presented in the pratimukha. கல ஜய ஸ்ரப்.ுவஸ் sஸ் லக் லவி. கக்கில்

நஜி: (?). வககஸ் ழ :. கயல்ர ஜெயல் ககதுலகி ல்

302 s380 e. 19,3.40.

224. S.D., Parıccheda 6, Karikas 79 - 80. 225. D.R. mentions sama in the place of tapana and defines it as aratisama S.D. defines that, when one finds no way out, it is acase of tapana. 226. This is defined as sancıntyamanaptı by Dhananjaya, and as knowing the feelings of others by Visvantha. The example given here is in accordance with the latter interpretation. 227. Ibid., Canto 3., v.284. Not included by the Dasarupaka. 228. Ibid., Canto 3., pr.246. This is mentioned as ksipti in the Sahityadarpana. 229. K.P, Canto 3., v.262. The Dasarupaka mentions it as sambhrama. The Sahityadarpana defines it as commotion (3182ex) due to doubt, fear and alarm. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

229-a. Dhananjaya defines this quite differently when he says:

What Bharata calls vidrava becomes drava in Dhananjaya's Dasarupaka. Kheda to be found in the Natyasastra and Sahityadarpana is missing in the Dasarupaka and in its place there is vdrava with a different meaning. The exam- ple is cited in accordance with the definition of Bharata.

230. The Sahityadarpana mentions this as pratisedha while Dhananjaya calls it vicalana and defines it as vikatthama or self-praise. 231. This is mentioned as purvabhāva by the Dasarupaka. 233. S.D., paricchēda, 3, Darika 32. D.r., Ch. 2sls.485. K.A.S., Canto 2, v. 4. K.C., Canto 3, v. 5. 303

மதைப்காசன ழ9க்

Kası Ed. Nātyasāstra, Ch.20 vs.76-79. A different version is to be found in Kâvyamãla edition :-

G V. Knshna Rao

235. Rasagangadhara, Anana 1

304 Kasi Ed.,N.S.Chapt.6,vs.77-82. While Bharata states that adbhuta is of three kinds,Visvantha and others hold that is is of four kinds. See S.D.,Chap.3,Kānka 234. 237. The author of the Rasagangadhara maintains that the state- ment that vira is of four kinds only is not comprehensne. He illustrates satyavira, pāndıtya-vra, kshama-vira and bala-vira 238. S.D.,Chapt.3,Ks.214-216.

() 4. -3. 74.

S.iates in Ralapumoauu im

240. Kasi Ed.N.S., Chapt.3, p.74. Rasarnavasudhakara, vilasa 2. sl.160. 241. K.P., canto 1, pr.9and 11.

241. This and some other qualities mentioned here are not dis- cussed for want of space. 244. For the author's explanation of these gunas one may refer 305 to the Appendix 2. 245. K.P., Canto 1, v.188. 246. K.P., Canto 2, v.3. 247. K.P., Canto 4, vs.61 - 64 248. K.P., Canto 1, vs.188 & 190 It is well known that, Surana has created another poet through the character of Suchimukhi in the Prabhāvatīpradyumnam.

S. D., Chapt 6. 249. K.P., Canto 1, v.204; Canto 5. pr.70 250. Kasi Ed.N.S., Chapt.1, sl.11-114.

Ratnavali, Act 2. N.K.S., canto 10,vs.10,12. 252. Kası Ed., N.S., Chapt.1-109, 116, 118. G V. Knshna Rao

253. Ibid., Chapt.21 - 121, 125, 128.

254 This is akmn to Anstotle's definition of poetry as imitation of life but not identical with it because of the philosphical dif- ferences. Bharata there is reason to believe,has closer affintes with Sankhya system than with Kashmir saıvism, which abhinavagupta unjustifiable reads into the Nātyasāstra. For a detailed study of Arstotle's theory of Imitation, the author's essay may be consulted. 255. Not to be confused with the Sanskrit term, manas.

256. It is a land which has given birth to Käshmir Sarvism which is quite distinct from Advaita and which takes strong ob- jection to the latter's conception of Maya, Isvara and the world.

257. Tradition as recorded by Viresalıngam Pantulu mndicates 306 that Surana, when he was quite young, fled form his native county to Kasi and got himself educted there. Does Manikandhara's Visıt to Kashmir in any way suggest the possiblity of the poet's visit to that country? This will only be a conjecture ur before him definite historcal data.

258. K.P., Canto 4, vs .. Canto 4, V.114. 259. Ibid., Canto 8, V .:

259. D.TV., p., 246.

260. Ibid., p., 146.

261. Ibid., pp., 145 - 146.

262. Introduction to K.P.by M.S., pp., 11 - 12. 264. For a detailed study of the conection between epistemolgy and aesthetics,one may consult the author's Jegantalu,parts 1 & 3 and the follwing section of this Thesis. 265. V.j., p., 245.

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CHAPTER - X

266 Introduction to K.P.Ed.by M.S., pp., 11 - 12 267. R.p., Avatarika V.1. 268. Ibid., vs.2, 41 - 48.

loß

& à. e. 1, 3 6.

307

G V. Krishna Rao

This regfernce to logicians should not be taken as disre- gard for them by the poet. See the following :-

275. P.P., 2 - 107.

276. K.P., Canto 4, vs.33, 34, 37 and the whole of Laksmi- Nārayana-Samvāda in Canto 8. These verses and the epi-

308 sode can never be expected from the pen of an Advaitin.

CHAPTER - XI

277. Y, M.d.4, 62.

Y. M. D. 6-1. See V. S. 1-1-1. 279. Ibid. b es. 280. Ibid.,7-4.

282. N088 5S5 283.

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லாக- மகலசையத்திய கஸ்ுகி.

Y.M.D., 7-19.

284. Y.M.d., 7 11 to 13.

285

286. Y.M.D., 1-25. 287. Br.Up.IV, ni, 1 288. Y.M.D., 1-26; S.B.E.Vol.48, p.120; V.S.3-2-3. 289. Ibid., 1 - 27.

Y.M D., 1-7.

309

Y.M.D., 1-12. 292. Y.M.D., 1-14 293. Ibid., 1-17.

Y. M. D. 2-30 296. Y.M.D.2-41. 297. VS., 1-2-1. 298. Ibid.1-1-3. 299. Ibid.1 - 2 - 23. 300. Y.M.D.4-10 301. Y.M.D.4-24 302. Y.M.D.7-17 to 21. 303. Y.M.D.8-1 304. S.B.E.Vol.XLVIII p.565. 305.

G. V Knshna Rao

Y.M.D.8-9

307. . 308. Sribhāsya, 2-3-18 309. Y.M.D., 9-13.See S.B.E. Vol.48 p.463. 310. Ibid., 9-11.

308. Ibid., 9-14, 15. 310 312. Y.M.D.8-18

309. Ibid., 9-19.

310. Ibid., 9-22.

311. Ibid., 9-26.

312. Ibid., 9-27. 317. Jegantalu, part I by the present writer. 318. Vedantapancadasi, Chapt.6, S.235. 319. S.B.E., Vol.48, p.638.

Y.M.D.,1-40 321. Br.Up.7 - 24 -1. 322. Y.M.D., 9 - 18. 323. Ibid., 9 - 19. 324. Ibid., 9 - 22. 325. Ibid., 9 - 26. 326. Ibid., 27. Studies in Kalapurnodayam

Y.M.D.,8-24.

328. Ândhra Bhāgavatam, Intro., V.18. 329. The Philosophy of the Beautyiful, p.102. 330. P.M., Canto V.216. 331, Bhagavata, 10-29-15. 332. Rasagangadhara mentions as many as eight interpreations on rasa sutra, see p.26-34. 333. N.S., Chapt.6, SI.6.

A.Bh.p. 311

335. The opinion ooaws os! is attributed to Abhinava and Mammata by Pandıtaraya. This is not re- ally the opinion of Abhinava but a mere allegation of the former owing to his misunderstanding. This can be clearly seen even from Andhra Dhvanyaloka where in sr Vedala Tiruvengalacharyulu has given a correct exposition of Abhinava's rasa theory.

336. :

00

G. V. Krishna Rao

337. 8

338. For a detailed study of the differences between the two experiences ansing from a work of Art and a dream, the present writer's essay, Kavyajagattu, may be consulted.

339. A.Bh.Vol.1, p.3. 340. R.G.,C.1-17,

340. Here it is not meant that there is no place for beauty in the scheme of Advaita. What is suggested is that Beauty one comes across ina work of art is, according to Advaita,as unreal and transitory as Isvara whose nature has been explained before. This transitory value given to Isvara etc. alone, it seems, has been the cause for dissatisfaction among great scholars like Maxmuller who plainly remarks :- "It must be clear to every one who has once mastered the frame 312 work of the true Vedanta philosophy as I have tried to ex- plain it, that there is really but little room in it for pshychology or cosmology, nay, even for ethics." (Sıx sys- tems of Indian Philosophy, p., 170.)

341. R.G.pp.8 - 9.

342. g: en

A. Bh. Vol. 1.

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346. This view finds a vigorous protagonist in Prof.solomon E.Asch when he writes in his social Psycholoty :- "Traditional instinct-habit psycholgies have little of relevance to say about the specific properties of human onientation; they give the appearance of having solved the problem of social life when they have simply by-passed them. In par- ticular, they do not face seriously the problems of order in individual and social action when they describe men as a sum of instincts and habts. A psychology of drives and habits can hardly find a conceptional place for psychologi- 313 cal structures most characterstic of man-for the reality of a self, of knship relation, or a sense or values. It results in the description of an individual who is not capable of novelty,who is a genuinely social being but is only a more complicated form of pre-social, pre-human individual. It 1s a crude fallacy to assume that no changes occur in the social field other than the detailed modifications in the sequence and arrangement of elementary functions. We must keep open the view that many distinctive psychologi- cal operations take form only within a social field and that the changes they produce alter individuals at their centre. (pp.78-79.) For an elaborate criticism of the theory of Instincts L.L.Bernard's Book, Instincts, may be consulted. 347. R.G.pp.45 - 46.

G V. Knshna Rao

CHAPTER - XII

348

š. . 1, 190.

349. K.A., Parıccheda 1, sl.41.

314 352. K.P., Canto 8, 232. 353. K.P., Canto 2, v.103. 354. Ibid., Canto 4, v.31.

355. Surana takes every care not to confuse acrobatics in words with noetry by never calling the former poetry. He calles it vakpaduhati matalacandamy and uicitrakautva as dietinct from kavitva or sahıtya. Does he suggest here that gemune poetry is always beyond the reach of these well -verned in the Vedas and grammar? Does he mean to say that only citra kavttva will result if they indulge in it? 356. K.P. 357. Ibid., Canto 4, v.37. 358. K.P., Canto 4, v.38. 359. See foot note No.19. 361. 8

33

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363. K.P., Canto 1, v.185. 364. K.P., Canto 5, pr.46 365. Highways and Byways of Literary Criticism in sanskrt, pp., 33 - 35.

364. Cf Hume's sentence :- " .... All this creative power of mind amounts to no more than the faculty of compounding transposing, augmenting, or diminishing the materials afforded by the senses and expe- 315 nence." The English Philosophers, pp., 593-4.

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APPENDIX - 1 அான்சுக் கர்சுர் ுரல்

42

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44

45

46 316

லகனல் ககர லஜலஸ் ஃகி 47

48

49

வவி் தத வானகி ச்ன ம:

50

51

52

மரவகுளககன வமல். 53

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54

56

68

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72 317

73

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75

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78

79

80

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81

82

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2

3

318 4

5

7

8

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4

5

7 329

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! 20

320 21

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லங்க் சவ் ரவ சஸ ஒக ச 24

25

26

27

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