1. The Indian Stage Vol 1 - Hemendranath Das Gupta. 1934

THE INDIAN STAGE

By

HEMENDRA NATH DAS GUPTA

Price: Rupees Five only

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THE

INDIAN

STAGE

BY

HEMENDRA

NATH

DAS

GUPTA

VOL

IV

Published

by

the

Author,

METCALFE

HALL,

CALCUITA

and

printed

by

P.C.

DAS,

MAYUR

PRESS,

38,

Beliaghata

Main

Road,

Calcutta

1934

APOLOGIA

About the ye:r 1917, when I was occupied with my Bengali treatise (tirsth Pratima—a critical study of Girish Chandra and his dramatic art—I sorely felt the want of a connected history of the Bengali Stage. In the course of the preparation of that book, Srejut Debendra Nath Bose, a veteran literateur and a cousin of Girish Chandra, suggested to me the importance of finding out the opening date of each one of the Bengali dramas hitherto acted on the Bengali Stage; for, he said, that would give a historical value to the book. The last chapter of that treatise will show how I have taithfully followed up that idea

When, with the above object in view, I began to hunt up old news-papers, gazettes, and other contemporary records in the archives of the Imperial Library of Calcutta, many interesting things about the early theatres of Bengal came to my knowledge. It was then that I first conceived the idea of writing a complete History of the Bengali Stage

When my first articles on the beginning of the Bengali Stage and on Lebrdeff appeared in the year 1924, in the columns of the "Forward", the famous national organ of that time, founded by Deshabandhu Das (late Mr C R Das), there were few workers in the held. Since then some treatises have appeared, but as the present work and its succeeding volumes are the fruit of seventeen years' arduous labour, I leave it to the public to judge whether there is any justification for its publication.

ii

It is very fortunate that while going to the press for this last item of the work, I met my friend Dr. Joyanta Kumar Das Gupta, who supplied me with the couplet of Vidya Sundar that had been quoted by Herasim Lebedef in the title page of his Grammar of Mixed Langnages, as found in the British Museum and copied verbatim by the Doctor while a research scholar there. The absence of this couplet, simple as it is, though I dealt with the matter rather elaborately in pages 219 to 258 of this book, would have been greatly missed by the readers and with my warmest thanks to Dr. Das Gupta I quote, though rather unusually, the whole couplet here :—

"Shuno Ānandit Raja kahila Tāhāre Beia-kāron adie Shāstro Parāho Beddāre Agge Pae Beprobar Beddere Parāy Beiakoronodie Kābbeo Shangito Nirnoy Joitish Tipponie Ticā Kateco Parcār Alpo cāle Bohoo Shāstre hoilo adhicār Chitrokorie ak Shloc Lekelec Pate Nijo Pariechoy deia toolilo Tahate."

Beddc-Shoondor Vol. 1.

That is, the king ordered his daughter Vidya to be taught in Grammar, poetry, music etc., and she acquired a knowledge of these subjects through the exertion of the Brahmine scholar.

I have great pleasure in expressing my gratitude to my learned predeccessors who have déalt with the subject and thrown much light upon the early Bengali Stage. Three of them deserve special mention, and they are Sj. Jogendra Nath Bose, the biographer of Michæl

M

Dutt, Pandit Mahendra Nath Vidyandhu

and Babu Kiran Chandra Dutt, the last of whom helped me with books and suggestions.

I cannot adequately express my thanks to Pandit Asoke Nath Bhattacherjee and Babu Girija Sankar Roy Choudhury, two well-known scholars, the former for going through the proofs of the first fifteen formes and supplying the correct readings of the Sanskrit Slokas; and the latter for helping me with many authoritative references from Vaishnava literature on which he is an established authority.

Girija Babu and myself were early disciples of the late Mr. C. R. Das, who was not only the chief priest of Nationalism in India, but an eminent poet and an acute critic of Bengali Lyrics from its earliest stage up to the beginning of the twentieth century.

I have been greatly helped in this work by my esteemed friend, Mr. Bhupendra Nath Das, M. L. C. (Burmah) Advocate.

I am also deeply grateful for the kind encouragement and help that I have received from Mr. R. H. Parker, Addl. Sessions Judge, Alipur, and his venerable father-in-law, Sir Evans Cotton, Late President, Bengal Legislative Council and author of "Calcutta, Past and Present."

My thanks are also due to my friends, Babu Makhan Lal Sen, the author of the English Translation of the Ramayana, Babu Sourindra Kumar Bhattacherjee, Babu Monmotho Nath Ghose, author of "Memoirs of Kaliprasanna", Prof. Monmotho Mohon Bose, Prof. Sailendra Nath Mitra and Mr. Surendra Nath Kumar, Superintendent Imperial Library, for the valuable help and suggestions they ungrudgingly gave me.

My acknowledgments are also due to my friend and colleague Babu Surendranath Biswas, and Prof. Jites Chandra Guha of Vidyasagar College for their

IV

kind assistance. Last and not the least, I must place on record my extreme thankfulness to Babu Sachchidananda Bhattacherjya, a premier businessman of Bengal and a patron of literature, who, I am proud to say, is one of my quondam pupils, for taking upon himself the responsibility of making arrangements for the publication of this work.

I regard it a singular piece of luck on my part that such an eminent Orientalist as Mr. Johan Van Manen has so kindly written a masterly preface to this volume.

In conclusion, I should frankly tell my reader that my only reason for issuing the book in English is to acquaint the cultured nations of both the East and the West about the cultural history of the Bengali Drama, and its relation to the ancient Indian Stage.

31, Haldarpara Road,

Kalighat, Calcutta.

HEMENDRANATH DAS GUPTA.

PREFACE

No civilised country has ever been without its drama

The dramatic instinct is universal. The theatre, in what-

ever form, sacred or secular, has never failed to make its

powerful appeal to man. Every nation and every race

possesses its own dramatic history, India as well as the

rest of the world. The word ‘drama’ means action and its

appeal may perhaps be explained by that wise saying in

the Bhagavat Gita that action is stronger than destiny.

To study a cultural phenomenon so universal as the

drama, and of such great influence as it exercises, must be

of importance.

Classical works have been written concerning the

Indian drama by Sylvain Levi, Sten Konow and Berrie-

dale Keith, which are known to all students of the

subject. Schuyler has added an extensive bibliography

of the Sanskrit Drama. The study of the Indian stage

has, indeed, not been neglected by scholars. What,

however, has been written to date by professional

Orientalists concerning the Indian theatre is chiefly on

lines of academical scholarship. Historical studies by

philologists tend to deal with the problem on the basis of

theoretical canons and to follow the scholastic text books.

An eminent Orientalist has rightly warned against the

impression that the full life of ancient India is enshrined

in its manuscripts. This general maxim should surely

be applied to the study of c art. The rich variety

of the drama and its tial human nature have been

11

excellently summarised by that great theatrical producer,

Max Reinhardt, as follows :-

"It is to the actor and to no one else that the

theatre belongs. This does not mean, of

course, the professional actor alone, but the

actor as poet, as director, stage-manager,

musician, scene-designer, painter, and certainly

not least of all, the actor as spectator, for the

contribution of the spectators is almost as

important as that of the cast. The audience

must take its part in the play if we are ever to

see arise a true art of the theatre--the oldest,

most powerful, and most immediate of the arts,

combining the many in one."

Bearing these two statements in mind it is evident

that only a few years ago studies of the Indian drama

based on this broader outlook were entirely lacking.

Whether already at the present moment such studies can

be produced with any degree of completeness may be

doubted. Anyhow, beginnings may be made, and should

be made, aiming at a treatment of definitely limited

aspects of the great subject.

The confluence between European and Indian civilisa-

tion is like that of those great Indian rivers which, after

uniting, flow on as a single stream, constituted by the

waters of the two original rivers. So also the confluence,

brought about by European colonisation, of the charac-

teristic Indian dramatic tradition with the imported

Western one has united two very different streams of

theory and practice Whether this intermixture will

result in the birth of an entirely new tradition, or lead to

the n and transformation of the indigenous

tradition, or to a permanent hybridisation of either or

both, or to the extinction of one of the two traditions

in India, cannot at present be foreseen. We are with

regard to the drama in a transition stage of which we

cannot predict the future, as we are in a transition stage

with regard to so many other cultural manifestations.

All the more reason to devote attention to what actually

exists around us with a view to its correct description, and

all the more necessity to put on record whatever living

detail can still be rescued from oblivion in these rapidly

shifting times. And above all, all the more necessity to

place on record all such details as illustrate the human,

fleeting, ephemeral aspects of theatrical life, as may be

reliably ascertained for as long a distance in the immediate

past as lies within our reach. Such a record, if carefully

made, will contain much material of the highest impor-

tance for the future historian of and theoriser concerning

dramatic art in India, and though it may not be possible

to arrive immediately at definite theoretical conclusions

through such a record, yet such record cannot but bring

together materials from which a future scholar may

perhaps be able to distil laws or principles of lasting

validity.

As said, a few years ago studies based on the above

lines were nearly entirely lacking. To-day the position

is different. No less than four different scholars, of

whom three are Bengalis, have undertaken an enquiry as

indicated. One of them is Mr. Hemendra Nath Das

Gupta, the first volume of whose work we here introduce,

whilst the other three have published their results before

IV

1930, published in London his work entitled "The Bengali Drama, its origin and development". This was substantially the author's thesis for the Ph.D. Degree of the London University for original research, 1926.

The second is Mr. R. K. Yagnik, who published his work "The Indian Theatre-its origin and its later development under European influence" in London, in 1933. In so far as the modern Indian drama is concerned, Mr. Yagnik mainly deals with its development in Western India. These two works are written in English.

The third is Mr Brajendra Nath Bandopadhyaya (B. N. Banerji), who published his Bangiya Natyasalar Itihas in 1933 through the Calcutta Bangiya Sahitya Parishad. It is written in Bengali and deals with the period from 1795-1876. Its contents more or less coincide with those of the projected second volume of Mr. Das Gupta.

And so we come to the present book.

A comparison between it and the three other works is not called for, but one may easily appreciate the motives which made Mr. Das Gupta decide not to abandon his work because recently the results of similar studies by other scholars had been published before his own.

Mr. Das Gupta, himself an ardent admirer of the dramatic art, has several years ago published in his mother-tongue a critical study of the great Bengali playwright Girish Chandra. Becoming more and more absorbed in his subject he collected incidentally a number of curious and interesting data concerning the Bengali theatre, and he soon conceived the idea of writing a complete history of the Bengali stage from the earliest

recoverable times down to our present day. As early

as 1918 he devoted his spare time in hunting through

the old daily and weekly papers in the Imperial Library,

where I happened to meet him frequently during my

tenure of the Librarianship. Gradually he widened the

circle of his researches and as a result produced a series

of articles on the Bengali stage, especially in the

"Forward", then edited by the late Deshbandhu C. R.

Das, who himself was not only keenly interested in the

subject, but encouraged the writer in every way, even to

the extent of promising him to publish at his own

expense the projected history, when completed, in book-

form. Mr. C. R. Das died, and his patronage will not

now benefit the work, but the author is too keenly in

love with his subject to abandon his project and he now

publishes the first volume of his history. It begins with

a short introduction concerning the old Indian drama and

then brings us, half-way the volume, to modern times,

taking up the story of the drama in Calcutta from the

middle of the 18th century. He then proceeds with the

story of the various old theatres existing in Calcutta, and

brings it down to the middle of the 19th century. This

closes the first volume of the projected series of four.

The second volume will deal with the Bengali theatres

in the days before Girish Chandra up to the Dramatic

Performances Act of 1877. The third volume is to be

entirely devoted to Girish Chandra and his works, whilst

the fourth and last volume will bring the story to date

describing the development of the Bengali theatre after

Girish Chandra down to our own days.

The author will forgive me a personal reference in

this short preface to his first volume. He is an example

of that large professional class who has contributed so

much to literature and scholarship in Bengal. A lawyer

by profession through force of material necessity--day in

and day out, busily engaged in the grim drama, or ludicrous

comedy of the Courts--he sheds, as so many of his

brethren, his legal robes when leaving court to become

a student of life instead of one of law, and an incarnation

of humanity instead of one of officialdom. It has always

struck me how great a service the lawyer class has

rendered to scholarship and literature in this country, a

tradition which we would hope will not die for many a

long day to come. As Secretary of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal I cannot forget that this venerable Society

itself was founded by a lawyer, Sir William Jones, and

I most heartily welcome this latest follower of the old

example. May the Author be rewarded for his labour

by adequate response from his public and the apprecia-

tion he deserves, and may it be given to him to bring

to a successful conclusion his great project, which is to

furnish the future student with a storehouse of references

concerning the drama in Bengal during the last two

centuries, with a great variety of living pen-pictures

concerning actors and public, and vivid descriptions of

the scenes and circumstances of the Indian theatre in

Bengal.

It would be out of place to say anything in praise of

the book in this Preface. If praise there be it should

come from the reader. Any other would, according to

circumstances, be either superfluous or out of place.

For, to quote from Shakuntala :-

"No skill in acting can I deem complete,

Till from the wise the actor gains applause."

VII

But what surely deserves mention is a reference to

the laborious nature of research entailed by the writing

of a book like the present. We well know the Author's

great patience and perseverance. These two qualities

coupled with accuracy and enthusiasm are sure to produce

valuable results.

And now to speak with Shudraka:-

"Enough of this tedious work which fritters away

the interest of the audience!"

We now give way to the author himself, pointing out

that in his book he has attempted to help forward the

fulfilment of the wish with which Kalidasa ends his most

famous drama:-

"May the divine Saraswati, the source

Of Speech, and goddess of dramatic art,

Be ever honoured by the great and wise!"

We may then aptly end with another quotation from

the great Indian dramatist, which applies to the present

situation:-

"I have now only to request the audience that they

will listen to this work with attention and kindness, in

consideration of its subject and respect for the author."

CALCUTTA,

4, Park Street,

4th April, 1934.

JOHAN VAN MANEN,

General Secretary,

Asiatic Society of Bengal.

CONTENTS

Subject

Page.

Introductory Chapter

...

1

The Legendary Stage

...

1

The time of Jarjara Festival

...

9

The time of Bharata

...

5

Sutradhara

...

20

Drama and the Rig Veda

...

23

"

"

Upanishadas

...

25

Post Vedic period

...

26

In the Buddhistic period

...

33

Archælogical Evidence

...

39

Yavanika

...

46

Kalidas

...

50

Bhasa's Drama

...

62

List of Hindu Dramas

...

70

Early Bengali Dramatists

...

74

Greek Drama

...

79

The position of an Actor

...

83

Dramas in Stone

...

86

Jaitanya period

...

89

Jatras

...

109

Jatra distinguished from Theatre

...

112

Krishna Jatras

...

114

Jatra in Bharat Chandras' time

...

117

Parma's Tukko

...

118

Premchand

...

119

Govinda Adhikary

...

120

Jatrawalas

...

123

Amateur Jatra

...

123

From Amateur to Professional

...

128

Gopal Ooray

...

130

Decline of the Jatra

...

133

11

Subject

Page

Tastes in Jatra

...

135

Fusion of Jatra and Theatre

...

138

Jatra in East Bengal

...

139

Krishnakamal

...

140

Mati Roy

...

142

Jatra in imitation of Theatre

...

143

Kavi

...

145

Antony Feringhee

...

146

John Halhed

...

148

Netai Das

...

149

Entertaining Europeans

...

151

Half Akhrai

...

152

Panchali

...

152

Kirtan

...

155

Bengali drama in Nepal

...

158

"

Assam

"

...

166

At Manipur

...

169

PART II

Play Houses

...

173

The Play House

...

176

The Calcutta Theatre

...

183

The Performers

...

187

Performances

...

190

Actresses

...

198

Harmonic Tavern

...

205

London Tavern

...

206

Mrs. Bristow's Theatre

...

207

Poor Soldier

...

211

Other Artists

...

215

In Male Characters

...

217

Mrs. Bristows Departure

...

217

Lebedeff's Bengali Theatre

...

220

Who was

231

iii

Subject

Page

The Site of the Bengali Theatre

...

232

Dramas and Dates of Performances

...

234

The Artists of performances

Prices of Admission

...

235

Other English Theatres

...

238

The Atheneum

...

239

The Kidderpur Theatre

...

239

The Dum Dum Theatre

...

239

The Baitakkhana Theatre

...

243

The Fenwick Place Theatre

...

244

The Chowringhee Theatre

...

246

The Sans Souci Theatre

...

268

The Influence of English Theatres

...

276

The First Bengali Theatre

...

278

The Hindu Theatre

...

280

Nabin's Theatre

...

285

The Native Theatre

...

289

English Plays by Bengali Students

...

295

The Oriental Theatre

...

299

Summary

...

307

THE INDIAN STAGE

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER

The stage constitutes a very important chapter in the social and political history of a people, and the bend of national genius cannot be fully comprehended without its study. A puritan may look askance at the play-house, but its influence over the mass cannot be ignored, and it is no exaggeration to say that a 'nation is known by its theatre.' One can know more about Greek character from their immortal plays than from the pages of a formal history. When Dionysias, the king of Syracuse, wanted to learn something about the state and language of Athens, Plato sent him the comedies of Aristophanes telling him that there he would find the best respresentation of the Athenian character. Likewise the Mrichakatika or the Toy-cart gives us a more graphic picture of the ancient Indian society than any other treatise of that time. From the pure stand-point of art, dramas and the stage have an ethical and a historical value of their own.

Forces more than one have contributed to the making of Modern Bengal, and the influence of the Bengali stage should be reckoned as one of them.

Bengali drama, like Bengali language, has its origin in the remote past, but like many other modern institutions of the country, is an adaption after the western ideal, and the modern Bengali stage was, in fact, first founded in imitation of the early English theatres of Calcutta. Still the spirit of a Bengali Drama is essentially eastern, and some of the present techniques of the Bengali stage can not be fully understood without a study of Sanskrit drama and of the ancient Indian stage. There exists an unsevered link between the present and the past, hence we intend to give a brief review of the origin and growth of dramatic

performance in India. We hope educated readers will kindly forgive us for our latitute.

Sanskrit Drama itself underwent several stages of develop-ment which may broadly be divided into two periods : First the Legendary Stage, the Second, the Historical Stage. The latter may again be studied under its purely literary aspect, and in its plastic representations in archæology and in their concrete embodiments in other departments of Art.

The object of dramatic representations according to Professor H. H. Wilson, as described by the Hindu critics, is :-"They are to convey instructions through the means of amusement and with this view, they must affect the minds of the spectators with the sentiments which they express. These sentiments are termed by the Hindus, as Rasas, taste (flavour) and they imply both the quality as inherent in the composition and the perception of it as recognised by the reader or spectator. The Rasas, (रস) however, are considered usually as effects, not causes ; and they are said to come from the Bharas, (ভাব) i.e. the conditions of the mind or body, which are followed by a corresponding expression in those who feel, or are supposed to feel, them, and a corresponding impression on those who behold them. When these conditions are of a permanent, or durable description and produce a lasting and general impression, which is not disturbed by the influence of collateral or contrary excitements; they are, in fact, the same with the impressions ; as desire or love, as the main object of the action, is both the condition of the chief character, and the sentiment with which the spectator is filled. When the conditions are incidental and transitory, they contribute to the general impression, but are not confounded with it. They may, indeed, be contrary to it in their essence, without weakening or counteracting it as a hero may, for public reasons, abandon his mistress without foregoing his love, and may perform acts of horror even in furtherance of his passions."

"The drama and the theatre produce each other. A dramatic work becomes most impressive when acted within the four walls of a theatre.; and a theatre is a most powerful engine for the development of the drama."

iii

While following the sources and progress of drama and of the stage, we should note initially that a dramatic representation consisted mainly of three things :

Dialogues, Music and Dancing—The value of an instructive, or an entertaining dialogue was well-understood in India and our religious scriptures—the Vedas and Upanishads, Samhitas, Maha-bharata, Tantras, Puranas and even Jatakas or Bauddha Akhyanas are founded on conversations. In fact, another name of the Veda is Shruti—what was heard i.e. from conversations.

No other race seemed to possess a keener ear for music. The ancient Hindus regarded it as a great medium of religious worship. Their Sama (साम) songs were calculated to please the gods of Heaven. The sacred lays of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata supplied no end of music, and the songs of Lava and Kusha echoed and re-echoed throughout the length and breadth of India. Their music could move stones and trees into ecstasy ! Even beasts and birds responded to its music ; and when youthful Krishna played upon his flute, under the Kadamba tree, whole nature seemed to reel with love, all listned to its thrilling notes with rapt attention, and the sacred Yamuna swelled in tidal flow. Music was such an indispensable adjunct of drama that the derivative meaning of the reputed founder of drama Bharata implies a song* and in Guzrat a singer is called a Bharata (भरत)

Dancing too cast a strong spell of charm. This art, though now much neglected in this country, was cultured with great enthusiasm and care in ancient India. Both the aristocracy and the people set a high value upon it. Even sages came under its sway. A strict Vedantist like Prakashananda Sarasvati had to yield at the devotional dance of Gauranga. Many a devotee (like Vishvamitra,) swerved from their austerities at the dances of nymphs like Menaka sent to them by Indra. It was an accomplishment with princes and royal maids, and dancing was such an indispensable element of dramatic performance that the Sanskrit words, Nata, Nataka, Natya (signifying actor and

*Bha Bhava feeling or emotion Ra means Raga or musical mode and

iv

drama) come from the Sanskrit root Nrit ... ... to dance. It

therefore, appears that dancing was the origin of drama.*

Pischel, Weber, Donaldson, authorities on the subject, are also

of opinion, that dramatic representation arose not out of the

altar, but from merry wild dances. Perhaps it consisted at first

of rude mimicries accompanied by frantic dance.

Acting is the combination of the above-mentioned three

elements brought to others' view. Indeed "No Drama, is more

than potentially such till it is acted." †

As there are different kinds of drama in English—Mystery,

Miracle, Morality, Interlude, Tragedy, Comedy, Historical,

Pastoral, Pastoral-Comical, Historical-Pastoral, Tragical-Histo-

rical, Tragical-Comical, Historical-Pastoral, Melodrama, Farcical-

Comedy, Burlesque, Pantomime, Opera, Burlettas, so there

were various kinds of plays in Sanskrit Literature and neither the

elements of acting, nor the different kinds of Drama were un-

known or foreign to Indian genius.

• In Sanskrit, a dance without gesticulation and speech is called

"Nritta", that with gesticulation but not speech is called 'Nritya' from

which the Nataka or Drama takes its origin.

† Encyclopædia, Brn The Dramatic History of the World. pp. 18f.

11th Edition,

CHAPTER I

THE LEGENDARY STAGE

Dramatic art is said to have it's birth in the Devaloka,

or in the region of the gods, and Mahadeva or Shiva—

one of the great Hindu Trinity—was its originator. Shiva

has been called Nataraja, Natesha and Natanatha in the

Puranas, and so he has been described in Guha-shilpa—

Cave paintings. In the Sangitavidyayinoda and in the

Kashika of Nandikeshvara, Shiva has been called Mahā—

nata and Adinata, the greatest and the first of the actors.

Brahma learnt that art from Shiva and created the fifth

Veda called the Gandharva Veda, otherwise known as

the Natya Veda.

Indian drama is purely of Indian origin. It is no

more a point of literary contention, but it has been proved

to demonstration that Indian drama was developed quite

independent of any Western influence. Dr. Horace H.

Wilson, who took much interest in the Sanskrit Literature

and translated a number of Sanskrit dramas, emphatically

maintains that whatever may be the merits or defects of

the Hindu dramas, they were unmixedly its own. Thus

also writes Dr. Ward in the Encyclopædia Britannica:

"There is no real evidence for assuming any influence

of Greek examples upon the Indian drama at any stage

of its progress." A Sanskrit d bears no affinity to

a Greek drama either in form or in spint, so also the

2

word Yavanika, or curtain, proves little or less than nothing. It is too late to stick to the old theory of the Greek origin of the Sanskrit drama, rather the mass of evidence, both literary and archæological, in favour of its purely Hindu origin is overwhelming, and we shall notice in the ensuing pages, only some of them which are absolutely essential to follow its evolutionary growth. Suffice to say, that a language which, in the words of Sir William Jones, is "more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin and more exquisite than the either", could easily produce dramas quite independent of the Greeks, or the Yavanas (Ionians).

In every land, however, the earliest dramatic representation appears to be associated with the religious observances of the people. In Greece, it derived its origin from the hymns which were sung in the festivals of Bacchus in honour of that deity, and tradition points out to its mythical origin, and this also is true of the ancient Indian drama. The Hindus had also some thing more in the form of an emblem of theatre. It is said that Brahma after the victory of the gods over their enemies -the Asuras-first composed a drama for the gratification of Indra, the king of the gods.

It is mentioned in the "Sangitadamodara":

रथानुश्रूयते ब्रह्मा रकेजयास्म्यर्थित: पुरा ।

नाट्याराक्ष्य वैदेम्यो नाट्यवेदन्तु पञ्चकम् ॥

उपवेदोऽथ वेदाक्ष: चतुर्थ: कथित: स्मृतौ ।

तन्त्रोपवेदो गानधर्व: दिवे लोक्त: स्वयम्भुवे ॥

तेनापि मरतायोक्तस्तेन मतों प्रचारित: ।

नृकस्स्योनिमरतातस्तस्मादस्य प्रयोजनका: ॥

"The above sloka means that in the days of yore,

3

Brahma being greeted by Shakra (Indra) for his satisfaction composed a fifth Veda (from the four Vedas) which was called the Natya Veda. Like the Vedas, the sub-Vedas are also four in member. The self-born Brahma learnt this fifth or Gandharva Veda from Shivad and then taught it to the Sage Bharata (भरत), who learnt that art and introduced it into the world at the command of his instructor Brahma.

In order to prepare this Natya Veda, or Gandharva Veda (Gan-dharva or dharma, Gan or Song being its chief component), Brahma is said to have taken the elements of recitation from the Rigveda, four kinds of acting, or the art of mimicry from the Yayurveda, songs from the Samaveda, and emotions, passions and sentiments from the Atharvaveda.

Indeed references to the earliest dramatic literature in a nucleus form are to be found in the Rigveda in the dialogues between Sarama and Panis, Yama and Yami, Pururavas and Urvashi etc., and other elements are found in the three other Vedas.

Now, who was this Bharatamuni or Sage Bharata ?

Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti both bave mentioned Bharata-muni in connection of dramatic art, the former has described him as a play-wright and the stage-manager of the gods, and the latter called him as Tauryatrika Sutra-kara or the earlist writer on triple symphony (i.e., the union of song, dance and instrumental music).

Being asked by Janaka, father of Sita, Lava, the younger of the twin sons said—

Part of the epic has been composed (by worshipful Valmiki) as a separate work being full of sentiment and

. 4

adapted to theatrical exhibition. That he has sent to the venerable sage Bharata, the writer of aphorisms on Triple symphony:-( तौयैथ्रिक सङ्कार )

Janaka—Why ?

Lava—Because master Bharata wants to have it acted1 by the nymphs ( Apsaras or the divine actresses )

—The Uttararamacharita, Act IV.

Bhasa, too, has referred to Bharatamuni in his works.

As he is the originator of the dramatic art, the actors are all called Bharata-putras or the sons of Bharata, and almost everything connected with drama, or the stage is named after him, and the oldest and most authoritative treatise on Indian Dramaturgy is named alter him as “Bharata Natyashastra.” ( भरतनाट्यशास्त्र ). In that book, Bharata speaks in the first person and tells us everything on the stage and art and calls the work as the fifth Veda, having received the knowledge direct from Brahma as a revelation.

In this book, Bharata's “Natyashastra”, Jarjara ( जर्जर ) or setting up of the Flag-staff of Indra is the chief event concerning the sacred rites about the installation of the stage, an incident absolutely absent in the Greek stage.

The history of Jarjara has thus been given in the following way in the Natyashastra :-

भरत उवाच :-

उपस्थितोद् लोकेऽस्मिन् प्रयोागार्थं कृताजलि: ॥ ५२ ॥

नाट्यस्य ग्रहणं प्रार्थं भूयि किं करवाण्यहम् ।

एततु वचनं श्रुत्वा प्रत्युवाच पितामह:॥ ५३ ॥

मङ्गलय प्रयोगस्य समय: समुपस्थित: ।

अथ: ध्वजमह: श्रीमान् महेन्द्रद्रुम प्रवर्तते ॥ ५४ ॥

5 1 4 5 4

5

अभवेदानीमयं वेदो नाट्यसंघः प्रयुज्यताम् ।

ततस्तसिन् ध्वजमहते निहितासुरदानवे ॥ ५५ ॥

प्रहृष्टामरसक्रींणि महेन्द्रविजयोत्सवे ।

पूर्वं कृतामया नान्दी झाश्रीरवचनसंयुता ॥ ५६ ॥

अध्यायपदसंयुक्ता विचित्रा वेदनिर्मिता ।

तदन्तेस्नुकृतिंबद्धा यथा दैत्या: सुरैर्जिताः ॥ ५७ ॥

Bharata said, "I approached with folded hands the Lord

of the worlds for permission to begin the performance.

I have already learnt the art of dramaturgy. Tell me

what am I to do now ?" said I.

Hearing these words the Great Brahma, the Lord of

creation, said—"The right time for dramatic representation

is come. The festivity in honour of the flag-staff of Indra

is about to be celebrated. Now you should give an exhi-

bition of your dramatic art."

"In that 'flag-staff festival' that was held to celebrate

the victory of Indra (over the Asuras) and in which the

jubilant gods gathered together, I first composed Nāndi (a

benedictory verse) full of benedictions. It is wonderful

in composition, culled from the Vedas, and composed of

eight subsidiary senterces. Thereafter, a mimic repro-

duction (anukriti) was added as to how the demons were

defeated by gods."

(Natysahastra—Baroda Ed. 1st Chapter, Slokas 52-57).

Bharata said —"Then the gods with Brahma at

their head, were delighted at seeing the representation

and made a present of all requisites to my sons ; and

glad at heart, Shakra (i.e. Indra) was the first to offer his

own auspicious banner or flag-staff. (This is Shakradhvaja

which was afterwards called Jarjara) When the perfor-

mance again began representing the

on of the

6

Daityas (Asuras) and Danavas, the latter who had assem-

bled there, became mortified. They conjured up the

demons of impediment or obstruction (Vighnas) with

Virupaksha at their head, saying "we do not want this

sort of performance, so come ye all." Then those demons

of impediments, together with those that had gathered

there, became invisible through the power of magic and

paralysed the faculties of speech, movement. and memory

of the actors. Finding confusion on the part of Sutra-

dhara and his party, Indra asked why was this

disturbance in the representation ? He then plunged

himself into meditation. Then he found the pandal

(auditorium) full of the Demons of hindrance, and the

Sutradhara with his party out of their senses and para-

lysed. Shakra rose up at once, his person shining with

various kinds of jewels and his eyes sparkling with the

fire of anger, and took up the excellent flag Shakradhvaja,

and with the help of that, the king of gods, shattered the

bodies of the Demons of impediments who had got upon

the stage (58-69).

ततो नृखादयो देवाः प्रयोेगपरितोषिता: ॥ ५८ ॥

प्रवदुमेत्यवसस्य तु सर्वोपकरणानि वै ।

प्रीतस्तु प्रथमं शक्रो दत्वानं स्व ध्वज शुभमु ॥ ५९ ॥

पुनः प्रयोगे गरिष्ठे दैत्यानां वननाशने ॥ ६७ ॥

असवन् सुरिताः सर्वे दैल्या ये तत्र सम्रता: ।

विरुपाक्षपुरोगांश विघ्नानुपवदयन्नित ते ॥ ६८ ॥

नेस्पमिच्छामहे नाख्यमेतदागमन्यतान्निति ।

ततस्तैरंसुरै: सार्द्धं विद्या मायामुपाश्रिता: ॥ ६९ ॥

नानखेद्रै: स्तुतिक्रैव स्तम्भयन्नित सा नुलंताम् ।

तथा विध्वंसनं दृष्ट्वा सुत्नधारस्य देवराट् ॥ ६६ ॥

कस्माद प्रयोेगवश्यम्म्यमिति चिन्त्वा धयानमाविशत् ।

अश्रुपर्यात सदो दृष्ट्वा शमितासौ परिपालितः ॥ ६५ ॥

7

सहेतरे: सुत्नभारं नष्टसैन्यं जडीकृतम् ।

उत्स्थाय स्वरितं शक्रो गृहीत्वा भयजुष्तमम् ॥ ६८ ॥

सन्दर्शयौज्ज्वलतनुः कितवित्रिदृष्टलोचनः ।

रक्षपीठगतां विश्रानसुरांश्चैव देवराट् ॥ ६९ ॥

सर्ज्रीकृतदेवां कलानकरौज्जर्जरीकृतमः ॥

—भरन-नाव्यशास्त्रे प्रथमोऽध्यायः ।

The Danavas together with the Demons of impedi-

ments being thus totally annihilated, all the gods uttered

the following words in joy:-

"Wonderful and divine is this weapon used by you

by which the Demons have been shattered all over. Since

the Vighnas with Asuras have been shattered

(Jarjarikrita) with this, henceforth it will be known as

Jarjara by name. The remainder of the mischievous

demons that might attempt to do any injury will

similarly perish at the sight of the Jarjara". From the

act of shattering i.e. belabouring, the staff was called

Jarjara.

Then Shakra said to the gods "Be it so, this Jarjara

will be the means of protection of all" (72-74).

निहतेषु च सवेंषु विशेषेण सह दानवैः ॥ ७० ॥

सम्प्रहृष्य ततस्ते चाक्यमाहुः सर्गे दिवौकसः ।

अहो प्रहारण दिव्यमिदमासादितं त्वया ॥ ७१ ॥

जर्जरीकृतसवेदान् येनैते दानवाः कृताः ।

यस्मादनेन ते विघ्नाः साक्षुरा जरर्जरीकृताः ॥ ७२ ॥

तस्माज्जजर प्रवीति नामनोडयं भविष्यति ।

शस्त्रं ये चैव हि सार्थमुपयास्यन्ति दित्सकाः ॥ ७३ ॥

द्रप्सु अजर शेडषि

व

8

So we find that Jarjara, or the setting up the flag-staff

of Indra was the chief event concerning the sacred

rites about the stage, and henceforth it became the emblem

of Indra, and of the stage and the Drama. The flag-

staff had to be erected in the evening of the theatre,

sanctified with Mantras on the day preceding the festivity.

The day after the erection of the Flag-staff, i.e. on the

day of the festivity, all the deities and the "Jarjara" itself

were worshipped. In the five knots, or rinds of the staff

Brahmā, Shiva, Vishnu, Kartikeya and three great

serpents (Nagas—Shesha, Vasuki and Takshaka) were

supposed to preside. The first part of the staff was

wrapped in white linen, the second part in blue linen,

third part in yellow, the fourth part in red, and the fifth

in parti-coloured cloth. Different deities were invoked

with different Mantras. All these are to be found in the

"Natyashastra"

The Jarjara measured 108 angulas or 81 inches and

might be made of any wood preferably bamboo, from

which Pandit Haraprasad Shastri wants us to conclude

that dramatic art originated in that part of India where

bamboos grow in abundance.* It used to be covered and

decorated with cloths of different colours and it was en-

joined that neither deformed nor ugly nor diseased per-

sons should be employed for its construction, nor beggars

and monks be allowed to come near it.

The belabouring of the Asuras was not agreeable to

Bharata who prayed to Brahmā to give protection to the

dramatic representation of plays. Brahmā ordered

• Vide Pandit Haraprasad Shastri's article "The Origin of Indian

Drama"—Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, new series Vol V.

1909, pp. 261.

Visvakerman, the divine architect, to erect a pavilion for

the purpose and assigned to the gods the task of different

parts in such a way that no 'vighnas' (impediments) might

be henceforth created by the enemies. The Asuras too

were invited by Brahma who clearly explained to them

the object of the new invention. It was made clear by

him that the amusement and instruction received from the

performances were meant for all—the Devas and Asuras

alike—and not exclusively for the Devas. People suffer-

ing from bereavement or miseries might have a relief :

and piety, good sense and intelligence might be learnt

here :

नैकान्ततोडन भवतां देवानां चानुभावनम् । १०५ ।

त्रैलोक्यस्यास्यातः सर्वैस्य नाट्य भावानुकीर्तनम् ॥ २०७ ॥

नाट्यशास्त्रे प्रथमः अध्यायः ।

Indeed the Natya or acting is nothing but imitation of

all events happening in this world. The Asuras were then

appeased and henceforth created no further disturbance

in the performances.

THE TIME OF THE JARJARA FESTIVAL

The Jarjara festival has everywhere been marked with

festivities. Just as spring brings life and energy to the

people of the North after winter, so autumn too in the

East inspires the people with sprightliness and joy after

the damping rains. The English people had even in

Shakespeare's time celebrated their 'May Pole' with songs

and dancings to record their grateful feelings for the advent

of spring, and likewise, the Indian people celebrated the

advent of dry and delightful autumn after sultry and wet

days of tedious rains in their own way. In both the

countries, the cause underlying these celebrations is, in

reality, one and the same. Even to-day relics of this

'Dhvaja' in different shapes are generally found in

autumn during the harvest time. After the rains, a flag-

staff is raised on the harvest field and it is followed by

popular amusements and thanks-giving to Indra for

good crops and rain (Indra being the god of rains). The

worship is performed on the 12th of the bright fortnight

of Bhadrapada to ensure good crops and general

prosperity.*

Formerly all public festivities were accompanied by

dramatic performances. Hence Jarjara, as necessary

accompaniment of drama, was carried to all festive

occasions, even if there was no performance in any parti-

cular instance. The custom of raising the flag-staff and

worshipping the god during the autumn is prevalent in

nearly all parts of India. Indra-jatra is the principal

ceremony of Nepal and Bhutan. No flag-staff is raised

there, but Indra is shown in the images as having his hands

stretched, reminding the people of the 'flag-staff. The

idea prevalent in those places is that the sight of the

above image drives out evil spirits. In subsequent times

also the Jarjara or the flag-staff of Indra became perma-

nently associated with the dramatic representations of

ancient India as we have it in Mahabharata,† where the

king Vasu was asked to set up a bamboo-pole adorned

with garlands and with it perform the worship of Indra.

Jarjara-worship is thus a very ancient ceremony and had

nothing to do with the people of the West.

Though Jarjara-worship belonged mainly to a period

• Cf. J. J. Meyer, Hindu Tales (Old Jain) pp. 143 "The nautch girls

danced, poems were sung, a multitude of men danced etc.

† Adiparva, ch. 63.

11

of the autumn, it however resembled the modern Holi festival at the Equinox. The dyeing with Abira (Kum-Kum) at this season which is only an emblem of the Devas dyeing with blood of the Asuras, marks the festival of great rejoicings. We have also on record about the 'Dramas' (pages 164-5)* of Dutangad being performed at the Dholy festival in honour of the ancestor of the reigning King †

As the flag-staff worship with which the first Indian drama was connected resembles the May-Pole Dance of Europe and the Holi Festival of India, both taking place during the spring time, some scholars connect it with the spring festival. But the autumn festivals are more important in India and everybody's heart is filled with joy after the rains are over, and the ceremony was converted into a festival of thanks-giving for Indra's victory over the clouds. Pandit Haraprasad Shastri also maintains this view.

Dr. Keith also is of the same opinion. "It is an interesting coincidence," says the Doctor, "with the comparison made by Growse of the Holi and May Day rites that Haraprasad Shastri should have found an explanation of the origin of Indian Drama in the fact that in the preliminaries of the play there is special attention devoted to the salutation of Indra's banner which is a flag-staff decorated with colours and bunting. The Indian legend of the origin of dramas tells that when Bharata was bidden to teach on earth the divine art invented by Brahma, the occasion decided upon was the banner-festival.

• Cf. J. C. Oman-Brahman and the Indian life, page 66, 73 seqq.

† Mathura pp. 91, f; 101 f.

of Indra. *The plot of the drama was the humiliation of

the Asuras at the hands of the gods. Hence the Asuras

rose in wrath but Indra seized the staff of his banner and

beat them off, whence the staff of the banner was used as

protection at the beginning of the drama."—(A.B. Keith's

"The Sanskrit Drama." Page 41.)

It will not be out of place to mention in this connec-

tion that Sir William Ridgeway, F. B. A. Sc. D., considers

that Hindu serious Drama arose from the worship of the

dead and the Flag-staff is only an emblem of this fact.

Dr. S. K. Belvelkar rejects this theory as being not based

upon any authorities. (Cal. Review, May 1922, pp. 191).

Sir William, however, in his article (Cal. Review 1923,

June Pp. 191) supplied us with a mass of evidence in

favour of this theory. His main contention is that the

ancestor-worship or the worship of the dead is illustrated

by the worship of Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Manasha &c.

who played a great part in the development of the Hindu

Drama. We have carefully gone into the instances men-

tioned by Sir William but cannot accept his view. We

are of opinion that the Hindu Drama originated in merri-

ment and not in the worship of the dead and the most

serious dramas of Sanskrit Literature are instances in

point.

In the above theatre, the first drama staged was

"Samudra-manthana" or Amrita-manthana and was acted

very well. The gods were pleased and not only was the

stage built by Visvakarmman but also there were dialogues

and songs.

The next drama staged was "Tripuradaha" for entertain-

*The passage *The plot Hence" is not found in Keith's

book, but has been introduced to make the quotation clear.

ing Mahadeva at the palace of his father-in-law Himalaya

(Giriraja) at the time of his marriage with Parvati. As

spectator, the Nataraja or Mahanata (Shiva himself) had

an opportunity of witnessing as to how the dramatic art

originating from him developed till then. It was here

that its deficiency in the absence of dancing was noticed.

He then asked his pupil Tandu (another name of Nandi-

keshvara) to introduce different kinds of dancing and

different postures (called Pindibandha) he indulged in,

while carrying the dead body of his consort Sati when

she renounced her life at the sacrifice of Daksha. Thus

dancing came to be introduced and from the name of

Tandu it was called Tandava Nritya—consisting of

Karana, Angahara and Rechakas representing the different

postures of the body in various feelings.

The Munis (sages) asked Bharata "why is dancing

included in a dramatic performance ; acting is quite

enough."

To this Bharata said in reply :-

"Dances no doubt do not help a dramatic performance,

but beautify it."

Later on at the desire of Parvati, some beautiful

dancings called Lasya Nritya (tender and seductive

dances) were introduced into dramatic representation.

Parvati taught these to the princess Usha—daughter of

King Bana. Usha then taught this art to the Gopalas

(milk-maids) at Dvaraka, the residence of her husband,

and by them it was communicated to the women of

Sourashvtra. Thus the art of dancing spread to the females

of various regions.

The Vishn

3

by the songs of Krishana and his companions (the cowherd boys) gathered around him at night to perform Rāsa dance. This is the origin of Rasalila which has given rise to various melo-dramas and the Jatra-shows in Bengal.

The next drama staged under Bharata's supervision was "Lakshmi-svayamvara"—voluntary selection of the bride-groom by Lakshmi, the Goddess of wealth, to Narayana, the God of Protection in the Trinity. Here too the stage was built by Visvakarmán, Urbashi and other nymphs having given merriment with songs and dances. It is said that Maharaja Pururavas was invited to the palace of Indra where the above drama was performed for the entertainment of the royal guest. Urbashi took the part of Lakshmi; and having been asked during the ceremony before the divine assembly, whom she longed after, Urbashi, in the role of Lakshmi, instead of naming Purushottama (another name of Narayana), as she was trained by Bharata, named Pururavas whose features, grace and attainments greatly attracted her towards him. The gods began to laugh and Urbashi for her fickleness was cursed out from heaven by the dramatist and producer Bharata.

In India which was then called Jambudvipa, dramatic art was introduced by Nahusha, King of the Lunar dynasty who usurped the throne of Indra and extended his conquests upto his dominion, the Svarga (heaven). At the order of the conquering Emperor, Bharata had to send his disciples Kohala, Shandilya, Dhurtita and Vatsya with a number of players of both the sexes who displayed the art sorely against their will before the Indian people.

Some of the actors, however, fell in love with some beauties of the land and begot children who afterwards

15

formed a separate community of "Nata". Music and dancing was their chief vocation and Kautilya in his 'Arthashastra' classes them as Shudras.

Bharata himself did not come down ; Kohala ( variously named as Kohala and Kalahala ) was the teacher in the earth as the following lines of Natyashastra show :-

भासोपदेशसिद्धिश्व नाट्ये प्रोक्ता स्वयंभुवा। ६८

देशधर्मरतनाश्चैव कोहलः कथयिष्यति।

भरतानारद्वंशोद्भवं भविष्यत्वा प्रकीर्तितम्। ७०

कोहलादिमिरेतैर्वै नाट्यशास्त्राणि यथोदितैः।

सर्वीधर्म्मान्विता युक्तैः काविक्कालमनुस्थितैः। ७१

ततश्चाद्यापि नराणां बुद्धिदर्पनम्।

नाट्यशास्त्रे घटितशोभायः।

( Ed. Kasi Sanskrit Series. )

In India, a class of professional musicians are still to be found in some parts of the country, as Nata or Nara who live with their family and children and whose services are sometimes required on festive occasions. Even to-day in the first rice-ceremony of the children of the above community, Banshi (flute) or Dhole (drum) forms chief part of the ceremony as with the higher castes inkpot and pen forms a chief part.

TIME OF BHARATA

As we noticed before, both Kalidas and Bhababhuti have mentioned him. In the 9th century, too, Abhinava Guptacharya wrote Bharata-Natya-vivriti i.e., a commentary on Bharata's Natyashastra. But when did the sage actually flourish ?

Panini speaks of Shilali and Krishasa as authors of aphorisms on dramatic art (Natya ). Panm

said to have flourished about 3000 B.C.* Shilali has also

been referred to in Sattopatho Brahmana (Sloka 13. 5. 33

which according to famous astronomer Sankara Ram

Krishna Dikshita was composed about 4,000 years ago.

Pandit Haraprasad Sastri traces the priority of

Bharata's Natyashastra to Panini and would put not later

than the 2nd century before Christ as date of its com-

position. But judging from all accounts it appears that

the Natyashastra was composed long before the 5th

century B.C. Tradition also puts Bharata as the first

writer on the first and the most authoritative treatise on

the dramatic art, and Shilali and Krishasheswar seemed

to be his contemporaries. Now codification of the art

seemed to have been necessitated by a multiplicity of

dramas as Aristotle did about the Greek dramas in his

poetics, and the 'Natyashastra', too, not only proves the

existence of dramas but also gives directions as to how the

stage should be built. It is thus certain that if 'Natya-

shastra' was written 5th century before Christ, Drama and

stage were in existence long before that, at a time when

Greece did not even hear of either.

The 'Natyashastra' of Bharata is a comprehensive

work on dramaturgy. It mainly describes three kinds

of stage and auditorium (Prekshagriha) :-

निकृष्टस्तु रङ्गश्च व्यश्रश्रेष्ठ तु मण्डपः ।

देशां श्रीणि प्रमाणानि ज्येष्ठं मध्यं तथाऽऽचरम् ॥ < ॥

प्रमाणमेषां निर्देश इष्टदण्डसमाश्रयात् ।

शतश्राङ्गा तु युष्मदिष्टा द्वार्जिंशदेव वा ॥ ९ ॥

• [Lokamanya Tilak is of opinion that Panini flourished between 3000

and 2500 B. C. But European scholars as usual want to assign comparatively a later date]

17

अट्टाधिक शतम् ज्येष्ठं चतुपष्टिस्थस्तु मध्यमम्।

कनीयान्तु तथा वेदसमहस्ता द्वात्रिंशादिष्यते ॥ ९० ॥

देवानां तु भवेज्ज्येष्ठं नृपाणां मध्यमं भवेत् ।

शेषाणां प्रकृतीनां तु कनीय: मां विधीयते ॥ ९१ ॥

Natyashastra 2nd Chapter, 9th—11th slokas.

that is, the stage should be either Rectangular, square or mostly in the form of an Equilateral triangle.

(1) Rectangular (Bikrista or Brittabhasa)* Length larger than breadth. It may be (1) large 108 by 54 cubits, (2) Medium 64 cubits by 32 cubits,

(3) Small 32 cubits by 16 cubits.

(2) Square (chaturasra) length and breadth equal as of a four-sided figure. It may be (1) large 108 cubits each side, (2) medium 64 cubits each side,

(3) large 32 cubits each side.

(3) Equilateral Triangle (Twasra), three sided figure, each side being equal to the other. It may be large, each side being 108 cubits or medium 64 cubits or small 32.

The stage and auditorium of the large size was meant for the gods (Devas) and was called divine : the one of medium size was for the kings (Rajas) while the small one was called private i.e., for the people. The medium-sized Rectangular form was considered the best by Bharata, as the following slokas show :-

चतुःपष्टि कराण कुशलीतर दीर्घैस्तलेन मण्डपम् ।

द्वात्रिंशतं च ता विस्तारान्मच्चीणाम् यो भवेदिह ॥२१३॥

• Not elliptical as maintained by many. Bikrista विकृष्टो is explained by Abhinava Gupta as विमबिम कृतो दैर्घ्यो नतु चतुष्पु दिशि

पार्श्वेन, i e not square but rectangular

18

मेशाग्रुदारां सब्येषां तस्मान्मध्यमिश्यते ।

यावत् पाख्यं च गेयं च तत्न श्रव्यतरं भवेत् ॥२१२ ई॥

The stage was often a two-storied building. The upper story was meant for the representation of celestial dramatic action and the lower one for that of terrestrial actions. In ancient times the Sangitsala, generally the 'Uthan' or court-yard some-times served the purpose of theatre. The lower part was appropriated for the stage, the upper part was reserved for the King and the Queen and other distinguished male and female personages. The play opened with a prelude, in which the Sutradhara (Manager) introduced the author and the actors to the audience, and informed them of the leading events and past occurrences calculated to illustrate the acts. The first act afforded a clue to the subject of the whole story which was developed in the ensuing acts. The stage itself was called Rangabhumi or nepathya. The following description of it from the Sangita Ratnakara also is appropriate :-"The chamber in which dancing is to be exhibited should be spacious and elegant. It should be covered over by something supported by pillars, rightly decorated and hung with garlands. The Master of the house should take his seat in the centre on a throne : the inmates of the private apartment should be seated on his left, and persons of rank on his right. Behind both are to be seated the chief officers of the State or house-hold, and poets, astrologers, physicians and men of learning are to be arranged in the centre. Female attendants, selected for their beauty and figure, are to be about the person of the principal, with fans and chauris, whilst persons carrying wands are to be stationed to keep order and armed men, as guards, are to be placed

in different directions. When all are seated, the band

is to enter and perform certain airs; after which the

chief dancer is to advance from behind the curtain and

after saluting the audience, scattering at the same time

flowers amongst them, she will display her skill."

Professor MacDonel in his history of Sanskrit

Literature mentions that Hindus had no public theatres

and dramas used to be represented at the Nrittyashalas

or the dancing halls of princes. But the above details

given by Bharata about stage-craft and the existence of

such a word as "prekshaghara" or Pekhamghara belies

the theory and speaks of the independent origin of the

Hindu drama and stage.*

Sutradhara, Nati and Nandi are also mentioned in

Bharata's Natyashastra.

In that book the following countries and tribes are

mentioned:-

Kirata, Barbara, Andhra, Dravida, Kasi, Koshala,

Pulinda and Dakshinalya, the inhabitants of which repre-

sented in drama should be painted in black. The Sakas,

Yavavas, Palilavas and Valikas are to be painted white.

The Panchalas, Surasenas, Malisas, Udramagadhas, the

Angas, Vangas and Kalingas are to be painted dark-

white. Angas, Bangas, Kalingas were also mentioned in

Asoka's inscriptions.

The references show the cultural glory of Bengal even

in ancient times.

• Shekaler Rongaloy by Prof. Asok Nath Bhattacharjee M.A. in his

artcles in Nanchghara and Weekly Nayok 19th Ashar 2nd

Fourth 1289

20

SUTRADHARA

We have a reference of the word sutradhara or the architect of the stage in the Natyashastra. We shall also

find the same figure prominent in all dramas of ancient India. The origin of this dramatic person is important.

Some scholars are of opinion that as puppet-show (Putul-nauch) was in vogue in India and the movements of the

dolls or puppets were regulated by the hand with the help of a string (Sutra), the man leading the dolls

was called Sutradhara. Prof. Pischel definitely holds the view that Indian drama has evolved out of such puppet

shows. He says the puppet-shows having disappeared, in course of time, when the real dramatic literature grew

up, the name of the Sutradhara survived. But though we get references of puppet-show in the Mahabharata, and

they are still prevalent in the country, it would be equally logical to think that puppet shows might have followed

dramatic shows and might have been introduced for the entertainment of the illiterate people, as dramatic perfor-

mances were intended for the more cultured people. The unavoidable feature of a Sanskrit Drama is that in it the

Sutradhara must always appear in the prologue and the actors and actresses move like puppets at his bidding. He

is called Sutradhara because the Sutra or the source belongs to him. In the cheap 'putulnanch' also such a

man is called Sutradhara, but the holding of the string actually by the hand, might be by an accident.

Some scholars however are of opinion that Sutradhara is derived from Sutras or aphorisms and as Bharata was

not only the inventor of dramatic en but was also the reputed father of dramatic whose Sutras

the commentators constantly cite, Sutradhara as, the thread-holder or dramatic director owes his origin to him.

In present theatres in Bengal, there is no Sutradhara, his place being taken by programmes.

We next propose to discuss certain views about the origin of drama.

Dr. Macdonell says Indian drama was developed, it seems, in connection with the cult of Krishna (Vishnu).*

Krishna as a cowherd-boy and his cowherd companions according to Macdonell was the starting point, sangita or music (of course devotional music) being the later development. The Doctor refers in corroboration of his theory to the performance of Lakshmisvayamvara being arranged by Bharata and further holds that Gita-govinda of the 12th Century in which the characters engage in lyrical monologues is the earliest literary specimen of the premitive type of play. Dr. Keith upholds the origin of drama to the combination of epic recitations with the dramatic movement of the Krishna legend in which a Young God strives against and overcomes enemies.†

No doubt Bengali Yatras, which we shall deal later on, drew some inspiration from the above source and "Gitagovinda" which formed afterwards the main theme of the jatras owes its origin to the songs and dialogues of Radha-Krishna and cowherd boys and girls, nevertheless it is not correct to say that this was the solitary source of development. As to the earliest dramas that preceded the well-known book ‘Gitagovinda” (of the 12th and 13th

• History of Sanskrit Literature, page 347

† Keith's Drama, page 45

A

century) which however was not a drama, we get none

from the Krishna-Vishnu cult except what we find in

Mahabhashya. So it can not be the cause of earlier deve-

lopment, though it might do something for the later. The

Shiva or Durga or Rama-worship were themes giving rise

to and adding to the development of similar dramatic

efforts, both at the earliest and subsequent stages, yet we

do not advance any theories, though according to Hindu

traditional belief Shiva was the Mahanata and He and

Durga introduced dancings in the theatre. Similarly we

do not propound any new theory though Rama's story

in Ramayana has been so popular in the whole century

that even to-day Ramlila shows are considered to be the

only relics of the ancient dramatic shows. Drama in

India is the result of growth for centuries and several

agencies--not simply one--have worked and contributed

towards its growth and development.

CHAPTER II

LITERARY EVIDENCE ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF

INDIAN DRAMA

IN THE RIGVEDA

In Vedic times, too, as in the legendary age, mimic

play like the conflict between the Devas and Asuras used

to be held during sacrifices and we also notice sufficient

dramatic elements in the Rigveda, particularly in the 10th

Mandala. Several passages full of dramatic interests

consist in dialogues. In Sukta number 95 of the 10th

Mandala, Pururavas mad with grief for Urbashi (the

Apsharas or nymph), rebukes her for her inconstancy

only to court the following reply :-

"You must not die or throw your-self from the rock.

Fierce wolves will then devour you. Women's hearts are

like wild hyenas; there can not be any friendship with

them."

The story or Pururavas and Urbashi has been related

in Shathapatha Brahmana, Harivamsha, Vishnupurana,

Kathasaritsagara and forms the subject of Kalidasa's

immortal drama Vikramorvashi Trotaka.

Again in the 10th Sukta of the same Mandala, we

find Yami in vain trying to seduce her brother Yama to

accept her proferred incestuous love to which Yama replies

"Not such an intimacy does thy friend desire etc."

24

She then abuses him; but he does not listen to an

then when she accuses him of wishing to embrace another

woman in preference to her, "as the creeper clasps the

tree," Yama concludes the dialogue in the following

way :-

Thou, too, O Yami, clasp another

That other thee as the creeper binds the tree

Win thou his love and he wins yours

And then both live in closest tie.

In 1. 165 and 1, 170 Indra disputes with the Maruts

for deserting him during his contest with the Asuras

There is also a similar conversation between Indra and

Varuna in 4.42 in the Rigveda from which and other

passages Max Muller and Sylvain Levi have suggested

that the dialogue-poem of the Rigveda might be a kind of

drama. In 1869, Max Muller in his version of Rigveda

(Vol. 1, 165) conjectures that the "dialogue was repeated

at the sacrifices in honour of the Maruts or that possibly

it was acted by two parties-one representing Indra and

the other Maruts and their followers." Prof. Levi agrees

with the argument further adds that the Samaved*

shows that the art of music had been fully developed in

the Vedic age.* Dr Hertel also says that "Indian Drama

is but a growth of the dialogues, and the Vedic hymns

represent the beginnings of a dramatic art which may

compared with the form of "Gitagovinda." Prof. Von

Schroeder also tries to prove that the Samvada hymns are

really dialogues belonging to some dramatic performance

connected with the religious cult, though Prof. H. Olde.

• गायन्ति त्वा गायत्रिणोऽर्चन्त्यर्केभिरर्चिनः |

स्वपेये कम्प नाधृषीक् १३०१३४

८७

burg differs from that view and considers that without

epic recitation there could be no drama. Dr. Keith,

however, holds : “Period of the Rigveda knew dramatic

spectacles, religious in character in which the priests

assumed the roles of gods and sages in order to imitate

on earth the events of the heavens….The dramas of the

ritual therefore are in a sense some what out of the main

line of the development of the drama and the popular

side has survived through the ages in a rough way in the

Yatras, well-known in Bengal, while the refined and

sacredotalised Vedic drama passed away without a direct

descendant.”

(Dr. Keith's Sanskrit Drama P. 16.)

UPANISHADS

In Brihadaranyaka Upanishad we come across excel-

lent conversations of dramatic character between the

highly learned lady Vidushi Gargi Vachaknavi and the

erudite sage Yajnavalkya and that between the latter

and his wife Maitreyi. All these dialogues are about the

Absolute :-

“सा होवाच यदूदंँ याश्वल्क्य दिवो यदवाकू पृथिन्या यदंतराँँ

आवापृथिवी इमे यदूनंँ त्व भवच्च भविष्यच्चेत्यक्षये कस्मस्तदोतंँ च

प्रोतंँ वेति” ( बृ० उ० ३।८ ) ।

“सा होवाच मैत्रेयी येनाहं नामृता स्यां किमहं तेन

कुर्यांम्‌...” ( बृ०

२।४ ) ।

“Who holds these land and water?” “What is the

good in having that which does not bring nectar-

Amrita?”

Similar dialogues are found in other Upanishads also.

For example, we may cite the excellent dialogue

Yama and Nachiketa in Katha and that between

26

Shvetaketu and his father–both of which contain the very essence of all Upanishadic teachings.

Some of the dialogue-hymns are ballads, some are the poetic remnants of a narrative and others are speeches belonging to a ritualistic drama and Dr. Winternitz taking a middle course says—“these contributed as much to the origin of the drama as to the origin of the epic.”

POST-VEDIC PERIOD

Next, Dr. Hertel, according to whom the beginnings of the drama in India were to be sought in the dramatic rituals connected with the Vedic hymns and dialogues, seeks to find an actual drama of the Post-Vedic Period keeping up the continuity of the pre-Vedic times, but Dr. Keith holds a different view. Says Dr. Keith :—“His (Dr. Hertel's) great effort to find a full drama in the Suparnadhyaya must definitely be pronounced a failure. ..........a late imitation of Vedic work proper, it had neither any dramatic intention or use.”*

We have already shown that the famous grammarian Panini refers to two schools of dramaturgy as propounded by Shilalin and the other by Krishashva.

पाराशर्यशिलालिभ्यां मिक्खुनटसूत्रयोः । ४।३।११०

कम्बोजदक्षिणापथादान् । ४।१।१७५

Since Shilalin and Krishashva introduced Natasutras, Shailalin and Krishashvin mean an actor. In Valmiki's Ramayana, Ayodhyakanda (II. 30. 8) we find that “Shailusha” is used in the sense of an actor in the following sloka:—

स्वयं यु भाष्यां कौमार्यां चिरमध्युभितां सतीम् ।

शैलूष इव मां राम परेभ्यो दातुमिच्छसि ॥

• Dr. Keith's Sanskrit Drama, Page 21.

27

In the Vajasaneyi Samhita, (वाजसनेयी संहिता), Shukla

Yajurneda, 30.6, we find the following passage—

"नृत्य गीतं गीताय शैलूष—"

Commentator Mahidhara (महीधर) explains the term

शैलूषं (Shailusham) as नटम् (Natam or actor)—as in—

"शैलूषं नटम्—महीधर :"

This also proves that Natas or actors were in vogue in

the Vedic period.

In Valmiki's Ramayana also, we find references of

Natakas, Nata and Sangita and Dr. Keith is not right

in saying that there is no trace of any drama there.

In Ayodhyakanda we find that prince Bharata (भरत) who

at the time of Rama's exile and King Dasharatha's

death, lived in his maternal uncle's house, felt sad on

account of bad dreams, quite ignorant of the tragic

events happening at his paternal house. His friends and

associates then tried to cheer him up with their songs,

dancings and by reading joyous comedies or Natakas

(Dramas) :-

वादयित्वा तदा वादीन् लासयन्त्यपि चापरे :

नाटकान्यपरे सास्रौत्स्यानी विविधानि च ।

II. 69. 4.

After Bharata was brought home, he was immediately

raised to the throne at the instance of Markandeya and

other Rishis because they said the following in the course

of narrating the evils of anarchy, viz :-

नाराजके जनपदे श्रृङ्खलनटनर्तका: ।

उत्सवाद् समाजाद् वर्जयन्ते राष्टवर्द्धनाः ॥

II 67 15

28

"In the anarchical state, those festivities that contri-

bute to the pleasure of Natas and dances become rare."

The Ramayana in the course of its description of the

city mentions theatres for females in Ayodhya. बधूनाटकसदृशे

संयुक्ता सवँतः पुरीम * It is also mentioned that Rama along

with other subjects read Nataka written in mixed langu-

ages—श्रेयं शास्त्रसमूहेन प्रास्तो न्यामिश्रकलेभ्य न (२।१।२७) Of course there

is no further reference to drama in the Ramayana, but

the recitation of this great epic, generation after generation,

exercised a great influence on the development of the

drama itself. Valhmiki taught his great poem to his two

pupils Kusha and Lava (Twin sons of Rama and Sita).

They sang and recited those immortal verses before the

people of Ayodhya even in the presence of Rama.

Dr. Keith however admits this influence of the Rama-

yana on our dramatic development. Indeed both Bhasa

and Bhavabhuti have acknowledged the debt of their

dramas they owed to the Ramayana. The word 'Kushi-

lava' means an actor, or a bard and certainly the word has

been derived from Kusha and Lava of the Ramayana.

According to the majority of the oriental scholars, the

Ramayana was completed at a time when the inner

kernel of the Mahabharata had not assumed a definite

shape. The heroes of the Mahabharata are not mentioned

in the Ramayana, whereas the story of the Ramayana has

often been alluded to in the Mahabharata. Hence the

original part of the Ramayana could not on any authority

be composed later than 500 B.C. though we may put

its date at least several thousands of years before the

birth of Christ.

• Adikanda, Chap, V, Sloka 12.

29

In the Mahabharata, we find references of a big stage in the Virata Parva. When the Pandavas, banished from their kingdom, were living in incognito, in the court of king Virata, the great hero, Arjuna, then known as Brihannala, in the guise of an eunuch, taught princess Uttara ( the daughter of Virata ) songs, dancings and instrumental music which he had learnt from Gandharva Chitrasena at the desire of Indra. At the marriage of Uttara with Abhimanyu (Arjuna's son) Natas, Vaitalikas, Sutas, Maghadas (actors, bards, musicians and dancers) entertained the honoured guests. In Vana-Parva of the Mahabharata, king Yudhisthira in answer to the questions put by Dharma said, that for good name he had made occasional payments to the actors and dancers. In the Udyoga Parva, we find that when Shri Krishna went to the palace of Duryodhana as ambassador to Yudhisthira, Duryodhana either for his liberal hospitality, or for showing his own pomps arranged for the entertainment of Sri Krishna at every place of importance. Indeed this much is certain, that with time the epic poetry of the Hindus gradually assumed a dramatic aspect by way of dialogues, and sanskrit drama evolved itself out of the lyric and epic forms, just as the Greek dramas followed the Homeric poems.

In Srimad Bhagvat Purana, reference has been made to actors (Skanda 1, chapter XI, Sloka 21) where Vasudeva and other citizens gave a fitting reception to Sri Krishna when the latter made a state-entry to the capital at Dvaraka:-

नटनटत्कगणैश्चैवः शुचिभागंधवन्दिभिः।

गार्भन्ति चोभनम्

च ॥

30

Dr. Keith says that Nata (नत) might mean a pantomimist but the famous commentator Shridharswamin explains Nata as Navarashabhinayachatura i.e. one who is clever and versed in the display of various (nine) kinds of Rasa, रस i.e. in a word, a skilful actor.

In the other Puranas, too, we find references of dramatic representations. In the Harivansha, Pradyumna, son of Sri Krishna, is mentioned as having appeared in the role of an actor in company of other Yādavas when he stole away Prabhavati, the daughter of the demon-king Vajranabha.

In the Markandeya Purana, we find Ritudhvaja alias Kuvalayashva, the son of king Shatrajit, fond of dramatic performances (Natakabhinaya) and passing his days delightfully in cultivation of poetry, music, dramas and dramatic representations.

कदाचित् काम्यसङ्लापनीतनाटकसम्भवैः ।

रेमे नरेंद्रपुत्रोडसौ नरेन्द्रतनयैः सह ॥

मार्कण्डेयपुराणे विंशोऽध्याये: ।

Besides the above references, we also find regular dramas of two great dramatists Bhasa and Shudraka, who flourished in the 4th century and in the 3rd century before Christ. As these dates require elucidation, we propose to deal with those in the next chapter.

Koutilya in his famous Arthashastra, written about the fourth century before Christ, prohibited the Brāhmana from acting on account of the evil influence it exercised on them for the presence of actresses. Bhasa, the great dramatist, who flourished in the fourth century before Christ, has been quoted by Koutilya in his Artha shāstra.

31

In the Manusamhita, a particular class has been mentioned in reference to acting :

नटक्ष करणाश्रयः ( मनु ०।१२२ )

Both during the time of Panini and his annotator, Patanjali, the more cultured section ( विदग्ध ) of the people used to talk in Sanskrit and the ordinary class in Prakrit.

The root 'Nat', (lit to act and dance) apparently the prakritised form of the Sanskrit root Nrit, has been referred to both in Panini who flourished not later than the 5th Century B. C., but who might have flourished as early as the 8th or 7th century B.C., and Patanjali.

Patanjali ( Circa 150 B.C.) in his famous commentary on Panini's—Mahabhashya—refers to Kamsabadha and Balibandha (i.e. the slaying of Kamsa and the binding of Bali) in passages like—'they cause the death of Kamsa,' 'they cause the binding of Bali, (III. 1. 26, III. 2. 111).

Weber and Dr. Keith hold that these passages might refer to pantomimic killing and binding by Shaubhikas or Shobhanikas. "The use of the causative is explained by this fact ; if Bali and Kamsa were persons of to-day, the simple verb would explain their binding and slaying ; because it is mere actors, the causative is used and its use denotes that the act is not now real but an exposition of a past act." (Sanskrit Drama, p. 33)

Dr. Keith opines that these Shobhanikas used to represent the act of killing and binding by action only, without any word. The painters, on the other hand, used to describe the acts by their paintings. And a third type—the Granthikas—used to describe the acts verbally To contrast with the Shobhanikas, they used words only and not action But Dr Keith does not

press his point further to establish his thesis that Patanjali

here refers to pantomimic acting only and does not

allude to drama proper ; for he is evidently in doubt as

to the exact mode of their acting. As he himself

says—“Did they also use dialogue ?” There is nothing

in the passage either to show that they did, or that they

did not.”

(Sanskrit Drama, p. 34).

Prof. Lüders, on the other hand, holds that these

Shaubhikas were persons who explained to the audience

shadow-pictures. Winternitz supports him but Dr.

Keith rejects this view as one “which has not even the

merit of Indian tradition.”

The traditional view is recorded by Kaiyata the

commentator of Patanjali who flourished about a 1000

years after the great Grammarian. Prof. Levi renders it

as meaning that the Shaubhikas are those who teach

actors “(नटानां शास्तानोपरञ्चय:).” Lüders explains the ex-

pression saying that the Shaubhikas explained to the

audience dumb actors—“a form of drama which is

recorded as performed by the Jhamkīs of Bombay and

Mathura in modern India.”

Patanjali is now definitely known to have been a

contemporary of Pushyamitra, the Commander-in-chief of

Brihadratha, the last of the Mauryas. He slew Briha-

dratha about 185 B.C., usurped his kingdom, founded the

Sunga dynasty and repelled the invasion of the Greek

king Menander alias Milinda in 175 B.C. So Patanjali

may be safely placed in the 2nd cent. B.C.

From Patanjali we get further mention about actors.

That their wives, who served as actresses, were evidently

of low morale is illustrated by the following passage.—

33

तथथा नटानाम् कियो हि गत्ता यो य. पृच्छति कस्य यूपयम् कस्य चूषयमिति सं तं तवेस्यादु पयं व्याजानान्यपि यस्य यस्याच: काव्येमुख्यते तं तं भजन्ते।

महाभाष्य तृतीय अध्याय षम पृ०

Indeed the reputation of actors and actresses was low and unsavoury; they were reputed to live on the price of their wives' honour (Jayajiva, rupajiva ) and Manu imposes only a minor penalty on illicit connection with the wife of an actor on the score of their willingness to hand-over their wives to others and profit by their dishonour.

नैष चारणदारेषु विधिनांस्त्योपजीविविषु ।

सज्जयन्ति हि ते नार्यो निंगूढाश्वारयन्ति च ॥

इति मनु ८१२६२

In the Ramayana also, we find an actor (Shailusha) handing over his wife to another :-

शैलूष हव मां राम परेभ्यो दातुमिच्छसि ।

On the other hand, references to the higher side of the profession are also found in ancient Sanskrit Literature.

We shall never omit to refer to those in the proper place.

IN THE BUDDHISTIC PERIOD

It was during the Buddhistic period that Sanskrit drama reached its high water-mark of perfection. Buddhism brought no foreign rule, nor introduced any alien culture, but was only a side-issue of Hinduism that in the beginning tried to emancipate religion from a number of so-called cruel rites and meaningless rituals and whatever change and degradation the creed itself underwent with time, Buddhism at first was but a branch of pure Hinduism - it bore almost just the relation that Martin Luther's Reformation bore to the Roman Catholke

religion of the Medieval Europe. Buddha is regarded by

some as one of the ten Avatāras of Vishnu. The earliest

Buddhist monks were stern in many things and they were

neither disgusting puritans nor averse to drama or

dramatic representation. So drama found opportunity to

evolve its growth during the Buddhistic period.

The Buddhist ballads also, like Vedic hymns, are

according to some scholars, little dramas and it is too late

to enter into the discussion that they are not so. There

are a number of dramatic references in Buddhistic Litera-

ture and we shall notice only a few here.

In the oldest Buddhistic writings, witnessing Dramatic

performance has been often spoken of something as usual.

"Lalitavistara" speaks of Buddha—that while, in Rajagriha

his disciples Maudgalayana and Upatisva showed their

dramatic skill in the several exhibitions of spectacle and

shows. (Asiatic Researches xx p. 50).

Dr. Weber also says in his Dramatic History of the

world "In the Lalitavistara, apropos of the testing of

Buddha in the various sciences, Natya, most undoubtedly

is taken in the sense of mimetic art and so Foucaux

translates it :"

We have further that Bimbisara, the King of

Magadha had a drama performed in honour of a pair of

Nāga Kings. Next, under the direction of Gautama, the

Buddha himself, a drama was performed at Rajagriha.

Kubalaya was at this time the most charming actress and

acquired great reputation for her dramatic skill. As,

however, she seduced some of the monks, she was turned

by Lord Buddha into a hideous old woman on account of

this sinful act. She then repented her folly and was

afterwards raised to the rank of a saint through the grace

of the Lord Buddha. Indeed, we agree with Dr. Keith,

that there is a close connection of religion and the drama

and it was from religion that decisive impulse was given to

dramatic creation.

The Jātaka legends, too, considered to belong to 3rd

century B. C. abound with innumerable instances of

'Nata' and 'Nataka' :

In Book XX No. 531 ( Kusajataka ); we find

the expression :-"Datv nāṭakāni upattha pessāma-

Bhadde puttassa te rajjam La-" Lady, in making over

the Kingdom to your son we would institute dramatic

festivities.

In part IV 67 (Udaya Jataka) Book XI No. 458,

occurs-'Raja puttam abhisincitva nāṭakāni' ssa. Paccu-

patthapessām.

"The king desired to make his son king with the solemn

sprinkling and to arrange plays for his pleasure."

"Natakani" in the above passages mean plays and

dramatic performances. The Jātakas also speak about

actors. Part VI102 (Book XXII No. 543) has-"Nagas

look at a crowd for two reasons to see whether any

garula is near or any actors."

Jataka Book III 287 has the following :-"of the

Four who gain—one is that has an actor's tricks."

The most pro t mention of dramatic exhabitaon

has been given in Kanavera Jataka where an

36

It is said that Bodhisatta was born as a notorious

robber when king Brahma-Dutta reigned in Benares.

To relieve the people of his incendiarism, the King ordered

him to be decapitated. There was however a courtesan

Shama by name. She was beautiful and skilled in arts

and her fee of each visit was 1000 rupees. The King

loved her and she had a great influence over him. She

sent one of her admirers, a rich and fair young merchant

with Rs. 1000/- to the Governor to release the robber

whom Shama fell in love with. The robber was sent

to Shama, but the youngman was executed instead.

Shama then gave up her profession and began to live day

and night with the robber. The latter however left her

very soon thinking that he too might have the same fate

as the young rich lover. Shama grew restless over her

lover and resolved to recover him by any means. She

sent for some actors and gave them a thousand pieces

of money. On their asking what are they to do for the

lady.-“Nate, pakkosapetva sahassaim adasi kim karomo

Ayyè mtivutte”

to this she replied--

“tumhākam agamanatthānam namar’ atthi tumhe gāmanigamarāja-

dhāniya gantā samajam katvā samajjamandale

pathamamiva imam gitam gāyeyyāthā” te

Bārāṇasito Nikkhamitvā tattha tatha Samajjam

Karontā Ekam paccantagāmakam Gamimse.

Te tattha Samajjam Karontā pathamam eva

gitakam gāyimsa.”

“There is no place that you do not visit—Go then

to every village town and city and gathering a crowd

37

around you on a pavillion of theatre or sabha, sing the following song in the midst of the people :

Shama lives and lives for thee. She loves thee and thee alone.

Bodhisatta, however, did not return and Shama in despair went back to the girls of her former profession and carried on that again. Natas here are actors, Samaja means theatrical shows and Samajamandala the stage.

(Book No. IV p. 318 Part III)

The word Samaja as a theatrical performance occurs often in the Buddhistic literature.

First Rock Edict of Girnar Rock reads thus along with other lines :-

न च समजो किटब्यो नचुकं हि दोसमु समाजमदि पशाति देवानं प्रियदसि राजा अस्ति पि तु एकच्चा समाजा साधुमता देवानं पियसा

Dr. Hultzsch the commentator has not properly interpreted the word Samaja here, but Dr. D. R. Bhandakar has given a correct explanation with illustrations that Samaja (i. e. a public feast where meat formed one of the principal articles of food served) was not to the liking of Ashoka ; where however the word Samaja is synonymous with Ranga, Prekshaghara, (i. e. where it means a concourse of the people assembled), and actors, dancers and musical instruments were brought in to feast their eyes and ears, i. e. where it means a Sangha or a dramatic performance, it was liked by Ashoka *

(considered संघत)

• Dr

article

A

Vol XIII of 1933 pages

38

The word 'Samaja' occurs in Ramayana as we have seen in page 27. Whatever meaning might be given in the epic, the word was used by Vatsyayana वात्स्यायन in his Kamasutra—a work considered so old as the Fifth century B.C. where the words Natakas, prekshanam, Kushilava occur prominently:-

e. g.—(1) गीतम्, वाद्यम्, नृत्यम्, आलेख्यम् .. .. .. नाटकारव्याभिका-दर्शनम्—

( कामशास्त्रे प्रथमाधिकरणे तृतीयोऽध्यायः )

(2). पक्षस्य मासस्य वा प्रशस्ते᳚ऽहनि सरस्वत्या भवने नियुक्तानां नित्यं समाजः । कुचीलवाश्रागन्तवः प्रेक्षणकमेषां दद्यु᳚ः । द्वितीयेहनितेभ्यः पूजा नियतं लभेतन् । ततोऽथाश्रद्दधेषां दर्शंनसुतसगो᳚ वा क्यसनोतसवेभ्यु चैषां परस्परसैककार्यंन ।

आगन्तूनां च कृतसमवादानां पूजनमभ्युपपत्तिषु । इति राणधम्मी᳚ः ।

( कामशास्त्रे प्रथमाधिकरणे चतुर्थोऽध्यायः )

"On some particular auspicious day, an assembly of citizens should be convened in the temple of Sareswati. Here the skill of singers, actors, and of others who may have come recently to the town should be tested and on the following day they should be given some rewards. After that, they may either be retained, or dismissed according as performances are liked or not by the assembly."

"Prekshanakam" (performance) relates to Prekshagriha as described at length by Bharata in his Natya Shastra II-8.

"Samaja" here is representation of a drama and is evident from its association with the words 'Kushilava' and 'prekshanon.'

That Ashoka liked dramatic performance (समाज) is illustrated by the fact that the oft-quoted Sitabenga cave

showing a stage in it related probably to the time of Ashoka. From this also the inference is possible that 'samaja' in Girnar Rock-edict of Ashoka means a dramatic performance

The ascendency of drama during the Buddhistic period has further been demonstrated by the discovery of fragments of manuscripts of three dramas on palm leaves of great antiquity at Turfan in Central Asia. Professor Luders has translated these and one of the above dramas is Sariputra-Prakarana by Asvaghoshas, son of Suvar-nakshi and the author of Buddhacharita and Sutralankara.

The Drama Sariputra-Prakarana treats of the conversion of young Maudgalayana and Sariputra by the Buddha. Maudgalayana asks Sariputra how he, a Brahmin, would accept a Khasatriya as his teacher. Sari-putra says—“medicine given by a Shudra may heal the sick—.” Maudgalyana greets him and they both go to Buddha who prophesies that they will be highest in knowledge. The last chapter describes a philosophic dialogue between Buddha and Sariputra.

The discovery of the above fragments shows how drama attained a definite and complete form by the 1st Century B. C., the recognised time of Asvaghosha. The drama is in 9 acts and illustrates the main types of dramas. It further shows that there must have been a number of dramas, preceding and following the Natya-shastra as we have seen before, enabling the author to codify the technique and the rules that guide dramas of various types.

ARCHÆOLOGICAL FVIDENCE

Now we come to archæological evidence that we find

scattered over the length and breadth of India, in

imperishable stones. Archæology takes us back to the

"speciouns times" of Ashoka the great—a celebrated

Budhist King whose palace was at Pataliputra (Patna)

one hundred and ten years after the decease of Shakya.

He conquered many provinces and the era of Ashoka had

left its marks on the pages of the world's history. By

that time trade and communication between India and

Greece were fully established and happy relationship

existed between these two great countries as a result of

treaty concluded between Chandra Gupta and Selucus, the

Great general of Alexander the great.

About 75 years ago, Colonel J. R. Ouseley discovered

two caves inscribed with Ashoka characters (Shilālipi) in

the Ramgarh Hills in the Lakhanpura Zemindari of the

Sirguja Estate in the central provinces of India.

The place is about 100 miles from Khashia Ry.

Station of the B. N. Railway and would be about 2000

feet high above the sea level. There is a very old temple

in the locality almost in ruins where the deity Raghunath

(Ram Chandra) is still worshipped. There are also other

small temples in ruins wherein are found images of Shiva,

Ashtabhuja (lit. with eight arms—Durga) Sita, Lakshan

and Mahabira. Melas and fairs are held every year

when pilgrims from different parts of India come. To-

wards the north of the hill there is a big passage about

180 feet in length and so wide that an elephant with

riders can easily pass through it. The tunnel or the

passage is thus known as "Hathipole." In the same hill

towards the West are two caves facing the West. The

northern cave is called the "Sitabenga" and the Southern

one "Jogimara." In 1894 Dr. Theodore Bloch visited the

eaves and took photos of the sites, and of all the impressions and inscriptions therein. These on examination were found to relate to drama and poetry. Other travellers, like Mr. Boyre, who preceded the Doctor, took those to be the abode of the saints and yogis, but Dr. Theodore Bloch discovered the following historical truths from the inscriptions and different impressions, found in those caves.

The first cave "Sitabenga", named after Sita, the wife of Rama, resembles in all details the plan of "a small Greek amphitheatre." In the caves are found holes in which wooden pillars were fixed for hanging screens, and outside are found remains of seats rising upstairs and arranged in semi-circles confirming the idea of accommodation for about fifty persons or upwards. Sitabenga is 46 feet by 24 feet. In front (outside) there were some rows of raised seats of stones. Inside the cave there are three rows of raised seats on the three sides. Each raised platform was 2½ feet in height and 7 feet in breadth. There are reasons to believe that during the spring, autumn and the summer, spectators enjoyed dramatic representations from outside, but in the rains and winter they had to take shelter inside the cave. The following inscription has been found in the Sitabenga cave in the two lines, 3ft 8" long while each letter measures 2½ inches in average.

1. Adi payamti hedayam—

Sabhaba gara Kavayo e ratayam .........

2. Dib vasam tiya Hasavana bhute

Kudasphatam evam alam ga.*

• This second line contains several letters which can not be clearly read such as K may be read as K also.

42

In the opinion or Dr. Bloch, the inscription means, the poets are to be honoured, they stir up our hearts. When in the full moon of the spring, songs and witty jokes appertaining to Doljatra-festival go on all round, the people swell in joy by putting on Jasmine garlands around their necks.

In the spring, Doljatra or the Swing-festival of Lord Krishna during full moon is a very great festive occasion for the Hindus. Dr. Bloch says therefore it was a place where poetry was recited, love-songs were sung and theatrical performances held. In short, we may look upon it as the ruins of an Indian Theatre of 3rd century B. C.

The following writings have been found in the Jogimara cave :

1. "Shutanuka nama"—Sutanuka by name.

2. "Devdashikyi"—a dancing girl or a temple dancer.

3. "Shutanukanama devdashikyi"—Shutanuka by name, a temple-dancer.

4. "Tam Kamayitha balansheye"—Her beloved he of Baranashi (Beneras)*

5. "Devadinenama lupadakhe"—Devadinna (Deva-datta) by name skilled in forms.†

• This line is differently interpreted by Boyer, Bloch, Dr A. Banerjee, Shastri and Dr. S. K. Chatterjee. Some read "balunasheye." It is not necessary to dilate on the point here.

† Iṃradākʿn -R‿dākʿh -Bloch interprets the word as "skilled in pamṛṇaḥ li‿r ʼh 1 ‿t mean 'artiste en statues.' Pischel makes it 'Kopist.' Poet Rabindranath Tagore and Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee tried to use the word in the sense of an artist. Dr. Chatterjee, however seems to be in doubt as to exact significance of the term. He translates it as "skilled in forms—(painter or sculptor ? skilled in figures or accountancy)". Profs Surendranath Muzumdar Shastri and Ashokanath Bhatta-charya Shastri have suggested the meaning "actor". This seems to be the most plausible interpretation.

In the Minjipanho, there is a word "Rupadaksha" which may be sanskritised as " Rupadaksha". But there 'Rupadakkha' has an altogether different significance i.e. "Judge", as Rhys Davids points out. Even in that context Rhys Davids is not sure of its exact significance. The word does not occur anywhere else in the whole range of Sanskrit or Prakrit Literature, hitherto known to us.

Dr. Block interprets these disjointed writings by putting those together as below :-“Sutanuka devadasi who was head of dancing girls meant for the perfor-

mances lived in this cave and she fell in love with an actor or an expert in setting as artist—Devadinna by name.” The above shows that either stories of love were appre-

ciated by people or the artist himself described his tale of deep love with the actress Sutanuka.

On the roof of Jogimara, there are still some pictures of the following :-

1. A man is seated under a tree with dancing girls and musicians on the left and a procession on the right.

2. A man's picture and some geometrical figures.

3. A man's picture with flowers, cloth and horse.

4. A naked person seated with three attendants with cloths.

5. On another side, two persons seated, three attendants, an elephant by the side of a window of a house and three persons standing.

The Jogimara has also a raised platform on which probably poems were recited.

The Sitabenga inscription is in verse and evidently the composition of some poet.

There are indications to show that poetical recitations were also held in the caves. Thus indications of poetry, rt and performances were plainly visible in those two zaves discovered by Dr. Bloch, which were regarded by nim to be of Greek origin, but the poems and writiags

44

clearly indicate their independent origin and their genuine originality.

From the above archæological discovery of the stage* like 'Greek amphitheatre' some critics might infer that the earliest trace of the Indian stage dates after the advent of the Greeks, that the Hindus had no theatre of their own and they owe it to the civilised Greeks. Dr. Bloch also says that "it is probable that if the Indians became acquainted with Greek Theatres, the suitability of the arrangement of these must have led them to adopt similar structures for their own places of amusement." One might, even, uphold the notorious Windisch theory, "that the curtain was called Yavanika after the Greeks because it took the place of the painted scenery at the back of the Greek stage." Professor Lüders, however, does not accept this view † though he admits the connection between the Indian drama and the Greek Mimus. We should, however, at once speak to the critics that if they care to go through the elaborate description of the stage and the auditorium in the Natya-shastra, the earliest text of the Hindus on this subject, and also care to follow impartially the abundant references to dramatic performances in various books of hoary antiquity, they will have to reserve their judgment and will be satisfied beyond doubts about the independent origin of the Indian stage. We have given an account of the earliest stage from "Sangita Ratnākara" in page 18 and further we have seen that Bharata's Natyashastra, the earliest authority extant on the subject, gives a comprehensive description of the Indian stage and auditorium in details and such an

• Vide Dr. Theodore Bloch's report in the Archæological Survey of India 1903–1904.

† Journal of the German Oriental Society Vol. I–VII page 867,

45

elaborate and comprehensive treatise on dramaturgy could never be written if there were no dramatic institutions in the land long before the composition of such books. "Natya-shastra" not only mentions three main types of play-houses* as we mentioned before, but gives their measurements and classification of the seats in the auditorium according to different castes. Different quarters or seats were assigned to the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas. Vaishyas, and the Sudras.

Just in front of the auditorium stood the stage decorated with pictures and beautiful reliefs, generally eight cubits square. The Natya-shastra lays down specially that "a play-house should have the form of a cave and and have two stories," similar to the Sitabenga cave discovered by Dr. Bloch at Ramgarh.

काष्ठपण्यैःसं प्रतिदार द्वारविदं न कार्येत् । कार्यः शैलगुहाकारो दिविभूमिनाक्ष्यमण्डपः: ॥ २१६ ॥

Indeed, the discovery of the stage with auditorium in the caves is only an illustration of the rules enunciated in Natyashastra the oldest book probably of the time of Valmiki. Dr. Bloch's use of the expression "Greek amphitheatre" is rather misleading.

As a matter of fact we find traces of dramatic representations in the cave inscription of Nasik during the time of Siri Pulumayi (2nd century A. D) and in the Hatigumpha inscription † of Kharavela of Kalinga (2nd century B. C.)‡

• Play houses are of eighteen types in all—Vide Abhinaba bibriti Baroda Ed. P.

† The inscription is written in Prakrit prose.

‡ Journal of Bihar and Orissa Society 1917 p. 455.

7

46

But the oppositionists would still harp on the word

"Yavanika."

YAVANIKA

The above word which means a curtain is the sheet anchor for a class of critics who think 'Hindu Theatre was borrowed from the Greeks.' These critics, of whom E. Windisch is the chief, hold that Yavanika points to its Greek origin as being derived from Ionian or Greek but they are only building castles in the air as not only there was no curtain in Greek stage at all, but also no drama either of Bhasa or Kalidasa or Bhavabhuti or Sudraka made any mention of Yavanika which for the first time we find in Karpurmanjari, a drama entirely in Prakrit, of 10th century A. D. by the dramatist Rajashekhara. Long before this, Kalidasa spoke of Javani-women in the second canto of Shakuntala. They were maids-attendants of king Dushyanta and they could dance well as in—

पसो वाणासह इयारिं जवनोर्हिं वन्पुष्पमाला भाविनीतिं—

परिपुढो हदो पच्वो वा अच्छादि प्रि अन अस्सो

दितीय अंक पाटान्त

Greek Geographers* mention about slave girls amongst other commodities. Wines, musician boys and fine women were imported into India for the satisfaction of the prince of Bargaza (present Broach) and Yavanis were probably such women. These Yavoni women used to hold royal umbrellas over the heads of the Hindu kings and in dramatic performances they used to draw aside the dissected curtain to her side. We get further reference in Kalidas's Raghubansha of Javonís meaning the women

• Periplus of the Erythrean Sea.

of Persia conquered by King Raghu in his Digbijoya—

conquest of different countries. “यवनोऽसुरपानां” रघु—४ ।

Panini refers to Yavana as in—

इन्द्रवरुणभवशानवेसुद्र मुद्रहिमरण्य यव यवन मातुलान्वार्योंणामातुलक ४।२।९

“यवचाक्षिप्याम्” यवनालिपि: यवनानी—

In Ramayana Sugrib sent his attendants to different

places to search Sita as in :-

एतान् म्लेच्छान् पुलिन्दाश्र

काम्बोज-यवनांश्रैव शकानां पततनाणि च ।

विराटपर्वाण्ड ४३सर्गं

Mahabharata speaks of the Yabanas being descended

from Nandini the cow of Vashista. Māndhātā मान्धाता

also speaks of the Yabanas in the same book.

यवना: किरातागन्धाराक्षीताः शकववन्दराः ।

शान्तिपर्व २८ अध्याय ।

This was followed in Haribansha and Brahmhanonda

Purāna speaks of the Javas having shaved their hairs

and Malavikagnimitra of Kalidas further speaks of Yava-

nas having attacked the army of King Pushyamitra when

he crossed the other side of the Indus. The Javas were

believed to be descendants of Turbashoor and lived in the

regions on the western banks of the Indus (Purvas).

Bactria was very likely the abode of them. The Aryans

used to call all people but them and those of them that

used to despise their own religion and custom, as Javas

as a few years ago people of advanced ideas used to be

called Khristāns by the more orthodox people.

Our readers would be further surprised to learn that

the word Javonika was purely of Hindu origin. The

word “J ” (Jam anta) means a and is but

another name for 'Javonika, 'm' being sometimes colloquially changed into 'b' in pronunciation.

Dr. Keith also is emphatic that the Greek influence behind the Hindu stage is foolish. This is what he says :-

"More value attaches to the argument from the use of Yavanika or its Prakrit form Javanika for the name of the curtain which covered the tiring room and formed the back ground of the stage. The word primarily is an adjective meaning Ionian, the Greeks, with whom India first came into contact. But it was not confined to what was Greek in the strict sense of the word; it applies to anything connected with the Hellenized Persian Empire, Egypt, Syria, Bactria and it therefore can not be rigidly limited to what is Greek. As applied to the curtain it is an adjective and describes doubtless the material of the curtain (Pati, apati) as foreign, possibly as Levi suggests, Persian tapestry brought to India by Greek ships and merchants. The word Yavonika has no special application to the curtain of the theatre as would be the case if it were borrowed as a detail of stage-management from Greece. Nor in fact was there any curtain in the case of Greek drama so far as is known, from which it could be borrowed; Windisch's contention merely was that the curtain was called Greek because it took the place of painted scenery at the back of the Greek stage.

"As little can any conclusion of Greek borrowing be drawn from the Yavonis--Greek maidens--who are represented as among the body guards of the King; for this the Greek drama offers no parallel; it represents the fondness of the princes of India for the fascinating

hetaerae of Greece and the readiness of Greek traders to make high profits to be derived from shipping these youthful cargoes.

Page 61-62 A. B. Keith 1924.

It is quite possible without any prejudice to Greek advancement in the matter of dramas that both countries Greece and India might have made sufficient progress in the matter; as Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, the Great Savant of Science and Professor Marconi invented the principles of wireless telegraphy from two different poles at the same time.

Many a German scholars have established a close relation between India and Greece at the Buddhistic influence on the principles of Pythagoras, though the latter might have been found out independently of Indian origin, as much as Mediæval Europe might have created fools without any idea of Hindu Vidushakas of the ancient Indian Dramas.

When the stage itself was in a highly advanced stage of development, the word Yavanika might have crept into the dramatic code of India independently of any borrowing from outside.

That we do not hear of the word before the drama of Karpurmanjari by Raj-Shekhara in the 12th century A. D., is enough proof of the late introduction of the word into the dramas of India.

CHAPTER III

THE NATURE OF AN INDIAN DRAMA :

KALIDAS

If we now look into the spirit and structure of the

world-renowned dramas of Bhasa, Kalidas and others and

compare them with those of the Greeks, we shall be

absolutely convinced about the independent origin of the

Indian drama.

The following are the chief characteristics of the

Sanskrit dramas in general and Natakas in particular :-

(i) The Entire absence of tragedy :-

The Greek dramas are predominantly tragic ; but

tragedy, is totally absent in sanskrit literature. The

elaborate technicalities of sanskrit Dramaturgy intervened,

and the result is the total absence of every kind of tragedy

from sanskrit. It is idle to suppose that a supreme artist

like Kalidasa or Bhavabhuti could not turn out a success-

ful tragedy. Both Shakuntala and Uttararamacharita have

carefully avoided being sombre tragedies. Bhasa's dramas

too are anything but tragic in spirit, except "Urubhanga"

which ends with death of Durjodhana. This too is no

exception to the general character of Sanskrit drama, for

the death of Durjodhana who was rightly served for his

misdeeds does not produce any grief in the minds of the

audience.

(ii) Nothing indecent to be presented on the stage.

This dramaturgical injunction did not stop with removing all vulgar things from the stage, but at the same time it put a stop to many innocent things, which might well give a relief to the play. Even kisses and embraces were forbidden on the ancient Sanskrit stage. And we believe that it stood as an impediment to the healthy growth of drama in its manifold phases. Even witticisms were sometimes regulated by the canons of dramaturgy. So from the very nature of things a Sophocles or an Aristophanes must be absent from Sanskrit. Even there were forms of expressing amorous emotions. What wonder is there if Sanskrit dramas being hemmed in all sides by such conventional restraints failed to attain the sublime plane of Greek tragedy. But all honour to the great Hindu dramatists who labouring under such disadvantages and unreasonable restrictions could turn out dramas that have drawn unstinted admiration of the civilised world. Some of these rules we shall presently notice.

(iii) The famous classical rule of the Greek trinity i. e. unity of time, unity of place and unity of action, was never observed in India. But there were Panchasandhis or five essential knots or junctures in a Sanskrit drama, absent in Greek dramaturgy :-Mukham, Pratimukham, Garbha, Bimarsha and Upasanhara मुखं, प्रतिमुखं, गर्भः विमर्शः, उपसंहारः.

(iv) The dominant sentiment of the Nataka should be either Erotic or heroic.

All other sentiments found subordinate place in the Nataka.

(v) Abundance of lyrics and lyrical sentiments for which a drama sometimes suffers from want of action. As the third Act of Bhavobhuti's Uttaram-Charita, from the entire absence of dramatic action, appears more like a gorgeous poem than drama, in the strict sense of the word, though of course it contains passages of great beauty and poetry.

(vi) The Linguistic difference that we find in the employment of courtly sanskrit for some persons and prakrit for women and men of inferior rank is a remarkable feature of the Sanskrit drama.

Such a distinction is altogether absent in Greek drama. It is possibly due to the fact that when dramas came to be written in Sanskrit it was no longer the "talking language of the people." By the third century before Christ, Sanskrit ceased to be a popular language and in the dramas of Bhasha and Kalidasa while the learned and principal personages speak in sanskrit, female and inferior characters use varieties of the Prakrit while Karpurmontari (the only example of Sattaka or minor heroic comedy) was written entirely in Prakrit.

The dramatic genius of the Hindu reached its perfection betweeen the second century B. C. and the ninth century A. D. Various dramas rich in poetry, and perfect in execution have been traced to this period. Bhasha, Kalidasa, Bhavabhuti, Shudraka, Shri Harsha all belong to this august period of the Sanskrit drama, their very structures differ from that of the Greek drama.

drama, the CHORUS, is conspicuously absent from the

Sanskrit drama. Again Sutradhara, Nati, Nandi,

Amukha etc. are not to be found in a Greek play.

Almost invariably in all Sanskrit plays we come

across a comic character (or Vidushaka) who is a boon

companion of the hero of the drama and pleases him by

his witticisms and observations on some dramatic situa-

tions. This comic character is said to have influenced

even European dramatists in their representations of fools

and jesters. Pischel in his “Home of puppet plays” says,

“Vidushaka is the original of the buffoon who appears in

the plays of Medieval Europe.” This was however

absent in the dramas of Eschylees, Euripides and

Sophocles.

A historical account of Sanskrit drama, though it may

not pretend to any literary citicism, is apt to bring

Kalidasa's name to the forefront. Kalidasa, an imperi-

shable name in the world's literature, is yet chiefly known

to the foreigners by his immortal drama—“Shakuntala.”

This famous comedy is in seven acts, its plot being taken

from the 1st book of the Mahabharata. It is a dramatic

romance of the surpassing beauty and surely one of the

master-pieces in world's literature. Kalidas has been

justly called the Shakespeare of India and his wonderful

knowledge of human nature in all its varied and profound

phases is quite Shakespearean. His imagination was not

only a realising faculty, but it could easily grasp the past,

the present, and the future. He was a profound artist as

well. The activity and universality of his genius

pervaded every subject he touched, and clothed it in the

most attractive garb and everything in his hands became

instinct with new life and redolent with poetical beauty

Kalidasa is unquestionably the greatest of the sanskrit poets, and may be emphatically described as the genius of ancient India. He was, according to popular tradition the most brilliant of the nine gems who adorned the court of Vikramaditya, the most puissant monarch of his age, who drove away the Scythians and other barbarous races beyond the Indus, and whose dominion extended over the whole of southern India. Of the early history and antecedents of Kalidasa, little or nothing is known.

According to legendary account he was destitute of all education and even of common sense so much so that he was found, on one occasion cutting down the very branch of a tree on which he was seated ! He was afterwards blessed and inspired by Sarasvati, the Goddess of learning and he then wrote under her inspiration the three dramas of fame Vikramorvashi, Shakuntala and Malavikagni-Mitra, all of them remarkable for their elegance, poetry and delicacy of subtle dramatic art. They all exhibit a deep acquaintance with the mechanism of the human heart, as well with nature. They are full of interesting incidents that move forward with a spontaneous ease and there the characters act and speak just as they might do in real life.

The Hindu dramatists, as observed by a reputed writer in the Cornhill Magazine, have the highest name among all the authors whose human personality is ack-nowledged by Hindu piety. The chief poets of the great literary age of India, like those of the similar period in France, were unquestionably dramatists, and judged either by the quantity or by the quality of their works, they shed a lustre on their era, which has not been eclipsed by subsequent poets.

55

The plot of the Shakuntala the translation of which by Sir William Jones in 1789 first revealed to the cultural peoples of the West the existence and superiority of an Indian Drama, can be recounted in brief. King Dushyanta appears in the court, and orders his pradhan (or minister) to make preparations for a hunting excur-

sion. The Raja sitting in his carriage pursues a stag, the stag disappears, upon which Dushyanta questions his charioteer about the flight of the stag. Having ascertained the fact from the latter, he hastens in another direction ; and discovering the stag, strikes it with an arrow. The poor creature runs for its life and takes shelter in the hermitage of Vaikhanasa Rishi who remonstrates with Dushyanta for injuring the stag.

Dushyanta expresses his regret, and receives pardon and benediction of the Rishi. He then proceeds to the Ashrama of another Rishi, named Kanva, the foster-father of Shakuntala. He there observes Shakuntala engaged with her companions in watering the trees. He conceals himself behind a tree, and hears her praising the beauty of the kāshara tree. Charmed with her discourse Du-

shyanta tries to find out her descent. Shakuntala is very much teased by a bhramara (black-bee) hovering about her face. The Raja, then, comes forward and asks the cause of her agitation and distress. After a mutual exchange of civilities, they all take their seats beneath an umbrageous tree. Dushyanta informs her of his country and descent. They then all retire to the Ashrama. The Raja is suddenly smitten with the charms of the lovely Shakuntala, who reciprocates his love, but is prevented by her innate modesty and delicacy from giving expres-

sion to her feelings Her e is, at last, conquered

56

by the persuasions of the King, and they are married at

the end. Then Dushyanta returns to his capital anc

completely forgets everything about the marriage. This

oblivion or loss of memory about the marriage is the

result of a curse pronounced on Shakuntala by the

famous sage Durvasa Muni. The interest of the play is

deeply concentrated in the fourth Act, which describes the

departure of Shakuntala from the Ashrama of Kanv

to her husband's place. Some time after Dushyanta's

desertion of Shakuntala, Kanva discovers an auspicious

omen which leads him to infer that Dushyanta will soon

recover his memory about his marriage. On the eve c.

her departure, Shakuntala thus laments her separation

from her beloved trees and pet animals :-

SHAKUNTALA.

"My beloved jasmine, most brilliant of climbing plants,

how sweet it is to see thee cling thus fondly to thy

husband, the mango tree ; yet, prithee, turn thy twining

arms for a moment in this direction to embrace thy

sister ; she is going far away, and may never see thee

again."

PRIYAMVADA.

You are not the only one, dearest, to feel the bitter-

ness of parting. As the time of separation approaches,

the whole grove seems to share your anguish.

In sorrow for thy loss the herd of deer

Forget to browse ; the peacock on the lawn

Ceases its dance & the very trees around us

Shed their pale leaves, like tears, upon the ground

57

KANVA.

Daughter! the cherished purpose of my heart

Has ever been to wed thee to a spouse

That should be worthy of thee; such a spouse

Hast thou thyself, by thine own merits, won.

To him thou goest, and about his neck

Thy favourite jasmine twines its loving arms

Around the sturdy mango. Leave thou it

To its protector… e'en as I consign

Thee to thy Lord, and henceforth from my mind

Banish all anxious thought on thy behalf.

Listen, then, my daughter. When thou reachest

nd's place, and art admitted into his family

Honour thy betters; ever be respectful

To those above thee; and should others share

Thy husband's love, ne'er yield thyself a prey

To jealousy; but ever be a friend,-

A loving friend, to those who rival thee

In his affections. Should thy wedded Lord

Treat thee with harshness, thou must never be

Harsh in return, but patient and submissive.

Be to thy menials courteous, and to all

Placed under thee, considerate and kind;

Be never self-indulgent, but avoid

Excess in pleasure; and when fortune smiles,

Be not puffed up. Thus to thy husband's hou

Wilt thou a blessing prove, and not a curse.

1 the arrival of Shakuntala at the palace of

id she is repudiated by him. Dushyanta forg

urriage owing to the mysterious disppearance of

go-ring, and refused to acknowledge Sakunt

58

as his wife when she came to the palace with two disciples

of Kanva—Sarngarava and Saradvata and the old

maid Gautami. Shakuntala was then taken to the celes-

tial region by her mother. There she was delivered of a

child—“Sarvadamanas” who was subsequently known as

Bharata भरत* from whom India came to be known as

Bharatavarsha भारतवर्ष—Dushyanta, at last remembered

Shakuntala by the sight of the ring given to her by the

King presented to him by a fisherman which he found

within a fish. After many vicissitudes when Dushyanta

went to Indra for helping the latter, the two lovers were

united by the grace of gods.

To comment upon the merits of Shakuntala would

be as useless as to gild refined gold—So we must refrain

from all such vain attempts; here we quote only a few

lines from Schlegel.—

"And to go to the other extreme, among the Indian

people from whom perhaps all the cultivation of the

human race has been derived, plays were known long

before they could have experienced any foreign influence.

It has lately been made known to Europe, that they

have a rich dramatic literature, which ascends back

for more than two thousand years. The only specimen

of their plays (nataks) hitherto known to us is the delight-

ful Sakoontola which, notwithstanding the colouring

of a foreign climate, bears in its general structure such a

striking resemblance to our romantic drama, that we

might be inclined to suspect that we owe this resem-

blance to the predilection for Shākespeare entertained

by Jones, the English translator, if his fidelity were

• This is a different person from the author of Natyashastra.

not confirmed by other learned orientalists. In the

golden times of India, the representation of this Natak

served to delight the splendid imperial court of Delhi ;

but it would appear that, from the misery of numberless

oppressions, the dramatic art in the courtly is now

entirely at an end".

Monier Williams, author of an English translation

of Shakuntala, says, "The English reader remembering

that the author of the Shakuntala lived in the century

preceding the Christian era, will at least be inclined to

wonder at the analogies which it offers to our own

dramatic composition of fifteen or sixteen centuries later.

The dexterity with which the plots arranged and con-

ducted, the ingenuity with which the incidents are con-

nected, the skill with which the characters are delineated

and contrasted with each other, the boldness and felicity

of the diction, would scarcely be unworthy of the great

dramatists of modern time." Who does not remember

Goethe's unrestrained eulogy over the merits of the drama

of Shakuntala :-

वासन्तं कुसुमं, फलं चै युगपद् ग्रीष्मस्य सर्गं च यत् ।

किचिज्जिन्मनसो रसायनमथो सन्तर्पणं मोहनम् ॥

माकीभूतमभूतपूर्वस्वधया स्वलोंक भूलोकयो-

रैलवयं यदि कोप्ति काङ्क्षति तदा शाकुन्तलं सङ्गताम् ॥

"Wouldst thou the young year's blossoms

and the fruits of its decline

And all by which the soul is charmed,

enraptured, feasted, fed ?

Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itself

in one sole name combine ?

I name, thee, O "Shakuntala" and all at once is said"

60

Goethe also wrote most eulogistically in a letter, to

Mr. Chazy the French Scholar, in Sanskrit, on reading

a copy of the same drama edited by the latter.*

Besides other well-known poetic compositions as the

Raghuvamsha, and the Meghaduta of which we have

nothing to do here, Kalidasa wrote two other excellent

dramas--Malavikagnimitra and Vikramorvashi. The

former deals with the love of king Agnimitra as how the

hero falls in love with Malavika, a maid of honour to his

queen, which naturally leads to many love-intrigues in

the harem but ultimately ends in union between the two

lovers. The latter is a glorious melodrama and deals with

mythical story about the love of Maharja Pururavas

(King of Pratisthana and the nymph Urvashi who was

driven out of the heavens for uttering in the guise of

Lakshmi the name of Pururavas instead of Vishnu, but

was ultimatedly allowed to live with her lover till the

birth of the child. This piece was translated by Dr. H.

Wilson in 1827 and contains an Act of incomparable

loveliness. Kalidasa is historically timed sometime be-

tween the first century before Chirst, as his hero Agni-

mitra was the son of General Pushyamitra who extermina-

ted the Maurya Dynasty in the middle of second century

P C. and the sixth century as he himself is named by

Bana Bhatta and the author of Aihole Prashasti who flouri-

shed in the beginning of the 7th century. He is popu-

larly known to belong as the chief of the nine gems (lit.

Navaratna) to the court of Vikramaditya, king of Ujjayin

who routed the Sakas when Samvat commenced and is

known as 'Shakari'. Though Kalidasa's dramas are

• This letter is to be found in Hæxet's introduction to his German

Translation of Shakuntala

61

comedies, he is often compared and contrasted with Shakespeare and some such comparative reviews about him may be found in “Bangadarshan” of 1280 B. S. edited by the versatile master of the Bengali language, the late renowned Bankim Chandra Chatterjee.

We may note here some points of difference between the two great poets of world-wide reputation. Kalidas's greatness lay more in the developement of individual characters whereas Shakespeare excelled in his masterly creation of types of men. The times and surroundings in which each was born greatly influenced his particular drama. Even creation of “fools” in each differed from the other. The Vidushoka was a Confidante of the hero in his love-affairs, whereas the jester was masterly in expressing truth under a humourous expression. But the human sentiments were wonderfully delineated both by Shakespeare and Kalidasha—of immortal fame.

CHAPTER IV

"DISCOVERY OF BHASA'S DRAMAS."

Next in importance, though not in point of time,

may be mentioned the well-known dramas of Bhāsa.

Kalidasa was preceded by the remarkable dramatist

Bhasa whose works had hitherto been unknown. It

was only in the year 1912 appeared, the first of the series

under the editorship of Mahamahopadhyaya Pandit

Ganapati Shastri, who by his most laborious and

erudite research had succeeded in unearthing the invalu-

able dramas of Bhasa in the southern part of the Tra-

vancore State. As the Superintendent in charge of the

publication of ancient Sanskrit works, he used to visit

many places in connection with his work; and in 1910

found to his great astonishment, ten manuscript dramas

hitherto unknown and written on palm leaves, in Mala-

yalam characters in the Manalikkara Matham near

Padmanābhapuram. The names of the dramas which

are so many rare treasures are as follows :-

1. Svapnavasavadatta, 2. Pratinjna-Jaugandharayana

2. Pancharatra, 4. Charudatta, 5. Dutta-ghatotkacha,

3. Avimāraka, 7. Balacharitra, 8. Madhyamavyaoga,

4. Karnabhara, 10. Urubhanga.

Subsequently three more dramas Abhisheka-nataka,

Pratima-nataka and Dutavakya were found for him

by the astrologer Govinda Pisharodi at Kancasapuram.

63

After the above remarkable dramas were traced out,

G. Shastri approached the different Feudatory Chiefs,

and the princes of Vijaynagara, Mysore and Travancore

supplied him with the funds for printing and publication

of the works of Bhasa. Pandit Ganapati Shastri is thus

alone entitled to the credit of presenting to us the invalu-

able dramas of the great poet so long buried in oblivion.

PRIOR TO KALIDASA

That these dramas are prior to those of Kalidasa may

be proved from the following references :-

1. In the prologue to Malavikagnimitra, Kalidasa

asks the question "why so much honour to the

present poet ( वर्तमानकवे: ) passing by the dramas

of such famous poets Bhasa, Soumilla and

Kaviputra.

2. In the 7th century, poet Banabhatta praises

Bhasha as an eminent dramatist-" सप्तकैयंशो लब्धे

भासो देवकुलैरिव" 1

3. Vakpati the poet of the "Prakrita Ganda" mentions

Bhasa as among his favourite poets and

4. Rajashekara about 900 A. D. speaks of Bhasa's

Svapnavasavadatta, as an excellent drama that

could not be burnt by the fire of criticism.

BHASA'S TIME

From the above and various other sources Pandit

Kashyprasad ascertains that Bhasa flourished in the first

entury B. C. being the court Pandit of King Narayana of

he Kanva Dynsty Pandit Ganpat Shastri however

laces him before

( i. e. 4th century B C )

64

As there is no reason to discard that view, we feel tempted

to accept the opinion of this competent scholar, and place

Bhasa in the period 4th century B. C. Doctors Keith and

Winternitz, however, place him about a century or two

earlier than Kalidasa (i.e. 4th or 3rd century A. D.). Their

main arguments are that in language and style, Bhasa's

dramas are nearer to Kalidasa than to Ashvaghosha, the

author of the poem Buddhacharita and the drama

Sariputra-Prakarana ; and as the latter probably belongs

to the first or the second century A. D. and as Kalidasa

probably lived in the 5th century, Bhasa must have

flourished in the end of the 3rd century or in the beginning

of the 4th century A. D. The embarrassing question of

Asvaghosha's priority to Bhasa on the evidence of Prakrit

is an open one still. We shall not waste any pen and

tax our readers' patience by holding to any of these

theories in preference to others. We do not fix the time,

but it was prior to Kalidasa, and it was sometime between

4th century B. C. and fourth century A. D.

SOURCES

Bhasa's dramas had the two epics as their sources,

especially the Mahabharata. The Ramayana forms the

subject matter of only two dramas-Abhishekanataka

and Pratima nataka. Madhyamavyayoga, Dutavakhya,

Dutaghatotkacha Karnabhara, and Vrubhanga-these

five plays have each but one act. Pancharatra has three

acts. Pratijnajaugandharayana and Charudatta have four

acts each. Balacharita has five acts. Svapna-Vasawa-

datta and Avimaraka have six acts each, Abhisheka and

Pratima have seven acts each.

The discovery of these dramas proves to what a high

65

pitch of perfection, the Hindu stage reached at that time.

And one could not but agree with Dr. Winternitz when

he says that Kalidasa may be a greater poet and a greater

master of language, but no drama of his or any of the

later poets could be compared as a stage-play with any

of the thirteen plays ascribed to Bhasa. Indeed these

dramas are the works of a genius who was thoroughly

conversant with the technique of the stage and who, it

is apparent, knew what actual stage-representation is.

Besides, Ashvaghosha, who wrote Sariputra Prakarana

and other two dramas, fragments of which have since

been discovered. probably in the first century A. D., we

have another dramatist of rare merit, Shudraka, the

author of Mṛichhakatika ( lit. a cart of clay i.e. a

toy cart ) an admirable drama which sketches some

pictures of society which are still to be found. The play

itself presents king Shudraka as its author and gives

curious details of his capacities. Shudraka is generally

regarded as a merely legendary person, though Prof.

Sten Konow treats him as historical. He is the Ābhīra

Prince Shivadata who or whose son Ishvarasena over-

threw the last of the Andhra dynasty and founded the

Chedi era of A. D. 248-9. Some, again, try to father the

authorship of the work on Dandin. But the arguments

are not very covincing.

The Toy-Cart is a drama describing the love of Charu-

datta a young Brahmana merchant and the hataera

Vasantasena, which also forms the subject matter of

Bhasa's Charudatta. Some critics are of opinion that

both have been the works of the same author, but there is

much difference. The Toy-cart is interwoven with a

political intrigue absent in the other work Aryaka, the

son of a herds-man, who drove the Kshatriya king

Palaka in the Toy-clay-cart does not find any place or

mention in Bhasa's Charudatta.

From the expression of the child of Charudatta who

said he possesses a toy-cart, the drama has been so

named.

If Bhasa appeared in first century A. D. or earlier

than that, between Bhasa and Kalidasa we have only few

dramas. Could these several hundred years be absolutely

barren without any drama ? India then lacked neither in

brain nor in prosperity. It was the palmy days of her

intellectual greatness. Was it unfavourable only to

drama ? Certainly not. With time India has lost many

things, but no loss is so sad and heavy as the loss of books.

It was her priceless treasure. Devastations carried

on both by time and by foreign sword have spared only

a few of those invaluable game. It is really painful to

find that books that were once quite popular and many of

which have been approvingly quoted or referred to in

subsequent or contemporary works exist only in names.

In every branch of knowledge and art this sad loss is

seriously felt and dramatic literature is no exception to

this, and good many plays that were once famous exist

only in names being mentioned in other works; and it

appears there were many dramas like those of Bhasa which

have been buried in oblivion and other Ganapatis are

necessary for their discovery.

From Kalidasa we come to ShriHarsha, of the 7th

century A. D. well-known for the works—Ratnavoli,

Nagananda and Priyadarshika. The question of their

actual authorship was raised long ago, Mammata Bhatta

in his Kavyaprakasha merely refers to the gift of gold

to Bana (or Dhavaka in some mss.) by Harsha. The

commentators explain this of the Ratnavali which was

passed off in Harsha's name. This is not in any way

borne out by other early traditions. I-Tsing clearly

refers to the dramatization of Nagananda by Harsha

and Damodaragupta in his Kuttanimata (end of the 8th

century A. D.) ascribes the authorship of Ratnavali to

a king.

We now proceed to mention some of the worthies

whose dramas are conspicuous even to-day.

Bhavabhuti (8th century A. D.), an imperishable

name in Sanskrit, and hardly deemed inferior to any-

body in dramatic genius, wrote the following dramas :

1. Malatimadhava : Malati was the daughter of a

minister and Madhava a young scholar. They fell in

love. The king was resolved to marry Malati to one of

his favourites Nandana whom she detested. The lovers

were finally united by the endeavours of Makaranda, a

friend of Madhava. The drama is Indian Romeo Juliet

with a happy ending. It gives a very life-like picture of

society and contemporary manners. Erotic sentiment (or

Shringara Rasha) is described with truest touches of

tenderness and pathos and a purity of sentiment under-

lies it.

Malatimadhava is a fine specimen of Hindu dramatic

literature. Although Shringara Rasa, or the erotic

sentiment constitutes the predominating element of the

play, yet in respect to fastidious delicacy, it may be

advantageously compared, as observed by Professor

Horace Hayman Wilson, with many of the dramas of

modern Europe treating of the same passion. Fervour of

passion, the restraint and reserve with which it is avowed,

and the purity of sentiment underlying it, constitute

a most pleasant interesting picture of Hindu national life.

The play is full of incidents, showing that the course of

true love never runs smooth, but the denouement results

as usual in the marriage of the lovers. The play thus

concludes with the address of Kamandaki, priestess of

Buddha and nurse of Malati, to Madhava, and the reply

of the latter.

"Kam—

My son, what more remains ?

The happiness that was your earliest hope,

By my devotion and the skilful pains

Of my disciples, is at last ensured you.

The King and Nandana approve the suit

Of your dear friend, and hence no fear prevents

His union with his love. If yet there be

A wish ungratified, declare it....... speak.

"Madhava ( Bowing )—

My happiness hence forth is perfect ; all

The wish I cherish more is this, and may

Your favour, holy dame, grant it fruition.

Still may the virtuous be exempt from error.

And fast to virtue cling ; may monarchs merciful,

And firm in equity, protect the earth

May in due season from the labouring clouds

The fertile showers descend ; and may the people,

Blest in their friends, their kindred and their children,

Unknowing want, live cheerful and content."

69

In Mahaviracharita, the poet narrates the story of

Rama from his boyhood upto his conquest of Lanka

and then his return to Ayodhya. The course of the

Godavari in the poet's native land has been beautifully

described.

Uttararamacharita deals with the picture of Sita

in exile and ends with her restoration after 12 years of

extreme misery and suffering. It is a magnificent poem

and its pathos can hardly be equalled with that found in

any drama of its kind. Bhavabhuti was a more impas-

sioned writer than Kalidasa. It is said that "His are

words that breathe and thoughts that burn." The des-

cription of the scenes in Vindhya hills is marvellous and

in pathos and in tenderness Uttararamacharita has

surpassed any description. It is said Bhavabhuti at the

request of the actors composed this drama to be played

during the Yatra-mahatsava ceremony of Kalapriyanatha

(identified with Lord Mahakala of Ujjayini). Prof.

Wilson finds a reflection of Lava and Kusha, the twin

sons of Sita, in the stay and education of princes Gedarius

and Arbebegus in the monastery of Bellarius in

Cymbeline.

Vishakhadatta (probably 8th century A. D.) in Mudra-

rakshasa describes the full court-intrigues in Chandra-

gupta's time. Rakshasa was the minister of the last

Maurya King. The plot turns on the gaining over of

this Prime Minister of the ancient regime. Next may

be mentioned the name of Murari (Circa 9th century

A. D.) author of Anargha-raghava and Rajashekhara

(900 A. D.)—the author of Balaramayana, Balabharata,

V bhanjika and Karp jari ( entirely in

P b + 1

Kshemishvara (10th century A. D.) wrote Chandakaushika and Naishadhananda. Krishna mishra (latter half of the 11th Century A. D.) wrote the allegorical drama Prabodha Chandrodaya. It is a glorification of the cult of Vishnu and he had many followers in this new type of departure from the stereotyped path.

Though it cannot be definitely ascertained if there was any scenery, as understood in the modern sense, but thrones, weapons and carriages and rathas (chariots) with live cattle were used. We also believe that there were contrivances to represent the ingress and egress of carriages as in the case of Mricchhakatika and Vikramorvashi and latterly of Rukminiharana. One of the most noticeable features in connection with the ancient drama, was not only the introduction in society of ladies of rank and title but the representation of female parts by females; these always appeared in appropriate costumes.

We have already mentioned the famous dramas in Sanskrit and following is the list of other Hindu dramas composed at different periods beginning from the 7th century A. D.

Dramatist Drama.

Mahendra Vikramavarman (Pallava king of Kanchi) ... Mattavillasa (Prabhasana)

Anangaharsha Matraja ... Tapasa vatsharajacharita.

Mayuraja ... Udattaraghava.

Yoshavarman (king of Kanyakubja) ... Ramabhyudaya.

[It would not be perhaps out of place to mention in this connexion, some other dramas, viz. Chhalitarama, Pandavmanda Tarangadatta Pushpadushitala (Pushpa-

bhushita) etc. These are of uncertain authorship and

date, being for the most part known through the quota-

tions found in Dhanika and Vishvanatha.]

Dramatist Drama

Bhimata ... Svapnadashanama

Jayadeva ... Prasannaraghava.

Ramabhadra Dikshita . Janaki-parinaya.

Mahadeva . Abhutadarpana.

Ravivarman ... Pradyumnabhyudaya.

Shesha Krishna ... Kamsavadha.

Ramavarman ... Rukminiparinaya.

Samaraja Dikshita ... Shridamacharita.

Kshemdra (of Kashmir) Chitrabharata.

Kulashekharavarman (King

of Kerala) ... Subhadradhananjaya Tapatisamvarana.

Prahladanadeva ... Parthaparakrama.

Visaldevavigraharaja

(Chahamana king ) ... Harakelinataka (partionally

preserved on stone).

Vamana Bhatta Bana . Pravati parinaya (once

wrongly ascribed to the

great poet Bana).

Jagajjyotirmalla (of Nepal) Hara-gauri-vivaha.

Manika (Napalese poet) .. Bhairavananda.

Harihara ... Bhatriharinirveda.

Samadeva . Lalitavigraharajanataka (pre-

served in part in an ins-

cription, being composed

in honour of Visaladeva

Vigraharaja the chaha-

mana.

Dramatist

Drama

Vidyanatha

... Protaparudrakalyana.

Jayasimha Suri

... Hammiramadamardana.

Gangadhara

... Gangadasa pratapa vilasa.

Venkatanatha

... Sankalpasuryodaya.

Bilhana

... Kamasundari (Natika).

Madana Balasarasvati

... Vijayashri or Parijata manjari (two acts of which are preserved on stone).

Mathuradasa

Vrishabaniya (Natika).

Narasingha

... Shiva - narayanabhanjamahodaya (Natika).

Ghanashyama

... Anandasundari (Sattaka)

Vishveshvara

... Shringaramanjari (Do.)

Uddandin

... Malikamaruta (Prakaṛana) (once ascribed to Dandin)

Ramachandra (Jaina)

... Kaumuditrananda (Prakaṛana)

Ramabhadra Muni (Jaina)

Probudha Rauvhineya (Do)

Yashashchandra

... Mudritakumudachandra (Prakaṛana)

Shankhadhara Kabiraja

... Latakamelaka (Prahasana)

Jyotirishvara Kavishckhara

Dhurta Samagama

Jagadishvara

... Hasyarnava

Samaraja Dikshita

... Dhurtanartaka

Chaplain of Lakshmana

Manikyadeva of Bhuluya

Kautukaratnakara

Vamana Bhatta Bana

... Shringarabhushana (Bhana)

Rambhadra Dikshita

... Shringartilaka or Ayyabhana.

Varadaraja (Amnal

Acharya)

... Vasantatilaka or Ammabhana

73

Dramatist

Drama

Kashipati Kaviraja

... Mukundananda (mixed

Bhana)

Shankara

... Sharadatilaka (Bhana)

Nalla Kavi

. Shringarasarvasva (Bhana)

A Yuvaraja from Kotinga

in Kerala

... Rasasadana (Bhana)

MINOR DRAMATIC TYPES.

Vatsaraja (a minister

of Paramardideva

of Kalinjara)

1. Kiratarjuniya (Vyayoga)

2. Karpuracharita (Bhana)

3. Hasyachudamani (Prahasana)

4. Rukminiharana (Ihamriga)

5. Tripuradaba (Dima)

6. Samudramanthan

(Samavakara).

Vishvanatha

.. Saugandhikarana

(Vyayoga)

Kanchana Pandita

... Dhananjayavijaya (Do)

Mokshaditya

... Bhimavikramavyayoga (Do)

Ramachandra

... Nirbhayabhima (Vyayoga)

Krishna Mishra

... Viravijaya (Ihamriga)

Krishna Avadhuta Ghati-

kashata Mahakavi

... Sarvavinodanataka (Ihamriga)

Venkatavarada

.. Krishnavijaya (Dima)

Rama

... Manmathonmathana

Bhashkara Kavi

... Unmattaraghava (Anka)

Lokanatha Bhatta

... Krishnabhyudaya (Anka or

Prekshanaka)

Krishna Kavi

... Sharmishtha-Yayati (Do)

Rupa Gosvamih

... Danakeli-Kaumudi (Bhanika)

74

Dramatist

Drama

Mahadeva

...

Shubhadraharana

(Shrigadita)

Meghaprobhacharya

...

Dharmabhyudaya

(Shadow-play)

Subhata

..

Dutangada

(Chhayanataka)

Vyasa

Shri

Ramadeva

..

Subhadra-parinaya,

Rama-bhyudaya

and

Pandavabhyudaya.

Shankaralala

...

Savitricharita

Madhusudhana

...

Mahanataka

Ramakrishna

...

Gopalkelichandrika.

We

shall

besides

these

seperately

deal

with

some

renowned

dramatists

of

Bengal

whose

Sanskrit

Natakas

were

more

of

a

devotional

nature.

BENGALI

DRAMATIST

We

ought

to

mention

here

about

a

drama,

preserved

in

stone

slabs,

from

the

pen

of

a

Bengali

dramatist.

The

drama

composed

for

a

prince

of

Gujrat,

affords

some

evidence

of

the

genius

of

Bengali

scholars

who

greatly

contributed

to

the

development

of

the

Hindu

Drama.

Even

centuries

after

we

have

heard

of

the

existence

of

a

Sansḳit

Drama

by

a

Bengali

about

the

year

1575,

A.

D.

when

the

English

had

their

Dye-Trade

under

the

caption

'Rāe-Efipā'

Nātak

at

Rājnigore

(Vikrampur)

Mādhav

a

Bengali

Brahmin

and

descendant

of

Ganga-dhara

of

the

Baḍapāṭhā

took

an

exalted

drama

'Pārijāt

Haraṇi

Nāṭikā'

which

he

took

in

comp

—

—

The

case

is

so

curious

and

well

worth

study

jud

from

the

Thomason

Treatise...

( रचित Rachita ) in 1211 or 1213 A.D. It has recently been discovered and has thus by the most direct and authentic evidence raised the cultural position of Bengal that existed in the Thirteenth century. He was the Rajguru i. e, Upadhaya ( or preceptor ) of Arjuna Verma King of Dhara, the ancient capital of the Parmara Kings of Malava and the present chief town of a state in Central India. Madan was also known as Bala Saraswati. He produced other poetical works and helped the Raja in the compilation of the commentary on the “Amarusataka”. अमरुशतक। The actual drama has not been discovered, but an inscription consisting of 82 lines in old Nagri (Sanskrit) character consisting of a pane gyric on Arjuna has been found out It is recorded there that the Parijat Manjuri Natika was composed by Madan, a Bengali Brahman descendant from Gangadhara—“Gauria Gangapuline”. Engraved on a slab of black stone 8 feet by 5 feet, the drama was then discovered in 1903 at Bhojashala (Kamal Moula Mosque). On receiving the information Prof. F. Hulezsch Ph. D. went to the place and arranged to secure mechanical copies of the inscription which consisting of 82 lines gives us the nucleus of an unfinished drama in the district of Malava

The languages of the inscription read sanskrit and Prakrit as are seen in the works of Bhasa and Kalidasa, there being 73 verses and the rest in prose. The last verse (76th) runs thus :—

“This panegyric (Prasasti) was engraved by the artist Silpi Ramadeva, the son of the excellent sculptor (Rupakara) Sihika (Rupkara Ramadevena silpina).

The inscription contains the first two acts of a hitherto unknown Natika i. e. a drama in four acts entitled

"Parijat Monjuri" or "Vijayasri." The inscription is now well preserved in the mosque.

Arjun Varma descendant of Sārvabhauma Bhojadeva is the hero of the drama. He obtained the title of Tribidha Churamani and defeated Joysimha the Gurjara King on the borders of the land at the foot of a mountain called "Parba Parbbat." The poet represents Arjuna as an equal of his ancestor Bhojadeva and even as an incarnation of Bhoja. In verse 2, Bhojadeva himself is compared to the God Krishna and to the epic hero Arjuna.

According to the prologue, the first performance of the drama took place in a temple of the goddess Saraswati during 'Vasantotshoba' (Spring festival). The setting of the first act is the top of the royal palace and that of the second act a pleasure garden (Promod-uddārya) on the Dhāra giri (Dhāragiri), a hill near the city.

The dramatist persons are:-the stage manager (Sutra-dhar) the actress (Nati) the King Arjuna Verma, the Jestor Bidagha, the Queen Sarvakali, her maid Kanakalekha, the royal gardener (Kusumkara), his wife Basantalīlā and the heroine Parijata Manjuri or Vijaysri. The king and the Kusumkara speak Sanskrit and the remaining persons prakrit,—Sauraseni in the prose passages and Maharasri in the verses. The pretty verses of the bards which are recited behind the stage are also in Prakrit,

In the Prologue the Sutradhara says to the Nati (natrī) that when the army of Joysimha took to flight and the victorious Arjuna Verma was still seated on his

throne of blossoms of a celestial tree

Parijata fell on his breast and on touching it, was

transformed into a beautiful maiden while a voice from

heaven spoke thus:-

"Enjoying this lovely auspicious Vijoysri, thou a Lord

of Dharma, shall become equal to Bhojadeva."

Joysri was the daughter of the Chalukya king Joy-

simha and was the goddess of victory. She left her

father and transformed herself into the blossoms of the

celestial tree Parijata. Arjuna placed her under the care

of Kusumkara, the Chamberlain.

The first act bears the title "The spring festival

(Vasanta-utshaba). It describes the king viewing his

sporting subjects from the top of his palace in the com-

pany of the jestor, the queen and her maid.

The title of the second act is the reflecting ear-ring

(Taranka Darpana). The king accompanied by the jestor

repairs to the pleasure garden to witness a ceremony per-

formed by the queen—the marriage of a mangoe to a

spring creeper. Vasanta Lila and the heroine watch the

proceedings from behind a tree. Bending aside the

branches, the former reveals to the King the image of

his beloved reflected in the queen's ear-ring. The king's

delight and the confusion arouse the suspicions of the

queen who leaves abruptly together with her maid. The

heroine and Vasantalila also withdraw. At the advice

of the jestor who reminds the King of the proverb that

"Friend, killed and eaten comes to the same," वयस्थ मारितस्य

भूजितस्य य एक जेव नामाँ (२—१८) both follow them to the

emerald pavillion. The King's talks are interrupted by the

of Kanakalekha who is the bearer of the ear-

jewel and of an ironical from the queen.

78

The King tries in vain to hide Parijat Monjuri behind

his back. At the end, he leaves her in order to pacify

the jealous queen. The heroine also departs threatening

to commit suicide and Vasantalila follows her. *

From the list, given in pages 70-74 which is by no

means exhaustive, it is abundantly clear that dramatic

institutionwas established in India from a very long time

and rightly observes Dr. Horace, H. Wilson, "Hindu dra-

mas are unmixedly their own." In fact, Indian drama

was of more ancient origin than the Greek drama. The

nations of Europe possessed no dramatic literature before

the fourteenth or fifteenth century at which period the

Hindu drama passed into its decline. And thus writes

Stanley Rice in his "Indian Art and Letters" (Vol. 1 No. 2).

"It is indeed significant that in all these discussions

(influence of the Greeks upon Sanskrit drama) it is

always assumed that the influence to be traced out must

have originated in the West and have operated in the

East. This is probably due to the classical obsession of

Europeans, for, as a matter of fact, in the things of the

mind, at any rate until very recently it is always the East

that had re-acted upon the West, and the most notable

example is, of course, Christianity itself." Our remarks

will further be clear if we look into the origin of the

Greek Drama. Of course any detailed account is quite

out of our sphere.

• (For the above article we are grateful to Professor E, Hultsch Ph. D.

Halle, Government Epigraphist on his erudite article "Dhar Prasasti of

Arjuna Verma." Vide Epigraphica Indica Vol. VIII page 96)

• Vide also Indian Antiquary Vol XXXV Aug. 1906--for Sten

Konow's review of the above article published in the form of a book by

Dr. Hultzsch.

CHAPTER V.

GREEK DRAMA.

In the opinion of Aristotle whose poeties contain the

essential elements of the dramatic form, drama rose out

of the worship of Bacchus and those, who sang hymns

in honour of Bacchus or the God of wine, were the first

dramatists or actors. 600 or 700 years before the birth

of Christ, this God with great festivities was worshipped

in Greece and priests of each community composed

hymns or songs in praise of that God. They were recited

and sung with great zest. The hymns in honour of

Bacchus, while they described his rapid progress and splen-

did conquests, became imitative, and in the contests of

the Pythian games, the players on the flute who entered

into competitions were enjoined by an express law to

represent successively the circumstances that had prece-

ded, accompanied and followed the victory of Apollo

over Python.

This is in fact the beginning of the Greek drama

something like Indra's victory over the Asuras that was

honoured by a dramatic show.

Like our Ramayana and Mahabharata, Homer's

Iliad and Odyssey supplied a number of dramatic

themes, and for this Aristotle called Homer as the Ori-

ginator of the dramatic art as Valmiki now is called.

But in truth Thespis was the founder of the Western

dramatic institution, and so dramatic art is known as

Thespian art*, as also actors are known as the sons of

Thespis, as our Bharatputras are. Dramas that were acted

in honour of the gods were known as mystic plays, and

from that and the subsequent mystery or miracle plays the

English drama came into existence During the festivi-

ties along with the music sung in honour of the gods,

goats were sacrificed. These songs were known as Tra-

goidia or the Song of the tragoit or goat-chorus and from

this the Great Word "Tragedy" has been derived.

In 584 B. C. Susarion is said to have exposed the

faults of the Greek character on the stage, and Greek

(Attic) Comedies are supposed to date from that time.

Shortly after this Thespis who treated more noble

subjects based upon history, for the first time composed

Alcestis, the first Greek tragedy and it was acted in

536 B. C.t

In the year 534 B. C. Thespis first introduced a

a person for doing the talking business in the course of

songs and hymns sung in honour of Bacchus and other

gods. Thus 'actor' first comes in the West. Later on, in

512 B.C. Thespis introduced Phrynchos as the sole

master of the stage.

In 499 B. C. Phrynchos won the tragic prize, and

thereafter contributed to the stage seventy plays of which

• Our Bengali readers might remember about the Thespian Temple

opened in the year 1915 on the stage of "Royal Bengal" through the efforts

of Babu Kshetromohan Mitra, a distinguished actor of that period with the

performance of "Nurmahal".

t Satyros or Tragos was a type of nature-spirit. These fairies are

figured as clad in and with goats tails and legs

seven only are extant. Then Aischylos (525-456 B.C.)

the famous Greek dramatist, first curtailed abundance of

songs, introduced suitable dresses and more dialogues and

conversations in the mouth of actors, and Sophokles

(495-406 B.C.) afterwards increased their number into

three, and sometimes into four. Aischylos, too, then

increased the number (in imitation of Sophokles). Euri-

pides introduced philosophy and other grave topics in his

dramas. In 438 B. C. Euripides brought out, in lieu of

a satyr play, his Alkestis. Phrynichos, the great master

of generation before Aischylos, also wrote an Alkestis

of this romantic description. Euripides's Alkestic

was a distinct departure from the path of contemporary

satyr play and marks an interesting development of

tragedy after Thespis and Aischylos.

The wise Solon alarmed by the dramatic innovations

made by Thespis said to him "If we applaud falsehood

in our public exhibitions, we shall soon find that it will

insinuate itself into our most sacred engagements."

Of course the wise legislator's fears were unfounded.

Epicharmos (c. 540 B. C.) and Aristophanes (c. 450

B. C.) employed a number of persons for the stage

representations of their comedies.

Aristophanes exposed the follies and vices of the

Greeks. It is said that he attacked an influential Greek

Senator named Cloe in his Equities, but none dared to

appear in that role. At last Aristophanes himself acted

the part. The people were so much pleased with the

acting that they compelled Cloe to pay a fine of five

talents and showered flowers on the head of the dramatist.

Who has not heard of Aristophanes's "Clouds" wherein the dramatist gives us that deathless caricature of immortal Sokrates.*

Thespis, Aeschylos Sophokles, Aristopanes, and Euripides are the greatest names in the Greek drama.

When the Athenian army under the command of Nikias fell into the hands of victors at Sicily, they were treated there with very great harshness, but those who could repeat the verses of Euripides were released. Any more detailed notice of them is outside the scope of this treatise and to sum up, we have already noticed the difference between the Greek Drama and Sanskrit plays and have fully discussed that there is not the least vestige of doubt that Indian drama was purely of indigenous origin and growth. Their scope and nature are quite different. Equally strong may be the theory that Greek Art owed its origin to Indian Drama. The question then may arise where are the Indian dramas? Written on Palm-leaf manuscripts and not printed, they might have shared the same fate as the dramas of Bhasa. Unless they were abundant in existence, Ramayana, Mahabharata and other Puranas would not have made constant mention of the "drama"; the stage, the auditorium, origin and development--all are referred to in Natyashastra. That the subsequent dramas are not borrowed from the Greeks is palpably clear from the very nature of the dramas, a the absence of the Unities, and other details (which we have discussed above) invariably pointing out to the conclusions we have already arrived at.

• Rashbeharaj Aminchand Bose was called by "Pioneer" the of Bengal.

CHAPTER VI

THE POSITION OF AN ACTOR.

The origin of the Indian Drama, as we have already seen was associated with the early religious festivities of

the Hindus and in the begining, an Indian Drama was something like a mystery or a miracle play. Thus writes

Proî. Eggeling in connection of Patanjali's commentary:-

"Judging from these allusions, theatrical entertainments in those days seem to have been very much on a level

with our own religious spectacles or mysteries though there may already have been some simpler kinds of

secular plays which Patanjali had no occasion to mention."

But Indian drama soon reached a flourishing stage and secular plays began to be written. The discovery of

Bhasa's plays and the existence of Mrichhakatika prove to demonstration that drama and dramatic represention

attained great perfection in very ancient times. When Kalidasa wrote, the reputation of Bhasa and Saumilla was

fully established in the country. Kalidasa speaks of Bhasa as of wide reputation, "Why should you prize",

writes Kalidasa "the work of a new poet, Kalidasa, leaving aside the dramas of Bhasa, Saumilla and other poets of

wide reputation ?"

Now it is abundantly clear that theatre is an ancient institution in India and it could not have attained so

much perfection and popularity unless there were efficient

actors or persons skilled in histrionic arts from the very

begining.

An actor in Sanskrit was called a Nata and references

about him, as we have seen before, are to be found in the

early treatises of the Hindus.

In India neither the thatre nor the actor was at any

time under any social or political ban, and from various

Sanskrit works, we can to some extent ascertain the

status and position of an actor in ancient India. Dr.

Keith has very ably summarised it and we could do no

better than to agree with the summary given by him.

In ancient times an actor was called a Nata, Kushilaba

or Shailusha. The chief actor was called Sutradhara

(literally denoting an architect). He was also known as

Natalagamani or the head of the troop of actors. He

was the Dramatic Director, Stage Manager and the Pro-

ducer : in a word, he coached others in the histrionic art

and was at the head of the dramatic representation, the

success and failure of which mainly depended on him.

He was a versatile gentleman and was required by his

calling to possess a number of qualifications as a necessary

adjunct to his office. He was supposed to be learned

in all the arts and sciences of his time and familiar with

the manners, customs and habits of all countries, to possess

mastery over all techniques. He must be a man of

practical knowledge, and should possess some knowledge of

mechanics even. Such high qualifications he was required

to possess. He also introduced the play to the audience

and sometimes appeared in some important part of the

drama e.g. as Vatsaraja in the Ratnavali and Kamandaki

in the Malatimadhava. His wife often assisted him as

Nati.

But the reputation of an actor, generally speaking was

rather low in society, actresses often led immoral lives and

sometimes even their husbands were parties to many

scandalous affairs ; therefore Manu, the great Legislator,

imposes only a small penalty in cases of adultery with

actors' wives. But surely the position of an Indian actor

was never so precarious or dishonourable as it was

amongst the actors in the merry times of Queen Elizabeth.

There was a nobler side of their profession and people

always honoured them. Bharata Muni, the author of the

Natya Shastras, though an actor, has always been honoured

as a sage* as the great dramatist of Bengal—Babu

Girish Chandra Ghose though an actor was revered for

his talents and religious devotion.

Bana Bhatta ( 7th century A. D. ) in his Harsha-

Charita mentions an actor and an actress amongst his

personal friends.

Bhatrihari alludes to friendship between actors and

kings, and this is borne out by the legend of Vasumitra,

son of Kalidasa's hero Agnimitra, who was slain in the

midst of actors, by his enemy.

Bhavabhuti in the prefaces of his two dramas asserts

his friendship with actors. In truth, those who could

represent highly subtle dramatic characterers of Kalidasa

and Bhavabhuti on the stage, could not but possess an

amount of culture and education that would entitle him to

any decent gentleman's friendship.

• Vide—page 33 Supra.

56

DRAMAS IN STONES

Besides the existence of actual dramas, we have also the incomplete portions of two dramas—Vigraharaja Nataka and Harakeli Nataka—preserved in part in the inscriptions at the mosque Araidinkla Jhonpra (आरायदिनका झों पूर) situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hill at Ajmere the administrative head quarters of the Ajmer-Merwara Division, Rajputna. The first one bears no date and the latter corresponds to a date—the 22nd November 1163 A. D.

The first drama opens with a conversation between the king Vigraharaja and Sachiprabha, a confidante of his lily love, the daughter of king Vasantapala. Vigraharaja then marches against the king of Turukshas and both the forces measure their strength. Here the inscription ends.

The other inscription contains the portion of “Harakeli Nataka” describing how Arjuna was preparing a sacrifice and a fierce battle took place between him and Shiva and his attendant Muka in the roles of Kirata and afterwards Shiva’s acknowledging the powers of Arjuna. Shiva and Gouri then reveal to Arjuna their real form and then present him with a mystical weapon.

This drama apparently is an imitation of Bharati’s poem Kiratarjuniya.

Besides Parijat Monjari Nataka, Vigraharaja Nataka, and Harakali Nataka we have also the traditional account of Hanumana Nataka being engraved on slates.

Sanskrit dramas for the first time began to decline

• Vide the Indian Antiquary Vol. XX. June 1891, page 201 Sanskrit plays partly preserved as inscriptions at Ajmere by Professor. F. Kielhorn C I. E.

with the advent of the Mohomedan rule in India It was

the dark age tor the Hindus and a good many Hindu

institutions began to decline and some disaypeared from

the land for good. It was in fact a clash between two

schools of culture and in the long conflict that ensued

between the two, many of the early institutions of the

Hindus died quite unnoticed for want of proper encourage-

ment or sufficient patronage; and dramatic institution is

one of them. The Mohomedans were without any

national theatre and it received no tangible support from

them. Political subjection, on the other hand brought

about a radical change in Indian life and the Hindus lost

much of their early freedom, simplicity and ease, their

life and property were insecure and their well-being

depended upon the sweet will of their rulers. The

Smritis came in with their elaborate systems. A good

deal of artificial restraints were introduced into society.

It pushed back Indian women, excluded them entirely from

society and introduced the 'pardah' as a protection against

all profane gaze. The Hindus in course of time grew

stoic and joyless and became almost a lifeless people.

They began to deprecate many innocent public festivities

and the drama and art began to decline from that time,

and had not Lord Chaitanya, the great saint and reformer

of Bengal introduced some devotional plays, dramatic art

would have been thoroughly extinct in the land.

The only thing that survived in upper India by way

of dramatic representation is Ramlila, a kind of panto-

mimic mimicries of some notable incidents in the life of

Divine Rama. It was something like the exhibition of

Miracle plays on moving platforms in Elizabethan times.

It is a pageant show after all but kept the memory of

88

dramatic representation alive. There were two parti

combating each other and we have some trace of it eve

now and this. during the Mohamedan period, remained

the only emblem of the past glory of India in her dram

and stage.

Thus disappeared the golden era of dramatic Indi

and a little of what remained was confined to Bengal

only. Bengal henceforth could alone be credited wir

worthily mairtaining reputation of having, drama, art an

stage and hencefurth we shall mainly confine our attentic

to the Bengali Drama and the Bengali Stage.

CHAPTER VI

CHAITANYA-PERIOD

It has already been pointed out in the last chapter that with the progress of the Mohomedan rule in India, Indian drama began to decline. Indian art and literature, in particular departments, no doubt received great support from the Mohomedan rulers, but it was a dark day for the Indian stage. In Bengal, however, a new era dawned with the rise of Sri Chaitanya and his followers. Sri Chaitanya not only brought a new light in religion, but infused a new life into Bengali society, and with it revived Bengali literature and art. He, in fact, rejuvinated the the country by his devotion, love and ardour, and was at the root of the Bengali renaissance in poetry, drama, music and in several other branches of Bengali culture and art. Even the Jatra had its origin in his time. The late Deshabandhu C. R Das, therefore, used to remark that Sri Chaitanaya was “not a man, but an Epoch.”

Perhaps, the first drama that was written in Bengal is Veni-Samhar. It is a martial piece written in Sanskrit. Adisura,* the then ruler of Bengal, at the time of performing the Rajshuya Sacrifice brought down five Brahmins from Kanoje (or Kanwakubja, as it was then

• The date of Adisur is uncertain. The modern research on this point has unsettled the traditional views. Without entering into this problem which is ——— irrelevant I refer to Bengali’s History 1st vol. by Babu pp 238.

called) and Bhattaranayan, the author of the Veni-Samhar,

was one of them.

The drama is based upon an incident of the Maha-

bharata. In the frightful war between the Kurus and the

Pandavas, Bheem braided the hair of Draupadi with the

blood of Dushyasana. The drama, of course, differs

greatly from the Mahabharat.

The second drama that was written in Bengal was by

the derout poet, Joydeva, the illustrious composer of the

sweet Sanskrit lyric, Geeta-Govinda. The play was named

"Prasanna Ragharva" and it was in sanskrit. After its

composition, Bengal slipped off from the hands of the

Hindu king, Lakshman Sen,* and came under the Moslem

rule in the year 1199 A. D.

Joydeva's Gita Govinda,† though not a drama. sup-

plied no end of themes for Theatres and Jatra, and Prof.

J. J. Klein regards "Gita Govinda as a divine ideal or a

mystery play of the Hindus,"‡ and it is this poem that

influenced Prof. Macdonell to start a new theory about

the origin of Drama.

And this is what Prof. Macdonell says, "The Gita

Govinda is concerned with Krishna, and the modern

Jatras really represent scenes from the life of that deity.

From all this it seems likely that the Indian drama was

• Lakshman Sen's date is yet uncertain. Mr Fakhal Das Banerjee

opines that Lakshman Sen died in 1170 A D. at the latest. So he can not

be conquered by Bakhtier Khilji either at 1199 A. D. or 1203. This again

is a controversial point and it would be irrelevant for me to discuss the

matter at length here.

† In all probability it was composed by the middle of the 12th Century

when Lakshman Sen was on the throne of Bengal and Joydev was his court-

poet.

i

Das Drama Vol 1. 1. p 197

developed in connection with the cult of Vishnu—Krishna

and the earliest acted representations were, therefore, like

the mysteries of the Christian middle ages, a kind of reli-

gious plays in which the scenes from the legend of the

Gods were enacted mainly with the aid of songs and

dances supplemented with prose dialogues improvised by

the performers"*

The futility of this argument of Dr. Macdonell has

been discussed in page 21, and we do not like to add any-

thing more. At the time of Chandi Das, the immortal

Bengali poet of love, there was no drama, but there is

enough of dramatic materials in his famous lyrics about

śrīkrishna's life and his immortal love.

In fact, in Chandidas's Krishna Kirtan, which though

mostly consists of songs, lyrical genius seems to be

united with a dramatic spirit.

Amativeness and amorous love were the key-note of

Vidyapati's lyrics, and of the other contemporaries of

Chandi Das. These amorous ditties are divided into

three parts viz :-

Yearning before the union, Union, and Separation.

Interrogations and replies recorded in these songs

have enough dramatic elements in them. Krishna Kirtan

was nothing but the Jhumur of modern Bengal. The

subject matter of Krishna Kirtan was arranged like that

of Jhumur.

The Sangit Damodar describes Jhumur as a piece of

composition where there is no metrical restriction, but

what is sweet as 'Madhurika' and where there is predomi-

nance of amative spirit.

• History of Sanskrit Literature.

प्रायः 'सखीभावकुला माधुरीकामधुरा रसु

स्केन डुकरिलोके वर्णनदि नियमोल्लिखना ।

श्रीकृष्ण दामोदर

In Krishna Kirtan, as in Jhumur now-a-days, some relationship was fancifully attributed between the two parties that might consist of two, three or four, as between Krishna and Radha, or with "Barai" i e. who brought about the union between Sri Krishna and Radha, as in mythology Naroda often effected union between the devotee and his God. In Krishna Kirtan, interrogations, replies, retorts were like that of Jhumur of the present time.*

Bengali drama, however, revived in the time of Lord Sri Chaitanya. Sri Chaitanya himself was fond of drama and was highly skilled in dramatic performance. His performance was of such a finished character that the audience was kept spell-bound by his acting and dancing. Being inspired by His example many devout poets wrote several religious plays. After this, Bengali learnt to appreciate drama, and almost all the Bengali dramatists were the followers of Lord Gowranga.

Girish Chandra, the greatest dramatist of Bengal, has thus alluded to SriChaitanya's histrionic art in his "Chaitanyalila":-A neighbour asks, "Well, why Nemai gave up acting?† It was really a very enjoyable thing. He used to play the role of Radha, and every one was extremely pleased with his performance, his songs and dancings."

This is fully borne out by the Vaishnava treatises of

• There are sufficient materials in Srikrishna Kirian which are common in drama.

† The word in the original is Jatra.

that time. Vrindavan Das, the author of Chaitanya Bhagavat, has written that Srichaitanya used to perform

"Krishna Lila" before the devout people who could appreciate those things. Vrindavan Das was born in the time of Srichaitanya. After Lord Gouranga's return

from Gaya, one day, he said to Budhimanta Khan, "there will be performance within Chandra Shekhar's house, make necessary arrangements for that." :-

"Collect bodice, Conch-bracelets, silken clothes, ornaments and proper dress of every body."

A canopy was raised. Haridas acted the part of the city-police officer (Kotwal) and Srivash Pandit appeared

in the role of Narada, Sriram acted the part of Snatak, Nityananda of Barai, Advaita of a devotee and Gouranga

himself appeared in the role of Ruksmini.

The Lord said, "This day,

I shall dance as a woman ;

They who have conquered his senses.

Are only entitled to witness.

He alone will enter the house

Who can control his senses."

Thereupon Advaita said, "My master !

I have not conquered my senses,

I shall not go there."

Srivash too repeated the same thing

The Master smilingly replied,

"If you do not go there then with whom shall I dance ?

You have nothing to fear,

You will be great ascetics thus day

None will be fatuated by my sight."

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After that Lord Gouranga came with His followers

to Chandrashekhar's house and every one then got him-

self dressed according to his part. Lord Gouranga's

mother, Sachi Devi came to witness the performance with

her daughter-in-law, Vishnupriya. When the perfor-

mance began, Mukunda invoked the customary blessings

by reading the Nandimukha. After that, Haridas appeared

in the guise of the Kotwal producing a delightful surprise

amongst the audience.

"The face was adorned with two big whiskers,

A huge turban on his head, and clad in a cloth.

He began to warn the audience with his big staff."

Then Srivash appeared on the stage in the character

of Narada.

"Long white beard flowed on his breast

His body was marked with sandal all through

He looked around, with the Vina resting

On shoulder, and Kusha in his hand."

All cried out in joy at the devout words of Srivash; it

seemed, as if, Narada himself had descended on earth.-

"That kind of image-that kind of speech and that

kind of conduct"

Mother Sachi was so much astonished that she could

not recognise him and she asked Srivasha's wife Malini:-

"Is he the Pandit?"

Sachi fainted in deep emotion at the devout words of

Srivash. Here, in the green room, Lord Gouranga was

deeply moved with feeling after dressing Himself as

Rukmini-the spouse of Lord Srikrishna-that He could

not recognise His own self.

95

"The Master could not recognise Himself

In the guise of Ruksmini.

He thought Himself to be the daughter of Vidarbha."

At midnight the Master entered the stage.

"The Master danced a marvellous dance

Assuming the form of a woman.

And His followers sang appropriate songs."

And Nityananda appeared in the form of an old

Barai.

"He walked with a crooked gait

And was reeling with love."

And Lord Gouranga was so much absorbed in His

assumed role that no body could recognise Him.

"No body from His dress could recognise

the Master."

Every one was so much charmed by the performance

that no body noticed when the night was over.

"None in joy could know that the night

was over."

At the end, all stood up in loud cheers, but regretted

that the night was over.

This performance by the brightest jewel of Bengal

with his noble followers was indeed wonderful. The

performance took place in 1507 A. D.

Though Sri Chaitanya was greatly fond of music and

dancing, all His senses were under His control.

At the time, when Chaitanya Dev was in Puri, one

day, when he was going to Jameswartola, a dancing girl

attached to the temple of Puri (Devadashi) was singing

96

a song from the Geeta Govinda." We get its reference in

Chaitanya Charitamrita. Her sweet strains reached the

Master's ears, and he was at once lost in divine rapture.

He forgot whether a man or a woman was singing.

"The sweet notes of the Geet Govinda

Were sung in Gurjjari tune,

That charmed every body's mind.

Hearing that song, the Master was lost in

trance,

And did not know whether a man or a woman

did sing."

He became anxious to see the singer and began to

walk fast. Brakes and thorns tore his flesh, but he did

not pay any heed to that. At that time, his servant,

Govinda, told the Master that a woman was singing.

That roused Him to His senses. He thanked Govinda

for this timely warning, because that would have proved

disastrous.

"My death would ensue from the touch of

a woman."

Under the inspiration of this Superman, Rup Goswami

wrote beautiful dramas about Radha and Krishna. But

those plays were written not in Bengali, but in Sanskrit in

accordance with the some-what new idea of rhetoric and

poetics which was Rupa-Goswami's own, and which

differed in some points from those of the pre-Chaitanya

• The song, that was sung in Gurjara-raginii runs thus :-

रतिसुखसारे जातमभिलाषं मदनमनोज्ञा चेष्टम् ।

न कृत्‌म निदर्शने गमनविलासं सतुमदं से हृदयेशं ।

श्रीद्‌ गधिकारे कमनकलाकेरे व्रजति बने नसमाखोः ।

दैश्यपपोत-परिकर-मदौ

कुम भावी ॥

period. At that time, Orissa was under the Hindu rule,

and drama and histrionic art, free from all restraints,

greatly flourished in that holy place under an independent

ruler and under the influence of Sri Chaitanya. Rama-

manda Rai also contributed much towards the development

of drama.

Ramananda Rai was born in a Kayastha family.

Girish Chandra Ghose, the founder of the modern Bengali

stage, seemed to have some affinities with Ramananda

Rai.

We think, we should give a brief account of Rama-

nanda and of his contribution to the growth of the

Bengali dramas.

Ramananda Rai was not only a dramatist, but he also

influenced the dramas of his time in a great measure.

When Sri Chaitanya was out on pilgrimage in the

Dekkan, during that journey, one day He was singing the

glory of Lord Sri Krishna on the banks of the Godavari.

"At that moment--Ramananda Rai came with a fan

fare, riding a palanquin to take his bath.

हेनकाले दोलाय चढि रामानन्द राय

सान करिवारे आहिला वाजना बाजाय ।

The two then met and embraced each other. Sri

Chaitanya wanted to hear about Sri Krishna from him.

For ten long days Ramananda talked about Rasatattwa, or

Divine love.

कृष्णतत्व राधातत्व प्रेमतत्व सार

रसतत्व लीलानत्न विविधप्रकार---

"Krishnatattwa Radhatattwa and various kinds of

Rasatattwa and various kinds of Lila."

As the Sutradhar explains the drama to the actor

(as the rider opens his heart to the charioteer) Rai likewise explained the truth about Srikrishna, Radha and their divine love.

Rai said, "I am the actor and Thou art the Sutradhar—(সামি নট ভুমি সুত্রধার)

And I dance as you make me dance."

When questioned about the object of worship, Ramnanda Rai spoke about popular religion, i.e. about following one's own creed, about dedicating everything to Srikrishna, and about worshipping Sri Krishna with the devotion of a servant i.e. a man's relation to God is as between the Master and the servant, or to look upon Sri Krishna with filial affection or with friendly love, i.e. as one's own child, or one's friend. But Sri Chaitanya only replied by saying—

"This too is superficial—পড়ো বায়া আনে কৰু ভাব । Tell me something further."

But Rai said—

"মাধুর্য্য (Relation between the lover and the beloved) is the highest phase of love."

That is to look upon Srikrishna as the Lord of one's heart, is the highest form of worship and love.

ButRai could not proceed further, because—

"The climax of love is the deepest emotion of heart The personification of that Divine transport is worshipful Radha."

And that love :—

"Spontaneous as the love of the Gopis, surely it is not lust ; Their amorous sports are free from lust."

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Rai explained with graceful ease the great mysteries of

love to Sri Chaitanya—

"As if Narayan taught the Vedas to Brahma."

After this, Rai Ramananda renounced his wealth and

came to live with Sri Chaitanya at Puri.

One day, devout Pradyumna Misra was directed by

sri Chaitanya to go to Ramananda Rai and to hear from

him about Sri Krishna.

Pradyumna Misra on going there, heard from a

servant that Ramananda Rai had been coaching the

Devadashis ( nauch girls attached to the temple ) in

histrionic art.

"Two of the Devadashis were exquisitely beautiful

They were young, and skilled in music and dancing.

Taking those two in his garden

He was coaching them the songs of a drama."

Ramananda was not only a dramatist, but he trained

Devadashis to perform dramas about Sri Krishna Lila*

and Gouranga Lila.

"Then he taught the two, the art of dancing,

And explained the underlying significance of the

-ongs.

And having in-spired lasting, holy emotion.

Made it manifest on their eyes and expression."

Sri Chaitanya Charitumiita Anta Lila Chap. 5.

Misra came back disgusted and reported everything

to Sri Chaitanya.

Hearing everything, Sri Chaitanya said. "Ramananda

• Tattwa in page 9 last but one line truth and all the mysteria

100

is not an ordinary person. Though I am an ascetic, I feel

myself moved by the name of woman, not to speak of

her sight. Nobody can remain unmoved in the presence

of a woman, but Ramananda is absolutely indifferent in

their presence, in the midst of luxury and wealth."

"Not only a Deradashi, but a youthful beauty.

He was looking after her person.

He anointed her and made her wear a fine cloth.

Her various parts were thus touched and seen by him,

still Ramananda's mind was quite calm and

unmoved!

And he taught her various expressions of emotions.

Unperturbed were his body and mind,

Like a log of wood, or stone!

Wonderful! His mind was undisturbed by the

touch of a young woman".

Ramananda Rai alone was fit for such a risky task.

Bhāgavat bears testimony to such things;

"As Sri Krishna's sport with the women of Braja".

अजगधू स्त्रैण कुष्णेर रासादि विलास

Chaitunya Lilu—Antya Lila.

After that, Misra, gained much wisdom after hearing

Krishna Tattwa from Ramananda Rai. This Rama-

nanda wrote in sanskrit a darma named "Jagannāth

Vallabha". This drama, along with other books, was a

favourite study of Chaitanya Deva. We get its reference

in Chaitanya Charitamrita :-

चण्डीदास विपापति, रायेर नाटक गीति

करणामृत श्रीगीतगोबिन्द

श्रवण रामानन्द सने महाप्रसु राधिकादिने

सदा कुने परम आनन्दे ।

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We have gone into details to give an idea of the drama composed by him and the dramas of Rupa Goswami inspired by Ramananda.

At the direction of Pratap-Rudra, the king of Puri the drama was acted in the temple of Jagannath.

Devadasis, instructed and coached by Ramananda, acted the female parts of the drama. What deep hatred, the enemies of Gouranga bore for this against him, has been hinted by Grish Chandra in the "Nemai Sanyasa."

There the first courtier says: "See this Ramananda is a sanctimonious knave. He rides an elephant in all pomp and says Gour Gour in a trumpeting voice."

Second Courtier :-"You are mistaken, He is a knave. He lives with prostitutes in his garden, He bathes their bodies, dresses their hair and yet he pretends to be a highly devout person ! The king seems to have gone mad. Lord Jagannath is there, but still the king calls Gour, Gour.

-(Nemai Sannyasa Act 1, Sec. 1.)

Such a devotee was Ramananda, and he did a lot for the dramas of that time. Though Gouranga was a lover of drama, still irrational and bad dramas were despised by him.

At one time, a Bengal Brahmin (one from East Bengal) wrote a drama about Chaitanya Deva and came to read it to him. The Brahmin stopped at the house of Bhagavan Acharya. The Acharya and some Vaishnavas praised the composition. Then the Acharya made over the drama to Swarupa Damodar so that it might be read before the Master (Lord Gouranga). Swarupa acted like a censor of the Master and nothing was read before the Lord unless Swarupa approved of it.

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"If emotions suggested were against truth,

The Lord could not brook that ;

He felt annoyed at heart."

Swarupa then said "Every body can not write a

drama. He who does not know how to express his

feelings, he that has no knowledge of dramatic art and

rhetoric, cannot delineate Krishna-Lila especially the

difficult Lila of Sri Chaitanya."

At great importunities, however, Swarup agreed to

hear the drama read to him.

The poet first read the invocation of the drama—

नान्दीश्लोकः:

"The poet says Jagannath is beautiful,

Master Chaitanya is a beautiful person.

In order to infuse life into dead matter,

The Lord has come to Nilachal." (Puri.)

Everyone praised the invocation verse, but Swarupa

remarked with regret:

"Oh, You fool ! Thou hast committed wrong.

It seems you have no faith in God,

Jagannath is full of consciousness and love,

But thou hast made him dead and gross.

Chaitanya Himself is God, full of Divine attributes,

But thou hast depicted him as a common man.

For making this distinction you will have to

suffer.

Another great wrong you have done

By distinguishing body and soul in God,

There is no n in spint and form of God."

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Jagannath, in fact, is not a mere wooden image.

He is the image of Brahman in wood.

After that, by the advice of Svarupa, and by living

with the followers of Lord Gouranga, the Brāhmin, at

last, obtained blessings of the Lord.

In fact, a sweet drama full of sentiments रसाभासयुक्त can

never be written by an ordinary person. It requires

much preparation.

What Lord Gouranga had heard for several days from

Ramananda Rai, we have already described before. He

taught Rupa Goswami those sacred truths about Sri

Krishna for ten long days at Allahabad (Prayag).

After that instruction, Rup Goswami became fit for

writing dramas.

The Master infused strength into Rupa's heart

And made him wise after explaining every tattwa."

—(Madhya Lila Chapter 19.)

Then Lord Gouranga asked Rupa to start for Vrinda-

van and He Himself set forth for Benares. The master

asked Rupa to come to Him from Vrindavan at Nilachal

after visiting Gour.

Rup Goswami wrote a drama about Radha Krishna

in Vrindavan.

Rupa came to Vrindavan at the behest of the Lord

and devoted himself to writing a drama about Krishna

Lila.

In Vrindavan, and during his journey through Gour

(in the province of Bengal) Rupa thought about the subject

matter of the drama and made a sketch of it. In Gour,

his younger brother, Anupama, father of Jiva Goswami

died, and Rupa then alone came to Puri.

In Orissa, in the Satyabhāmā-Purī, a nymph appeared

to him in his dream and said : अमर नाटक पुष्क करह रचना :

"Write a separate drama about me.

Through my grace there will be plenty of

dramatic skill."

Rupa was so long describing Vraja Lila. Now at

the dictation of Satya Bhama he thought of describing

the Mathur Lila in the second part of the drama.

He came to Puri and stopped at Haridas's house.

The Lord introduced Rupa to his followers, Adwaita

Nityananda and others.

One day, Lord Gouranga said in a trance, "Rupa, do not

drag out my Krishna from Vraja.

"Do not bring out Krishna from Vraja.

Krishna never goes leaving Vraja."

Rupa then decided to write two separate plays accord-

ing to the wishes of Sri Chaitanya and Satyabhama

about Vraja Lila and Mathur Lila. He even conceived

of two separate invacation verses (Nandimukha) for the

two dramas.

On the day of the Ratha Jātrā, seeing Lord Gouranga

proceeding dancing and singing before the Ratha (the

Car of Jagannath) Rupa could understand his Master's

wish, and wrote the Nandimukha Verse describing the

great Yearning for Union on the banks of the Jamuna.

"मनो मे कालिन्दीपुलिन विषिताय स्फुरयति"

Rupa wrote the verse on a palm-leaf and leaving it

in his hut went for a sea-bath. Lord Gouranga in

105

Rupa's absence came to his hut and not having found Rupa there, He began to read the palm-leaf. By reading the sloka, the Lord was lost in a trance. and when Rupa returned, the Master a-ked him—

"যো মোর হৃদয় তুমি জানিলে কেমনে ?"

"How could you know the secrets of my heart ?"

After this, at the direction of the Master, the invocation verse of the "Vidagdha Madhava Nataka" was read before Ramananda Rai, Sarvabhauma, Swarup and others. Inspite of shyness, he read the second sloka at the request of Ramananda Rai, in which he had described his deity of worship, Basudev. as :-

“অনর্পিতচরী বিরাত্ কহুণাবতীর্ণঃ কళो—

মপি দ্বৈতসুন্দরৌ নৌজ্জ্বলরসां স্বপ্নাক্তিক्रियः—

হরি পুরन्दरযाति कदम्वসन्नीपीত:

সदा হृदयकन्दरे सुरतु वः रान्योनन्ददः !”

"The image of mercy that glows in the dark recess of the heart, the darkling of Sachi."

Hearing that the Lord said,

"This is but a panegyric".

Rai after questioning Rupa brought out many verses of his and then submitted to the Lord after praising the poetry of Rupa as if with hundred tongues,

"It is no poetry but nectar pure : all the elements of drama are there."

In this drama, Srikrishna's various sports, as playing upon the flute, theft of the flute by Radha, Srikrishna's union and amorous dalliance with Radha have been described.

14

106

This drama was first performed in Vrindavan at the Kesbitirtha before the holy pilgrims at the direction of Gopeswar Mahādeva in dream. This drama was translated into Bengali by Jadu Nandan Das. The drama called the “Radha Krishna Lila-Rasa-Kadamva” by Jadunandan Chakravarly seems to have been written in imitation of Rup Goswami's drama. There is a line in the Bengali drama which suggests this idea :-

"Hear me, O sister, the wonderful tale of Gora The world has come to know of His amorous Sports with the women of Vraja."

Jadunandan Das also translated into Bengali-“Sri-Krisina Kamanirta,” the sanskrit work of the well-known devotee Vilwamangal, a play that has much dramatic elements in it.

After the composition of the Vidagdha Madhava, Rup Goswami wrote another drama “Lalit Madhava Nataka.” It was also read before the Master and his associates. Every body praised the piece enthusiastically.

Then the Master said, “I imparted strength to introduce works of reverential faith (Bhakti) and I sent Rupa and Sanatana to Vrindavan to restore that place of pilgrimage and to learn the real nature of sweetness and love.”

Rai Ramananda said :

"Thou art God, you can do what you will, You can make even a wooden doll dance, What you preached through my mouth, I find all in this writing."

After this, Rup Goswami wrote another drama named “Dankel Nataka” consisting of one act in 1533 A. D

The drama is a witty allegory, where Sri Krishna stops Sri Radha and her maidens on the banks of the Jamuna to realise a toll-tax from them.

After this the only worth-mentioning drama is "Chaitanya Chandrodaya Nataka", written by Paramananda Sen. He was a great devotee of Gouranga, and Lord Gouranga gave him the title of Kavikarnapura.

The Chaitanya Chandrodaya was written in Sanskrit in 1579 A.D. Krishnadas Kaviraj, the famous author of Chaitanya Charitamrita, has quoted many slokas from the Chaitanya Chandrodaya "

The drama deals with certain notable incidents of Sri Chaitanya's life in an allegorical manner. There Kali and Adharma i.e. atheism and impiety, play important parts.

Before this, no book was written depicting Chaitanya as an Avatar (or as an incarnation of God.) But Nityananda, Advaita and others being directed by visions began to give out Chaitanya as God to the world. The devout poet here also has described his Guru as an Avatar in the drama.

In 1703 A.D. Premdas (Purushottam Misra) saw Chaitanya Deva in a dream and translated Chaitanya Chandradoya into Bengali verse.

In his "Bansi Siksha", Premdas has written, "In 1634 Shaka era. I composed Sri Chaitanya Chandrodaya."

We find traces of another drama in Sanskrit from the pen of a Bengali. It is written in Prem Vilash (sacred book of the Vaishnabus) that Govinda Das (1537—1612) wrote a drama Sangita Madhava Natak under the orders

• The date of Chaitanya Chan ta is likely to be 1615 A.D

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of Ray Santosh Dutt who organised a great congregation

of the Vaishnabas in Kheturi This drama describes the

পূর্বরাগ (yearning between Radha and Krishna) ;

Prem Tilash (20th Vilash.)

There cannot be any doubt that dramas flourished to

a great extent in the time of Sri Chaitanya. But Drama

though born in Bengal, reached its perfection in Orissa.

After this, dramatic art in Bengal remained confined to

the Jatra, Kavi, Panchali, Kirtan and Kathakata till the

rise of the English power in the country. We shall now

speak about them.

CHAPTER VII.

JATRAS.

THE ORIGIN OF THE JATRA

In 1199 A.D.* Bakhtyer Khiliji conquered Bengal; six years before this, Prithwiraj was defeated by Mahamed Ghori. 558 years after this, Bengal fell into the hands of the English in the year 1757 A.D. More than 100 years after that, Bengali dramas first came to be acted upon the stage. But were the Bengalis without every kind of amusement during these six and half centuries ?

We have already seen how poetry, music and even drama flourished under the influence of Chaitanya Dev. At that time Jatras and Kavis too began to make their headway in the country.

A Jatra resembles a drama in good many things in its outward form, but a Jatra has no scene, curtain, or stage, and there is more abundance of songs in a Jatra than in a drama. Almost all actors of the Jatra sing, being seated in the place of the performance, and only two or three stand up and declare a succeeding event either through their speech or song. But inspite of all

• The year 1203 A.D has been rejected y upto da e

cutward resemblance between the two, the spirit of a Jatra differs essentially from that of a drama. The end of a Jatra generally is to play upon some popular feelings and emotions, such as heroism, devotion and love; where as the end of a drama is the creation of characters and their delineations with reference to some particular event or situation. This world is a field of action, and the active man either builds, or breaks himself, and his soul manifests itself through his actions. This action is the soul of a drama ; but amplification of sentiments and feelings rather than action constitutes the main key-note of a Jatra-performance.

In all civilised nations there is a strong love for drama, because our own life is a part of the mundane drama that is acted around us.

"All the world's a stage

All the men and women merely players"

(As You Like It.)

Though a Jatra can not fully satisfy the cravings of the educated and cultured but in the absence of dramas and of dramatic performances, it tried to preserve their tradition as best as it could. The Jatra, is, in fact, a dramatic expedient of the country.

The Jatra was in existence from a long time, and it formerly meant some festivity held in honour of the gods. From the journeys of Jagannath, as Snān Jātrā, Ratha Jatra, Punarjatra, the term Jatra might have been derived. Jatra has been mentioned in Bharata's "Natya Shastra." In Bhavabhuti's "Malati Madhava" the word "Jatra" has been used in the sense of a festivity and also in a

"Jatra dealt with mythical and

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pauranic iegends. Religious and social festivities were

combined in the Jatra.

In ancient Greece, drama arose out of the worship of

Bacchus : in India, the origin of drama is associated

with the religious festivities of old. In Europe, the

circumstances in which mystery and "miracle-plays"

were similar to the circumstances in which the Jatra

began to flourish in Bengal.

Some people think that Indian Theatre has evolved

out of the Jatra, and Buddha's fondness for dramatic

shows, that has been alluded to in the "Lalit Vistar

Purana," refers in their opinion, to the Jatra, and not to

any theatrical performance. But even some dialogues in

the Vedas have been pointed out as the basis of subse-

quent Jatra. Mr. E. P. Horwitz writes :-" Even the

Vedic age knew Jatras, a memorable heirloom of Aryan

antiquity. The gods of the Rigveda were hymned in

choral processions. Some of the Sām Veda hymns re-

echo the rude mirth of the primitive Jatra dances."

(The Indian Theatre p. 178.)

Dr. Hertel regards the Jatras of Bengal as constitu-

ting a distinct age in the evolution of Indian drama.

We, however, cannot agree with these scholars.

Jatras and theatres might have a common origin, but

Indian drama is the fruit of high Aryan culture, and per-

fection was reached both in its composition as well as in

its exhibition upon the stage But when drama declined

under an antagonistic influence, the Jatras began to come

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JATRA DISTINGUISHED FROM THEATRE

The modern Jatra that is now performed, is nothing but an imitation of a theatrical performance, and it has no connection with the dramatic representation of ancient India. We, therefore, maintain that both the Jatra and the Theatre might have a common origin but one has not evolved out of the other, but the two followed two different lines of growth. This opinion has also been held by Dr. A. Berriedale Keith :-

"The dramas of the ritual, therefore, are in a sense somewhat out of the main line of the development of the drama, and the popular side has survived through ages in rough way in the Yatras, well-known in Bengal, while the refined and sacridotalised ? Vedic drama passed away without a direct deseendant"

(The Sanskrit Drama, Page 16.)

In fact, when a dramatic performance was forbidden under the Mahomedan rule, Jatras dealing with religious and mythological themes came into existence.

The ancient Jatras that were prevalent in Bengal were about the cult of Sakti worship, and dealt mainly with the death of Sambhu, Nisambhu, or of other Asuras. In one sense we can regard Chandi as a piece of dramatic literature. In this drama, we find one Madhu, two Kaitabhas, three Mahisāsuras, fourth Shumbhu, fifth Nishumbhu were killed. The first two were killed by Vishnu and the last three were killed by Chandi herself.

At that time, there was no Krishna Jatra. Krishna Jatras came into being after the rise of Vaishnavism in the country When Vaishnavism spread under the

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influence of Sri Chaitanya, then alone Krishna Jatras reached their fullest development. and from that came the popular adage, "Kanu binā Geet nāi" - that is, there is no song without Kanai (Krishna).

The great lyrics of Joydeva, Chandidas, Vidyapati and other V aishnava poets as we have shown before, are full of dramatic elements, and they supplied sufficient materials for the Krishna Jatras. In Joydeva's Geet-Gorinda. there are conversations between Srikrishna, Radha and the maid- of Radha : in Krishna Jatras also same sort of conversations is to be found. The themes of Jatras were about the great Yearning and Love of Srikrishna and Radha. The audience was moved to tears by those devout themes.

Prof. Horace H. Wilson says.-

"The Yatra is generally the exhibition of some of the incidents in the youthful life of Krishna, maintained also in extempore dialogues, but interspersed with popular songs." - (The Theatre of the Hindus Vol, I. Intro. P. XV-XVI).

Mr. E. P. Horwitz writes :-

"All Yatras were like sacred operas.........frequently produced in connection with the religious processions of Krishmaits."

Indian Theatre, P. 198.

Dr. Earl Mantzius, one of the most leading European authorities on theatre and stage-craft, finds it "natural to suppose that these popular religious plays mark an earlier stage development in the Indian drama than the traditional art poems of the middle ages and to draw the

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conclusion that ancient scenic art was closely connected

with the worship of Vishnu."

Indeed, incidents of the life of Sri Krishna play an

important part in the evolution of our musical entertain-

ments and though not the origin of dramas, helped a great

deal in the growth of Yatras and dramas.

KRISHNA JATRAS

Every Krishna Jatra meant Kaliya Daman or the

suppression of the Serpent Kaliya Whatever might

have been the subject.—Dān or Māthur, people used to

designate every Jātrā as the Kāliya Damana. Even

now-a-days many people call it by this name.

The Bangadarsan (the famous monthly started by

Bankim Chandra) writes in the Falgun number of

1289 B.S. :-

"It is more than forty years that Kaliya Daman

Yatra has disappeared. It came into existence after the

rise of Chaitanya Dev, and it died after that of Raja

Ram Mohan Roy. ‘Kāliya Damana’ was alive for about

four hundred years."

It appears that the time from the advent of Sri

Chaitanya or earlier from Geeta Govinda to 1840 (about

350 years) may be taken as the period of Kāliya Daman

Jatras. Before that Sakti Yatra, Chandi's songs and

Manasha's songs were prevalent in the country.

About this Pandit Dwarika Nath Vidyabhusan wrote

in his "Somaprokash" :-

"It is said that there were Yatras before the burth of

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Sri Chaitanya, but those Yatras were about themes concerned with Sakti. At that time there was no Krishna Yatra.

As there is Nandi Mukh (or Prelude) in the drama so there is Girdharidrika (or pre-amble) in the Jatra and Kirtan.

Rup Goswami in his "Vidagdha Madhava" and "Lalit Madhava" has cdified Chaitanya Dev as his Guru At that time to sing of the glory of Chaitanya Deva was considered as an indispensable part of an auspicious act specially in musical performances. This hymn of praise in glory of Gour (SriChaitanya) is known as Gour-Chandrika and it preceded every perfomance of Yatra. Whether Yatras flourished before or after Sri Chaitanya Deva, the infiuence of Gouranga Deva over the Yatras is quite evident from this.

It is extremely difficult to get a connected history of Jatra from the beginning till now. Dr. Rajendra Lal Mitter, the famous antiquarian, has thus written in Bengali journal called "Vividhartha Sangraba":-

"A resident of Keduli village named Sishuram Adhikary, a Brahmin by caste, secured the glorious perfection of the Jatra; hefore that a miserable mimicry in imitation of the theatre prevailed in the country. That too almost disappeared in the rush of Sankirtans and Kavi. Jatra revived from the time of Sishuram. After Sishuram, Sridam. Sabal and after him Parmananda and others worked for the regeneration of Jatra"

There were, of course other Jatrawalas before Sishuram but unfortunately we possess no of them

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The performance in which Gouranga Dera Himself took part in the yard of Buddhimonta Khan's house may be designated both by the name of Yatra and theatre as Sangitshālā or "uthān" is mentioned also in "Natya-shastra." We have already mentioned that there were many characters in this performance and each one was dressed in his particular manner.

Formerly, the Sakti Yatras which had no special name, were simply known as Yatras. But with the progress of Krishna Yatras, the Yatra acquired a special name as the Kaliya Daman. Why Yatra came to be known by this appellation has been accounted for by the "Banga Darsan" of 1289 B. S. :-

"By that time, a Vaishnava adopted a new device and performed a Yatra on the surface of the tank. The tank was beautifully decorated and it was named "Kaliya Hrada". In the middle of the tank lay the formidable serpent Kaliya spreading out its hood and upon it stood Krishna playing on his flute, and occassionally, dancing with revolving eyes. Kaliya became greatly oppressed by the dancing of Sri krishna. On all the sides of Kaliya, with joined palms to spare their husband, raising halves of their bodies above the surface of the water his wives implored Sri Krishna sometimes in songs and sometimes in prose. Close by stood a raised platform above the water on which Mridangas, Karatal, Kholas and other musical instruments were kept, and the Yatrawalas (i.e., the musicians and performers) being seated there, were singing "Doarki" (the catches of songs). The audience greatly enjoyed this Yatra, so the name of this Yatra became famous, and every Krishna Jatra came to be known by this particular

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When Yatras took up other subjects besides Kaliya Daman, people still extended the name of Kalia Daman to other Yatras.

JATRA IN BHĀRAT CHANDRA'S TIME

So far as we could gather, a little before the battle of Plassey, two brothers named Sridam and Subal acquired great reputation by their performance of Kāliyadaman.

Then proceeds Bangadarsahna :- “There was a great upheaval in the country. There was a general stir all over. At that time the Bargis ceased from their periodical raids, the Muslims lost their kingdom and trade, commerce and influence of the East India Company increased. Silk, cotton, thān and kora of Bengal became objects of great prize to the foreigners. At that time, Kavi, Kirtan, literature and art all flourished to a great extent. Such progress was not seen in later times. At that time Bharat Chandra was the writer, Lalu Nandalal was Kavi singer, the singer of Kirtans was Bāncharam Bairagi, the speaker or Kathak of the Purana was Gadadhar Kathak and Yatrawalas were Sridam and Subal.”

“Each and every one of them was a poet, therefore could be the Gurus (teacher) of Bengal. Though the ease is different with Bharat Chandra, poetry of other poets however helped to inspire affection and love in the hearts of the Bengalees and that current of soft emotions still flows in Bengalee hearts. The Vaishnavas are by nature disposed towards tender motions so Vaishnavism was greatly enriched at that tune through the infl of

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"PARMA'S TUKKO"

In Sridam Subal's party, a boy named Parmananda Dass used to appear in the role of a (ballet girl) waiting maid or Sakhee. The boy was born in Taba, a village in the District of Hooghly. He had no pompous dress, but as he was very fat, he would put on two pieces of Sari (cloth worn by women) which he would often ask from the house of performance. He used to put on Veshar on his nose and put on ornaments as he could procure by asking. He never brought any Khol or Kartal with him. Thus he used to run the whole show by acting the part of a Duti (or a female go-between). Krishna and Radhika were but nominal characters. He used to speak for all and the audience laughed or wept at his words.

Whoever had the opportunity to witness Parma's Yatra, well remembered how he used to dally with two young loving hearts, when he sang :-"New, ever new and whenerer is seen always appears to be new नवड़े नव नित्य नव." He would sometimes bring the two nearer to each other or would remove them further and would exhibit the restlessness of their hearts. His power was seen at its height when he would represent wounded vanity or spirit of sullenness of Radha i.e. "Mān". "Mān" मान was the only drama of Bengal and perhaps it was the first dramatic performance in Bengal. There was not too much abundance of songs in Parma's Yatra. For producing poetic effect Parma used dialogues in greater proportion and the songs that followed those conversations were composed in Payer (or rhymed couplets) and they were often sung in the tune with which payars were used to be sung At the last end of that rhymed couplets, he used to sing in the tune of

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Kirtan and that distilled nectār to the ears of the audience.

That was known us "Tukko" and Parmananda was its

creator. Herein we give some specimens of Tukko

below :-

मरावन मुड़े बुझे

वनफुल आন্দোলाम तुझे

नात बোদায়ুলি दिलাম ফেলে

তোমার হৃদমাঝে বাজিয়ে ব'লে।

"Ravaging the whole forest

I have gathered wild flowers

And have cast aside their stalks

Fearing they might hurt thy tender skin."

Here is another :-

"My lord! My darling, my sweet heart

What were you saying at the time of departure ?

What were you saying from the chariot ?

Your words remained closed within your lips

And fears flowed in stream."

There was another special trait of Parna. The

audience had to listen to him from the beginning to the

end. In those days the Yatrawala tried to rouse poetic

feelings and emotions in the audience. When a Yatrawala

found that his performance was not up to the liking of

the audience, he would then introduce clowns and jesters

to amuse the audience and then he would try the thing

again.

"PREMCHAND"

At the time of Parmananda, there was another famous

Jatrawala named Premchand People generally called

him Tharkatā Prana This Premchand had no Tukko.

He sang Chaupadis (four lines). Besides what he sang he used to polish them a little. People could not understand old poems of the famous Vaishnava poets. Premchand therefore, rendered those lyrics into simple words. He would sometimes compose very nice things by mixing up popular words with the old pieces. People were greatly moved by them. From that time it cleared the way for singing Kirtans by women. Formerly it was forbidden to listen to Kirtans sung by a woman.

—Bangadarshan 1289 B.S.

Premchand's boy Badan when he grew up followed the example of his master and performed Kaliya Daman but Parmananda's boy—the well-known Govinda Das Adhikary first followed his preceptor and afterwards used to sing as he liked.

At that time everybody and even Poet Iswar Chandra Gupta was fond of Dasarathi's alliterations. Govinda too delighted the ears of his audience by the same. He gave up old Tukko, and by introducing alliterations he made Yatra a success. But Badan did not give up Tukko. But he improved the same in his Yatra. Kaliya Daman, however, disappeared with Badan. Badan's son, Khetra, his nephews Jadu Nath and Braja Nath (who acted as boy-players in Badan's Yatra) continued Tukko for some time. But they gave up Yatra in a short time.

GOVINDA ADHIKARY

Govinda Adhikary was a resident of Jahangir Para in Krishnanagar. He was born probably in 1798 A.D. At first he acted the part of a Duti (a go-between) in Kafya " People flocked to see his perfo ce,

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Govinda charmed the audience so much by his devout songs full ot emotional elements and alliterations. that people from distant quarters came to hear his Yatra, and the place was crammed to its utmost capacity. His theme of Shuka and Shāri, quarrel between Churā and Nupur (coronet and anklets) attracted many a person of that time.

When he sang—

"Hear me, anklets!

None but a good soul can know the sufferings of the good

If a fool speaks laughingly

The good man tries to convince him in gentle words.

But he cannot understand the true import of those words."

The audience at once fell under the sway of his sweet music.

GOVINDA'S NEW STYLE

We shall now see why Govinda gave up his old Jatra. Krishna Jatra could not continue long on account of the internal troubles in Bengal. Moslems were not responsible for its extinction. They were quite indifferent as to what were sung or acted in Jatras. When the English came, Theatres revived in a new garb, but national recreations and amusements slowly disappeared from Bengal. With the rise of Calcutta, a number of up-country men came to the new city and began to mix with the people During the raids of the Bargis, young women came to Bengal as Bais (or professional

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singers). People hankering after wealth became friendly to the Marwaris and the wealthy began to serve the Maharastra women.—(Bangadarshan, 1289, B. S.)

The Baijis did great injury to Bengalee music. Before them there was no professional songstress in Bengal. Kirtans were sung by men, as the Jatras were performed by them. Bengalee Kirtans and their tunes had spread up to the Punjab. But that music was destroyed by the advent of the Baijis. The Baboos soon grew disgusted with the harsh and noisy sounds of Mridangas and Khols and became fond of the sweet sounds of Tabla. From that time light music—the tunes of Toppa songs and the musical sounds of Tabla keeping time with them—became popular in the country and the musicians of the Bengal school of music fell into disfavour. Their earnings were greatly reduced. Thus in course of time amateur yatras or Sakher Jatra took the place of the Krishna Jatras. (Ibid)

At that time too some Yatra parties came from north-west and south and did not fail to rouse popular enthusiasm for them. References to these Yatras are sometimes found in old newspapers of that time. :-

" Jatras of this season were chiefly dramatic representations of the loves of Krishna and the Gopees, performed by boys of the Kuttack tribe of the Brahmin caste and appeared to us to possess great resemblance to the ancient chorus of the Greeks "

('Asiatic Journal' 1816 July)

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OTHER YATRAWALLAS

At the time of Govinda Adhikary, one Lochan Adhikary greatly delighted the people by singing the themes of "Akrura Samvad" and "Nemai Sannyasa."

It is said that people shed so much tears being moved by the pathetic sentiments ot Lochan's Yatras, that a certain wealthy man would never have Lochan's Yatra performed in his house.

At that time "Nala-Damayanti" Yatra and the Yatra of Vraja Mohan Adhikary and that of Ram Sundar Adhikary became very popular in the country.

Next to the "Nala-Damayanti" Yatra, the "Vidya Sundar" Yatra known as Sakher Jatra became highly popular in the country

SAKHER JATRA OR AMATEUR JATRA

Once a few wealthy citizens of calcutta formed a Jatra party from a sprit of recreation and that Jatra came to be known as Sakher or Amateur Jatra. Those amateur Jatras were also called "Reformed Jatras."

We have already said that great changes were then going on in Bengal music. Khola and Nupurs gave place to Tobla and ghunghur. The old Vaishnaba lyric and songs (Mahajani Padas) were replaced by newly composed songs. They were set to new songs and the up-country tune of the tappās was gone These Yatras delighted the people greatly because they were new.

When those Yatras became regularly professional parties, they were even then called Sakher Yatras or Yatra for recreation's sake. People ... that to be a Sakher Yatra in which there were Dholoka and Tabla and

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those in which there were Kholas and Kartals were called Kaliya-Daman. There was another distinction between the two. There could not be any theme in the Kaliya-Daman that was not concerned with the topics of Gods (i.e. a sacred subject). In the Sakher Yatras generally, "Vidya-Sundar" was performed, and occasionally "Nal-Damayanti" was acted. In course of time when Kaliya-Daman died out, the term "Sakher" also disappeared and the simple word 'Yatra' survived.

After the introduction of Vidya-Sundar, great changes were wrought in Yatras. After this the divine love-theme of Krishna and Radha yielded to the amours of ordinary human lovers Vidya and Sundara. The social history of Bengal had some connection with these innovations in Jatra.

Amongst the amateur Yatras, the Yatra party of Beltala and Ariadaha became greatly famous. What scanty history could be gathered about them is given below.

We do not know much about the origin of Sakher Yatra in Bow bazar (Calcutta) but it is said that a wealthy man named Radha Raman first formed an amateur Yatra party. But there is great doubt whether Radha Raman was first in the field or not.

The formation of an amateur Yatra party, so far as we could gather, seems to be at Ariyadaha, in 24 Pergs. district. In 1822 a Brahmin named Thakur Das Mukerjee formed a party in the name of his father Ramjoy Bharat Chandra's Vidya Sundar was not printed yet, so he selected songs from it from a manuscript copy of

the poem. Pran Krishna Tarkalankar and Nemai Mitra helped him in this matter. The following was the cast :-

Raja--Radha Monan Chatterjec.

Sundara--Krishna Mohan Banerjee

Vidya--Ishan (son of Radha Raman Chatterjee.)

Rai Baghini--Nemai Ganguli.

The song of the Nāndi (in prologue) was sung by Nemai Mitra and Tara Chand Banerjee. Kali Bhatta-charjee and Kebaliram, good songsters, were also in the party.

Shortly after the performance, the founder and the master Thakurdax Babu and some other actors died. This was taken to be an inauspicious thing and the party was dissolved.

Naldamayanti of Bhowanipur party was very famous. We have the following from Samachar Darpan 13th July 1822 :-

"Naldamayanti Jatra has been performed by some rich men of Bhowanipur, the southern suburb of Calcutta. It will be superfluous to give any detailed account of the show; it is sufficient to inform our readers that there were dramatic representations of Nala, Damayanti, . . . . . . interspersed with dialogues, songs and music. It was an excellent exhibition. A large sum of money raised by subscription has been spent by its organisers. Its first perfo--- was held on Saturday night, the 23rd Ashar in the house of Mukherji of Bhowanipur"

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"The reputation of the Naldamayanti Jatra performed by the gentry of Bhoranipur is still in existence. Ram Basu composed all its songs and dialogues. Everybody was pleased with those songs and dialogues."

After this in South Baranagar and Janai two excellent Vidya Sundar Yatra parties were formed. In the south Baranagar, the Jatra party had the following cast :-

Malini—Sj. Madhu Bhattacherji.

Raja—Sj. Gopi Mohan Chatterji.

Nakib—Sj Radha Nath.

Vidya—Sj. Ram Chandra Bhaduri.

Sundara—Rupnarayan Banerjee.

Jagat Narayan Banerjee also acted the part of Vidya.

Sj. Madhu Bhattacherjee was an excellent speaker, a good singer and was a fine Kathak. He had also proficiency in Sanskrit. Gopimohan was a very handsome person and was cousin to Sj Kali Chatterjee the famous athlete and wrestler of Baranagar well-known for cutting a buffalo with one stroke during the Durga Puja. They performed the Yatra at the neighbouring places specially at Uttarpara very successfully.

Before amateur Yatras came into existence, women never took any part in the Yatra performance. With this change women slowly came to be admitted even in Krishna Yatras, of course occasionally. We shall quote the following, though of a later period, to give our readers an idea of such innovation :-

A new Yatra "Nanda Vidaya," was performed by the "Glee Club" company and was in turn applauded and

ded by

Babu Ram Mukerjee

Akhrai" party of the locality—the first musical associa-

tion in Calcutta—into a Yatra party and had been both

the secretary and the poet to it. In course of the year

some four or five thousand of rupees had been spent over

the affair and in addition to the bonafide members, the

services of two girls—the elder of the two named Sidam

being about 12 years old—and of six or seven boys

were secured. The time for entertainment extended

from 9 in the evening to 7 in? the morning." "The

Hindoo Intelligenee" March, 26, 1849 A. D.

The Bhaskar also reports about the same facts:—*

"The performers were gorgeously and fitly dressed and

Behala, Tobla and Dholok musicians acquitted very

admirably. The songs were sweet and melodious and

amongst others Titoo Ram Boral played the part of

Nando, Rajnarain Chatterjee that of Mantri and Nabin

Chandra that of Upanando. The songs of Chhidam took

everyone by surprise. All were charmed by her songs."

Nando Vidaya was also performed at the house of

Krishna Sinha on the 14th April 1849 in a remodelled

way.†

But even then Krishna Yatra did not entirely lose its

popularity : the old sentiments yet survived. On the one

hand there were Sakher Jatra and theatres and on the

other side was the indigenous Yatra of Govinda Adhi-

kary. But it was often found that Govinda always used

to command a huge crowd. Govinda, too, as we have

seen, had to make some changes according to the taste of

the time Thus he had to give up the old method (school)

of the Kaliya Daman

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FROM AMATEUR TO PROFESSIONAL

Since the amateur Theatre of the rich was short-lived, amateur Yatras came to be run on professional line. Parties from other places also came to Calcutta, held their performances and then went away. We mention below some of those parties :-

"A band of performers from Manipur is now exhibiting in Calcutta who represent the sport of Krishna with the Gopies. The musicians are men, but the singers are women and they are dressed as Krishna, Lalita, Vishakha, Chitra, Ranga Devi, Sudevi, Champaklata, Vidyadhari and Indu Rekha; their flat nosed countenances are rather indifferent representation of the beauty of the Gopies."

"A company of performers under Haladhar is also acting with great success at the house of the Babus. They represent the Yatras of Bidya Sundar, the destruction of Sambhu and Nisumbha and others (quoted from Samachar Chandrika) Asiatic Journal, (Apl. 1829, pp. 513).

In the year 1832––33 Nabin Krishna Bose of Shyam Bazar, tried to found Theatre on the basis of this Vidya Sundar play. That Theatre did not last for more than 3 or 4 years. Therefore Yatra was regarded as the chief source of entertainment.

PYARI MOHAN

Baranagar was then famous for music. Shyama Charan Banerjee who acted the part of Sundar in Nabin Babu's party was a resident of this place. Another good musician was Pyari. Pyari used to beg from door to door by playing on his Violin Pyari was a resident

of Baranagar and he was of handsome appearance. A

well-to-do public woman of Bhowanipur having heard his

songs, grew enamoured of him. Pyari and that woman

lived together for some time and they then formed a

Yatra party and performed Nai-Damayanti. The audience

was greatly pleased with the performance and in course

of time beggar Pyari came to be known as Pyari Mohan.

Pyari built a hig house and lived there After this other

Yatra parties were formed under the leadership of women

and pertormed Vidya Sundar. Of them the party of

Tara Hara and that of Bou Master are worthy of special

mention. It is said the mistress of Raja Vaidyanath

also organised a Vidya Sundar Party with females. The

Raja, too, spent much money and was bracketed with

Nabin Babu as Kalua-Bhulua :

"Nabin Babu Kalua

Raja Vaidyanath Bhulua."

Ram Krishna Känsäri was a famous musician of

Bhowanipur and used to teach music in Pyari's Yatra

party. He was a master in music and dancing and was

an expert player on Violin. It is said Nabin Babu

appreciated Pyari Mohan's performances very much.

Kansari's "Dakshajajna" Jatra was very popular.

By that time the party of Ramdhan Sutradhar also

gained reputation. He used to earn about Rs. 50 to 60

each night by his performance. He had shares with

other members. He took one-fourth and the three-fourths

were distributed amongst the rest. But whatever presents

were made to the party belonged to his share. People

called Ramdhan as Ostadji (or master of music) and his

fame spread from Ganga Sagar (the junction of the

Ganges with the sea) to the Gangetic regions

130

GOPAL OORAY

In Sakher Yatra none achieved so much success as Gopal Ooray. His fame spread from one end of Bengal to the other. He was invited almost from every quarter. The songs of his Vidya Sundar Pala are still sung in Bengal.

Gopal was born in Jajpur, Cuttack. He came to Calcutta and at first he used to hawk stationery articles in the street Afterwards he joined the Yatra party of Radha Madhab Babu's son, a wealthy resident of Bow Bazar. Gopal had a beautiful appearance and his voice was extremely sweet. He acted the part of Malini. People were simply charmed by his sweet songs and fine acting. Radha Madhab Babu was so much pleased with Gopal's abilities that he at once appointed him on a salary of fifty rupees per month. After the death of Radha Madhab Babu, Gopal got everything belonging to his Yatra party. Then Gopal formed a party of his own.

Gopal got songs composed in simple language by one Bhairab Halder of Singur and got them also set to tune by him. With those songs he charmed his audience. The songs were so composed that they were greatly used for dancing.

Gopal was handsome in appearance, and when he appeared in the role of a woman it was difficult to recognise him as a man.

There was one Kashi, a Chāsād hopā by caste. He had extraordinary proficiency in dancing. He used to teach dancing in many Yatra parties and to many men and women in private. Kashi joined Gopal's party and appeared in the role of Malini It was a unique com

bination, and everybody was simply charmed by Gopal

Ooray's Jatra Kashi Malini's dancing gave rise to

Khemta in Jatra. Umesh and Bholanath Das used to

appear respectively as Vidya and Sundar in Gopal's

party

Gopal had wonderrul capacity for representing soft

and amorous sentiments. We shall cite only one or

two instances here. Hirāmalini is the most prominent

character in the play of Vidya Sundar. Gopal at first

used to appear in that part. When Sundar called Hirā-

malini as māsi (mother's sister), Gopal at once changed

his voice to that of a harp whose main string had been

snapped—

ওরে এমन কথা কেন বলূলি

ওরে বেলা সুখের স্বপন এমন সমস্ত জাগালে।

"O my darling ! Why have you uttered that word ?

Why have you broken my sweet dream in the

hours of the morning?"

Describing the beauty of Hiramalini, Gopal said :—

"When I go to supply flowers to the Brāhminpara,

the Brāhmins engaged in their worship gaze in

admiration holding the Koshakushis in their

hands রহে কোশাকুশি অপমनि ধরে।

He would sing elsewhere as Vidya, the heroine in

reference to Hirā Mālini.

কেশড জুলে বকুল ফুলে খোঁপা বেঁধেছ

প্রেম কি ঝালিয়েছ তুলেছ।

"Thou hast adorned thy scanty hair

With a wreath of Vakul

Hast thou rekindled the fire of ove ?

189

Vidya was to be married to Sundara, then in the guise

of a Sannyasi and Malini says :-

"The asylum will be a great rendezvous

Of all kinds of travellers

And you will smoke hemp

Crying Vyom Kedār."

Gopal's party was so famous that invitations came

from all quarters of Bengal.

THE DECLINE OF THE JATRA

In truth, display of amorous sentiments was the essence

of the Jatras.

In Krishna Jatras, there was no doubt enough

amorous sentiments, but that could not be shown in the

Vidya Sundar. Vidya Sundar took only such portion

as meeting of Malini with Sundar under the shade

of Vakul, Sundar's stoppage in the house of Malini, and

Malini's acting as a go-between between Vidya and

Sundar. In the Vidya Sundar there was no room for

exhibition of pathos, or other sentiments. Whatever little

pathos it might have, was lost in the profusion of songs

and dances. Even in hours of deep sorrow, Vidya herself

would sing and dance and the audience would clap their

hands in joy, and with great ardour, as soon as Vidya

would commence her dance. Thus pathos, if any, was

turned into laughter in Vidya Sundar.

From the point of good taste and decency, too, Vidya

Sundar was highly objectionable. It could not

be justified both by the ather and the son sitting together

The stage was mostly lewd and very often betrayed

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Bankim Chandra seeing people enjoying such objectionable things wrote in his 'Bangadarshan':-

"In the Jatras of modern time we notice a reigning influence of Vidya, Malini and Sundara. What kind of lesson the young girls of the village get when they hear such songs from the lips of Vidya?"

"Now, find out some means to get my man

Who has kindled fire of lust कामानल in me

But himself is indifferent.

When that auspicious day will arrive

When the moon will rise

And will pour forth nectar

To save the life of this chātaki?"

"Does not a father feel ashamed to hear such things with his son and daughter? What will they think of their parents when they grow old?"

Bañgu Darshan 1279 B. S. (Paush).

Indecent and low tastes first caused a feeling of repulsion in the minds of the cultured people towards the Jatras, and then with the spread of education, people grew fond of new pastimes and recreations. That is why the rich and the poor alike became fond of "Theatre."

From this time dates the downfall of the Jatras, and it could not be averted. Then a new kind of Jatra came into existence under the name of the 'Opera.' Some men used to laugh at them calling them Apāyā or 'inauspicious'. Operas are still performed in many places. In an Opera there is a variety of dress and costumes elegant language and other imposing things.

134

Opera there is much to see and consequently there is dearth of songs and poetry.

The "Hindu Patriot" gives some idea of it :-

"We acknolewdged in our last issue the receipt of Sakuntala by Babu Benode Prosad Banerjee. This is the first opera in Bengalee. It has been written in simple and elegant style and interest is well-sustained throughout. The songs are appropriate and more than once we must say, it did credit to those who were engaged in it. We hope the opera will supersede the degenerate jatra."—H. P. May, 22, 1865.

Again we find in the issue of November, 20, 1865—

"On 14th Nov. there was a performance at Dutts' house Bowbazar. The opera was preceded by a play on the Pianoforte by the trained but gentle hands of Mrs. Berigny. At about one in the morning commenced the opera. The concert which inaugurated the performance was excellent ; in fact it reminded us of the Belgachhia Orchestra. Then began the play ; the actors acquitted themselves on the whole sucessfully and creditably. This we can boldly and sincerely say that of the three dramas which have been popularised in the form of opera, the performance of Padmabati was decidedly the best and the most successful."

Thus, the Jatras improved in imitation of theatre, but they began to lose their hold slowly upon the public mind. At last, the distinction between the theatre and the Jatra began to disappear day by day and Yatras began to merge into theatre.

Jatras moreover had a great drawback · the existence of some called Jun who would often tax the

patience of the audience by their learned techniques in

music, and that too often after a short speech. We

have cited some instances from the ‘Bangadarsan’

about it.

After this, a play-wright gave up writing for Yatra,

but began to write drama. Though the influence of

Yatra is evident in many subsequent Bengali dramas,

still it cannot be denied that most people lost their

enthusiasm for Yatra. Who can prevent the changes

brought by time?

This is what Pandit Ram Narayan Tarkaratna dealt

with about Yatra in 1857 A.D. at the time of writing

his drama Ratnabali :-

“Every one who has been acquainted with the in-

comparable beauty and wealth of English and Sanskrit

Dramas, has grown disgusted with despicable Jatras.”

TASTES IN JATRA

Like Pandit Ramanarain, other well-known writers of

that time also wanted the revival of the Bengali Theatre.

Dr. Rajendralal wished that “ Jatras should take the form

of the original Indian dramas.”* The poet Iswar Chandra

Gupta was also of opinion that inspite of some entertain-

ment derived from the performances of Kaliya-Daman,

Vidyasundar and Nala-Damayanti, these were performed

in so detestable ways, that they could satisty only the

pleasure-loring people of low tastes, but could not satisfy

the refined tastes of the respectable section.†

Under the caption “The Bengali drama,” an Anglo-

• Bibidhartha Sangraha, Magh 1783, Shak p. 235

† Probhakar 8th June 1848,

136

Indian journalist with his enlightened ideas of theatrical

amusements wrote very harshly on the Jatra performance

then in rogue in Bengal :-

"India in her high and palmy state had also a

dramatic literature of her own and scenic

representations to gratify the people. .... We

shall proceed to make a remark or two on the

state of the drama as it now exists among the

Bengalis. Of the representations called Jatras

we dare not give here a detailed description.

They are wretched from the commencement to

the Fifth Act. The plots are very often the

amours of Krishna. or the lore of Vidya and

Sundar. In the representation of Krishna-

jatras, boys arrayed in the habits of Sakhies

and Gopinis (milk-maids) cut the principal

figures on the stage. It would require the

pencil of a master-painter to portray these

fairies of the Bengali stage. Their sooty

complexion, their coal black cheeks, their

haggard eyes, their long extended arms, their

gaping mouths and their puerile attire excite

disgust. Their external deformity is rivalled

by their discordant voices, for the screechings

of the night-owls, the howlings of the jackals

and the barking of the dogs that bay the moon

are harmony itself compared with their horrid

yells. Their dances are in strict accordance

with the other accessories. In the evolutions

of the hands and feet dignified with the name

of dancing, they imitate all posture and

gestures calculated to soil the mind and

127

poliute the fancy. The principal actor during

the interludes is a 'methar' who enters the

stage with a broomstick in his hand and cracks

a few stupid jests which set the audience in a

roar of laughter and his brother Bhulua who

is completely fuddled amuses the spectators

with the false steps of his feet.

But observations of Anglo-Indian journals were

seldom sympathetic towards our national institutions.

Girish Chandra Ghose, the founder of the 'National

stage' has however, given a true picture of the loss and

gain at the decline of the 'Jatra'.

"Before the rise of the theatre. Kavi, Half-akrāi,

Panchali and Yatra were prized by men. Half-akrāi,

Kavi and Panchali allowed vulgar and filthy abuses and

people were greatly amused with those slangs. There

was little conversation in the Jatra. After a few words,

the song would begin, when an actor would suggest "and

then explain the thing clearly." This song was no doubt

some-what appreciated, but clowns and jesters were more

appreciated. The clowns used to sing in light tunes and

their songs were more relished than the difficult tunes of

the main theme. Clowns used to abuse, and that amused

the people greatly. Abuses and vituperation were so

much liked by the people that editors of news-papers

often indulged in filthy abuses. Those papers that could

excel in abusing used to command a large number of

subscribers. Those who were adept in the use of

vituperative language were most honoured ! Whatever

might be said against English education, it was English

Review 1851 The Bengali Drama, Vol. XV

138

educated persons who first saw that such a taste was not good for society. Thereupon, prominent persons began to take part in dramatic representations. Since then the drama came to be appreciated."*

Though a Jatra could not boast of high dramatic art, but then it must be frankly admitted that with its disappearance the country lost a valuable asset. Let us quote Girish Chandra's views :-

"Vulgar and obscene slangs disappeared with the disappearance of the Jatras, but along with it the sweet songs of Vadan Adhikary, and Govinda Adhikary were also gone for good. The sweet songs of deep emotion of the old Krishna Lila disappeared from the country. People then lost their originality and took to imitation".

Govinda Adhikary, Narayan Das, Nilkantha Mukherje, Rasik Chakravarty and others were men with feelings and thought. They had also faith in their religion. So they could charm their audience simply by their sweet songs and speeches without any assistance of scene or dress.

THE FUSION OF JATRA AND THEATRE

But it won't be in any way an exaggeration that in Girish Chandra the old Yatra and the new theatre combined to produce a marvellous effect. His first dramatic productions, "Ravan Vadha", "Sitar Viraha" and such other plays are evidence of this fusion of the old with the new. As he adopted this method his first dramas and

• Vide Girish

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acting were appreciated by all. In course of time,

his mythical dramas of the later period captured the

imagination of the audience with deep thoughts and noble

sentiment and turned out to be first class dramas.

JATRA IN EAST BENGAL

When Calcutta and its adjacent places were full of

crotic songs and sentiments of "Vidya Sundara," East

Bengal was then resounding with the sweet notes of

Krishna Lila. Kalachand Pal, a resident of Vikrampur,

district Dacca. became greatly famous for his devotional

Krishna Jatra. In Dacca, there was no dearth of Jatra

or Kavi, but we shall briefly mention here the great

enthusiasm that was roused by three devotional pieces named

"Swapna Vilash," "Vichitra Vilash" and "Rai Unmadini."

'Swapna Bilas" (Dream pleasure) was written about

1835. Several Jatra parties performed it, and the book

was sold like hot cakes. In the preface to the second

piece "Bichitra Bilas" (The Amour Wonderful) Krishna

Kamal wrote about 'Swapanabilas' as follows : "The public

surely liked the work, otherwise why should there be a

sale of 20,000 copies in so short a period."

Latterly Dr. Nishikanta Chattopadhaya of Dacca took these pieces

with him to Berlin, St. Petersburg and other places, and

wrote a beautiful book named, "The Popular Dramas of

Bengal," based upon these three books. Dr. Chatterjee

however has not mentioned the name of any other Jatra in

his book excepting these three pieces of East Bengal.

In an excellent article in "Bangadarshan" (1287 B.S.)

Pandit Haraprosad Sastri wrote about the Doctor eulogiz

ing his article published in Bengali in the journal 'Bharati'

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different countries, but shall write in Bengali. Dr. Nishi Kanta's article is an instance in point. His letter is written in Bengali and his heart weeps for Bengal. He cries for Bengal from the far-off St. Petersburg.

"KRISHNA KAMAL"

Krishna Kamal Goswami, the author of these three pieces, though a native of Bhajan Ghat in Nadia, captured the heart of East Bengal during his stay at Dacca. Besides these three books, he also compiled "Bharat Milan," "Nandaharan" and "Sural Samvad". After finishing his studies he composed "Nemai Sannyasa" and himself appeared in the role of Nemai. People were so much moved by his acting that they began to shed tears in deep emotion. He was born in 1810 and died at the age of 78 on the banks of the Ganges. East Bengal people called him Bara Gosai. Krishna Kamal's thought was deep and his style was charming. So every one was delighted by his songs and sweet composition. We shall give one or two specimens.

Radlika is mad for Sri Krishna, she runs towards the grove in quest of Krishna. Lalita, her maid, asks her to walk slowly.

"Don't you go in that manner

There are thorns in the way

That will injure your feet."

Radhika answers that it was for her good that she has obtained the love of Sri Krishna. She would accustom herself to thorns and briars. She said :

"If the night were dark

I would have thorns on the ground

And would roll over them"

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Elsewhere Radha -seeing the clouds chased by the

wind thinks that her Shyām is running away at her sight :

"O my sister! Catch hold of that cruel

lover quick,

Clad in yellow robe,

Having come near, instead of removing my

sorrow,

Has enhanced it doubly.

Having fallen in love with a libertine

I knocked about hither and thither

With ceaseless tears in my eyes."

Again at the sight of the clouds, Radha describes the

beauty of Sri Krishna :

"How beautiful, how green!"

In fact, in "Rai Unmadini" (Radha—mad in love) the

divine madness (transport) of Chaitanya Deva has been

reflected. Having taken sentiments from Chandidas,

Vidyapati, Krishnadas Kaviraj, Rup, Ramananda Rao

and other famous Vaishnava poets and also from famous

Jatrawalas such as Badan and Govinda Adhikary, Ram

Basu, Haru Thakur and other masters of Kavi and by

fusing his own poetry Krishna Kamal Goswami created

these three sweet pieces.

But in East Bengal too people, in course of time, be-

came fond of new innovations and changes and thus grew

tired of purān (old) Jatras as these were called. The

theatre now began to spread its influence and new Jatras

after the fashion of theatrical exhibitions were more liked.

Besides the aforesaid Jatrawalas, there were a few

others whose names are worth mentioning such as Ananda

Adhikary and Joychand Adhikary in Ram Jatra, Guru

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Prosad Vallabha of Chandannagore (Farasdanga) in Chandi Jatra, Lav Sen Baral of Burdwan in Manashār Bhāsān Jatra. Every country-house of persons of position had a Chandimandapa and dances were given there in honour of Chandi (Fortune) and other deities. Dr. Dinesh Chandra Sen correctly states a view lately accepted as authoritative by Sir William Ridgeway that "Bengali Mongala Gāns which grew into melodramas began as short odes in praise of Manasha Devi, Mongal Chandi and other local deities. The Jatras are a mixture of these songs, becoming more dramatic in form along with prose dialogues introduced. The chief place for performances was often a Chandi-mandap or courtyard facing the temple."

Cal. Review, 1923, p. 201.

The Jatrawallas mentioned above all acquired great reputation in their localities by their respective themes— Bharati, 1288 B.S., Magh.

Nilkanta Mukherjee and Narain Das enchanted many by their Yatra performances Nilkanta had a great reputation in all the districts of West Bengal.

When all these Yatras died away, famous Yatrawala Motilal Roy kept the reputation of Yatras intact for a long time.

MATI ROY

Yatras and Kathakatas are some of the commendable means for mass education. Those who keep such cheap and delightful means of mass education alive among the people deserve our grateful thanks. Motilal Roy's name therefore deserves special mention in this case.*

• Though chronologically we should have mentioned Mati Ray after wards, but in the enumeration of Jatras his name comes prominly—

143

Matilal Roy was born in February, 1843 in an humble village named Bhat-hala in the District of Bardwan. For sometime he worked as a clerk and then as a school master and sometimes used to write poems in the ‘Prabhakar’ of poet Ishwar Gupta.

In 1871 Harinarayan Chowdhuri of Dogachhia requested Matilal to write a book for a Yatra performance. Thereupon Matilal first composed Tarani Sen Vadhan and afterwards ‘Ran Vana Vash’ from Kirttivasha Ramayana in Bengali. Matilal began to earn a lot and acquired great reputation by holding Yatra performance with Hari Narayan. Every one was greatly delighted by those shows. People said they had never seen or heard such excellent things before. Matilal’s subject was old, but his methods were new. Matilal in course of time composed many plays, such as Kaliyadaman, Bharat Milan, Mahalila, Sitaharan, Draupadi Vastra Haran, Vijoya Chandi, Padava Nirvashan, Nemai Sannyasa, Bhisma’s Sharashajjya, Ram Raja, Karna Vadha, Lakshman Varjan. Vrajhila, Ram Vanavash, Ravan Vadha, Gayasurer Haripadpadma Labh and other pieces.

JATRA IN IMITATION OF THEATRE

Under Matilal’s influence, Krishna Lila Yatra came to be known as ‘Puratan’ old. Vidyasundar was discarded for being indecent and Matilal’s Yatra attracted every body’s mind.

Theatre by that time had come into vogue in the country. Acting and dress in Jatra in imitation of theatrical performances greatly attracted the public. This is why Matilal’s Yatra became so popular. Matilal gave up many old practices of Yatra and adopted new methods,

144

Matilal was not only an innovator but he was an educated and a highly accomplished man.

This is what has been recorded about Matilal by the author of the Bangabhāsā-Lekhok —

"In 1280 B.S. (1873 A.D.) when Matilal formed a Yatra party in Nadia (Navadwipa) he held first performance in the compound of Pora Mātā the presiding deity of Navadwipa after paying due homage to the aforesaid goddess.

"The Pandits of Navadwipa were highly pleased with his performance and gave him the title of Kaviratna and also presented him a gold medal.

"Matilal also gave a performance in the palace of Krishnanagar Raj on the occasion of Dol. At that time the Raja of Krishnanagar was Khitish Chandra. During the performance the Raja said to Matilal, "you have broken the practice (row) of my ancestors, for before this no Yatra has yet been performed within this house. But, I am sure, if such Yatra was then in existence there would have been a breach long before.

"The late Keshub Chandra Sen heard Mati Roy's Yatra with great eagerness in his house, "Kamal Kutir".

On one occasion we have ourselves witnessed Keshub Chandra Sen with Ram Krishna Paramhansa listening with rapt attention Mati Roy's Yatra in his house. On that occasion, Roy Mahashaya was performing Nemai Sannayasa, himself appearing in the role of Sridhar.

"Paramhansa Ramkrishna Deva was lost in a trance seeing his highly emotional acting. When the trance was broken, Paramhansa Deva stood up crying "Mati. Mati" and Roy in great delight Sir Surendra Nath

145

Banerjee (then Babu) the great oratur applauded Mati Roy greatly, hearing his words on social education and reforms in his house at Simul Tala."

Many parties were formed both in East and West Bengal in imitation of Mati Roy. Of these the parties of Sāntrā Company, Dengar Ghosh, Umakanta Ghosal, Abibhusan Bhattacherjee; and of the Nars were famous. Umakanta Babu belonged to the Brahmin caste ; he was educated and had a sweet and sonorous voice and therefore he conld soon make a name in East Bengal. Bhusan Das's party and that of Mathur Shaha may be named in this connection. There were many others and some of them well-known but we do not like to give an exhaustive list as being unnecessary from the historical point of view. From national point of view Mukund Das of the present day is known to all. He himself sings songs on socio-political topics in a stirring way and this is the chief attraction of his Jatra.

We shall next discuss about Kabi, Half-Akrai, Kathakata ect., which were introduced as substitutes for performances on the stage.

KABI

Though Kabi was not like the Yatras but as an item of amusement it should be mentioned here. The Kavi is sung between two parties, and there are wit-comhats between the two parties relating to Sakti, Siva, Krishna and other mythical topics. One party sings after the conclusion of the other. Towards the last part of the Eighteenth Century Haru Thakur, his disciples Bhola

• His 'Surath-mddhwar' was worth seeing

146

Moyra, Nilu Thakur, Netai Vaishnava and others became quite famous. Towards the first half of the Nineteenth Century Haru Thakur, Ram Basu, Antony Feringi, Bhola Moyra, Sadu Roy and others were greatly popular. Haru Thakur was a great poet of Raja Naba Kissen well-known as Colonel Clive's munshi. Gradually Haru Thakur became one of the courtiers of Raja Naba Kissen and often acted as an arbitrator and judge between the two rival parties of song. The famous song of Haru Thakur was --

"O my tongue! Do not be lazy in taking Hari's name.

What is destined will happen.

What ! will sink the boat

Seeing the swelling waves of the sea-like world ?"

Haru Thakur's songs were very fine. He acquired great reputation in songs of absent love ( विरह ).

The most fascinating Kabi-walla was Antony-Feringee. Antony was a Portugese, his house still stands in Chandan Nagar. Antony fell in love with a young Brahmin woman and settled with her at Gariti. The woman, however, kept her Hindu faith upto the last and used to celebrate Durga Puja and other Hindu festivities.

ANTONY FERINGEE

Antony learned excellent Bengali. Having fallen in love, Antony lost his vocation, next all his property by forming an party but after forming a professional

147

party of a Kabi after bitter experience, he succeeded in earning a lot of money.

The above-mentioned Kabiwallas were joint-composers of rhymed couplets and their songs became quite lively when they got Antony as their rival. We shall mention here some instances of it. On one occasion Ram Basu said to Antony :-

“Tell me, O Antony!

I want to hear that to-day

Having come to this country

Why have you taken this dress

And why there is no black coat on your person?”

At that time Ram Basu belonged to Thakur Sinhi's party.

Antony replied :-

“I am quite comfortable in the Bengali dress

And being the son-in-law of the father of

Thakur Singhi

Have given up black coat”.

Antony once sang in Nawadwip :-

“O mother Matangi!

I know not worship or prayer

I am a Feringi by caste”.

Antony's rival immediately replied on behalf of Matangi :-

“Go and worship thy Jesus in the Serampur Church

Thou art a redoutable Feringi

It won't be possible to give thee

148

On another occasion Ram Basu said :-

"O, Saheb ! In vain you have bowed your head

to Krishna's

If your clergy hears this

Will punish you by marking your cheeks with

lime and so

Antony replied :-

"Hear me brother !

There is no difference between Christ and Krishn

The only difference is name

That have misled the people so long.

My God is Hari of the Hindus

Look there stands Shyam

And my life will be blessed if I get His red feet

Of the Kabi-Wālās none was so prompt in repau

as Antony Feringi.

On one occasion when Haru Thakur decided agai

Ram Basu's party, Ram Basu sang out mortified at

partial treatment :-

"Thou Brahmin ! Thou won't live long

Worms have eaten away your Chakrā †

And your streak of gold is dim."

JOHN HALHED

There was another European gentleman Mr. Natha

John Halhed who used to go out as a Bengali

Antony and freely talk with the Bengalis without h

• To put soot on one's cheek and lime on the other is a sign of disgrace of obsolete.

† Chakrā refers to

granite symbol of Narayana.

detected. On one occasion while at Burdwan having been

solicited to give some proof of his knowledge of the

language, he emoraced the opportunity of a public show

given by the Raja to the Europeans and insinuating him-

self as a "Native singer" performed his part so admirably

by joining them in their chants that even they were un-

able to perceive that a stranger was among them.

"Friend of India" The 9th August 1838.

Mr. Halhed, however, was not a professional singer,

but a judge of the Sadar Dewani Adalat ! Dr. Carey

used to call him the first Englishman who learnt colloquial

Bengali language without a rival !

Ibid.

NETAI DAS

Netai Das was a famous Kabiwala Poet Iswar

Gupta gave a long article about him in his famous organ

"Sambad Probhakar" .--

"Every rich man when he wanted to have any Kabi

on the occasion of any festivity engaged Netai Das first.

There was great wit-combat between him and Bhavani

Benia. Hence the common expression is the duel of

Natee Baishnava. People used to come to hear from a

distance of one or two days' journey. The house where

his performance was held was crammed to its utmost and

it was a job to make way through that dense crowd.

Though there were several Kabi parties at that time, those

of Hari Thakur, Netai Das and Bhavani Banik were

most famous. Netai had a great following. The residents

of Kumar Hatta, Bhat Para, Triveni, Bally, Chandan

Nagar (Farash Danga), Chinsura and other places, both

high and low were all in admiration when they heard Netai's

150

name uttered before them. They seemed to be overjoyed

when Netai came out victorious and their regrets knew

no bounds when Netai was defeated by his rival, they

thought as if they would lose everything by his defeat.

Many even gave up their food and sleep In the beginning

there were even quarrels and fighting between adherents

of two parties.

What to speak of others, the Brahmins of Bhāt P

called Netai Das Nityananda Prabhu (Lord Gourang

colleague).

When he stood up to sing, his admirers cried out

"Master is on his legs." Netai had one special gift,

could amuse both the high and the low."

We may here quote from "Ekal and Sekal" of R

narayan Bose :-"Kavi Yatra, Panchali and similar other

things were the chief sources of entertainment to the

people, and of these Kavi was the foremost. The poets

and songs of Haru Thakur, Netai Vaishnava, Narsi

Ram Basu and Bhavani Benia were appreciated and prized

everywhere."

(Ekal and Sekal p. 1)

He who could compose rhymes fast was called

"Vadhandar." If the Vadhandar was prompt and well

acquainted with Pauranic Legends, then defeat of the rival

party was sure. The Kabis of that time were generally

Pandits. Poet Iswar Chandra Gupta some time acted as

a Vadhandar in a Kabi party.

Kabis were appreciated both in towns and Mufassil.

In course of time, however these wit-combats degenerated

into low t and filthy vituperations between the

rival parties, calling for the one-sided remarks of an

Anglo-Indian Journal:-

"The animus of the Kavis is rivalry. Two bands

under different leaders are with each other in winning the

applause of the audience. Their songs, in the first instance

celebrate the loves of Kiishna and Radha, or the praises

of the bloody Goddessa Káli. But these over, they indulge

in the songs of the most wanton licentiousness and to

crown the whole with calling each other bad names. So

far for the matter ; the manner of singing is one of which

young Bengal may well be ashamed. The houses of

some of the rich Babus of Calcutta are annually the

scenes of these disgraceful exhibitions, others have got

heartily tired of them but have substituted the less barba-

rous but not the less immoral 'nautches'. But the Kavis

are in high repute in the moffasil and women from behind

the screens may be observed greedily devouring their

licentious effusions. The Jhumuns or bands of female

Kaviwallas are nearly extinct."

Calcutta Review Vol. XV. 1851.

ENTERTAINING EUROPEANS

Nautches were much in rogue at that time and wealthy

people used to entertain the Europeans generally with

Nautch parties, or dances by protessional Baijis. We

may quote some instances of these entertainments for the

information of our readers :-

"For several nights, Bowany Churan, the second son

of the late Radhamohan Banerjee has entertained the

whole of the European inhabitants of Salkia and Howrah

with nautches at his house at both these places, in cele-

132

bration of the birth of a first-born son. The dancing

girls, as might be expected, were the best on the occasion

the town could afford"—Asiatic Journal—Nov. 1816, Pp.

519.520.

"At the old and hospitable mansion of Rajah Raj-

krishna, a new and equally pleasing exhibition came in

to relieve the tameness of the regular nautch. A number

of male dancers of the Mohamadan creed, performed a

farceical scene, termed "Buhar" in which the awkward and

mincing steps of the Hindustan dance were extremely

'barlesqued', and the wild, impassioned strains of the

Kheal, Tappa and Dhrupad ... ...were ludicrously paro-

died."—A. J. July 1816, Page 36.

HALF AKHRAI

Half-Akhrais were amateur parties in which young-

men belonging to respectable families took part. There

was variety of musical instruments in them and Half-

Akhrais were in vogue only in towns. In Calcutta many

of the old aristocratic families including Rajah and

Maharajas took part in the Half-Akhrais. The Calcutta

Review* speaks of it.—

"During the Durga Puja celebrations bands of Half

Akhrai and Panchali singers may be seen marching

through the streets of Calcutta with their flags hoisted

singing loud poems of victory."

PANCHALI

"Panchali" is of another type. The chief musician

of the Panchali party, by way of narration. used to sing

• Cal. Review Vol XV 1851 The Beogah Drama

153

some incidents of the Kurakshetra war, of the Radha Krishna's love and others of his party sang the chorus with him. Though Lakshmi Kanta Biswas, Ganga Narayan Naskar and other Pānchāliwalas were very popular, Dāwarathi eclipsed them all and was known as an eminent poet and devotee.

Dasarathi Roy was born in 1804 at Valmoro village in the District of Burdwan and he was alive till 1857. Dasarathi was at first a Vādhandar in a Kavi party and was abused in filthy language by that of the rival party. At this, his father and maternal uncle asked him not to go any more to the Kavi party. Thereafter Dasarathi Roy left an imperishable glory by writing Panchali in Bengali. Many of his writings, such as Probhasli, Chandi, Daksha-Jajna, Mān Bhanjan, Lab-Kusher Juddha, Vidhoba Bibaha (widow marriage) and others have already been printed.

In 1857, about the time when Dasarathi breathed his last, Pandit Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar stirred up the whole country by bringing forward his humanitarian proposal for the Widow-re-marriage Act. Before his death Dasarathi composed a song in which he censured Vidya Sagar in the garb of praise and praised Iswar Chandra Gupta in the guise of abuse :-

"In order to give a lover to the widow Highly accomplished Vidya Sagar an ocean of virtue and learning..... ...... ......"

The other song ran thus :-

"Let all the impious people of the land die They have conspired together against the widows In the house of our Iswar Gupta in Calcutta

154

Strange ! He does not understand the wailing of

widow being a Baidya

As a bad physician kills a patient by

administering poison.

His other songs are famous as :-

“Āmi dosh kāre diro

Āmi swakhāda salile dube mari Shyāmā.”

“I have none to blame, but I am drowned

In the ditch dug by my own hands

My six passions are like bows in the sacred field

of battle. .... ......

Dasarathi was unequalled in alliteration, similies,

witty repartées and even in putting his rivals into

comfiture.

Even the “Calcutta Review”* speaks of him :-“many

are many Panchali versifiers now living but the poetic

superiority is certainly due to Dasarathi Roy--verses

poems already amount to several volumes.”

Bankim Chandra, too, has spoken highly of

Dasharathi occupies a position in Bengali litera-

However, Panchali was associated with so much redun-

things and sometimes they were so low and indecent

cultured people soon grew disgusted with them.

The name of Brojomohan Roy as performer

Panchali and a Jatra singer is very important. His

Sita, Sabitri, Abhimanyu were specially interesting.

The purpose of mass-education can be served

Kathakata by which one narrates with interesting epi-

and comments, some legends of the Puran, inter

• Vol. XV 1851 “the Bengali Drama.

155

with songs and witticisms. Of the Kathakas the name of

Sridhar Kathak is most famous. Kathakata is free from

all sorts of vulgarity and indecency. It is still in vogue

but able Kathakas are very rare now-a-days.

Nidhu Babu's Tappa is specially worth-mentioning.

KIRTAN.

Another form of musical entertainment had been in

vogue in Bengal for a long time. This is what is known

at present as kirtan. This term means devotional music.

Kirtan was confined in former days to extolling the

attributes—the love, kindness and forgivenes—of God.*

All musical instruments which are calculated to

awaken sensuous feelings, like tabla, violin, serangi, etc.

were excluded from kirtan. It was sung to the accom-

paniment of ek-tārā, Sarinda ( of the bairāgis ), khol,

khanjani or gopijantra. This form of song was at first

confined to female singers—a class of demimonde who

gave up their unclean life, sometimes for the sake of art,

sometimes out of devotion, but more often out of ennui at

the monotone of their lives.

But in course of time kirtan underwent many

changes. Finding that it is very pleasant and dignified

form of entertainment, many male artists took it up and

became adepts in the art. Instead of confining itself to

extolling the beneficence of the gods, it took up for its

theme the immortal love of the divine consorts—Radha

and Krishna—in all its phases—पुर्बराग, मिलन, বিরহ and so

on. Then again, the Ektara and Sarinda had to give

*Also दैनतच the vanity of human desires, and the imper

e of mundane things

place to the ubiquitous harmonium but the veteran khol retained its place. Even in theatres, when a kirtan is sung, khol is played instead of tabla or pakhoāj (mridanga).

The charm of kirtan lies in using suitable upaj and the singer who can use the largest number of suitable upaj on the spur of the moment, easily makes his mark in the world of kirtan. To illustrate what has been said above, we give the following example. One line of the song that was being sung was—विधণে পড়ল দেখে मालতীর মाला !

Then comes the following upaj in serial order, thus—

আমার মালা গাঁথা নিফল হল !

বনফুল জন্‌য়ে মালা গেঁথেছিলাম, আমার মালা গাঁথা—

বনফুল জন্‌য়ে, অমুরাগ মিথেয়, মালা গেঁথেছিলাম, আমার মালা গাঁথা—and so on.

It is perhaps not generally known that Deshabandhu Chitta Ranjan Das very much appreciated this form of music and believed that it would be a powerful instrument of mass education if improved in certain respects and handled properly. During his life time he tried his best to improve kirtan music and adapt it to the modern conditions. He used very much to appreciate Gonesh Kirtonia for his elevated ways of singing Mahājoni padas.

After his death, his talented daughter Srimati Aparna Devi has taken the matter up in right earnest and in order to give this form of music an impetus which is its due, has started a kirtan party of her own, called রজমার্গী দল । Her party has already given several performances before

ed gatherings with great success । On an

157

occasion we were present, the present Maharajah of Natore played khol in accompaniment. Everywhere the sweet melody and the extreme devotional nature of the songs of herseli and her party have been highly appreciated and extolled by all classes of society from High Court Judges to the common men. We wish this organisation long life and continued support so that it can perform its work of public education for which it has been inaugurated.

Rai Bahadoor Khagendra Nath Mitra M.A., who has made a distinct mark in kirtan songs of the present day has conferred the title of नीतन स्वरस्वती on Mrs. Aparna Devi—which she rightly deserves. She is a revivalist and is after all working in the line chalked out by her father —Late Chittaranjan Das.

CHAPTER VIII

BENGALI DRAMA IN NEPAL

During the Moslem rule the above mentioned Jatra, Kabi etc. in short, were the sources of public entertainment and national amusements in Bengal while drama was driven to the neighbouring provinces. We have given an account of drama in Orissa and we shall now state how drama flourished in Nepal, Mithila, Assam and Orissa.

Though under the Mahomedan rule, drama lost its importance in India and consequently in Bengal, but in localities outside the influence of the Moslems, drama was in great favour with the people Dramas that were composed in Orissa under the influence of Lord Gouranga though written in Sanskrit yet give an unmistakable evidence of the dramatic genius of Bengal. Again some Bengali dramas have recently been discovered in Nepal in 1915.

Though the language of the drama is Bengali but they are written in Nepali character. Babu Nani Lall Banerjee is entitled to our grateful thanks for transcribing them in Bengali characters. Nani Babu's preface to these dramas is both interesting and learned and we can gather many things from it.

We shall quote a few things from his treatise.

The following dramas have been found in Nepal :-

1. Kashi Nath's-Vidya Vilap (pertaining to Vidya Sundar)

159

2. Krishna Deva's—Mahabharat.

3. Ganesh's—Ram Charitra.

4. Dhanapati's—Kam Kanda Kala.

These dramas prove that the Bengalees tried to spread

their culture, art and language in Nepal as they now do

in different part of the world.

About 130 years after the arrival of the Mahomedans

in India, in 1324 A. D, Hari Sinha Deva, the ruler of

Mithila for tear of foreign subjection fled to Nepal and

conquered the territory Many Bengalee and Maithili

Pandits accompanied Hari Sinha—patron of learning and

a strong pillar of Hinduism. A princess of his line

named Rajalallu Devi was married to Joysthiti Malla of

the old Malla line of Nepal, and Joysthiti afterward

ascended the throne of Nepal. After Joysthiti ruled

Jiva Malla, and after him the following kings ascended

the throne in succession :-

1. Trailokya Malla, 2. Jayay Malla; 3. Jagat

Jyoti Malla; 4. Jagat Prakash Malla; 5. Jitamitra

Malla; Bhupatindra Malla; 7. Ranjit Malla.

The aforesaid four dramas were written in the time of

Bhupati Chandra Malla and Ranjit Malla.

These Malla rulers were educated and were great

patrons of learning; and art and literature greatly flou-

rished during their rule In 1768 Nepal was occupied by

the Gorkhaii from Ranjit, the last of the Malla rulers.

The Malla rulers tried to spread culture and art of Bengal

and Mithila in Nepal and thereby to civilise the country.

Joysthiti brought five learned Pandits from Bengal and

another five from Mithila and with their help he tried to

establish a social order in Nepal

160

These four books are written in dramatic form, but dramatic art does not appear to have reached much perfection there. One or two characters appear in a scene and leave the stage after singing a song, or after a short conversation. Every song ends with composer's name, and the name is either that of Ranjit Malla or his father Bhupatindra Malla, such as :-

"Let us enter the stage

With beauty lore

And sport in amorous dalliance

Thus says heroic Bhupatindra

Ho, Ho!'

In the first mentioned drama there are seven acts, but no scene Vidya, Sundar and Malini are the main characters in it. Nandi, Sutradhar, Nati and such other things in all the four dramas are after Sanskrit dramas. Each one of the dramas has abundance of songs, a song follows almost after a sentence or two. Nāndi is in Sanskrit, likewise the speech of the Sutradhar. After a description of the king and the country, the actor enters the stage and discloses his identity.

The second drama "Mahabharat" consists of 21 acts. First there is Nandi, the true description of the ruler, then of the country and then enters Dhritarāstra The whole incidents of the Mahabharat have been presented in three acts. Drapadi's Sayamvara, Rajsua Jajna, the great battle and lamentations etc. have all been described in the drama. We shall quote a few instances of it. After the Rajsuya Sacrifice Durjodhan being insulted at every step speaks of his sorrow to his maternal

161

हाय हाय बड़ दावल लाल मातुल

इसलु बुढ़ेदर चल दर भाय

चरण मेल चुष्ट करव उपाय

............

I have been put to great shame, O maternal uncle!

Bṛkudara (Bhīmaña) laughed at me.

I seek your help, please do the needful.

"Hear me O uncle, I was put to shame in the richly

adorned hall, where in a tank I drenched my dress thinking it a marble stone. This sorrow wrings my heart."

At the time of battle, two persons appear on the stage

and after exchanging a few hot words go away. At the

end Dhṛtaraṣṭra laments :-

"Where my hundred sons have gone thus leaving

me behind

My life is useless

In rain it lingers on earth.

Who knew that such sorrow was in store for my

old age

Who will but Hari save me.

Victory be unto Bhūpatīndra, the king"

बुढ वयसे हेमे पावल शोक

हरि हरि के करत प्राण

कर लिखन फल दूर नाहि जाय

जय भूपतीन्द्र नृपमाय

The third play, the Ramayana, is divided into three

parts. In the first part Viṣhnu, Dasaratha, Lomapada,

Ravan, Janak. Srutakirti, Viśvamitra, Dattātreya,

Tali, Tara, Durvasha and Kalnemi all appear and have

21

their own say viz :--Ravan says, 'I have ten heads. who

is a hero like me ? Everyone flies from me.'

রাবণ—

দশসুখব্জ্জার আমি ললিত শুৱেশ

অমাক (র) সম্মান বীর আর কেভা আচ্ছে

ভরতে পলায় যায় ন আন্মসে কাচ্ছে :

Seshnāg says, "My name is Sesh, thus says Raja

Ranjit." In the second part, Bibhisan, Bharat and others

likewise speak about themselves.

In the third part Ravan says;

"I shall fight with Ram,

No enemy can stand my presence, and shall

destroy him."

করিবো রণ তবে রামের কাছে গিয়া

আমার সংঘুখে বৈরি কে থাকিতে পারে

রিপুগণ দেখিয়া মারিবো তারে :

Then Ram says,

"Let us repair to Ayodhya

We shall meet there all in joy

And there shall judge everything then."

চলো চলে অবিলম্বে অযোধ্যানগরে

আনন্দে করিবো আমরা সকলে মিলাবো

সেখানে করিবো গিয়া বিচার করিবো :

Madhavanni Kam Kanda Kala is a drama in seven

acts but it is written in mixed language consisting of

Bengali, Hindi, Maithili blended together.

Of these four dramas, in the Ram Charitra, there is

of Bengalu. Erotic sentiments have now

163

and then been expressed in Ramayana sometimes tending to indulgency as in—

সুন্দরী তুমি ওগো বাণী করুণে তুম্বনে হে.সখি গুণে গোপ জন্চল হৈলো মন মন কাতরিয়া দেহ রস অন্তঃ

"—Howe O beauty, my mind has grown restless seeing the beauty of thy face which I long to kiss. Give up thy sullen mood and give me thy love."

In other places there is often an admixture of Hindi with Bengali.

Srijukta Probodih Chandra Bagchi ( M.A. PH.D. ) has recently contributed a learned article on Nepali drama in the Sahitya Parishad Patrika and we have got considerable assistance from that article. Probodh Babu says that Joysthiti was greatly fond of drama and after his marriage with Rajabala Devi, a sanskrit drama named Bhanirvananda written by Manika was performed. Dramatist Manika was a resident of Mithila. In the festivity held at the birth of Joysthiti's son, the Ramayan was performed.

Kari Sekhar-Acharya Joytidhiswar a contemporary of Hari Sinha Deva wrote a drama named "Dhurta Samagam" and composed a treatise on dramaturgy named "Vaman Ratnakar." These two authors were contemporaries of Chandi Das and Vidyapati."

At the time of Sri Chaitanya's rise in 1496 A.D. Raja Joyram Malla composed a drama named "Pandava Vijoy" or "Sava Parva."

In 1628 A.D. Raja Jagat Jayoti Malla wrote a drama named "Mudita Kuvalayaswaa." Many European scholars have mentioned the drama In 1629 A.D he also

wrote two other dramas named "Hara Gouri Viroha Natak" and "Kunj Behari Nataka." The article "Nepal Bhasa Nataka" by Probodh Babu has given specimens of its language.

"Let us go to the bank of Jamuna.

There the cool breeze blows,

And trees with new leaves adorn the bank.

Bees are humming there sweetly,

That aches the heart,

And vibrates its cords."

The dramas of the time of Jagat Malla, son of Jagat Jyoti, are "Malaya Gandhini" and "Madan Charita."

They were composed in 1670 A. D.

Mahamahopadhyaya Hara Prosad Shastri M.A., C.I.E., has mentioned the "Aswamedha" drama written by Raja Jitamita Malla, son of Raja Jagat Prokash. He wrote another drama in 1687 A. D named "Madag Sahvan."

Another drama of his named "Gopi Chandra" was written in 1712 A. D. The drama has been written on the subject of Sannayasa or ascetic life assumed by Gopichandra, the then Raja of Rangpur, a district of North Bengal. In this drama the personæ dramatis are Raja Gopichandra, Uduna Padma and Maynamati showing a close connection between Nepal and North Bengal.

This drama is different from other plays, here is no abundance of songs and there is predominance of prose. Its language is mostly in old Bengali. We give below a specimen of it:-

Kotwal* :-I am Kotwal of Maharaja Gopichandra. Lord of Bengal. My name is Kalinga.

• Kotwal as head of Police.

165

Bhāgi Khora :-You have said well; I say Khetu Maidputra-Kalinga Kotvar, just listen to a word of mine.

Khetu.-Ye, always (I shall).

Bha :-There is no other Bhagi Khora like myself who is passing his days in happiness by capturing and floudiering everybody.

Khete:-You have said right. O, Kalinga Kotvar ! Let us go to see your king and my king, Raja Gopi Chandra.

After Jitanitura, Bhupatindra Malla ascended the throne of Bhatgaon. He ruled from 1695 to 1722 A.D.

The Vidyā Vilāp and the Mahabharat mentioned before, were written in his time. Besides those, Probodh Bābu says, that in the Royal Library of Nepal there are two more dramas "Madhavanal and Rukmini Parinaya."

There are also two incomplete manuscripts of two other dramas in Library.

Bhupatindra's son Ranjit ruled from 1722 to 1772. The Ram Charitta and Madhab Kam Kanda Kala were written in his time. Besides these, it is said that other dramas were also written in his time.

(1) Usha Haran in 1754 A.D.

(2) Andhakasur Vadhowhyan.

(3) Krishna Charit Nataka in 1738 A.D.

(4) Madan Charita Katha Nataka.

(5) Kolasur Vadopakhyam Nataka

(6) Ramayan in 1765 written by poet Krishinath

In addition to thus Probodh Babu has mentioned

two other dramas named Gita Digamvar and Nala Charita. They were composed not in the time uf the

malla kings but at the time of the Kāṭāmundu Rajas.

The Malla Kings mentioned by us were the ruler-

of Bhatgaon. Three sons of Joysthiti Malla, ruled over

Bhatgaon, Khatmandu and Vanapat. In the time of

Joyram Malla ot Vanapat we hear of a sanskrit drama

named "Pandava Vijaya" in 1496 A.D.

The songs of the dramas mentioned by us end with

the names ot the kings as their composers. Only

the portions containing the descriptions of the kings

and of the country are composed in the names of

the poets. It is not always right to conclude that the

dramas were really composed by the Rajas, because the

songs end in their names. The poets out of gratitude

might have written the plays in the names of the kings

because they were great patrons of learning. We

have mentioned before how dramas were written in the

names of Sudraka and Harsha Vardhan.

The old Bengali dialect, in which these dramas are

written, is supposed by many to have been the language

of the old Yatras. Perhaps these dramas bear some

resemblance to the old Yatras. During the Mahomedan

rule as we have already seen, dramas were replaced by

jatras and having received patronage of the independent

Hindu Kings, Bengali Dramas were alive in Nepal and

became more and more popular there.

BENGALI DRAMA IN ASSAM

In Assam, too, a drama has been found in Assamese

language composed by the poet Sankar Deva The drama

consists of one act. It is written both in poetry and

prose. Sanirara Deva flourished during the middle of the

Sixteenth Century He wrote several poems and dramas ;

as, Kaliya-daman Nāt, Parijat Haran Nāt Sīta Swaya-

nara Nāt. Kotora Khola Nāt, Rāsa Jatra Nāt, Patni

Prosad Nāt etc. Kaladaman Nāt may have some

resemblance with our Kaladaman Jatra but we have got

no copy of it.

Parijat Haran Nāt. has recently been printed. Sutra-

dharas invecations of the Gods and his conversations

are in Sanskrit while the rest of the drama is written in

a language akin to the old Bengali. We give a specimen

here :-

Satya Bhama :--"O, my husband! Promise to give

me the Parijat tree." Sri Krishna :-"O, my darling !

Sintul Narakasura have robbed the Gods of all their

belongings by conquering them. First let me kill him

and perform the work of the Gods and then shall bring

Parijat."

Satya Bhama :-"O, my husband! you have spoken

right. First. do the work of Gods and then bring the

Parijat tree I shall accompany you." हाम तोहारे सने चलबो।

Sri Krishna :-"You are a woman, it is not proper

for you to accompany me to the battle field. तेड़े खींजाति । युध

समये वाढात अकित नहि ।

Satya Bhama :-"O, my Lord! I have a number

of co-wives to whom shall I give the Parijat. I do not

quite understand, I shall not leave your company."

Sri Krishna —"O mv darling! If you really want

to go with me then get you self quickly ready

168

(When Sri Krishna is about to start with Satyabhama, Nārada appears).

Narada :-‘O, Hari, I have hardly seen such a henpecked husband. हे हरे तुझे सम स्त्रीजित पुरुषक वदु नाही देतु ‘ You could not leave your wife even when going to battle. You are the preceptor of the world. Your glory is sung in the three worlds, but you have put me to shame.’

Srikrishna :-“O Muniraj! What shall I do. For Parijat, Satyabhama wishes to give up her life. How can I stand her importunities ?”

Narada :-“It will take two or four years to go there with wife. For speedily doing the work of the Gods, do one thing. Your carrier is Garura bird, ask him to come. Get upon his shoulders and kill Narakasura quickly.”

Srikrishna (turning to Satyabhama says) :-“O, my darling. The saint has spoken right.”—आहे प्रिये ! सुनी भड कहल !

Satyabhama :-“O my husband.”

Srikrishna thinks his carrier, “Come Garura the king of birds, come quick.” सत्वरे आवु, सत्वरे जाउ ।

Sumadhara (in sanskrit) :-Garura then bowed down to Krishna with joined palms.

“Get upon my shoulders and proceed to the villain’s place”

Garura :-“O my Lord ! Why should you walk when I am living ? Get upon my shoulders, kill sinful Narakasura.

हे स्वामि ! होतु युक्ति तुजु पाउ वंदितो ! मः होणार काम हे माझी पापी नष्ट करण मथ करों मेशा

169

Sutradhar :-Then Srikrishna got upon Garura's

shoulders and proceeded cheerfully. Sutradhar then cited

a sloka in Sanskrit and proceeded fast as the wind and

blew his conchshell "Panchajanya."

SONG :

সত্রধর মনেতে চিন্তন করিয়া

নরক মারিতে কমলি প্রবন্ধে

কায়ক বেগে চলিল পক্ষীরাজে

মিল একে সিডল কামরূপ রাণী !

ফুকিল শঙ্খ বারি বার

শুনি দানব মেল হৃদে হেদবিদার !

Govinda proceeded on Garura's shoulders.

Made preparations to slay Naraka.

The prince of birds proceeded with the swiftness of

the wind

In a moment, the Lord arrived,

Capable of assuming every form at will,

Hari blew his conchshell again and again

Hearing that sound the Giant trembled at his heart.

Sutradhar in Sanskrit sloka narrated the events and

supplied the want of the modern programme. Songs

and dialogues were all in Bengali. The above drama shows

that the Assamese might have made advancement in

drama, but the fact that it is akin to Bengali drama

shows its influence there. Thus during the Mohomedan rule

Mithila, Orissa, Assam and Nepal, at least, maintained the

glory of the Bengali drama.

AT MANIPUR

The people of Manipur in Assam who are said to be

Tune hanem Rup

00

170

descendants of Bavrubāhon, son of Arjun and Chitrāngadā, bear a great affinity to the Bengali Hindus. They

are by creed Vaishnavas and are very fond of music.

They often sing songs of Srikrishna in Kirtons to the accompaniment of khola and kartals. The daughters

of Manipur, till their marriage, learn with great care to sing and dance along with other domestic duties The

songs relate always to Srikrishna, and though their dialect is different from the Bengali language, but their songs

are nothing but broken Bengali. Their dances are more interesting and sweet. During the Rāsh Ceremony, a big

auditorium like an Amphitheatre is built when the maids (Lāisābis) clad in velvet and muslin scarf enter the

arena and bowing down to the superiors begin to sing and dance. Their dance, oriental as it is, has been much

appreciated by the world-renowned poet Rabindra Nath Tagore.

Everywhere in India the influence of Vaisnavism is prominent. Indeed Vaishnavism, influence of Maha-

prabhu and dramas of Rupa Goswami contributed much to the development of Jatra and Theatre, and we have

given rather an elaborate description of Jatra as it helped a great deal about the growth of the Bengali

Stage.

THE INDIAN STAGE

PART II.

BENGAL UNDER THE ENGLISH.

THE PLAY HOUSE, THE CALCUTTA THEATRE, MRS.

BRISTOW'S THEATRE, LEBEDEFF'S BENGALI THEATRE,

DUMDUM THEATRE, BAITHOKKHANA THEATRE,

CHOWRINGEE THEATRE & THE SANSOUCI THEATRE.

THE INDIAN STAGE

DURING THE EARLY ENGLISH SETTLEMENT.

PLAY HOUSES.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

Hitherto we have traced the evolution of Indian drama

from the earliest time down to the rise and progress of

the Jatra in Bengal. We now come to a very important

phase in the development of the Modern Bengali Stage.

Many modern institutions of the country owe their

present day forms to the influence of the West, and the

modern Bengali Theatre is one of them. Bengali drama

is no doubt of lineal descent from the ancient Sanskrit

play, but, in course of time, the Bengali stage has imbibed

many things from the West, and these innovations or

changes came to be gradually and slowly introduced from

the time of the Early English Settlement in Calcutta.

We intend to study these changes in their chronological

order which led to the foundation of the modern Bengali

174

is wrapped up in romance like the early history of the

East India company. Very few chapters in history are

more thrilling, more romantic, or more awful than that of

a daring body of adventurers or traders prompted by a

spirit of enterprise and gain, that, even in spite of them-

selves, brought about a vast revolution in the political

history of the world. It is a truism that Englishmen,

wherever they happen to be, seldom forget their national

amusements and the early English theatres of Calcutta

rose out of their social gatherings formed amongst the

early settlers for their own recreation. The accounts of

these theatres are highly interesting on account of their

influence upon the early dramatic performances of the

Bengalees of that time. Unfortunately, we possess no

connected history of these interesting events but disjointed

accounts scattered about in various scraps and papers.

We, however, propose to present them, as far as possible,

in their historical sequence. The following are the chief

sources we had to depend for our materials :

I. The old maps of Calcutta of different periods

pointing to 'theatre' at particular localities :-

i. Plan of the territory of Calcutta as marked out

in the year 1742 exhibiting likewise the mili-

tary operations at Calcutta when attacked and

taken by Serajuddula on the 18th June 1756.

ii. Lieutenant Will's plan of Fort William and

part of the city of Calcutta published in 1753.

iii. Colonel Mark Wood's map of the year 1784

iv. A. Upjohn's map of 1794 taken in 1792-1793

v Mr J R Schadeb's map of 1825

vi. Major H L. Thullier's map of 1847-1849.

This is the most authentic source as to the site of the various theatres.

II. The various accounts given by (i) Phillip Stan-In In his "Genuine Memoirs of Asiatics," (ii) Mrs. Fay's letters written in 1780 (iii) Accounts of Mrs. Sophia Goldborne, authoress of "Hartley House" in 1789, and Letters of the Hon'ble Miss Emily Eden in 1827-1847, (v) Memoir of Mr J. H. Stoequeier in 1848-1851. (vi) Mr. R. C. Sterndale's account of the various 'Plays' including that of the "Calcutta Theatre" giving an account and position of the same.

III. Mr. Hicky's Bengal Gazette of 1780-1782, The Calcutta Gazette from 1787, The Bengal Hurkura, John Bull, The Friend or India and Asiatic Journals and newspapers and periodicals with the contemporaneous events--forming the next important source of authenticity.

IV. Rev. J Long's "Calcutta Old and New", Mr. W. H. Carey's "Good old days of the John Company", Dr. Busteed's "Echoes of Old Calcutta", Sir Evans Cotton's (formerly Mr. H. E. A. Cotton) "Calcutta Past and Present", Mr. H Blechynden's "Calcutta Past and Present", Mr. Macfarlane's "Notes on Hartley House", Rev. Walter Kelly Firminger's remarks on Mrs. Fay's Letters and the "Asiaticus", and lastly Mr. E. W. Madge's two articles in the "Statesman" of October 1905.

V. Besides the above mentioned sources, we have tried to gather certain informations from the lives and letters of the pioneers of the modern Bengali Stage and of other famous Bengalees of that time

176

THE PLAY HOUSE

The earliest theatre in Calcutta was the Play House in Lalbazar Street standing at the north-east corner of the Mission Row. Its position was beautiful, standing at the north-east of the Great Tank, Mission Row (then called Rope Walk) forming the eastern side of it, as the present eastern side of the Dalhousie Square did not then exist. Its position has been indicated in Will's map (1753) as being the south-west corner of the present Calcutta Police office and not to the south-west of the Tank Square as Sir Evans Cotton puts it.*

Rev. Walter Kelly Firminger, as representative of the Calcutta Historical Society, further discovered an old wall to the west of a Jute Godown (now the four-storied big house at No. 8 Lalbazar Street) to be that of the old Play House,† which gives rise to the suggestion that the premises No. 8 Lalbazar Street, opposite the Police Headquarters formed a part of the Play House. The present site has yet a faint semblance of a place of amusement and a comparison of maps of 1753 and later periods would show a near approach to the location attributed to it.‡

Mr. Firminger writes :-

The facade seems to betoken a place of some consequence in its day but of the old building the facade alone remains and all behind it is a Jute go-down built some 50 years ago b.

• Calcutta Old and New Page 93.

† Bengal Past and Present. January 1909, an article by Miss E. Drummond.

‡ Bengal Past and Present. p 178 Vol. I

22 1907

177

Mesrs. Ralli Brothers. It is conjectured

that the facade may perhaps have belonged to

one of the famous taverns, but may it not be

possible that we have here still with us a

portion of the original theatre which is known

to have stood close to the corner formed by

Tank and Rope Walk Square?

The English had thus a theatre even some years

before the Government passed from the hands of the

Nawab to the East India Company.

Sir John Clavering and Hon'ble George Monson,

(colleagues of Warren Hastings and Sir Phillip Francis in

the Council) lived in Rope Walk subsequently, and almost

opposite to it to the north was the Old Court House

where St. Andrew's Church now stands. Being just

opposite to the Old Fort towards the east and there being

no house intervening, the Play House served as an

advantageous position of offense for Serajuddulah who

seized it, and thus played a prominent part in his siege of

Calcutta in 1756.

The old English Church of St. Anne founded in 1709

and standing at the junction of the Clive Street and

Dalhousie Square North, to the west side of the present

Writers' Buildings, was also stormed and destroyed during

the above siege and after things were settled down to

the advantage of the British, a proposal† was on foot to

convert the Play House into a Church and was actually

communicated to London.

• Bengal Past and Present p 178 Vol 1 December 2nd 190

† Hyde's Annals of Bengal

178

The Court of Directors, too, gave the necessary sanction on March 3, 1758, in the following correspondence

"We are told the building formerly made use of Theatre may with a little expense be converted into a Church of public worship as it was by the voluntary contributions of the inhabitants of Calcutta. We hope, there can be no difficulty in getting it freely applied to before-mentioned purpose especially when authorise you to fit it up decently at Company's expense, as we hereby do"—*

The above proposal though sanctioned was not, however, carried into effect.

We get a mention of this Play House and the condition of the Church in Philip D. Stanhope's account given in October 1774 :-

There is a noble play house—but no church want of which is supplied by a spacious apartment in the Old Fort, adjoining the room well-known by the name of the Black Hole and rendered famous by the deaths of unfortunate countrymen when the Nawab Serajuddula took Calcutta by storm.

Stanhope's "Asiaticks," page

This is a faithful account of the times but annotators have made a mess of the whole thing and fail to understand how Mr. Firminger in editing the part of the above book could so unhesitatingly observe :-

"This is not the Play House in Lalbazar so famous

• Wilson—Old Fort William Vol. II page 130

159

in the very of the siege of Calcutta in 1756,

but the theatre which had been erected on the

site is now occupied by the business house of

Messrs Fingar Muir and Co

The house mentioned here by Firminger was the

"Calcutta Theatre" which was built in 1775 or the early

part of 1776, the Patent being granted in June 1775.

This was called the "New Play House" so distinguish it

from the "Old Play House" of Lilloaas. Knowing that

the New Play House did not come into existence when

Stanhope visited Calcutta, in 1774, we wonder how Mr.

Firminger could have made the mistake. Again, Rev.

Long wrote an article in the Calcutta Review (Vol.

XVIII) containing, amongst others, the following observa-

tions :-

"Near the Old Court House in the north-west

corner of Lyon's Range stood the Theatre

which in the siege of 1757, was turned into a

Battery by the Moors and annoyed the Fort

very much."

The above was copied verbatim in "Old Calcutta"

published by Newman and in W. H. Carey's "Good old

days of the John Company," and we are bound to say all

these gentlemen are not accurate. The theatre here referred

to is also the Calcutta Theatre which did not come into

existence in 1756 or 1757, and the plan I of 1742—

1756 also points to Battery not being here, but to the east

at the junction of Lalbuzar Street and Mission Row

1774 during Stanhope's visit, is also true. Hicky's Benga

Gazette, the first news-paper of India, started in 1780

four years after the opening of "the Calcutta Theatre"

and with advertisements of the same, mentions also the

old Play House as a place of auction--

"Auctions at the Old Play House for sale by Private

contract.

Williamson--Vendu master to the Hon'ble Com-

pany."

This was one of the places used as an Auction House,

and we agree with Dr. Busteed that Williamson the auc-

tioneer set up here afterwards.4

The Play House no doubt existed, but there was no

performance. This is also clear as "theatre" is not in-

cluded in the list of amusements (balls, card parties,

frequenting of European shops, Hooka-smoking) in the

account given by Mr. Stanhope.

Mr. Madge however mentions that a ball-room was

attached to it and English ladies used to dance here. We

find no authority for this and we find that by quoting

"Asiaticus" from two separate pages 30 and 34 on

different subjects, he (Mr. Madge) has confounded the

readers. The Play House was mentioned in page 30 and

dancing by English ladies as compared to that of Indian

ladies was described in page 34, one being distinct from

the other. We give the following here from page 34:-

"But extravagant as the English are in their Hooka,

their equipage and their tables; yet all this is

absolutely parsimony when compard to the

expenses of a seraglio; a luxury which those can

• Echoes from Old 4th Edition, Page 120

181

enjoy whose rank in the service entities them to

a princely income and whose harem, like State

horses of a monarch, is considered as a neces-

sary appendage to Eastern grandeur. However

you would think even this extravagance in

some degree pardonable, had you once ex-

perienced the attractive charms of an Asiatic

beauty. I have seen ladies of the Gentoo

caste, so exquisitely formed with limbs, so

divinely tuned and such expression in their

eyes that if you can reconcile yourself to their

complexions, you must acknowledge them not

inferior to the most celebrated beauties of

Europe. For my own part, I already begin

to think the dazzling brightness of a copper-

coloured face infinitely preferable to the pallied

and sickly hue which banishes the roses from

the cheeks of the European fair and reminds

me of the death-struck countenance of Lazarus

risen from the grave. The English ladies are

immoderately fond of dancing, an exercise

ill-calculated for the burning climate of Bengal

and in my opinion however advisable in cooler

latitudes, not a little indelicate in a country

where the inhabitants are covered with no

more clothes than what decency absolutely

requires. Imagine to yourself the lovely object

of your affections ready to expire with heat,

every limb trembling and every feature dis-

torted with fatigue and her partner with a

"Muslin" handkerchief in each hand employed

in the delightful office of wiping down her

face while the big drops stand impeached upon her forehead.

From the above there is nothing to justify Mr. Madge's assertion that a ball-room was attached to the theatre.

The Play House was conducted by amateur performers and was frequented by high officials. In 1772 its managers sent home a present of two pipes of Maderia to David Garrick in acknowledgment of the trouble, which they said, the great actor had taken to promote their theatrical attempts in this distant quarter.

In the map of 1792 (Upjohn) we do not find any trace of this Play House which possibly ceased to exist before that year. We do not find any trace of the Play House in the "Calcutta Gazette" of 1787 and Williamson Brothers were seen fixing their Auction-house at the spacious house of London Tavern. We do not also find any trace of it in Wood's map of 1784.

In the contemporaneous records of 1782, we find a civil suit for ejectment of George Williamson from this house by Robert Palk, a Judge of the court of Chancery who had committed Maharaja Nandcoomar to the court of Sessions.

Sir Elijah Impey writes in his order:-

"The house had belonged to Robert Dobinson formerly the Company's auctioneer and had been mortgaged to Palk by Dobinson. Palk last year obtained a decree of foreclosure for his house and Mr. Williamson was there in possession of the house and would not quit the house until he was turned out by the sheriff on an order founded on the decree signed by me in the vacation. It was heard. Williamson was put into possession by Palk in June 1776 and removed in person till 1st Oct,

1781." Thus the Play House must have ceased to exist sometime between Oct. 1781 and 1784 A.D.

Very unfortunately we possess no detailed account of this early English Theatre, nor as to what plays were performed there, as there was no Gazette, nor newspaper at the time.

It was very likely that Messrs. Drake and Holwell took some active interest in it as it appears that the house though built by voluntary subscriptions was patronised by the Company.

The rest, however, is lost in the hoary mist of the past.

THE CALCUTTA THEATRE

[NEW PLAY HOUSE]

The most important English Theatre that gave an impetus to the foundation of the Bengali Stage was the "New Play House" as distinguished from the Old Play House and was popularly known as the "Calcutta Theatre."

The Patta † of the land was granted in 1775 (June 1st) for 5 Big has of land which, as the map 1742-1758 (No 1) shows, had been occupied by Mr. Eyre who perished in the siege of Calcutta in 1756, and the New Theatre opened sometime in autumn 1775 or sometime earlier than that.

The maps of Wood 1785-86 and of 1792 by Upjohn put "theatre" (the 'old Play House having disappeared by this time) at the north western corner of Lyon's Range behind the Writers' Buildings and Miss Sophia Goldborne authoress of "Hartley House" also mentions it in 1789 thus :-

"At the back of the Writers' Buildings is the Calcutta

• Records of the case of 1782 Jan 30th Re Robert Palk vs George Williamson - Vide also Bengal Present and Past 1909 page 41 Jan to March.

Pulle erndale 8 a roun of Patias

184

theatre and inside of which I am informed on good authority that it equals the most splendid European Exhibition." :

The Patta of the Writers' Buildings granted in October 1776 puts the northern boundary "by a road leading from the south railing of Play House by the house then in the occupation of James Higgins, merchant to the China Bazar. †"

The position of the theatre and arrangement of the same is further denoted by an advertisement ‡ "in Calcutta Gazette"—announcing under the heading "Calcutta Theatre", the following notice :-

"On the western entrance of the theatre are opened two gateways for general accommodation. It is requested that ladies and gentlemen will order their bearers to carry in at the south entrance or that nearest the "Old Fort" and pass through the compound at the northern gate or that further from the old Fort. The rule should be observed on returning from the theatre also."

The position of the old Fort built in 1692 and dismantled in 1819 was to the west of the Writers' Buildings and Holwell's monument, on the other side of the old Fort Street, whereon now stands the Customs House.

The Patta above referred to for "the Theatre" was granted unto seventy-four gentleman including Warren

• Hartley House, pages, 58-59

† Vide also Mr. Kathleen Blechynden's Calcutta Past and Present Page 71. (1905).

‡ Thursday Nov 16th 1788

Hastings, General Monson, Richard Barwell, Chief justice

Sir Elijah Impey, and justices J. Hyde, John Chambers

and S. C. Lemaistre, for 5 Bighas 19 cuttas and 12

chhataks of ground situated in Bazar Calcutta for the

X" "Zinent" which formerly belonged to John Carlier

Esqr and subscribers' Rent Rs. 17-13-3 per annum in

the Cutchery of the Calcutta Division, this 1st June

1775, No. 27 (patta) and collector's offices.* As we said

before, this theatre was not in existence when Stanhope

visited Calcutta. †

The Calcutta Theatre was so well-known that a small

lane to the east, is named after it in the same maps as

Theatre Street, not the present Theatre Road which also

is named after another well-known Theatre of a later

period.

In the next map of 1825 by Major Schalch, we find

the place converted into New China Bazar and before

that time we find an advertisement published in the

Calcutta Gazette of the 1st November, 1808, about the

last trace of the Theatre:-

"Whereas the house and buildings called "The

Theatre," wherein Mr. Raworth established an

auction, was lately purchased by Babu Gopi

Mohon Tagore, who has constructed several

buildings which he intends for a new bazar

known by the name of the new China Bazar,

• Chap. IV of 'An Historical account of the Calcutta Collectorate' by

R. C. Sterndale, page 24.

† Philip Stanhope, an officer in the first regiment of dragoons guards

came to India in 1774. He was the victim of disappointed love, the lady

to whom he was attached not being allowed by her father to go to India.

186

notice is hereby given to the public from and after the twentieth day of November, the shops

of the New China Bazar behind the Writers’ Buildings will be opened where European and

other articles of every description will be found for sale.”

The history of the Calcutta Theatre thus continues from 1775 to 1808, and it is on this site Messrs. Finlay

Muir and Co. had their business firm some years ago and at present are situated the firm of Messrs. James Finlay

and Co. Limited at No. 1, Clive Street.

The locality was best suited for a theatre, and we have on the authority of Dr. Busteed,* that Sir Philip Francis

occupied a house behind it. Sir Philip wrote to a friend “Here I lie, master of the finest house in Bengal with

hundred servants, a country house and spacious gardens, horses and carriages etc.”

“Where was this vaunted house”? Asked the Doctor; and he tells us “It is stated by a witness at a trial in

Calcutta in 1778 in which Francil was the principal and he recognised the defendant as Mr. Francis who lived beyond

the play house, which must be the Calcutta theatre.” A reference to the maps also shows that the house, evidently

large and beautiful, standing about this time nearest to the theatre on the north was the one at the corner of Old

Fort Ghat Street and Clive Street ; there was no house near it and its site exactly corresponds with that occupied

afterwards, by the Oriental Bank which Francis had occupied before.

A map of the Old Fort now hanging in the private

Dr Busteed’s Calcutta 4th Ed. Page 120

187

reading room of the Imperial Library, Calcutta, confirms

the Doctor.

THE PERFORMERS

On the site described above, the Calcutta Theatre was

built at the cost of about "one lac rupees" raised by a

subscription from the leading members of Calcutta society

of those days and even the Governor General, the Chief

Justice, members of the council and other judges of the

supreme Court were subscribers and members interested

in the Theatre and the actors were all respectable people.

Miss Sophia Goldborne gives a very nice description of

the theatre as she saw it in person* :- "The performers are

all gentlemen who receive no kind of compensation, but

form a fund of the admission money to defray the

expenses of the house. It consists only of pit and boxes

to be admitted to the first of which you pay eight rupees

(20S), to the last a gold mohor (40S). It is therefore no

wonder that the house is about the size of the Bath

Theatre and consists of Pit and boxes only, first an area

in the centre, the second a range of commodions enclosed

or rather separated, seats round it, from one corner of

the stage to the other. No expense has been spared to

gratify either the eye or the ear; a very pleasing band of

music saluted the present Governor on his entrance and

the pit was crowded with spectators. It is lighted upon

the English plan with lamps at the bottom of the stage and

girandoles at proper distances with wax candles covered

with glass shades as in the Verandahs to prevent their

extinction, the windows being venetian blinds and the free

circulation of air delightfully promoted by their situation."

• Vide Hartley House pages 58–59

188

Mrs. Fay also says† "The house was built up by sub-

scription. It is very neatly fitted up, and the scenery

and decorators quite equal to what could be expected here

The parts are entirely represented by amateurs in the

drama, no hired persons being allowed to act. I assure

you I have seen characters supported in a manner that

would not disgrace any European stage." Miss

Sophia however was beside herself with joy when on seing

one of the performances she wrote .-

"The character of young Meadows was very agree-

ably supported by one of the company's

writers, a young gentleman that visits at Mr.

Hartley's and is in a rising way--Hawthorn

was performed by an adjutant in the artillery,

Deborah Woodcock by poor Doyly's patron

who has much pleasantry, Rosetta by a young

gentleman in the law department, Lucinda by

the son of an east India Captain and in like

manner were other characters filled up and I

do declare upon my word and honour that I

was as well entertained as if the female parts

had been sustained by females--and again

wish in the cause of morality the custom could

be re-established in England. The scenery

was beautiful and dress superb. Here Gol-

conda's wealth in all its genuine lustre astoni-

shed the beholder and a profusion of orna-

mental pearls were disposed with good taste ;

in a word, whether it was the poet, or the

† Mrs. Fay was the wife of a Barrister who left Calcutta in Aug. 1782

and came again in 1784. She was ---------1 by Hyder Ali in 1780 She

her visiting Mrs. from Calcutta

at Belvedere House "a great

performers, or the diamonds, or the air of enchantment, they all together certainly wore,

I know not, but so pleasing an effect had the whole upon my mind that I forgot Doyly, my

native country, my Arabella and my mother

and for the only period of my residence at Bengal was completely happy.

veral country-born ladies figured away in the boxes and by candle light had absolutely the

advantage of the Europeans, for their dark complexions and sparkling eyes gave them

appearance of animation and health the Europeans had no pretensions to do and their

persons are genteel and their dress magnificent,

whereas on the other hand, paleness and langour told the country of my birth and were

not to be concealed or compensated by all that polite negligence or accomplished manners

could do.

e pit was full of gentlemen of every denomination.

for myself, my attention was so engaged by the piece that my heart several times asked if

it could be possible I was at the distance of 4000 miles from the British metropolis.

"Hartley's House"—page 202-207.

rove are left as excellent reminiscences* of a lady of great vivacity and culture and this along with

xeferiiane in editing the pages of Hartley House says of it :-"A

ok that throws a flood of light upon the Anglo-Indian Society lost in g periods of the history of the Indian Empire."

the Patta and some accounts at the Gazette form unlike that of the old Play House, excellent records as documentary piece of evidence about the true history of the Calcutta Theatre.

PERFORMANCES

In 1780, Hicky's Bengal Gazette was first published on the 20th January and it is noticeable that the first issue contained an advertisement about the staging of the comedy.—“Beaux” with the farce of “Lethe.”

About a year after, again, we find an interesting review in the columns of the same Gazette on the staging of “Tragedy of Venice preserved” and farce of “Musicial lady” which throws much light on the performances here :—“Captain Call play'd Jaffir admirably well and may be justly styled the “Garrick of the East.”

“When the Tragedy King entered in Pierre, a universal thrill ran through the house and when he described himself, a fine gay bold-faced villain—“a general concurrence of whispers seemed to pronounce—A V—he truly is. He was stiff without dignity and sonorous without meaning, totally void of originality, mounted and, hobbling on the Right Toe of imitation.

“Renault was well supported by Mr. Pawson who played his part also in the entertainment with uncommon applause.

“Captain Robinson was as pleasing in Priuli as the part would admit and highly so in the entertainment.

“Mr. Norford played Belvidera with such an unco glow of f and utterance and was so

191

characteristic in the description of madness as to procure

him (as usual) universal applause-

"The actors of the inferior parts were not totally

devoid of merit."

File Hicky's Gazetee, 27th January 1781.

From the above and similar accounts and description

in "Hartley House" we cannot bear on with Mr. Carey

that "theatrical talents must have been at a very

low ebb indeed"—a view lately shared by Mr.

Madge, Mr. Cotton and Mr. Macferlane, the editor of

"Hartley House." They quote Mrs. Fay who was of

opinion that "a gold mohor was really too much to bestow

upon such a temporary gratification" and their opinion

is based upon this material. Though we agree with Mrs.

Fay that the price 40s (a Mohor) was too much for a

seat, however entertaining the performance, we are not

ready to accept the wrong assertion that theatrical talent

was at a very low ebb as she also regretted in the letters

that were she not debarred by the expense she should have

seldom missed a representation. Her description of the

performance of "Venice Preserved" which she witnessed

was not also less enthusiastic. We quote the following

which she wrote in March, 1781; about the time when

the equally enthusiastic review in the "Hickey's Bengal

Gazette" was published :-

"I shall avail myself of this occasion and close

this letter with a few remarks on our theatri-

cal amusements. I assure you I have seen

characters supported in a manner that would

not disgrace any European stage—'Venice

192

Preserved" was exhibited by Captain Call of the Army. Mr. Droz (a member of the Board of Trade) and lieutenant Narfar in Jaffier, Pierra and Belvidera showed very superior theatrical talents." *

It was about the years 1789-90 M. L De Grandpere, an officer in the French Army, undertook a voyage in the Indian ocean and to Bengal and from his account † as translated into English we get the following adverse version :-"Close to the old fort in the Theatre which does not accord in appearance with the general beauty of the town and in which there are seldom dramatic representations for want of performers." We agree with the editor that this reproach would never have been uttered, had the French been the original settlers in Calcutta. Apart from the fact that since the time of that traveller, several theatres have been built and destroyed, contemporary records also prove otherwise.

The "Calcutta Gazette" which made timely references to the plays also supports our view about the excellent performances of the Calcutta Theatre-thus negativing the theory set up by Messrs Carey and Madge that "the performances of the Calcutta theatre were at a very low ebb." We give some instances:-

(1) Thursday January, 17, 1788 • C.G.

"The first floor on yesterday evening went off somewhat paradoxically. The principal parts were certainly played well -young and old. Whensay, Mrs. Pattipan, Nancy Tartlet and Furnish spoke and acted with spirit and humour. Yet the

• Vide Mrs. D Fay' Dated 28th 1'81.

† Vol I Cal. Review 1844 Shore's biography

193

whose performance gave satisfaction and met few plaudits of approbation.

The Ficea of Baccus had more success. Many of the airs it received applause and particularly a lively one sung by Major Dandby whose comic attitude, dress and manner repeatedly excited bursts of laughter and general entertainment.

"The acting manager of the theatre who has ever shown the great attention to promote entertainments will, we trust, excuse the hint of the correspondent, as one of the principal musical gentlemen of the settlement is soon about to take his departure from this country. The poor soldier who was so universal a favourite may not be forgotten while he can be once introduced to such advantage."

(2) "Richard III played on 25th January, and 1st Feb........ boxes one gold Mohor. pit eight sicca rupees.

"We agree in the general opinion that the whole performance went off with well-merited eclat.

"The part of Richard was given in that masterly style which characterises "our Roscius"* and though the character requires all the exertions of a first-rate performer in the full possession of every faculty, it was impossible for the most critical eye to observe the smallest want of activity, even in the most astling scenes notwithstanding the late severe illness under which the gentleman who represented it, has so long laboured and from the effects of which he is yet but imperfectly recovered.

"The character of Buckingham is a very important one in he performance and it was well-supported

"The eldest of the Princes spoke distinctly and collectedly but the youngest was rather too young to be heard. The

• Quintus Roscius a Roman actor so fa upon the stage

scenery in general was excellent particularly the camp-scene in which Richard's pavilion was very ingeniously contrived.

"We understand the favourite musical piece of the "Poor soldier" and Foote's "comedy of the author" are in rehearsal and will be performed on Tuesday next.—"Calcutta Gazette" 5th Feb., 1788.

(3) Oct. 2, 1788 "Tragedy of Mohomet."

The spirit of the performers engaged the feelings and attention of the spectators through one of the most oppressive evenings that has been experienced this year.

(4) Oct. 29, 1788, "Sultan and the upholsterer" Box 12, Pit 6 (Prices lowered)

"The above farces were performed last night before a numerous and elegant audience. From the general excellence in the variety of comlc humour displayed by the performers, it would not be candid or graceful to select partial sentences"

"Calcutta Gazette" 30 Oct., 1788.

(5) 8th Feb., 1788. Henry IV. Part I 22nd Feb., 1788. Do II part.

"Both the 1st and 2nd parts of the play are perfect master-pieces in this kind of writing, the tragic and comic parts being so finely connected with each other as to render the whole regular and complete, yet contrasted with such boldness and propriety as to make the various beauties of each the most perfectly conspicuous. The character of Falstaff is one of the greatest originals drawn by the pen of even the immortal Shakespeare and in the character of the Prince of Wales the hero and the libertine are so finely blended that the spectacle cannot avoid perceiving even in the greatest levity of the tavern-rake the most lively traces of the afterwards illustrious character of the conqueror of France.

"Dr Johnson says "None of Shakespeare's plays are more read than the 1st and 2nd parts of Henry IV. Perhaps no author has even in two plays afforded so much delights The great events are interesting for the fate of Kingdoms depends

195

on them The fightier concurrencrs are diverting and except

one or two sufficiently probable the incidents are multiplied

with wonderful fertility of invention and the characters diversi-

fied with the utmost nicety of discernment and the profoundest

skill in the nature of men.'

"The repret ntation of such a character as Falstaff requires

not decornmion and eccentric powcrs. It is only one of all

Shak spare's never (we believe) cren attempted by Garrick

who crcanly thus tacitly acknowledges his want of the

requisite talents to do it justice The gentleman who per-

formed tin part on Friday night though he gave it almost

entirely after a manner of his own, conveyed the humour of

his author very irresistibly to the audience.

"The Prince of Wale's versatility was well-portrayed.

Hotspur was the character he represented and indeed the whole

play was more correctly exhibited than any we have seen this

season. The house was thin: scarce any ladies and of the

few who did honour the representation with their presence

several quitted the house before it was half over from which

it may be presumed the 'Fat night' is no favourite of the fair.

—"Calcutta Gazette," 28 Feb., 1788.

(3) "Mr. Copeland's benefit on Monday night fell rather

short of the expectation, the house being very thin when the

present state of the weather is considered which renders it

extremely uncomfortable to be shut up for several hours in

the Theatre. The circumstance is easily accounted for without

attributing it to any disregard for Copeland's merit which

stands very well in the opinion of the settlement if a connec-

tion may be drawn from the respectable Company who did

honour him with their presence.

"The farce of 'Polly Honey Comb' does not profess much

to recommend it. The character of Mrs. H. is extremely

disgusting and Polly though an eccentric character has no

peculiar humour nor are there any very ludicrous or interesting

• It has been said that Falstaff is the t of v e genma.

scenes between her and either of her lovers though much

might easily have been brought about. As such, so much was

made of it however on Monday night as possible.

"The Waterman" as usual was received with infinite

applause. Robin fell nothing short of his former excellence

and the new Bundle we think by far the best we have seen

in the character.—"Calcutta Gazette" 6th March, 1788.

Indeed "The Calcutta Theatre" staged a number of

plays—chief amongst there were Hamlet, Richard the

third and other Shakespearean plays, Tragedy of Mohomet

and we find in "Calcutta Gazette" of 25th January, 1788

--the parts of Richard and Buck were excellently ren-

dered.

In 1784, for the better accomodation of ladies and

gentlemen of the Settlement the gallery was divided off

into boxes. The spectators however had not much cul-

ture and would have expected hilarious laugh even in

tragedies. Such a tendency had a deteriorating influence

on the artists (especially if they are not paid for their

labours) who try to play into the gallery and about which

Mrs. Fay expressed displeasure in one of her letters:-

"One of the chief inconveniences in establishments of this

kind is that performers being independent of any control will

sometimes persist in taking parts to which their abilities are

by no means adequate. This throws an air of ridicule over

the whole as the spectators are too apt to indulge their mirth

on the least opening of that kind. In fact many go to see a

tragedy for the express purpose of enjoying a laugh which is

certainly very ill-liberal and must prove detrimental to the

hopes of an infant institution like the one in question."

Mrs. Fay's observations were justified, for the theatre

owing to the above tendency was afterwards compelled

to put on boards "performances of a mediocre description"

is "She would and she would not", "High Life below stairs", "Comedy of Foundling", "Like Master like man", "School for scandal", "Farce of citizen", "Barnaby Brittle" etc.

Female parts, as we have hinted before used to be played by males, though sometimes laughed at, but the authoress of "Hartley House" pressed for the absence of women on grounds of morality. This is what she wrote :-

"Though you must understand the stage of Calcutta is under regulations which Britain has renounced, for there are no female performers; and I could most heartily wish that this reproach of morality could be done away with in England. The custom, you know, is foreign and alone imported by the polished Charles on his return from exile in foreign lands; and you will not attempt. I am persuaded, to deny that this fatal change in theatrical politics has rendered the play-houses so many nurseries of vice or public seraglios far more censurable and licentious than any the Eastern world contains;—for the difficulty here is for any male individual (except their owner) to get into them; whereas in your metropolis every nocturnal exhibition of even the most sentimental drama is an advertisement where gentlemen on certain conditions may be accommodated with a temporary companion and I blush to recollect the incompatibility

Vide Hartley House pages, 90–91.

198

thereof with delicacy and propriety. But I will tell you more of my mind on this subject when I have been with you what effect dress can bring forth (as ladies) on the smart young fellows of Calcutta, on theatrical ground."

ACTRESSES.

In 1788, Jan. 3, the fourth or last subscription assembly of the season was held at the Old-Court House —Mrs. Bristow, a fair and popular lady of the Settlement and Mr. Camac opened it. From the songs and dances of the lady and her indication to open in near future a theatre with female artists, the Calcutta theatre got the clue and towards the latter part of the year engaged a lady as female artist whose acting and charm made the Calcutta Theatre very attractive. It will be interesting to our readers how the contemporary papers viewed her presence :-

(1) "The theatrical performance of yesterday evening having ended at the instant almost of this paper of going to the press it is impossible for us to do any degree of justice to the merits of it. We shall content ourselves therefore with saying that every part was well-supported and that no play within our recollection even appeared to give equal satisfaction to its spectators whose plaudits were unceasing and universal. A numerous assembly was attracted by the novel appearance of a lady whose condescension to grace the Calcutta stage would alone entitle her to lasting remembrance and whose representation of the most ingenious captivating character of Celia will assure for her the perpetual admiration of all who had the happiness to observe it.

—Calcutta Gazette 18th Dec 1-88

(2) We get from another issue - "The exhibitions

on Friday evening realised the expectations we have expressed

of the attention of a liberal society. to the merits and claims

of the lady who has of late so much enhanced the entertain-

ment of tac Calcutta stage. The house was crowded and if

as we earnestly hope the current rumour be well-founded the

benefit was extensive. The performances were nothing inferior

to those who have already almost exhausted panegyric. The

"Old Maid" indeed does not profess in itself wherewithal to

give perfect satisfaction. But every spark of humour it

contains was displayed and such parts as admitted of excellence

received ample justice. Mrs. Harlow gave little scope to

the talents of our fair Heroine but in the "Romp" her vivacity

and comic gaiety had full play and excited universal admira-

tion and applause.

"Walty also was eminent and indeed the whole farce though

nothing perhaps can be conceived more trivial and ridiculous,

was represented most happily.

Calcutta Gazette 22nd January. 1789.

"The "School for Lovers" was performed at the Theatre on

Tuesday evening and we regret for the sake of those who

were absent to a very thin attendance for we scarcely ever

remember to have seen any plays more uniformly well-acted

and where each character was so distinguished by peculiar

excellence.

"Delicacy and sentiment in the conduct of a genius and

disinterested passion were eminently displayed by Celia and

Sir John Dorilant and the Tout Ensemble gave sensibility to

the heart and a lesson to the understanding.

Calcutta Gazette 12th Feb.. 1789

We also quote the following to show how the performances

were generally done.

(3) "Tit for Tat" for the benefit of Mr. Copeland.

April 2, 89—"The heroine attracted the attention which has

hitherto crowned all her theatrical exhibitions in the lady

disguised as the maid and the metamorphosed Irish servant

200

afforded full scope to the comic humour of the gentleman who filled the character. The real master and the real servant were also excellent and it were injustice to the gentleman for whose benefit the play was performed to omit that he represented the old man, with much success. The "Solo" after the first Act received universal applause."

1789—24 the Sept.—Box 12 S. R. Pit 6.

This evening will be performed a new comedy of three Acts called the Midnight Hour.

(4) Oct. 1, 1789. Calcutta Gazette

"The comedy of Midnight Hour was performed on Thursday last with great applause. Mrs. H. never displayed more vivacity and charms than in Flora and we will venture to predict that the lady who played Julia from her figure and manner will be a valuable acquisition to our theatrical amusements.

"All the characters were exceedingly well-supported. The Marquis and Nicholas are old favourites and it is impossible that Mr. G. or Mr. P. can never act without delighting the audience.

"The house was totally well-filled and the Boxes graced with much additional beauty and elegance.

"We are very glad to hear the Manager proposes in future to thread the boxes and Pit together, an alternation which had long been wished and which will contribute much to the ease and convenience of the audience."

15th Oct. 89—"The Indian drama of Sakuntala" or the Fatal Ring which has been most liberally given by the learned translator for the benefit of insolvent debtors a most pleasing and authentic picture of old Hindu manners and must be considered as one of the greatest curiosities the Literature of Asia has produced."

21th Oct. 89.—The citizens and May Day or The Little Gipsey Box 12 S. R. Gallery 6 S R

201

12th April 30-"She stoops to conquer" for the benefit of Mrs. Hughes.

Before the comedy will be recited "The Shadows of Shakespeare" and a monody on the death of "David Garrick" will be sung.

(5) April 22 1790-"The Revenge" on Thursday next will be played for Mr. Battle. Captain S. has, we understand, with great good nature undertaken to play the part of Zanga—a part which will afford that gentleman ample opportunity of displaying theatrical talents.

"The Revenge" very justly ranks amongst the first of our tragedies and from the excellent manner in which we venture to pronounce it will be acted on the present occasion can not fail to attract numerous audience independently of the liberality of the settlement which is not solicited in vain

(6) May 6, 1790—Calcutta Theatre is not an object of equal criticism; when excellence calls for praise we are bound in justice as well as gratitude to give it; but when there is no ground for praise though justice may demand impartiality, gratitude for the disinterested endeavour to please, forbids the avowal of dissatisfaction. In the late performance of the "Revenge"—the representation of Alonzo appeared to us alone entitled to the eulogium due to eminence and the well-known talents of Mr. P. renders it unnecessary to say more regarding him than that he played as usual and exhibited the character he now assumed with the fame and success as he did that of Zanga on a former occasion when the public were gratified by seeing the two conspicuous parts of this play filled by him and our Indian Roscius now absent.

The piece of music after the play was well-received as was also the song from Hâfiz translated by Sir William Jones though it certainly derived no advantage from the tune to which it was sung.

In the "Irish Widow" the lady who before gave so much satisfaction was again eminently successful. Her vivacity just

conception of the character and exact representation of it deserved and received general applause. Of her coadjutors old Keckfey, Bates and Thomas can alone be distinguished for success in any degree equal. To the 'remande' we can only return our thanks for their desire to entertain us.

We get an account of the following plays also —

4th Dec. 90. The Musical Lady.

10th Feb. 91. Comic opera “Inkle and Yarico.”

24th Feb. 91.—Love in village and The Poor Soldier.

3rd March, 91.—Mr. Cowley's comedy—“A bold stroke for a Husband.”

19th April, 91.—Mrs. Ormsley's benefit.—The child of Nature and The Poor Soldier

For the benifit of Mrs. Huges—RULE BRITANNIA.

22nd July 91.—The Guardian and virgin unmasked.

2nd September. 91.—France's “Bernaby Brittle” and the Ghost

10th November, 91.—Favourite opera Inkle and Yarico Boxes and Pit 16, Upper boxes 12, Gallery 6.

For Mrs. Armusley's benefit, “The Busy Body with the Flitch of Bacon.”

15th March, 1792 :-Both the pieces, “All the world's a stage”, “The Poor Soldier”, were admirably well got up and went off much better than any other performance we have witnessed this season. The loughable farce “All the world's a stage”, kept the house almost throughout the whole of its play in a roar, which was mellowed into a more elegant and rational pleasure by the delightful performances which succeeded. The songs were executed with much judgment and taste. “Dear Tom, this brown sug” was particularly and deservedly applauded.

“The squeeze to St. Paul” was introduced between the lines and was delivered with much energy and point.”

28th Dec. The Agreeable Surprise,

203

1st January. 1793. Ramrotin as master of the ceremonies issues notices about assemblies.

24th January. 93.—The Road to Ruin. Pit and Boxes one mohar. Gallery Rs. 5.

11th April. 93—Tor benefit of J Battie. "The Midnight Hour and Amateur."

May. June and July. The Piomenade and Card. 29th Nov. 92. The wonder.

17th Feb. 1794—The Country Girl go back.

1794.—23th March 24.—Comic tragedy of "Chrononboton-thologos".

21st Aug. Mrs. Cowley's farce.

21st Dec. The Barnaby Brittle, and Rule Britannia.

31st March, 1796.—The trip to Scotland.

In all the above plays the lady-artists did very well.

Sometimes. performances were held for charity. From the old Calcutta Gazette we find benefit performances were held in aid of Mrs. Crucifix, a wooden legged veteran, for Mrs. Hughes, Mr. Ferninder Batland and for the manager—Mr. Soubise who also carried on business as a professor of Fencing. We also notice there that the actress who appeared as Lucius, the page of Brutus, in the Julius Ceaser had a complimentary poem presented to her, whereof the opening lines stand thus :—

"When with new powers to charm our partial eyes,

Thy beauteous form appears in virile guise."

Thus the appearance of women upon the stage was a great innovation, but the Calcutta Theatre went a step further and took a turn at the male characters as well.

It is said that the great English actor Garrick sent

one Mr. Bernhard Messine an actor from London in 1776

to regulate the theatre and superintend the selection of

scenario to be sent out therefrom. Though we don't get

any authentic account except the story of a later corres-

pondent from "Englishman," we know that Mr. Messine

and Mr. Peter Reed with a subsidy from Warren

Hastings started in 1781 the "India Gazette" as rival to

the 'Bengal Gezette' of Mr. Hicky where they used to be

ridiculed as 'Barnaby Grizzle' and 'Peter Nimuk' in the

dramatic notices humorosly published by Hicky.*

A Ball Room was attached which was in frequent

request, and we have the authority of Mr. Macfarlane

that when the Old Court House was dismantled in 1792,

the theatre was for a long time used for large gatherings

--such as public dinner, meeting etc.

Lord Cornwallis is said to have evinced marked

displeasure against any governinent-servant taking any

part in the performance.

"Subscription Theatrical Performances" were started

in October of the year 1795. Six performances were to be

given in the "Season", and a subscriber paying 120 Sicca

rupees was entitled to a "ticket for the season for himself

and every body of his family". Single tickets were of 6±

rupees each. The first subscription-play took place on

the 30th October when the farce of "Trick upon Trick"

or "the vinter in the Suds" with the musical entertainment

of "The Poor soldier" was represented. Pit and boxes

were sixteen rupees, upper boxes twelve rupees and

gallery eight rupees.

• Hicky's Bengal

June 1781 Reed was a Salt-Agent.

203

The doors of the theatre usually opened at 6 p.m., and

the door keepers were generally Europeans, for, as Miss

Sophia Goldborne was told, 'Black people in an office of

that nature would have no authority with the public.'

Hickey's Hurits, Maye 15th.

The Theatre, however, ran shortly into debt ; its

popularity gradually declined—because its locality was

becoming unfashionable. It continued to give amuse-

ments until Babu Gopi Mohan Tagore purchased it,

added to the buildings and constructed the whole of the

premises in the New China Bazar. Before the purchase,

the theatre must have been closed for some time, for an

auctioneer Mr. Rawroth lived there as we found Wilkin-

son, the Vendu-Master, living in the old Piay House.

HARMONICAN TAVERN

There was another place of amusement in Lal Bazar

where the office of the Commissioner of Police now

stands—opposite the old jail. It was the famous Harmo-

nic Tavern, then the handsomest house in Calcutta and

proved a great comfort to the people in jail. It was

the scene of all the gaiety and revelry of old Calcutta, and

was founded in the days when strangers considered

'every house was a paradise where youngmen stayed as

long as they liked.' Mrs. Fay wrote of it.—

'I felt far more gratified some time ago when Mrs.

Jackson procured a ticket for the Harmonic

which was supported by a select number of

gentlemen who each in alphabetical relation

gave a concert, ball and supper during the cold

206

season—I believe once a fortnight. We had

a great deal of delightful music and lady

C—who is a capital performer on the harpsi-

chord played amongst other pieces a sonata of

Nicholai's in a most brilliant style.”*

THE LONDON TAVERN

The London Tavern, which was, not far off was another

fashionable resort of the early English settlers.

• Vide Mrs. Fay's letters page 91

CHAPTER II

Mrs. BRISTOW'S THEATRE

THE FIRST PRIMA-DONNA OF BENGAL

Inspite of Miss Sophia Goldborne's strong protests against the introduction of female artists on the stage, it was considered necessary to have female parts represented by members of the fair sex. However skilful and good looking a boy-actor may be, he cannot always adequately represent a female character. He will surely lack in certain graces, especially in voice and look. We all know that from Shakespeare's time down to the Restoration, the female characters were represented by boys, and that on account of Puritanic austerities, the theatre itself was closed by two Ordinances of the Long Parliament of Cromwell in 1647, forbidding all stage-plays and declaring all players as 'rogues.' It was Sir William Davenant who introduced female characters for the first time in England in 1662 at the revival of theatre by King Charles II, after his restoration to the throne, Mrs. Saunderson being the first woman in the role of Mrs. Jane in 'Seige of Rhodes' in Sir William's new theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields. How the male actors ordinarily fared in female characters personated by them, has been humorously mentioned by a contemporary English poet who had written a prologue to 'Othello

208

"Our women are defective and so sized,

"You'd think they were some of the guard

disguised,

"For to speak truth, then act, that are between

"Forty and fifty, wenches of fifteen,

"With brow so large, and nerve so un-compliant,

"When you call Desdemona, enters giant."

It is needless to quote the well-known lines of Shakespeare where Cleopetra speaks of her representation by a boy.

In the rival Company of Thomas Killebrew known as the King's Company, too, was a remarkable lady Nell Gwayn whose excellent voice was appreciated even by the king. It is said that before that she used to knock about from tavern to tavern.

In Bengal, too, as we have incidentally seen before, we owe to Mrs. Bristow the introduction of this highly desirable change, and we shall describe her more fully here.

In the time of Warren Hastings, there lived a very accomplished and fashionable lady at Chinsura in the person of Miss Emela Wranghum. She was the most charming woman of her time, and was considered as the "toast of Calcutta." Yet such a lady used to be often criticised by Mr. Hicky in "the Bengal Gazette", under the nom de plume of critic "Trim," where she is referred to as "Turban conquest", "The Chinsura Belle", or "Beauty", or "Hooka Turban", and sometimes as "St. Hellena Felly", because she came from St. Helena where her father was an officer; and on one occasion "Trim" wrote the following lines with reference to her exceedingly

209

foppish dress under the caption: "On the present mode

of dress vanity iserted to a ertain fair damsel";-

"If Eve in her innocence could not be blamed,

"Because going naked she was not ashamed,

"Whsoever views the ladies as ladies not dress,

"That again they grow innocent sure will confess.

"And that artfully, too they retaliate the evil,

"By the devil once tempted, they now tempt

the devil."

Such was the caustic comment upon the fair lady

whose marriage was constantly announced in the same

gazette and her suitors, too, were humorously caricatured.

Milton the disappointed lover used to be referred to as

"Jack Paradise Lost" and counseller Duris was nicknamed

as "Counsellor Feeble." On one occasion, the following

lines appeared in the Bengal Gazette:-

"The celebrated beauty has again, we hear, refused

Iden G. It is true there is a little disparity

of age between the parties, yet there are few

ladies in her situation who would have

declined the offer on that account, or would

have thought it would have counterbalanced

a settlement of £20,000. The truth is,-

"counsellor feeble" has capered out of her

senses."*

It may strike our readers how a paper edited by a

espectable gentleman could be so fall of fulmination and

nfamous scandals about the private character of indivi-

duals. It is, therefore, necessary to remember the social

atmosphere of that time. Not to speak of ordinary ser-

vants of the company, whose sole ambition was to enrich

• Iden George was the uncle of Mr Lanua

or

themselves at any cost, but even the highest of Company's

officials did not hesitate to commit forgery, and members

of the Council (in the person of Barwell and Clavering)

openly quarrelled, the latter charging the former with

dishonesty, while the former called his associate "a Liar."

This quarrel, however silent might have been, was

amply made up by the blood shed by the Governor-

General himself who shot his associate Sir Philip Francis

in the famous duel at Alipur. Even the Chief Justice, as

a well-known Journalist remarked, was a model of rapa-

city, corruption and injustice; judges were cruel, and

amongst others, Francis rightly or wrongly was accused

of seduction of a beautiful young lady. The story, true or

false, certainly testifies to a low standard of morality even

amongst persons who stood at the top of society. There

was no church, and if a habitation was found in a room

of the Fort, no chaplain was found to officiate there as a

priest. Gambling and drinking were the principal

sources of enjoyment. Balls, and immoderate dancing,

masqueraders always indulged in, often gave rise to

affray, riot and other scandals which Mr. Hickey would

not miss to publish in his sarcastic and enlivening manner,

and very often in the form of advertisements for drama-

tic representation. But inspite of Mr. Hicky's dark hints,

Mr. John Bristow proved to be the happy man and accor-

ding to the Bengal Marriage Records (outside stations)

the entry of this one ran as follows :-

"On May 27, 1782, at Chinsura, Bristow senior

merchant in the Hon'ble John Company's

service, and Amelia Wrangham by permission

of the Hon'ble Governor-General"

211

Mr. John Bristow was an official ally and close friend of Sir Philip Francis.* She was 19 at the time of marriage, while her husband was 32. This was the lady who took prominent part in the social life of "Old Calcutta." She became an accomplished actress and Dr. Busteed considers, "by the indulgence of her admiring husband had a private Theatre of her own in her Chowringhee-house in the time of Lord Cornwallis at 1788, where they entertained their wide circle of friends. Her strong points were in comedy and in humorous singing."

It appeared that she earnestly commenced performances from Friday the 1st May 1789 in her own Theatre, opening with "Poor Soldier." Some artists from the Calcutta theatre joined her and she was assisted by a number of fair ladies. The full description of her 'Theatre', how she acquitted herself on the first night and how she and her companions were received by the rapturous audience may be gathered from a contemporary review of the "Calcutta Gazette" dated May 7, 1789 :-

"POOR SOLDIER," AT Mrs. BRISTOW'S THEATRE

"Our immediate reader need not be informed that the theatre in which the first private play has been exhibited at Calcutta was erected by the lady whose name we have taken the liberty of mentioning above. It was not merely an apartment in a house temporarily fitted up for a single representation, but a distinct edifice com-

• Of him along with others W used to say Lavius, shee and Ducarel were the leos of Mr Francis.

pleately furnished with every usual convenience and

decorated with every ornament customary in familiar

places of exhibition—in short a perfect theatre differing

only from a public one in its dimensions and agreeing

with it in the essential point of being appropriated to

amusement without which we might fear that we had

tasted joy only to lament the loss of it.

"The entertainment began a little after eight o'clock

with a prologue in Muse :—

"Though the public theatres confess my sway,

And longing thousands all my nods obey."

—Which was delivered by the fair hostess of the

evening with the diffidence natural to a first appearance

but at the same time with a grace and expression equally

natural to her that did more than justice to the senti-

ments of the address—an address which seemed the

spontaneous effusion of a real ambassadress from the

fancied genius of comic ease, wit and humour and met

from every eye and every heart, the reception it professed

to observe in the smiles of a delighted audience.

"In the succeeding representation, she was again

recognised in the captivating Nora: and supported by

an inimitable display of combined talents in her compa-

nions. . . . . .

"For reasons above-stated, we forbear entering on

particulars! suffice it to say that Nora and Cathlien

never appeared with equal charms of a Calcutta stage

before, that each had every requisite to give complete

satisfaction. that all that could be wished, ease of man r

and

of

n marked throughout a perfect

213

knowledge of character alone deviated from by the improvement of polished elegance. Beauty assisted with a resistless influence and harmony lent her enchanting aid and novelty enhanced the charms of the whole.

"Derby and Father Luke having been represented by the gentlemen who before played those parts on the Calcutta Stage with much success, it would be enough to say for them that they equalled themselves on such occasions but we must add injustice to the former that he outdid his past doings. The other characters were well supported but being of less consequent will not admit differentiation. The scenery was admirable and the Orchestra though last in description, by no means so, in its claims to praise. The skill of the gentlemen who conducted it contributed much to the pleasure of the evening.

"In fine, never was any performance of the kind more happily or more completely exhibited. Nothing was wanting and we venture with certain confidence to say that no one of the respectable company present has spoken of the entertainment but in terms warmly expressive of the most perfect gratification."

Calcutta Gazette, May 7, 1789.

Referring to another of her performances "The Sultan" and "the Padlock", a highly gratified critic exclaims in admiration :-

"To say that these performances equalled the high expectations formed of them would be injustice. The acknowledgments of all present proved every expectation far exceeded. Free from the embarrassment of a first appearance, the fair hostess ent her guests with

all her native ease and vivacity and never were her various perfections displayed to greater advantage than in the characters of Roxalana and Leonora. After a very lively prologue to "The Sultan" spoken by Roxalana :-

"It is held we know to be the Drama's part

To raise the genius and to mind the heart.

I Roxalana do the act decree,

And where's Turk who dares dispute with me

Emboldened thus to-night behold us try—

Again to charm the ear and please the eye—"

Welcoming again her friends, professing her end to be to please and proposing a treaty founded on reciprocity, she went through the whole of the humorous part of the English slave in the Ottoman seraglio with a justness of conception and success of execution most admirable. Magnificently decorated by art and more beautifully adorned by nature, the extravagances of the amorous Sultan seemed justified by her charms. Her emphatic elocution gave every sentiment unusual energy ; and no one could the fair sex have chosen more fit to assert their superiority, their endowments and their right of domination. In an Epilogue written for the she had represented, drew inferences applicable to her own country-women and concluded with a 'moral' from Pope :-

"Beauties in vain,

Their pretty eyes may roll,

Charms strike the fight

But merit wins the Soul"

215

Mrs. Bristow's success in the part of Leonora was so remarkable that we cannot restrain quoting verbatim the observations of the same critic :-

"In Leonora, her talents had a different range and abundantly proved their diversified excellence. The costly vestments of a royal favourite were changed to the simpler habitments of a rustic maid, secluded from the world and its fashions : and the wild gaiety of the former was succeeded by the sobriety of the latter. Yet beauty, all powerful beauty still remained and with it the combined allurements of innocence and harmony—the most interesting expression of look and manner, the most captivating influence of eloquence and modulation. The whole of the dialogue manifested the nicest feeling of the character exhibited and though we can not say the same of all the songs, the comic action and figure of Duenna having in one, forced a smile instead of a tear, behind the white handkerchief of the ward, we can with truth assert that the whole of the charming airs assigned to her were sung in a style most masterly."

Calcutta Gazette Oct. 29, 1789.

OTHER ARTISTS

We have described the appreciation of contemporary critics about Mrs. Bristow, which was justly her due. It will be interesting to know about other artists of the Private Theatre of Mrs. Bristow from the same issue of the Gazette :-

"The young lady who made her premiere entree on the stage as Elmira, did all possible justice to the character and received applause universal, but the little room

afforded for the exertion of talents scarcely furnished grounds for judging of her theatrical powers. We hope to enjoy a future opportunity of seeing them displayed to a geat extent.

"As to the parts of Sultan and Osman, it is sufficient to say that the former was filled up by Mr. Pollard, the latter by Mr. T. Rowarth. Their abilities as performers in a wide field have been abundantly established."

"In "the Padlock", the Duenna claims our earliest notice among the remaining personages not indeed on account of her sex, as captain Gladwin was on this occasion per proxy, but on account of her transcendent (not charms but) merits which as above stated are superior. Never did Ursula give more complete satisfaction to her observers than on Tuesday evening. Her figure, action, expression were incomparable and her songs delivered with all possible humour and propriety. We have already alluded to one instance of the effect of her comic manner and we may add without exaggeration that the same effect was general. A constant smile marked constant approbation."

"Don Diego and Miengo both press next for attention and claim the greatest encomiums for their representatives Captain Golding and Mr. Bird. We must however to avoid prolixity content ourselves with saying they played and sang with taste and humour and conclude with an application of nearly the same terms to Captain Bird who filled the part of Leander."

"On the whole this exhibition, we may truly say, was nearly perfect in its kind. The orchestra under the of a gentleman of known abilities was of the

first degree of excellence. The evening cool, the

accommodations good—improved since last performance

by additions and the scenery extremely well painted.—

The favoured company were in number somewhat more

than hundred, all of whom appeared to be completely

gratified and, in the further words of Pope, to enjoy

sensibly :-

"A feast of reason and a flow of soul."

IN MALE CHARACTERS

"Polly Honey-Combe" in Colman's play of that name

(made popular by miss Pope) was also a favourite of Mrs.

Bristow's. She also excelled herself in the male part of

Lucius in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Following her

example, grew up the practice of representation of male

parts by female artists. "Thus the lady amateurs once

started" says Dr. Busteed, "soon became more ambitious

and took a turn occasionally at some of the male

characters." Indeed this change began to be so rapid

that at some time in the thirties of the last century the

same play was produced by a distinguished band of

Calcutta amateurs, but by a daring innovation the part

of Cassius made a female one, was played by an actress

epfemme."

HER DEPARTURE

Thus Mrs. Bristow entertained the Calcutta settlers

with her brilliant accomplishments and she was the talk of

• In England also the female performers became so popular that some

plays were represented entirely by women as they had previously been by

men, in particular, the "Parson's wedding" a comedy by Killigrew which

on its revival, was wholly performed by females although there were seven

male and six femal characters in this piece exclusive of ts.

98

the day. We are, however, afraid that both Dr. Busteed

and Sir Evans Cotton while editing "Hartley House"

have fallen to an error by attributing an extremely

flattering verse to her, though it really belonged to an

actress of the Calcutta Theatre. The representation was

so marvellous that a critic wrote an ode on Mrs.—

appearing in the character of Lucius in the tragedy of

Julius Caesar, at the "Calcutta Gazette" in the following

lines :—

"When with new powers to charm our partial eyes

Thy beauteous form appears in virile guise

Such tempting graces wanton o'er thy air,

By gentle Lover's enchanting wiles I swear

Each throbbing youth would ......

And then the writer stopped short and could not pro-

ceed further in his superfluity of feelings.

Thus we find Mrs Bristow was not the only excep-

tion but this lady, too, set very many "youths throbbing"

by her beautiful appearance in "virile guise." But

comparison apart, this much is certain that Calcutta

was so much dazzled by her (Mrs. Bristow's) histrionic

perfection that when she returned to England in 1790,

"her departure", says Dr. Busteed, "eclipsed the gaiety of

Calcutta, and for long, Calcutta refused to be comforted "

The public theatres no doubt felt her full sway but

it will not be correct to assert as some people do, that

the Calcutta Theatre followed her private theatre at

Chowringee in introducing women, although it got the

clue from her songs and dances. She appeared at the

Old Court House in January 1788, and the Calcutta

Theatre introduced a lady towards the end of the same

year. Her own Theatre at Chowringee was, however,

started five months after the introduction of women in

Calcutta Theatre, but this cannot be denied that she was

the pioneer in the field, as the idea emanated from her and

she was the first lady-actress appearing before the public

in January 1788, in the Old Court House.

We have on the authority of "Perey Anecdotes" that

"it was about this time Mrs. Cargill, an actress of some

eminence, was showing her mark both in comedy as well

as in tragedy. Her benefit at Bengal amounted to the

astonishing sum of £1,500 sterling. On her return

home,she was unfortunately lost with several other passen-

gers on board the Nancy Packet, and was found on the

rocks of Scilly floating with an infant clasped fast in her

arms."*

• The same book speaks of her activities in Bengal from 1782 to 1784.

We have got no corroboration of thus from any

facts are †, the date is a

CHAPTER III

LEBEDEFF'S BENGALI THEATRE

The Play-house, the Calcutta Theatre and Mrs.

Bristow's Private Theatre were all intended for the enter-

tainment of the European residents of the Indian Settle-

ment and their success inspired a Russian adventurer, Mr.

Heresim Lebedefi, to organise Bengali performances in the

heart of Calcutta with the assistance of a Bengali linguist,

Babu Goloknath Das, but for whose help such an enter-

tainment could not have been possible at all. To-day

Mr. Lebedefi is being extolled everywhere, as he rightly

deserves, but who cares to know about the Bengali linguist ?

It was only Sir George Grierson in an article in the

Calcutta Review (October 1923) not only gave details of

Lebedefi's Theatre, from the "Introduction" of a Sanskrit

Grammar (a Grammar of Pure and Mixed Indian Dialect

methodically arranged in Calcutta according to the

Brahmenian system of the Sanskrit language) published

in London by Lebedefi in the year 1801 A. D. but also

made fitting enquiries about the linguist Goloknath Das.

The ball was thus set rolling, and the same story is every-

where repeated about Lebedefi without any new informa-

tion and none has as yet succeeded in unearthing any thing

about Golak Das. Be that as it may, Sir George deserves

our sincerest thanks for quoting verbatim the introduction

which has now become a chief authority on the subject.

221

It will be, however, wrong to assume that Sir George was the earliest historian about Lebedefi. Various writers have mentioned Lebedefi before Sir George and the most notable of them is Mr. W. H. Carey who first of all wrote in 1882, mentioning the following details*:-

(1) Lebedefi's Theatre existed in 1795.

(2) It was in Doomtolla, a lane leading out of the Old China Bazar.

(3) The theatre was decorated in the Benguli style.

(4) It opened with a play called "The Disguise."

(5) Governor-General Sir John Shore's permission was secured.

(6) Performers belonged to both sexes.

(7) Poet Bharat Chandra Roy's songs were set to tune.

Mr. Carey does not say in so many words that the play was staged in Bengali because his research was not complete, though he speaks about "performes of both sexes." To the present-day readers it might appear really surprising and wonderful that actresses were introduced about a century and a half ago, as a recent author has really doubted our assertion, not knowing that before this Mrs. Bristow had started with actresses, and the Calcutta Theatre also followed suit.† What is, however, regrettable is that Mr. Carey does not give us the source of his information, although what he had said has turned out to be true. It is certain that the preface of Lebedefi's Grammar was not his source, for then his account would

• Vide "Good old days of the Honourable John Company" Vol. 1. pag 101 by Mr W H Carey

† Vide pages 198 219 supra

have been more accurate. He, however, seems to have obtained the information from an issue of the "Calcutta Gazette" taking isolated portions, thereof, although he does not give its date.

(2) The second document mentioning Lebedeff is the 16th part of "Viswakosh" in Chapter "Rongaloy" lit. The "Stage", of in 1311. B.S. corresponding to 1904. For the first time it was mentioned in a Bengali book by a Bengali writer—"Lebedeff's New Theatre in Doomtola (China bazar) in 1795." The source of this writer must have been Carey's book, but imperfect as the original was, he went one step further and wrote from his fancied impression what Mr. Carey could not have imagined that "Disguise" was the English translation of Vidyasundar and the English amateurs staged it in English under the name of Chhadwabeshi (Disguise), probably because the hero Sundar saw his love Vidya in disguise.

The influence of Viswakosh has not yet disappeared even in these days of research, as only a couple of years ago, our esteemed friend Babu Purna Chandra De, B.A, Uddhatsagore, in one of his articles, wrote that Vidyasundar was staged in English in the year 1795 under the name of Chhadwabesh.

(3) Mr. E. W. Madge in an article in the "Statesman" on the Calcutta stage simply mentions that "Lebedeff will open a theatre in Doomtollah which is now-a-days disguised under the name of Ezra Street."

"Statesman" Oct. 22, 1905.

(4) Mr. H. E. A. Cotton (now Sir Evans) also in his "Calcutta Old and New" page 152 in the year 1907 A. D, sumply follows Mr Madge mentoning the same thing

223

that "the theatre was opened at the Ezra Street, but

neither Sir Evans nor Mr. Madge mentions anywhere as

to how Doomtalla got the name of Ezra Street.

(5) Next, Mr. C. E. Buckland in 1906 in his "Dic-

tionary of Indian Biography" gives some history of

Lebedeff that "he translated two English plays, 'Disguise'

being played in 1795 and 1796."

The source of Mr. Buckland's account was surely the

"Preface" to the grammar but he gives in addition a short

narration as how the last days of Mr. Lebedeff were em-

ployed in the Russian Foreign Office and how he founded

a Sanskrit Press under the name "Imprimerie Indienne"

and published his Grammar in 1801.

Buckland's "Indian Biography" page 248.

Mr. Buckland uptil now has given the correct version,

but after it also two gentlemen gave a confused version

of the real facts :-

(6) One R. D. writes in the "Journal" of Dec. 22,

1907 saying-

A Mr. Lebedeff opened a theatre by permission of

the Hon'ble the Governor General in Dhurmtollah

in 1795.........

This was also repeated in the "Bengal Present and

Past." page 178 Vol. I.

The name of the street given by R. D. is a mistake,

besides he does not give us any new facts at all.

(7) In September, 1910, the late Byomkesh

Mustafi gave an account of Lebedeff in the monthly

journal "Rangamancha" (Aswin 1317). but Mr. Mustafi's

short account is nothing but a summary of Mr Carey's

version, though he did not acknowledge it. Besides, his surmise there, is absolutely incorrect. Mr. Mustafi says that songs* of Vidyasundar in imitation of Gopal Oorey were inserted in the play "Chhadwabesh", as those songs were very popular at that time.

Gopal Oorey, as we have already seen, was a famous Jatrawalla of Vidyasundar theme. These Jatras came into vogue after 1822;† and Gopal Oorey flourished some years after that day. It is, therefore, surprising that Mustafi should suggest that songs of Chhadwabesh in 1795 were in imitation of Gopal Oorey's songs. Besides Mr. Mustafi does not any where state that the play "Chhadwabesh" was a Bengali Drama.

In a newly published book called "Bangiya Natya-shalar Itihash", by Mr. Brajendra Nath Banerji, Mustafi has been given the credit for first publishing in Bengali an account of Mr. Lebedeff in 1910; that this is not correct will be amply clear from what we have already stated above. Dr. S. K. De, a professor of the Dacca University, has written a preface to the book in which he says that the author (Mr. Banerji) has never spared his predecessors in their mistakes, or inaccuracies. It is a matter of wonder that this inaccurate statement made by the author, referred to above, was not detected by Dr. De. It has struck us, however, that Mr. Banerji's research about Mr. Lebedeff, at any rate, is not sufficiently deep. As for

• The text says 'Bharat Chandra Roy's words were set to tune.' Mr. Mustafi's statement that Vidyasundar songs were inserted though probably correct, was written as a surmise.

† (1) Vide our account page 124, 130.

(2) Bangadarshan Magh 1289 B. S.

(3) Prof. Amulya Charan Vidyabhusam's article "jatra" in the Prabasthi, Magh, 1338 B. S.

225

Dr. De, he has on previous occasions committed mistakes, regarding Lebedeff, which we never expected from him and the supine attitude maintained by him in these matters, is pathetic.

(8) In 1915 a book "History of Calcutta, New and Old" in Bengali was published by Babu Haisadhan Mukerjee. This book contains the verbatim account in Bengali of Mr. Carey's version. There is, however, no surmise, or mistake in fact.

(9) In 1921, Babu Amarendranath Roy, a well-known Bengali writer, wrote an article in Jaista number of the now-defunct Bengali weekly "Basanti" under the caption: Bānglār Ādi Nātyakār, where he gives in Bengali the first portion of Mr. Buckland's account.

Mr. Roy does not claim to be the first writer in Bengali on Lebedeff, though Mr. Banerji had on a previous occasion dubbed him as such*; nor the article shows much original research ; but this much is certain that his (Mr. Roy's) account, accurate as it is, has a great literary value and for the first time he gives in Bengali an account about the first performance in Bengali, enacted as early as in 1795. He, however, does not speak anything about the female artists.

Thus, though different casual writers made occasional references about Lebedeff, our historians of the Bengali literature were significantly silent about Lebedeff, although we expected one like Dr. Susil Kumar De, (who is said to have been in possession of a copy of Lebedeff's Grammar) to have referred about him in his "History of the Bengali Literature" published in 1919. Again though

• V de

Basak, 1339 B S.

his attention was drawn to this absence of Lebedeff's

name in his treatise, by a letter from Sir George

dated June 11, 1920, we again find no mention of

Lebedeff in his later writings published in 1921, or

after, until Sir GeorgeGrierson's article was published

in the Calcutta Review of Oct. 1923. The first instal-

ment we get in an article in Indian Historical Quarterly

Nov. 1925 and that too does not enlighten us any

further ; but of this we shall speak here-after.

Let us now reproduce the "preface" from Lebedeff's

Grammar as was quoted by Dr. Grierson in Oct. 1923

in the "Calcutta Review" :-

"After these researches into Indian languages and

literatures, I translated two English dramatic pieces

namely "The Disguise" and "Love is the Best Doctor"

into the Bengali language, and having observed that the

Indians preferred mimicry and drollery to plain grave solid

sense, however purely expressed--I therefore fixed on

those plays and which were most pleasing, filled up with

a group of watchmen chokey-dars ; savoyards, Cāmera ;

thieves ghoonia ; law-yers, Gomasta and amongst the

rest a corps of petty plunderers.

"When my translation was published, I invited

several learned Pundits who perused the work very atten-

tively and "I then had the opportunity of observing

those sentences which appeared to the Pandits most

pleasing and which excited emotion and I presume I do

not flatter much when I affirm that by this translation

the spirit of both the comic and serious scenes were much

heightened and which would in vain be imitated by a

European who did not possess the advantage of s ch an

instructor as I had the extraordinary good fortune to procure.

"After the approbation of the Pandits—Golok Nath Das, my linguist, made me a proposal that if I chose to present this play publicly, he would engage to supply me with actors of both sexes from among the natives with which idea I was exceedingly pleased. I, therefore, to bring to view my undertaking for the benefit of the European public without delay, solicited the Governor-General—Sir John Shore (Now Lord Teign-mouth) for a regular licence, who granted it to me without hesitation.

"Thus fortified by patronage and anxious to exhibit I set about building a commodious Theatre on a plan of my own in Doomtolla (Dome—Lane) in the centre of Calcutta; and in the meanwhile I employed my linguist to procure the native actors of both sexes in three months and I had both Theatre and actors ready for my presentation of the ‘Disguise’ which I accordingly produced to the public in the Bengali language on the 27th November 1795 and the same play was again performed on the 21st March 1796."

"Now the first and second representation both of which attracted an overflowing house, I obtained full permission to perform both English and Bengali plays : and from the encouragement shown to me by the Honourable Governor General and other patrons and friends, during my pursuit in the searches of Indian Literature viz the Sanskŕit and Bengali languages, the mixed Indian Dialects [i.e Hindustani] Chronology Astronomy etc. and having during the course of any application and study

discovered numerous faults and errors which those who

had published in those hands had fallen into, I resolved

on giving to the impartial public the fruits of my

enquiries and pursuits and therefore quitted India to

come to this country for the purpose of publishing the

same to public view.*

Dr. Grierson did not stop here short, simply by

quoting the preface, but invited the Indian scholars to

pursue investigations and find out :-

(1) Corroborations of the materials in the preface

from contemporary records, if any.

(2) Ascertain if there are any traces of “Theatre” in

Doomtolla.

(3) Where is Doomtolla Lane?

(4) Is there any trace of Golok Das ?

Now let us see how our research-scholars have

responded to his call :-

1. In the next issue i.e., in November 1923 of the

same journal (“Calcutta Review”), Prof. Sailendra Nath

Mitra, M.A. referred to Babu Amarendra Nath Roy’s

article in the “Basanti” and quoted the second portion

from Buckland’s biography which was absent in Roy’s

article.

(2) In January, 1924 of the same review in his

article “The Bengali Theatre,” Mr. Shyama Prosad

Mukherji, a worthy son of the late Sir Ashutosh Mukherji,

referred concisely to Lebedef, evidently with the details

• Dr. P. Guha Thakurta wrote that the book was published by Sir

George Grierson, which is evidently a mistake The book was published by

the author himself, 122 years before Sir George quoted from the preface

in 1923.

229

he got from Grierson's article, and the same was published

in the form of a book. After Dr. Grierson Mr.

Mukherji was the first writer to have referred to Lebedeff.

(3) 'The Bengali Stage' by the present writer was

then in the stage of preparation and Dr. Grierson's

article in the "Calcutta Review" gave a fresh stimulus

to work for the untrodden path. The only paper of the

time of Lebedeff was the "Calcutta Gazette" and from the

issues of the Gazette of 5th and 25th November, 1795 and

10th and 17th and 24th March, 1796, we got a

number of details which was published in the form of an

article in the "Forward" of September 7th 1924, (Bhadra

1331. and repeated in the Bengali Journal "Rup O

Ranga" in 1331 (18th Aswin 3rd Oct 1924).

(4) The above article was so much appreciated by

the contemporary journals that the "Nautch Ghar" and

"Sisir" published of their own accord the translations

of it.

(5) And the two well-known magazines "Modern

Review" and "Prabashi" edited by Sj. Ramananda

Chatterjee made timely references to the same.

(6) Next appeared in "Nautch Ghar" (Dt. 13th

Aghran 1331 28th Oct. 1924) an article by Prof. Amulya

Charan Vidyabhusan who, chronologically two months

after the references were given by us, quoted verbatim

the contents of the 'Calcutta Gazette' of those dates ; and

Prof. Vidyabhusan's discussion was scholarly.

(7) Dr. S. K. De then appeared in the field for

the first time with his article in the "Indian Historical

Quarterly" in November 1925 but here too he made

errors which we shall deal later on.

(8) There was lull over it for a number of years.

Next, Babu Abinash Chandra Ganguly, the worthy

author of "Grish Chandra," in 1927 in his book made

references to the discussion between Prof. Vidyabhusan

and the present writer.

(9) We next noticed an English treatise, without

any original research, from the pen of Dr. P. Guha

Thakurta in which he quoted from Mr. S. P. Mukherjee's

book and the present writer's articles about Lebedeff.

(10) Some articles in "Liberty" of 16th and 23rd

March of 1931 were then published to point out the

inaccuracies that occur in Dr. Guha's book.

(11) Two months after this, appeared of Dr. S. K.

De's article in the "Modern Review" (vide page 545

May 1931) in which he rather mercilessly criticised

Doctor Guha.

But besides telling us that there is a quotation on

the title page of the Grammar from Vidyasundar, Dr. De

adds nothing further.

(12) Then appeared an article in English in

"Modern Review" on November 1931 about the same

Lebedeff by Mr. Brojendra Nath Banerjee in which he

quotes verbatim the contents of the issue of the "Calcutta

Gazette" 5th, 26th November, 1795 and 10th March

1796 as Prof. Vidyabhusan did eight years ago. There

is, however, a strange coincidence between the quotation

of both these gentlemen, as we find the incidents of the

17th March 1796 absent in both the writings, though

there are much worth stating informations in the Gazette

of that date. After that we have seen a book of M

231

Banerji which too does not mention anything about the advertisement of the 17th March.

"WHO WAS LEBEDEFF"

Heresim LebedefF, a Russian adventurer, said to be an ukraine peasant, took part in a Russian embassy to Naples in 1775. He visited Paris and London and came to Madras as a bandmaster and left for Calcutta in August 1787. Both at Madras and Calcutta, he was greatly appreciated for his skill in his performance on the violincelle, as we find in the Calcutta gazette of 1788, 31st July :— "Mr. LebedefF's great professional merit in the musical walk has long since been admitted by those of his acquaintances at this settlement and at Madras before whom he had frequent opportunities of displaying his performance on the violincelie. In the dearth of public amusements we think it will give pleasure by an anticipation of Mr. LebedefF's intention of notifying very shortly a Bill of Fare for one night's musical repast and which we understand will consist of the united assistance of the first vocal and instrumental powers in settlement. It therefore cannot fail of proving a "bonus bouche" to all lovers of harmony and to the promoters of such an elegant amusement."

At Calcutta, he now and again arranged benefit performances which, besides filling his pocket, supplied much of the public entertainments here. We find a similar notice in the issue of the "Calcutta Gazette" of August 21, 1788 :—

"A very numerous audience honoured Mr. Lebedeff's benefit on Monday evening Of the several excellent

232

performances which furnished the entertainment the

"Focund Rebeck's Found" gave the most universal

delight. "From Rofy Bowers" did not draw tears down

Pluto's "Iron cheek" but received a much more flatter-

ing compliment in turning "the cheek of bounty pale"

by the pathetic sweetness with which it was sung."

Lebedefï seems to have made some money out of these

performances at Calcutta where he stayed at 47, Tiretti-

bazar, as the "Calcutta Gazette" shows :-

"Lebedeff next ïxed the 9th April 1790 for his vocal

and instrumental music which is to be performed at the

Old Court House where he respectfully hopes for their

patronage and support.

"Tickets Rupees Twelve each to be had of Lebedefï

at his house 47, Tirettibazar at the publishing house of

Messrs, Cooper and Upjohn and at the Old Court

House."

Lebedefï next removed to No. 3 Weston Lane.

"Calcutta Gazette" 13th December, 1792

THE SITE OF THE BENGALI THEATRE

Lebedefï next mentions in the preface to his "Gram-

mar" :-"Thus fortiïed by patronage and anxious to

exhibit, I set about building a commodious theatre on a

plan of my own in Dom (Tollah) Lane in the centre of

Calcutta."

But where this place was?

Dr. Guha is in a mist, and Dr. De is equally in dark-

ness. On a reference however to A. Up-John's map of

• Vide page 227 Supra.

1792 A.D, (A copy of which may be found on the reading

desk of the Imperial Library) and also from earlier maps,

we find that Doomtola is a lane located between the

Chitpore Road and Chinabazar Lane. It shoots off from

Radhabaza or Chinabazar Lane just to the east of the

present Pollock Street and became Doomtola Street in

Schalch's map of 1825 and the identical place is indicated

as the Ezra Street in the recent maps of Calcutta in 1852

and 1885. Readers would therefore be surprised to hear

from Dr. De "that the locality of Doomtola has not been

identified."* "It is either" thus proceeds the Doctor,

"a street off Chinabazar Street or the name of a lane at

the opening of Kansaitola, or what is left of the Bentinck

Street."

How could Domtola become Kansaitola unless there

is a link between the Domes and Kansains, is a mystery.

Dr. De's further ignorance is more amazing. The

"Calcutta Gazette" further points out to No. 25 Domtola,

where Lebedeff's new theatre ("Bengally Theatre") was

decorated in the Bengali style, but Dr. De would not

believe us and without turning over the pages of the

Gazette, at once attacks the writer of "Rup O Ranga"† as

an "Unknown writer" "erring predecessor" and "person

who led Dr. Guho blind-fold to fresh errors." These are

Dr. De's opinion which affects none but his compeers,

to find that one of them enjoying official recognition for

academic distinction, would simply betray his ignorance

by his surprise : "but where on earth the writer of the

Rup-o-Ranga got the exact description of 25 Domtola

Lane is a mystery."‡ The Doctor is referred to various

• Dr. De's article in 'Indian Historical Quarterly' November 1925.

† Our article in Rup O Rango, Aswin, 1331 B.S.

Modern Review May 1931 page 541

30

234

maps of Calcutta lying in the Imperial Library and to

the issues of the "Calcutta Gazette" of 20th November,

1795 and 10th and 17th March, 1796.

It is here worth-while to mention that we have been

several times to the locality and we think 21 Ezra Street,

or a little to the east where the American church now

stands may be taken as the probable site of the Bengali

Theatre. People of the locality still call that place

as "Natchghar." Time could not obliterate popular

memory and the place is still associated with amusements,

the "Central Theatre" at the Chitpore Road being just to

the east of it.

DRAMAS AND DATES OF PERFOR-

MANCES

The preface in Lebedeff's Grammar mentions two

dramas viz "Disguise" and "Love is the best Doctor."

On a reference to the Calcutta Gazette of the 5th and

of 25th November, we find that the first night of

performance was Friday the 27th November 1795;

and that the "New Theatre in Doomtola" opened on

that day precisely at 8 o'clock with a comedy called

"The Disguise". There is no other mention of any other

drama besides the aforesaid one. Both the stage and

auditorium were "decorated in the Bengali style and the

play commenced with vocal and instrumental music

called "The Indian Serenade" and to this a few Euro-

pean musical instruments were also added. Some poetical

pieces of the famous Bengali poet Bharat Chandra Roy

Gunākor were set to music and amusing curiosities were

introduced between the acts. A detailed synopsis of the

performance was supplied to the audience"

Calc tta Gaz -5th Nov 1795

235

From the advertisement portions of the Calcutta Gazette of the 10th and 17 March of 1796, we further find that the presentation of the Bengali play was fixed for Monday the 21st March 1796. No name has been mentioned in this connexion, but from the expressions like "second representation" and "Bengali Play", we infer that the second performance of "Disguise" was meant. From the wordings in the advertisements, "the account of the Plot and scenes of the Dramas", we may consider that possibily more than one play was staged. We have, however, no copy of the synopsis and are not in a position to definitely assert from contemporaneous records whether "Love is the Best Doctor" was staged along with "Disguise."

THE ARTISTS.

The diary mentions about Goluk Das having secured native actors of both sexes. The Calcutta Gazette of the 5th November 1795 also mentions "The characters to be supported by performers of both sexes." There is, however, nothing surprising in it, and Lebedef did not like to go behind the times. Mrs. Bristow's name was in the lips of every European of the settlement and the Calcutta Theatre was then in its full reputation with artists of both sexes. In Bengal, however, we do not find our public theatres employing actresses till 1873 though in 1833 an attempt was made by Babu Nabin Krishna Bose of Shambazar in his house where some women appeared in the performance of Vidyasunder.

PRICES OF ADMISSION.

We have alre ly mentioned the prices in the Calcutta

236

Theatre. They were no doubt high. Lebedeff reduced the price and announced for the first night, "Tickets to be had at the theatre, boxes and pit at sicca Rs. 8 and Gallery sicca Rupees four."

Calcutta Gazette 26th Nov. 1795.

It appears that there was a tremendous rush and the "subscribers" elbowed their way at the gate. It was a novelty both to the English and the Bengali audience and we are thankful to this Russian adventurer for the first endeavours in the Bengali Play.

On the second night Lebedeff, for the better accommodation of the audience limited the number of subscribers to 200 charging one gold mohur, which was valued at 40s. at the time, uniformly for each ticket — (Calcutta Gazette March 10, 1796.)

It was announced on the same day that the number was nearly completed and it was particularly mentioned on the 17th March that no money would be received at the door, nor anybody to be admitted without a ticket and no application for tickets which was to be made personally to Mr. Lebedeff would be received after the 19th i.e. two days before the performance.

It appears from the arrangement that all the tickets (fetching Lebedeff a decent sum) were disposed of, some days before the performance.

The number of audience was mostly Europeans and Lebedeff by the next issue of the Calcutta Gazette dated the 24th March 1796 unlike his previous occasion "respectfully" acknowledges "very distinguished patronage" of the ladies and gentlemen of the settlement and of the subscribers to his second Bengali Play who

honoured him by their "patronage" and begged leave to assure them of his "most grateful sense of the very liberal support" accorded to him on that occasion, and he "intreats" that they will be pleased to accept his "warmest thanks." The preface, too, mentions about "both the representations having attracted an overflowing house."

Lebedef, as we have seen, took great interest for the amusement of the European community and for the success of his undertaking he sought and obtained the patronage of the Governor General. Next, he was granted permission to perform both English and Bengali plays, but he was soon drawn to a work of greater interest which induced him to give up theatrical pursuits and leave "for submitting the fruits of his labours to public view"—

Mr. Buckland however tells us that after these performances he was made the theatrical manager to the great Mogul and finally returned to England in 1801, in which year he published the Grammar. In the Russian foreign office, through Warowz, the Russian ambassador he was given a large subvention towards founding at St. Petersburg the "Imperimerie Indienne" a Sanskrit Press : He died after 1815.

Thus the beginning of the First Bengali Drama came from a foreigner. There is nothing to be ashamed of at this. Even the beginning of such an august assembly as the British Parliament came from the initiative of a foreigner. We have already observed how the ancient Hindu Drama begun to decline and it last ched out during the M ohoman Rule Lebedef's attempt was the

238

beginning of the first glorious revival of the Hindu stage.

Much credit is, however, due to Goluk Nath Das who

contributed so largely to Lebedef's success. We tried our

best to gather, if possible, some information about Goluk

Das, but we failed. He was very likely the author of

"Hitopadesh" as Sir George hints. We regret we have

no knowledge of this unknown worker, but every lover of

Drama will remember his name in grateful love. All

honour to the Bengali pioneer!

OTHER ENGLISH THEATRES

After the closing of the Bengali Theatre, or Lebedef's

New Theatre at Doomtolla, some other theatres of more

or less ephemeral nature cropped up, and of them the

following are worth-mentioning :-

1. The Chandernagore Theatre of 1808. On one

occasion in this theatre on the 4th April 1808,

night when the farce L'Afocat was being played,

and when the village French Judge was busy on the

stage with the trial of a shepherd who had stolen some

healthy sheep of his master with the wool of which both

he and his master used to have superfine English cloth

made, the watch of the stage-manager was found missing

and suspicion fell upon one of the scene-shifters.

He at once took the man in a very excited state to the

manager who was then upon the stage acting the part

of Judge. A few questions were put by the manager;

then the judge with the utmost gravity made the man to

contess his guilt and to fall flat at his feet. He was

reprimanded by the manager, warned for his conduct, and

the man also promised to be honest in future This life-like

on W38 greatly enjoyed by everybody Its

performances were noticed in the Calcutta Gazette of 180S.

2. THE ATHENEUM 1812

The above-mentioned theatre was opened a little down the Portugese Church at 18, Circular Road on the 30th March 1812 under the name of the "Atheneum"; the performances enacted that night were "Earl of Essex" and the farce, "Raising the wind."

Each ticket was priced one gold Mohur.

3. The Kidderpore Theatre of 1815.

The farce of "The Lying Valet" was performed on the 28th August, 1815.

It was a short-lived stage and nothing particular is known about it.

4. The Dum Dum Theatre of 1817.

This theatre was at first not quite well-known in the locality, but it was brought to public notice by Charles Franklin, a Bombardier attached to the second battery of the Artillery. He was a versatile actor. On his being posted at Dum Dum, he joined the Thespian Band of the Dum Dum Theatre, and by his versatile talents and with the help of his officers and others, he was soon able to raise the character of the performances to a very high standard. On the 25th August, 1824 Mr. Franklin passed away from this world.

Carey's Good Old Days.

On April 10, 1826, it commanded a crowded house of respectable audience due to its excess to witness the novelty of representation of "Fountainbeau" by gentlemen amateurs. Those who came to witness the performance

had the satisfaction of seeing their highest expectations fulfilled.

"The part of 'Lockland' was entrusted to a young amateur whose wonderfully effective representation of that character at once marked him out as a finished actor. It was an all round success. There was nothing left for the most fastidious critic to desire for.

"Next to 'Lockland', was La Poche, the French Tailor. In his habits, carriage and speech, he was exceedingly amusing and true to nature, and whenever he appeared, the "most resolved muscles instantly relaxed inspite of themselves."

"The hearty jolly hostess of the English Lion, Mrs Casey, was most happily represented by one of the amateurs. The part was by no means wanting in what the critics call 'breadth'.

"Tallyho" got very brilliantly through his part and gave the sporting squire to the life. He was good throughout, but his introduction of Lockland and colonel Epanlette to each of other was intimately so :-

"Colonel, this here is 'squire' what d'ye call his squire, that there is colonel Thing-o-me and how you know one another, shake fists." This was done in genuine imitable Yorkshire style.

"The part of colonel Epanlette was in the hands of a gentleman who did every justice to the Anglo French officer of the old regime. His dress, attitude and pronunciation were all excellent. Sir John Bull was a very respectable and natural actor. He afforded most amusement in the scenes with Lockland "the vulgar simplicity

of the one," and "the polished assurance of the other"

forming an exquiite contract. The little "Lord Winlove

how to do" was well done. Can it be suprising, consider-

ing how well he was supported by the beautiful and most

gracetul Rosal, really this lady is quite beyond all praise.

"Lady Bull, judging from the great applause with

which her performance was received, appeared a favourite.

Considering that she only appeared between eight and

nine feet high, it was astonishing how gracefully she

acquitted herself.

"Miss Dolly Bull was represented by her usual spirit

and truth to nature, by an actress who almost deprives

the critic of his vocation by putting it out of his power

to find fault. She left nothing to be desired for the part,

it was quite perfect. She is truly a fascinating actress

and while we have her ought to value her, as she deserves,

and give her encouragement."

India Guzette April 13, 1826.

This best and leading actress was no other than Mrs.

Esther Leach. She was a young artist of versatile talents

and was considered as Mrs. Siddons of Bengal. We

shall in due place follow her career at some length.

A benefit performance was given to her on April 1826,

after which she was taken to Calcutta by the promoters

of the Chowringhee Theatre.

In October 1826, some repairs were made that consi-

derably improved the condition of the theatre. The gallery

which was the subject of much annoyance to the boxes

was entirely removed and the Pit much extended. The

theatre consequently afforded more accommodation than

it did before Thus altered, the Dum Dum Theatre

re-opened in Jan. 1826 with the pieces "Wags of Wind-

sor" and "Bombastes Furioso"

Calcutta Gazette, January 11, 1827.

The Institution was long a place of attraction for

lovers of the drama, but in the course of a few years the

Theatre began to decline and we quote below a

contemporaneous description by an anonymous writer :-

"Dum Dum in the best days has boasted performers

sufficiently attractive to bring an audience from Calcutta

but it has shared in the general depression of the Theatri-

cal poverty. Few stars illumine its declining glories

and the once crowded parterre exhibits a beggarly account

of empty benches."

"Asiatic Journal Jan. 1834, Page 25, Vol. XXIII."

There was a theatre in Wheler Place whose audiences

were extremcly select as will appear from the "Canton"

published in the Calcutta Gazette of Feb. 23, 1797 :-

"A certain person who made her appearance amongst

the company in the auditory on the first night of the

performance is desired to take notice that in future she

will not be permitted to remain in the house should she

be so ill-advised as to repeat her visit."

The locality formed a part of what is now the Govern-

ment Place West, though running in a transverse direction

and from it issued a lane called Corkshrew Lane which

led to Fancy, or more correctly Phansi--(hanging) lane

as it was the place of execution.

On Friday the 5th May 1797, "Catherine and Petru-

chio," a comedy in 3 acts, as altered by Garrick from

Shakespeare's "Taming of the Shrew" was performed, along

with a farce "The Mogul Tale"

1798-9th Jan. "Irishman in London," 22nd Jan.—

"The Agreeable Surprise," were performed.

On January 18, 1824, at Drummond's Academy in

Dharmatalla, Homes' tragedy "Doglus" was performed by

the lads and one of their number, an East Indian boy

of 14 by the name Henry De Rozio who afterwards

acquired great celebrity as a teacher, a journalist and as a

poet, recited the prologue composed by him for that

occasion.

De Rozio is an undying name in the political

history of Bengal After Raja Rammohan Roy, it was

his pupils that were the pioneers in the political field of

Bengal.

THE BAITAKKHANA THEATRE.

The above named theatre was opened at 117 Baitak-

khana Road in or about 1827. The place was called

Baitakkhana from an old Banyan tree which stood there

and that afforded a resting place, or Baitakkhana, to

merchants and traders who traded with Calcutta and

whose caravans rested under its shade. Job Charnock

is said to have selected the site of Calcutta for a city, for

the delightful pleasure he found in smoking his pipe,

sitting under the shadow of this large tree. This tree

stood till 1870.

We find from an advertisement of the Baitakkhana

Theatre, dated the 14th May 1827 announcing a perfor-

mance of 'The Young Widow or Lesson for Lovers'

and of a farce, called 'My Landlady's Gown', to be held

on the 24th for the benefit of Mrs. Bland. The hour for

the commencement of the performance was half-past

seven an inconvenient hour in those days.

244

Mrs. Cohen seems to have been the principal attrac-

tion at the Baitakkhana Theatre.

Asiatick Journal of May 1826, contains the following:-

"The amateurs of Baitakkhana Theatre of late

attempted some startling comedies, and the success

which has crowned their exertions evidently shows that

their talents are by no means inadequate to the task."

IN THE PERFORMANCE OF

"POOR GENTLEMAN."

"The character of Lieutenant Worthington, the hero

of the play, was sustained with great credit; the dignity,

the honourable feelings and the passive firmness of a

true gentleman even under the influence of chill penury

were well portrayed."

THE FENWICK PLACE THEATRE.

The above named theatre was somewhat of a primitive

type. It was situated in a matted Bunglow. That it

was spacious is clear from the number of spectators it

could accommodate. The house was airy and open--so

much so, that the interior was visible from the street.

These were no doubt commendable features for a Summer

Theatre, especially in the East.

Next came in importance the Chowringhee Theatre

started in 1813, which exercised such a great influence

upon the people of Calcutta, that two theatres orga-

nised and controlled by the Bengalees were soon started :

The Hindu Theatre by Babu Prosanna Kumar Tagore,

and the other, Nabin Krishna Bose's Theatre for the

performance of the "Vidya Sundar" The Chowringhee

240

Theatre and The Sans Souci Theatre were greatly instrumental to the Bengali enterprise in the theatrical line, culminating afterwards in the establishment of the Belgachia permanent stage. We shall give a detailed account of these theatres in the proper place.

CHAPTER IV

THE CHOWRINGEE THEATRE.

The Play-house that exercised a great influence over

the educated Bengalees and inspired them with the idea

of having a stage of their own, was the famous Chowrin-

gee Theatre, already alluded to in our former chapter. It

any public Theatre can ever boast of its connection with

a galaxy of brillint scholars, artists and men of lead and

light, belonging to the west, and having an intimate

connection with the Indian people, it was the Chowringee

Theatre. Some names are inmortal in the annals of

Bengal and the chief amongst them are :-

(1) .. Captain D. L. Richardson of undying fame,

who was professor of English in the well-known Hindu

College of Calcutta. The name of this famous scholar

is for ever associated with the literary history of Bengal

Of his famous students, the names of the great Bengali

poet, Michæl Madhusudan Dutt, and of the famous

educationists, Bhudev Mukherji and Rajnarayan

Bose stand foremost. In fact, he was the beau ideal

of his pupils As De Rozio's writings and political

bias urged his students into politics and free thinking,

so Richardson's teachings encouraged his pupils in

literary pursuits and fine arts. Hardly a greater Shakes-

perean scholar has ever come over to India. His read-

ing of S

was quite astonishing, as if dufferent

persons were acting different parts, about which Lord

Macaulay in admiration exclaimed "I can forget every-

thing of India, but not of your reading ot Shakespeare."

Such was the celebrated Professor who strongly felt that

stage was the only proper place for learning the art of

reciting or reading correctly, and for this he often urged

his students to attend theatres and even occasionally

supplied them with tickets. The establishment of the

Hindu Theatre, as we shall see, owes much to his

influence.

(2) Another celebrity was Dr. Horace Haymen

Wilson, an eminent Sanskrit Scholar and author of several

important sanskrit publications—who married a grand

daughter of Mrs. Siddons, the famous English actress.

He greatly encouraged and patronised the establishment

of the Hindu Theatre and we find from the proceedings

of the second annual meeting of the proprietors of the

Chowringhee Theatre that unanimous thanks were accorded

to Mr. H. H. Wilson "for the valuable support he had

given to the theatre from the very beginning."

Besides these two great scholars, there were other

notable gentlemen there :-

(3) ........Henry Meredith Parker of the Bengal

Civil Service, sometimes Secretary and then a Member, the

Board of Revenue. He was not only a zealous officer,

but an accomplished musician, a capital actor, a

versatile writer and an ardent advocate of public liberty.

He had been amongst the warmest supporters of Buckin-

gham's Calcutta Journal, when to do so was highly risky

for service, and then lent all the weight of his ability to

uphold the liberal policy of Lord William Bentinck He

wrote one or two farces, e.g "Amateurs", and was called

by his friends and admirers 'Proteus' from the readiness with which he adapted himself to all the changes

of 'many coloured life' as presented on the stage.

(4) .. ..Mr. J. H. Stocqueller, editor of "John

Bull," which was afterwards changed by him into

"Englishman"—was an amateur who took a great

interest in theatre. While in England, he was often

"privileged to go behind the scenes at Drury Lane",

often "noticed by Sheridan," introduced by him to Lord

Byron and once had a peep at Mrs. Siddons in Lady

Macbeth ; even the great actor, Edmund Keen often

encouraged him to become an actor. He was certainly an

acquisition to the Chowringee Theatre. He was often

cast for Cassius, Iago, Pizzaro, Sir John Falstaff and

Moliere's Tartuffe.

(5). ........ Sir J. P. Grant—(Not the Lieutenant

Governor of Bengal) a judge of the Bombay High Court,

who owing to some difference with Lord Ellenbrough

(then in Bombay) resigned his office, rather than allowing

its independence to be tampered with.

He afterwards came to Calcutta to practise at the bar

and took keen interest in theatres and Calcutta society.

6. William Linton, the favourite vocalist of his day

and organist of St. John's Cathedral, was well-known in

the character of Julius Ceaser, and was sometimes the

lessee of the Chowringee theatre.

7. George Chinery—the eminent artist who painted

many pictures in Calcutta.

8. Thomas Alsop—Magistrate of Ca cutta J C

249

Doyle, Military Secretary to Lord Hastings was inimitable in Irish Characters.

9. Captain W. D. Playfair had no equal as Falstaff, there was, as it, hilarity in the very sound of his voice.

10. Captain George Augustus Frederick Fitz Clarence (a son of King William III) was an Aid-de-camp to Marquis of Hastings, and was afterwards created Earl of Munster by his father. During his stay in Calcutta, he was in close connection with the Chowringee Theatre.

The Chowringee Theatre, or "the Private subscription Theatre", as it was first called, was built on a commodious structure in the year 1813, in the southern part of Calcutta on Chowringee Road, to the south west corner of a Street which owing to its association with this theatre is still called "Theatre Road", as distinguished from "Theatre Street", which was the name given to the lane behind the "Writers' Buildings" for its proximity to the "Calcutta Theatre"

The whole site between Chowringee Road and Elysium Row (Now Lord Sinha Road) was occupied by the Chowringee theatre. The adjacent house to the north was known as Ballards' Place. (Vide Schaleh's Plan of Calcutta 1825). It now stands to the west of the Victoria Memorial Hall and South of the King's Court at Theatre Road. Sir William Markby lived here from 1866 to 1877 and afterwards it was converted into a boarding establishment. The expenses of the construction and the cost of the materials for the stage were borne by a number of gentlemen subscribing amongst themselves the shares of Rs. 100 each.

It was beautifully crowned with a dome, but Mr Stocqueler who had seen much of London Theatres

called it "a clumsy old edifice at Chowringee—the

fashionable quarter of Calcutta." A correct idea of it

may, however, be gathered from a contemporary writer

of the Asiatic Journal who describes it as "the proud

neighbour of the Dum-Dum in Chowringee, which boasts

little of outward architectural display, though its interior

is both handsome and commodious."*

Lord Moyra who took charge of the Government in

October 1813 at once extended his patronage to the

Theatre, made liberal contributions to it, and opened the

Theatre in November 25th of the same year. The Gover-

nor General was present with his wife—Lady Hastings,

and the address, presented to him on the occasion, along

with two other addresses has been reproduced in Oxberry's

Actors' Budget (Cal. 1824.) Their excellencies took

lively interest in the Theatre and often graced its perfor-

mances by their presence, some of which are worth noting,

e.g., Henry IV on 1814, 23rd July ; Merry Wives of

Windsor on 25th Sept. 1818 (Friday) ; "the Sleeping

Draught" on 24th June 1819; "West India" on 23rd July

Goldsmith's "She Stoops to Conquer", was played as

a benefit performance for the Free School on the 13th

May 1814 and about Rs. 3600 raised (expenses amounting

to Rs. 1500). An actor in the character of Marlow recited

the following lines composed by him as an address of

welcome to Lord Moyra :-

Vain is the hope and fruitless the endeavour

To gain without alloy the general favour

All anxious of compliment or blame to show

• A. J 1834 Jan. Page 25

251

And please the many while oftending none,

And arduous is the post to him assigned

Who seeks to satisfy the public mind.

Cal. Gazette 19th May, 1814.

Their Excellencies the Governor General Lord

Moyra and Lady Loudon, the Chief justice, Lady East

and all the principal families of the settlement graced the

occasion with their presence and about 300 persons, the

cream of the society, were there. A splendid Drop-scene

was presented by Mr. Hume, a barrister practising in

the Calcutta High Court, but unfortunately as it was not

quite dry, its exhibition was necessarily postponed till the

next performance of Macbeth. The audience, including

their Excellencies were highly delighted by the show—

especially for the costumes that were quite in keeping with

the dramatic characters and events, and the Ale-House

scene was indeed admirable.

Calcutta Gazette May, 1814.

The same keen interest was evinced by Lord Amherst

the next Governor General, his wife and the members

of his Council and we mention amongst others

a particular occasion when their Excellencies Lord and

Lady Amherst, Lord Combermere, the Commander-in-

Chief, Sir John Cambell, were present on the 25th April

to witness the performance of “Pizzaro”. The orchestra

struck up the National Anthem and the Manager “the

father of our Drury” read an address appropriate to the

occasion.

A. J. 1827.

The company failed not to enlist the patronage of

even Lord William Bentinck who took not much interest

in theatre, but along with the Hon’ble judges of the High

252

Court and the Commander-in-Chief graced the house by his presence in a performance of the "Iron Chest" when the gentleman who acted the part of Wilford, gave as an entertainment "the reminiscences of an actor."

(A.J. Feb. 1830).

Fortified with the distinguished patronage of the highest officials of the Settlement, the "Chowringhee Theatre" continued till May 1839, and was in its zenith of fame during the years 1826-1832. The tickets were priced as : Box Sicca Rs. 12/-, Pit Rs. 8/-, but afterwards reduced to Rs. 8 and Rs 6 respectively. Performances were at first held on Thursday-night and afterwards changed into Friday night. Doors were opened at 6 P.M. The curtain generally used to fall at 11 P.M. and sometimes at half past Ten. On one occasion when the budget was long and continued up to 12 o'clock, a large number of the audience out of tedium left before the curtain fell Generally the number of spectators varied from 200 to 300.*

The actors, we have already seen, were generally amateurs, but actresses received their pay and lived in the premises of the Theatre. some of these talented women deserve special notice. Gardall Atkinson was extremely popular with the Calcutta audience till death removed her all on a sudden in 1837 ; Mrs. Mary Gotlieb (wife of Valentine Gottieb, the mechanist of the Theatre) whose place on her death in August 1827 at Chinsura, was taken by one Mrs. Kelly, Mrs. Bland, Mrs. Francis who stayed till the Theatre was closed, Mrs. Chester (with her husband) and last not the least Mrs. Esther Leach,

• Gazette 30th Dec. 1813. 28th Jan 1 ln May 1814 20th Aug. 1815.

203

who was known as Mrs. Siddons of Bengal, were prominent

in public eye.

Mrs. Leach, the daughter of Mr. Flatman, an English

soldier, was born in the year 1809 She was married to a

non-commissioned officer, John Leach. a widower, who was

senior to her by 17 years and her reputation as an actress

at the Dum Dum Theatre spread even to Calcutta. The

Chowringee Theatre, under the patronage of Lord Amherst,

succeeded in inducing her to accept an engagement there,

and along with her appointment got her husband trans-

terred to Fort William as the Garrison Serjeant Major in

the year 1826. She was a highly gifted woman, and she

learnt everything about the histrionic art herself She was

the most popular actress on the stage, and Mr. Stocqueler in

his Hand Book on India (1844) spoke of her in his remini-

scenes that "Mrs. Leach was for talents and personal attrac-

tions without a rival even in England. Extremely pretty,

highly intelligent, modest, amiable and possessing a musical

voice and good taste, she adapted herself to all the acquire-

ments of the drama. The ingenue soubrette, of the leading

plays as "Othello", "the Wife", the "Hunchback" and the

"Lady of the Lyons", the highest flights in comedy, the

pantomimic action "La Muette" and some minor parts in

Italian opera.........were all alike to this clever child ot

nature." She received a moderate education, but had a

natural aptitude for getting pieces by heart. The soldiers

selected her, when she was a mere child, to play 'Tom Thumb

and Little Pickle. Even then the officers were charmed by

her powers and got their adjutant to present her a copy

of Shakespeare and since then she became a devotee of

that immortal poet, and devoured everything in the shape

of dramatic poetry und prose which she came by in her

254

way. While she appeared as Lady Teazle in July 1827,

the same John Bull wrote of her "we cannot speak in

terms sufficiently her due......suffice to say, we do think

her one of the best female performers we have ever seen

on the boards." She was so much identified with the

Chowringee Theatre that its fortunes changed with her

own. During the seven years from 1826 to 1832, the

Theatre had its best days, she was able to give her indivi-

dual attention to it, atter which as the affairs took an

unsatisfactory turn, the scale of her fortune turned also in

the opposite direction. Her husband died in the year 1836;

and she was keeping an indifferent health from some time

betore. In the next year, she became so ill that she could

not attend the theatre, and was advised to return to

England for a change. Her last appearance at the

Chowringee was on January 12th. 1838. When at her

farewell she recited a rhymed address embodying the

corroding word... . "farewell", it touched everyone of

the audience with deep sorrow. Her misfortunes cast

a deep gloom upon the Calcutta stage, and with Mrs.

Leach set the sun of the Chowringee Theatre.

As we have mentioned before, the accounts of the

Theatre Company were placed every year in the meeting

of the proprietors and we find the following from the

account of 1825-1826 .—

"Total receipts in the year excluding money drawn

upon account amounts to 8442 rupees total expenses to

Rs. 8356-9 : leaving a balance of Rs. 85-13 as in favour

of the year on the other hand; we have an interest, account

with Alexender etc at 8 p.c. amounting to Rs. 881-2-10

and net expense of the year to the propictors is, therefore

255

Rs. 795-5-6 making the debt due to the house Rs. 10122- To discharge this debt it was stipulated with Mr. Richardson in the chair at the Town Hall meeting that proprietors should be levied Rs. 100/- for each share, and Rs. 50 - for each share more than one, and that Mr. Linton who was the lessee to continue his lease and Mr. Princep be requested to take entire management of the pecuniary interest, and that free admission of the proprietors shall be relinquished for two performances at such seasons as Mr. Linton may select in the course of the year, on condition of his paying to his proprietors the annual sum of Rs. 1600 -.

A. J. January, 1827.

Afterwards the Theatre began to improve by securing the services of well-known artists, and repairs were made in the building. Plays were highly spoken of and they always commanded a crowded house. But from 1833-1834 its affairs again took an unsatisfactory turn. In 1833, the Theatre was leased to an Italian Company at a nightly rent of Rs. 100/- and it showed some signs of improvement in the beginning as was noticed in the Bengal Hurkára Feb, 2 : 1833 —

"We are glad to find that so far from the days of our Calcutta Drury being numbered, it is rising from the temporary prostration with a giant's strength and will re-open on the 4th, with attractions which with perhaps the exception of the first performances of Pizzaro has never been equalled. Lord Byron, when he wrote his first satire, declared that all mankind were still black and blue with crushing to see Cataline in pantaloons : and we shall be

• Vide also A. J Aug 33

much mistaken if a similar complaint could not be brought against the general curiosity of Calcutta on the first introduction of the Italian opera on the boards of the "Chowringee Theatre".

The Italian Company, however, for want of popular support, which it had expected to get by the high attractions of the Italian Operas, was unable to pay the high rent and the theatre was leased to the French Company at Rs. 50/- per night, which too began to fall in arrears every month.

The proprietors, therefore, themselves began to manage the theatre and reduced the prices to six rupees per boxes and rupees three for pit.

No doubt there was an increase in audience on the reduction of the prices, but the Hurkara * rightly found out the true cause of its down fall, and it commented thus in one of its articles, about "the puritanic spirit, hostile to all refined and intellectual recreation without any parallel in any community since the time of the Commonwealth".

Unable to clear debts running up to Rs. 20739/- and make further progress, the proprietors settled on August 3, 1835 to put up the theatre for sale by auction to the highest bidder and when it was so put up on the 15th August, Prince Dwaraka Nath Tagore, grand father of the world-renowned poet Rabindranath Tagore purchased it with all its ward-robe and appurtenances. †

The Prince did not take the theatre himself for any speculation, but for the purpose of promoting its interest in the name of the former proprietors, paying up double the price of shares and being a joint owner with them.

But for such pecuniary sacrifice of a "native" the Theatre would have met with an untimely death.

• A. J Jan 1835

† 1835 Asiatic Journal

257

Necessarily the share-holders remained in great obligation to him.

In January 1837, an entertainment was given to Lord Auckland and His Excellency's two sisters, Misses Eden, for the interest they took and the patronage they extended to the Theatre. Eden's letters give some idea of the theatrical condition of the time.

Miss Eden, wrote to a friend*:-"We are going to night to the play by "particular desire" not of ours but of the amateurs who have got up a play for us before our departure The thermometer is at 90, the new Theatre is without Punkha, the small evening breeze that sometimes blows ceases entirely in September and October and we are in black for our King."

In 1837 the privates of the 26th Regiment (Cameronian Regiment) got up performances of the Rob Roy, and Honest Thieves for the benefit of the orphans, but their offer of Rs. 600/- (as the sale proceeds) was declined by the Ladies' Committee. It was said that a high dignitary of the church instigated the refusal with a view to discourage theatrical performances.*

The condition again turned unsatisfactory and the Theatre again ran into debt, necessitating the house to be either sold or let out. An attempt was however made for the last. A meeting of Messrs. C. R. Prinsep, J. P. Grant., W. Young, W. P. Grant, and others with Mr. Mannuck—in the chair, decided that expenditure should

† 1837, Oct. 2, Miss Eden to Mrs. Lister—P. 291

• 1836 Miss Emily writes :-"Some of the boys in their gorgeous dresses looked very well, reciting and acting scenes from Shakespeare—It is one of prettiest sights I have seen in Calcutta

A J Jan 1835 Oct 183

be cut by half, but the house should not be even let out

No man can, however, check the train of adversity

even the artists began to fall ill. From the contemporaneous returns given below, our readers will have an idea

how misfortune fell not only upon the theatre, but upon the artists also.

"Our Keen–sick on the river

Proteus–gone to Sandheads

Count Almavive–gone to N. W. Province

Our Bob–on his back

The Monster–going to Cawnpore

Master Stepness–going to Simla

Master Madies–minding his hits

Mrs. Atkinson as ladies etc since dead

Mr. Chester ... ditto

Mrs. Leach ... too ill to act."†

The condition of theatre about this period may thus be described in the words of John Bull. ...

"The Theatre ran into debt, elite of the amateurcracy rarely countenanced the performances

seceded from the Boards or kept aloof, scenery was little better than a collection of dirty rags—the ward-robe

a mass of faded finery, the roof leaked, people got into the habit of smoking cheroots in the house that bat and

and the supernatural superseded poetry and probably countenanced the performances

• June 19 1837, Bengal Hurkara—"The result of the Theatre is that it is not to be sold and that it is not to be let and proposition

Captain Hyde in one instance and of Mr. Farmer in another to lease been neglected, we believe, without being put to the vote. We understand

that in the opinion of the two gentlemen who investigated the accounts Domin and Mr I. P Grant the (monthly may witho

† A. J 1888 May

209

in short, the drama had fallen as also where to in "the

sele and yellow leaf."

Englishman, 2 July, 1839.

To crown all, in the early hours of 31st. May, 1839,

the Chowringee Theatre was totally destroyed by fire.

The tragic fate of the theatre has been pathetically des-

cribed by all the papers of the time and the Hurkara

gives the following graphic description :-

"The Chowringee Theatre is no more or exists but as

a crumbling and ghastly skeleton of its former self.

Between one and two o'clock in the morning of the 31st

ultimo it was discovered to be on fire and in about an

hour it was blackened into an empty shell. All help was

unavailing from the combustible nature of the various

portions of the interior—scenery, furnitures etc. The

flames made such a rapid progress that although engines

arrived in the shortest possible time, they could do

nothing for the preservation of the house. The whole

in-ide of the theatre—boxes, pit and stage with all their

decorations, appurtenances, in short, every thing that

would burn had been burnt. The wooden dome made a

most awful blaze which was seen from the most remote

part of the town, until about half past two when it fell in

with a tremendous crash The only portions of the

premises which have escaped are the portion on the West-

ward, and a part of the house, to the south, occupied by the

secretary. Not an atom of the furnitures and other

appurtenances of the theatre has, as far as can be learnt,

been saved from destruction. No one seems to know how

the fire originated."

Mr Chester's account is that after he has returned to

rest and when he had just fallen asleep he was going

towards the door of communication between this house

and the stage and encountered a volume of dense and

suffocating smoke. There had been a rehearsal of the

"Pilot" and "Sleeping Draught" which concluded at about

half past twelve, shortly after which the party of the

amateurs engaged in the representation broke up and

retired from the theatre. On their departure, the lights

were all carefully extinguished with the exception of one

which was kept burning in the front of the stage every

night.

Horthera June, 1st, 1839

"We are glad to see a spirit of kindliness abroad, which

leads us to hope that some provision will be made for the

sufferers by the late conflagration, of the Chowringhee

Theatre."

"We do not of course, include in this number, the

proprietors of the theatre who were all (we believe) amateu

teurs in good circumstances and will not be seriously

injured by the loss. We allude to Mrs. Francis, the

oldest performer attached to the theatre by which she was

always scantily rewarded, to Mrs. Black, who is nearly

of the same standing and has lately been left a widow, in

indigent circumstances and more specially to Mr. and

Mrs. Chester (the secretary and his wife) who have not

only like Mrs. Francis and Mrs. Black lost the employ-

ment upon which they depended for support, but have

also been deprived by the devouring element of their little

all of personal property ; they have, we are assured on

the best authority, scarcely a change of raiment or a plate

or spoon or article of furniture of their own We are

delighted to see that then deplorable case has attracted

261

consideration of the Lord Bishop the Archdeacon, the

Managers of the late Theatre and few others."

Ibid June, 12.

So popular was the Chowringhee Theatre, that its

destruction long continued as an important topic in most

of the town circles.

The place was not insured and the loss to the proprie-

tors was calculated to be Rs. 76,000/-.

The tragic end of the Theatre forcibly reminds us of

the few lines of Lord Byron on the burning of the old

Drury Lane Theatre on the 24th February 1809.....

"In one dread night our city saw and sighed

Bow'd to the dust Drama's tower of pride

In one short hour beheld the blazing flame

Apollo sank and Shakespeare ceased to reign."

This brought to a close the most popular and the

distinguished English Theatre of Calcutta, and there was

no Sheridan here to revive it. No doubt a fair lady

hastened to its rescue from its utter extinction but she was

herself cruelly burnt in the flames.

Thus closed the Chowringhee Theatre, which inspite of

the patronage the Bengalis could give was effaced from

the face of the earth. We give below some account of its

performances :-

Aug. 3rd. 1815--Sheridan's celebrated comedy, "The Rivals

and Fortunes' Frolic" were performed. Sir Antony Absolute

was received with enthusiasm and well merited applause. He

acquitted himself with superior mood.

The performances at Chowringhee were got up with unusual

ability Principal characters were sustained with peculiar

strength and force of expression. The audience bestowed repeated and well merited plaudits on the young actress who performed the parts of Miranda in the Busy Baby (Body) and Dol Lalolla in Tom Thumb. Tom Thumb, the hero, was perfor-

med by a young gentleman, an amateur, with singular felicity and in a style irresistibly ludicrous The success of the performance has very considerably diminished the debt which was incurred in repairing the damage sustained in the roof and additions to the theatre last year.

Jan 23rd Bengal Hurkara and 29th June Asiatic J 1815.

Oct. 1; 1818—Last Friday, Merry Wives of Windsor gratified expectations. The quarrel was sustained with infinite duolery. Governor General was present The house was crowded to excess and remuded us of the luncs in the rejected address :-

"Now the full benches, to late comers, doorn No room for standing, miscalled standing room."

1st. July 1817.—Marquis of Hastings was present, and an address was given.

"The Road to Ruin" was on a Friday* given a representa- tion but not a crowded house and we marrel if our Chow- inghee boards boasted of a better Gold-finch than the gentle- man in the end proved himself to be. The part of Goldfinch introduced an amatcur of a sister province His stature is rather above the middle size and his person manly and agreeable. He appeared awkward in the first scene and his manner in walking round to exhibit his person was ludicrous rather than such as to give full effect his "that's your sort."

His subsequent scene, however, made up as we have before hinted, for the defects of the first and the scene with Mill- ford in the last Act when he describes the Arts of Jokey in both words and action was given with a caricature certainly unparalleled on these boards perhaps on any other in the present day and to be equalled only in the annals of the

• March 1828. A Journal vol xxx.

263

real sporting. The effect was irresistible and was followed by the loudest applause, and we heard it whispered that this was the first attempt in the part of Goldfinch and this circumstance would speak greatly in favor of the versatility of theatrical talent possessed by the amateur, if we contrast the characters of Octavian and Shylock in which, we hear he stands unrivalled in India. On the whole, the play was excellently performed and though the tradesmen were a shockingly motley group and the scenery not quite sufficiently attended to, we cannot but be well pleased with the evening's amasement.

John Bull. Sept. 3rd

Oct. 1825. A. J.—On Friday the theatre was crowded to the bumper. The amusements were the comedy of "Catherina Petruchio" a most masterly performance in every respect and an admirable drama. The whole performance passed off in a very spirited manner and amidst loud applause.

"Love laughs at Locksmith" was one of the completest things seen on the boards for an age. Totteran was inimitably great in the par. This amateur is truly a most valuable acquisition to our boards, and possesses a greater degreee of versatility than we had imagined. The part was charmingly and brilliantly performed.

Calcutta Gazette. Oct. 30. 1826 (Ref. X. 3. April 27.)...

On Friday Oct. 27—"The Sleeping Draught" and Miller and his Men were performed before one of the most brilliant and crowded audiences ever witnessed in the Theatre. The pieces were got up in a hurry which accounts for some failures in the scenery and machinery. The performers were mostly new to these boards and allowance, therefore, must be made for any little defects. The representation of Papoliio evidently possesses considerable dramatic talent...Dr Vinciolo is also a new performer of great merit and he would be a great acquisition to the Chowringhee boards in thus ine of character He has abundant energy and no want of humour and his person and

264

"The Iron Chest and Monsieur Tensou" both were most successful thespian efforts, there having not a single instance of failure and all appearing perfect in their parts. Monsieur Tensou called forth continued plaudits and bursts of laughter from the audience. We cannot imagine possibly a better effort of dramatic comic talent than Morbleu.

Tom King was without exception. We think the best dramatic essay yet exhibited on our boards by the amateurs who represented the part. In dress, movements, gesture, language, looks every thing, he was quite above all praise. It was a gay, elegant and spirited performance, full of that viva

as animi, we should virtually look for in a "fine young fellow about town" The other characters were capitally supported and the ladies of the piece acquitted themselves in this as well as the preceding one to the highest advantage.

Bengal Chronicle Nov. 6. 1827 (A. J. April 1828)...

Otway's tragedy, "Venice Preserved", represented on Friday Nov. 2nd. was one of the most successful representations. we have witnessed on these boards for a long time The house though not crowded was very respectfully filled and the curtain fell at the early hour of half past 9 amidst the unanimous applause of the audience.

A. J. Sept. 1827, Indian Gazette, Feb. 2.

Chowringhee Theatre was very full, to much satisfaction—the Water man and Monsieur Tensou in able manner were performed. Morblew in the latter surpassed his former per excellence—that he was most capitally dressed and accomnted altogether, carried himself admirable throughout and entirely identified himself with the whimsical character of the distracted, but most exquisitely amusing old Frenchman.

The performances at Chowringee Theatre last night amply realised all the anticipations which had been formed of them. The scenes from Don Giovanni were rich treat to the lovers of music ; the beautiful tenor of Mr. Linton and the rich deep was of the representntive of the statue were as fine as anything we ever heard on these boards. We need by add that

full justice was done by the Orchestra to this beautiful composition of Mozart's. A more exquisite buffo than the representa-

tive of Leporallo we have never witnessed. The scenery was beautiful and the diablerie got up and most skilfully managed. *

Mrs. Leuch as Leporello on July 27.

Chowringee Theatre-On Thursday night. Pizzaro was repeated at our Drama. Lord Cumbermere was received with most marked reiterated praise, next His Excellency Sir Archbald Campbell and last of all Rt. Hon'ble the Governor General and Lady Amherst. The address given to them was admirably spoken by the father of our Drama.

India Gazette Nov. 5.-All together with a few exceptions "Venice Preserved" was one of the most deliberate murders we have ever seen on the Chowringee boards.

The theatre re-opened on the first Friday of February 1828 when the condition improved a little. About 7 p.m. on the reopening night, the house was full to the overflowing and several persons for want of seats had to stand. The Rt. Hon'ble The Governor General and Lady Amherst honoured the house with their presence. On their entrance, the orchestra struck up "God save the King" though not played well.

India Gazette Feb. 6th, 1826.

The services of Mrs. Leuch were secured and some of the best plays were staged with great success with the assistance of brilliant casts of artists and it was then that the theatre reached the height of its reputation and prosperity (up to 1832). In the meantime alteration and improvement to the extent of Rs. 9,000/- was made in the summer of 1828, the amount being raised by contribution from the proprietors in the proportion of Rs. 100/- for each share and Rs. 50/- on each share more than once.

-- A. J. Aug. 1828.

A youngman playing Clorimont made a most triumphant. He possessed high qualifications for the sock and buskin, a good

266

voice.............Lord William Bentinck did not extend his predecessors' patronage.

The piece cast was "Honey Moon." The next week "Old Maid" and "High Life Below Stairs" were played amidst loud applause of a very crowded rather warm house.

During the regime of Lord Amherst the Chowringee Theatre was at the zenith of its popularity and fame, and performance held every week on Thursday.

After this the affairs took again an unsatisfactory turn and in 1835 it was leased out to an Italian Company which, however, failed in the payment of the high rent of Rs. 1,000/- a month; and the French Company which next took lease of the theatre also could not pay Rs. 50/- per night, which they agreed upon to pay. The theatre was in debt and the prices for admission, were reduced, namely to Rs. 6/- for the pit.

(Asiatic Journal January 1835)

John Bull January 25.

On the 23rd January a new farce was brought out at this Theatre entitled "1, 2, 3, 4, 5" by the advertisement.

The plot was humorous and well commenced and consisted of three characters, viz two lovers and an old man, the father of the lady......and who advertises in newspaper for a husband for his daughter. It is agreed between the young people that the lover shall apply in consequence of the advertisement and by personating the ludicrous, so surfeit the old father, and he shall be glad to bestow his daughter on the object of her choice. The lover of course succeeds, and they all invited in the end. The lady says "If we fail we shall not fail my loveland away" The youth proceeds to the accomplishment of his wishes

The gentleman who played the lover was quite successful in the several characters assigned to him resembling Sylvester Daggerword 1 in these parts he gave imitations of some of the stars of the Cho Boards with great success The old man was played by a prime favourite the dance was in n anv

respects superior and song enchorcd, the house was well attended

and the boxes occupied by many respectable perscns of the

settlement.

A new comedy entitled "Peter Fin or a Trip to Brighton,"

the author of which is Mr T. Jones, was represented at B I. on

Friday last The characters were all sustained respectably

Bengal Hurkara April 4th, 1826.

Bengal Hurkara. Oct 22.—The "Castle Spectre" was

performed on Friday evening at Chowringhee Theatre to an

audience which has never been recorded in numbers of fashion;

in fact the house was crowded to the very standing places. As

had been announced in the papers of the Presidency, the Rt

Hon'ble Earl Amherst, the Countess and Lady Sarah Amherst

honoured the house with their presence as did also the members

of the council and many other distinguished individuals. About

7 o'clock the Rt. Hon'ble the Governor General with his

Lordship's family and suite made their entry and were greeted

on their first appearance at the Theatre since their return

to the Presidency, with three distinct rounds of applause, the

audience standing and the Orchestra playing "God save the

King"

CHAPTER V

THE SANS-SOUCI THEATRE

Within a month after the destruction of the Chowringee Theatre, Mrs. Leach arrived in Calcutta and was greatly shocked at the lamentable news of the tragic fate of the Chowringee Theatre. She, however, did not allow her sorrow to rot in idle sentiments but sat herself earnestly to work and opened a temporary theatre under the title of Sans-Souci at the corner of the Government Place East, Waterloo Street—the place, where according to Rev. Mr. Long, Sir John Clavering* had lived before. The site is now occupied by Ezra Mansions, but at that time, in the upper flat of the Building was St. Andrew's Library and the lower flat that looked more like a godown was converted by Mrs. Leach into an elegant theatre sufficient to accommodate 400 persons with the help of "carver's and gilder's art."

On the opening night—August 21st 1839, Sheridan Knowless's "Hunch Back" was staged with Mrs. Leach as Julia. All the sale proceeds of the night were devoted to allay the distress of her old stage-associates Mrs. Francis and Mrs. Black who had lost everything during the last fire. Mrs. Leach as lessee continued the performances here for about a year till the larger house was

• But according to Dr Busteed Sir John lived at 8 Rope Walk. See page 177 Supra.

being reared on her account' at the Park Street (No. 10.)

at the site of the present St. Xavier's College. The

subscriptions came in liberal response, the last being

headed by Lord Auckland and Prince Dwarakanath

Tagore* who contributed Rupees one thousand each and

the total amount of the subscription rose to Rs. 16900.

This also included some money contributed by Mrs.

Leach herself. Mr. Stocqueler. Editor, Englishman also

offered his services to help her in her noble enterprise.

The whole fitting and construction including scenery

and wardrobe cost Rs. 80,000/- the rest being raised

by the mortgage of the property and all it was to

contain. Mr. J. W. Collins was the architect of the

theatre and the structure measuring 200 feet in length

and 50 feet breadth was built with a hand-some portico

in front. The stage occupied 28 feet in breadth, 50 feet

depth, the space concealed from the audience above and

below being appropriated to the green rooms etc. The

building was completed in May 1840 but the formal

opening took place on March 8, 1841 with Sheridan

Knowles's "The Wife" under the patronage and imme-

diate presence of the Governor General Lord Auckland

and suite when Mrs. Leach who took the part of Marians

recited a metrical prologue written for the occasion by

Mr. J. W. Kaye (afterwards Sir John) the historian of

the Sepoy War, and editor, Bengal Harkara. Two

days before this i.e. on the 6th March, about 90 gentle-

men sat down to a splendid dinner on the stage of the

new theatre with Mr. Turton on the chair. The stage

*Mrs. Leach the actress has issued proposals for building a new theatre

by subscription the list is headed by donation of Rs. 1000 from Lord

Auckland and of the same amount from Dwaraka Nath Tagore

{ A J Ju e 1840 }

pillars were decorated with wreaths of flowers After the song the "Queen" Mr. Turton proposed the health of

Sir John Peter Grant and the judges of the Supreme Court. Sir John remarked that he attended the theatre

as much from a sense of public duty as from motives of private entertainment and he looked upon drama in a

well organised stage as a great instrument of civilisation and refinement and hoped that this new theatre would

prove much benefit to the society at large.

(Asiatic Journal 1841, May.)

As some of the actors had left theatre altogether, for the catastrophe, Mr. Stocqueler had to seek recruits and

amongst others got Mr. Henry Torrens, Mr. Hume Barrister, afterwards Chief Presidency Magistrate Calcutta

as amateurs, and also some professionals through his London agent--one Mrs Deacle, a Miss Cowley and a Mr. Berry,

a pantomimist from Cambridge, with his wife. We had on the authority of Mr. Stocqueler "that Torrens Sir Peter

Teazle was suijuris. Hume had an idea that he was a tragedian ; his declamatory powers were fine and he had

a tendency to bear a passion to tatters which found room for gratification in Othello and Macbeth, but his figure was

thick and lumpy and his face devoid of suitable expression. Mrs. Deacle who as Miss Darling made a gorgeous

Cleopetra, and had not her devotion to Bacchus been interfered with, by her attention to the rites of Thalia and

Melpomime, she might have been valuable. Mr Berry had a capricious voice which used to desert him at the

critical moment but he was able to atone for his lingual deficiency by intelligible dumb show." Mrs. Eden wrote

in her reminiscences of theatre in her letters from India, "A little Miss Cowly is one of the best comic actresses

271

I have seen, and had a great success .....She is very ugly."*

The performances at the New Theatre were continued for sometime with regularity • pünkhas of course being pulled in summer, but affairs both at home and abroad cast a gloom over it. The war with Afganisthan had a great effect on it, and the Amir Dost Mohamed unwilling to make treaty unless Peshwar then in occupation of the Sikh Chief, Ranjit Singh, were given to him, and wanting to have friendly relations with Russia was drawn into a war with the Indian Government Lord Auckland sent a British regiment ; Sha Shuja, Ahmed Shah Durani's grandson friendly with the British was restored to the throne and Dost Mohamed who surrendered in Nov. 1840 was sent down to Calcutta on a liberal allowance.

On the 11th Oct. 1841. Dost Mohamed was present at the Sans-Souci Theatre where the melo-drama of Tekli was performed before a larger audience than had ever crowded into the the New Theatre—the combined attractions of a melo dramatic spectacle and an Ex-King filled the house to over-flowing. The Hurkara says, Dost Mohamed and his party were greatly delighted with it, and runs thus :-

"The fat sides of Hyderkhan were shaken intensly with much laughter. When the Dost first made his appearance, he was greeted with a round of applause, but as he did not seem to appreciate or understand the compliment, the plaudits very soon subsided."

• After th Mns Con ey be ame Mrs. Marsha i un 184C

4 J Ort 1841

272

Dost's son Akbar Khan shortly after raised the standard of rebellion against the British and treacherously killed Sir William Macnaghton.

The British Army then retired towards India and was annihilated in the Khyberpass. This seriously affected the theatrical entertainments as we notice in the words of Mr. Stocqueler, "With the tales of bloodshed ringing in their ears people were in no mood to go to places of entertainment. Many had lost their relations, not a few mourned friends and acquaintances and everybody felt abashed at the sad reverses our arms had sustained. It was necessary to create a fund for the relief of the widows. It is in such times theatres suffer; luxuries can better be spared than the necessaries of life. Lord Auckland who had been a great patron ot the Theatre returned a sorrowful man."

Lord Ellenborough, unlike his predecessor, disliked theatres, and Mrs. Leach also could not afterwards pay anymore money. The management necessarily passed into the hands of others, who however retained her services on a handsome salary. Next on November 2, 1843, happened a very tragic incident, unheared of in the history of the Calcutta theatres. The catastrophe which cost Mrs. Leach her life also brought to a close the last English theatre in which the Bengalees took a keen interest. After that, English Companies have no doubt given performances now and then, but the Bengalees had little concern for any of them.

Mrs. Leach, the queen of the Indian stage, as she was called, appeared as Mrs Wyindham in the farce "The Handsome Husband" an after piece of Merchant of

273

Venice for the night where Mr. James Vining an actor of London-fame, appeared for the first time as Shylock in Calcutta. The house was full, all was in glee and merriment, and cheers resounded. In the midst of all these, while Mrs. Leach was waiting for her cue, at the upper right hand entrance of the stage, her dress caught fire from an oil-lamp, one of a row placed on the floor and in an instant she was in flames. For a time she struggled with the fire to put it out, but unable to free herself from it rushed into the stage calling for help. The fire was no doubt put out, but she was severely burnt on her arms and shoulders. The curtain fell immediately and she was carried to her dressing room and thence to the residence adjoining the theatre where the Lord Bishop's house now stands. Assistance was promptly offered including the professional services of O' Shanguessy and Thompson * who happened to be among the audience. She could not survive the fatal burning. During her suffering she appeared to rally once or twice but her own impression was that the injuries would prove fatal. Perfectly conscious, she passed away on Nov. 22, 1843 at the age of 34, leaving three orphan children behind, all without any provision. She was buried in the Military Cemetery at Bhowanipore and Madam Baxter the proprietor gave up the sale proceeds of the 22nd November performance in aid of the children though the result was not very gratifying.

Such was the tragic end of a brilliant career—a career of bright and uniform success. Alas ! Man is but a puppet in the hands of Destiny like the clay in a potter's

hand. Her name though now sunk in oblivion will always be gratefully recorded in the history of the Bengali stage, for, as we have seen, the Chowringhee Theatre exercised immense influence upon the educated Bengalees of that time. Mrs. Leach was beautiful, clever and a gifted artist for which she was rightly called the "Queen of the Indian Stage," but she excelled more in emotional parts in the display of tender passions and pathos than in the violent tragedies. Lofty tragedy was in a sense beyond her reach, yet she deserves her just meed, for she was quite unique in her own element.

Shortly after Mrs. Leach's death, Mr. and Mrs. Ormand who were on their way to India arrived by the Bentinkels and joined the Theatre. Othello was staged on April 24, 1844. But with the death of Mrs. Leach who was in truth the life of the Theatre, it fell on evil days. It was then leased out to a French Company. But it was down on its luck and the days of the Sans-Souci seemed to be numbered. Its last performance was Othello in aid of Madame Baxter.

The building was then sold in 1846 for 4000/- to the Rt. Hon'ble Dr. Carew (the then Arch Bishop). It was at first called St. John's College, and on the arrival of the Belgian Jesuits in 1859, it was placed under the official management of the St Xavier's College which opened here on 9th January in 1860 under the direction and control of Jesuit Fathers. There have been considerable additions and alterations in the buildings but the handsome portico and fine flight of steps are still in existence.

Thus ended Mrs. Leach's Sans-Souci, but the last tie was not cut till the departure of our old friend Mr

270

Berry on the 21st May 1849. He used to give occasional performances under the old name Sans-Souci at his private residence at 14, Wellington Square, and Bengali artists were taken there Sanghād Pravākar mentions about one Bengali actor—Baishnav Charan Addy who twice played the part of Othello here with great credit on Aug. 17 and Sept. 12, 1848.*

Vaskar † gave the last account of the Sans-Souci and we reproduce it here :—“Mr. Berry presents his respectful compliments to the public of Calcutta and by the request of several friends who are anxious to support him on the present occasion, begs to announce that on Monday evening the 21st instant will be acted at the solicitation of several officers, Mrs Charles George's Military drama of the "Maid of Croisey"—after which scenes from Merchant of Venice—Shylock by a gentleman—to conclude with the farce of "Lovers' Quarrels" and an address written on the occasion."

"Mr Berry in returning to the public his most grateful acknowledgment for the liberal and kind support shown him for the last 6 years of his management of the above theatre, announces positively his farewell on the 21st instant as in the following morning he shall embark on board the Minerva for England. Mr. Berry purposes on his arrival in England at his own risk such professional talent as will enable him—to see the drama once again maintain a position worthy of its patrons.

14, Wellington Square May 14, 1849.‡

• Sambad Pravakar Aug. 21 and Sept. 21, 1848

† 19th May 1849 Vaskar

After this we did not hear of Sans-Souci again

276

After the closing of the Sans-Souci, the next theatres which came into public notice were Von Golder's Lyric Theatre in 1857, the Lyceum on the Maidan, Lewis Theatre, Royal and Opera House.

Mr. C. J. Mathews appeared at the Opera House (or English Theatre) before H. R. H. the Prince of Wales in 1891, the prices of seats were :-upper tier boxes Rs. 1000/- lower tier Rs. 500/- and stalls Rs. 30 each.

The Lewis theatre greatly influenced the Bengali artists to start the National, the Bengal theatre and the Great National. Further details or description of English theatres in Bengal are quite unnecessary for our purpose.

While attempts in theatrical performances were generally crowned with success in Calcutta, Bombay rather proved conservative. On the authority of a report in the Asiatic Journal we learn that the project of getting up a new theatre, as was expected, excited strong opposition amongst a certain class at the presidency who denounced theatrical amusements as profane and immoral.

Oct. 1840 A. J. Bombay.

INFLUENCE OF ENGLISH THEATRES ON THE BENGALEES.

We have done with the early English theatres of Calcutta and we have no hesitation to admit that they were not only the fore-runners of the Bengali Stage but also inspired the enlightened Hindus with a love for theatre and with a strong desire for the establishment of the genuine Bengali Theatre. The English Stage in Calcutta used to be patronised by our countrymen and both the

277

Chowringee theatre and the Sans-Souci owed much to the princely liberality of Dwarakanath Tagore; and his contributions to the growth of stage were not less than that of a Torrens or Parker. Such was the earnestness for English plays amongst our countrymen that each night a number of Bengali spectators were amongst the audiences, as is testified to by the following observation of the Asiatic Journal -

The India Gazette adds "It affords us pleasure to observe such a number of respectable natives among the audience every play-night, it indicates a growing taste for the English Drama which is an auspicious sign of the progress of general literature amongst our native friends."

In fact, though we had a great past and Bengali drama owes considerably to old Sanskrit play, still there is no gainsaying the fact that the modern Bengali Theatre is more an imitation of the English Stage, and to write about the Bengali Stage without noticing this evolution and the influences of the English theatres is simply to ignore the source. We have therefore taken great pains to unearth the History which has hitherto remained unexplored.

• Vide pages 256 269-See also Hindu Patriot Aug. 5. 1858 which speak ing of performance of Ramabali at Belgachhia refers to him- 'To many of our elder visitors both European and Native who remember the days of the late Babu Dwarakanath Tagore Meridth Parker Horace Wilson Henry Torrens and the Ch gree and Sans-Souci Theatres this revi al will

mill

CHAPTER VI

THE FIRST BENGALI THEATRE

We have done with our account of the early English Theatres of Calcutta and now come to the most interesting stage in the evolution of the modern Bengali Theatre.

It indeed took a long time for Bengal to possess a genuine stage of her own, and the history of the first Bengali endeavours in this line will appear amazing to a modern reader from the enthusiasm it then created for dramatic performance among the elites of the country.

Most elaborate and expensive preparations were made for the temporary performance of Hindu plays as by the Hindu Theatre in 1831 and by the Shyambazar Theatre at Nabin Babu's House in 1833.

But before we enter into any details it is necessary to remove one wrong impression in this connection.

Sj. Jogendra Nath Bose in his famous biography of Michael Madhusudan Dutt, has said that the Sans-Souci Theatre greatly influenced the above mentioned two theatres.

With due respect to Jogendra Babu's authority on many other points, it should be pointed out here that both the Hindu Theatre and the Shambazar Theatre were closed long before the Sans-Souci came into existence at all.

It was in fact the Chowringhee Theatre and two liberal minded educationists, Capt Richardson and Dr. Wilson, who exercised an enormous influence upon the educated pioneers of the Bengali

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Theatre. But for Dr. Wilson, the Hindu Theatre would not have come into existence at all. Capt. Richardson too always encouraged his pupils to attend the theatre. The first Bengali efforts after dramatic performance in Bengali were indeed greatly due to Richardson's influence upon his favourite pupils, some of whom were pioneers in this field.

From a reference in the Asiatic Journal of 1829, we find that many respectable Bengali gentlemen went to witness English plays and their number was ever on the increase Jatras in fact failed to satisfy the educated people and the absence of a Bengali stage was keenly felt

At last some of the contemporary papers began to advocate the cause of a Bengali theatre and of dramatic performances in Bengali. The Asiatic Journal of that time publishes the exhortations of Samachar Chandrika urging for dramatic performances by the Bengalis in Bengali—

"In the extensive city public institutions of various kinds and moral descriptions have lately sprung up for the improvement and gratification of its inhabitants ; but their amusement has not yet been consulted and they have not, like the English community any place of public entertainment. In former times, actors and actresses were attached to the courts of the princes of India, who represented plays and charmed the audience with graceful poetry and music and impassioned action. We have had of late some Sakher Jatras exhibited which though not perfect gave great diversion to the people they have been however infrequent It is therefore desirable that mer

280

theatre on the principle of shares, as the English gentlemen have done' and retaining qualified persons on fixed salaries, exhibit a new performance of song and poetry once a month conformably to the written Nataks or plays, and under the authority of a manager ; such a plan will promote the pleasure of all classes of Society."

Asiatic Journal Aug. 1829.

All these gave an impetus to the cultured minds ; and men of wealth and rank were not found wanting. The Hindu theatre of Prasanna Kumar Tagore and the Shambazar Theatre of Nabin Krishna Bose are the products of the direct influence of English theatres at Chowringhee.

I. THE HINDU THEATRE :

The Hindu Theatre owed its existence primarily to the efforts of Prasanna Kumar Tagore, a premier noble man of Calcutta to whose charity for the cause of education, the Calcutta University owes a good deal. He took a lively interest in all things that might contribute to the progress of his country, felt interested in dramatic shows and to his noble zeal we owe the famous Hindu Theatre which was undoubtedly the first Bengali attempt. Pandit Mohendra Nath Vidyanidhi put Nabin Babu's theatre first in time, but we shall be able to show that the Pandit's surmise was not accurate and that this was the earliest attempt.

The May issue of Asiatic Journal 1832, puts 28th Dec. 1831 being the date when this theatre was opened.

Three months before this on a Sunday a meeting

• Compare the Calcutta and Chowringhee

was called by Prasanna Kumar Tagore to take into

consideration a proposal for establishing a new theatre

and the following resolutions were passed—1. That

theatres are useful 2. 'Hindu Theatre' be established

3. A managing committee be formed with the following

gentlemen—

Babu Prasanna Kumar Thakoor, Srikissen Singh,

Kishen Chunder Dutt, Ganga Charan Sen, Madhub

Chandra Mullick, Tara Chand Chakravarty and Hara

Chandra Ghosh."

The above Journal further says :-

The Hindu Theatre (amateur) opened on 1831, 28th

Dec. Wednesday : The entertainments were a portion of

the Utter Ram Charita (translated by Professor Wilson)

and a part of Julius Cæsar

Sir Edward Ryan† and other European gentlemen as

well as some ladies were present.

The Calcutta Monthly journal and Hindu Reformer

of January 1832 further state that Dr. Wilson (H. H)

not only translated the piece by Bhababhutti but also

drilled the actors under his direct supervision. The

performances were enacted in the garden house of Babu

Prasanna Kumar Tagore at Shundo (Belliaghata) followed

by the fifth Act of Julius Cæsar before a house crowded

to overflowing by a highly respectable audience consisting

of notable persons like the Judges of Supreme court, Rajah

Radhakanta Deb and several orther distinguished persons

were present. Babu Gourdas Bysak also wrote :-

• The Samachar Darpan (at September 1st, 1831) also published

similar notice.

The Chief Just ce of the supreme Contt

90

282

"It is perhaps scarcely known that the earliest attempt towards the revival of Hindu Drama was made by the late Babu Prasanna Kumar Tagore. The drama Uttar Ram Charita, translated by Dr. Horace Hayman Wilson, from the original sanskrit of Bhababhuti was acted on the stage set up by the former under the direction and personal superintendence of the Doctor."

A correspondent of Samachar Darpan, 7th Jun. 1832, who himself did not see the performance but heard from a friend, hoped that, as the parts of Ram Lila were played by the Hindu youths of rich family who got dressed at their own cost, it would be attractive.

The amateurs were Ganga Charan Sen, Prof. Ram Chandra Mitra and others of the Hindu and Sanskrit Colleges but inspite of the brilliant success the theatre had a very short lease of life and was closed before long.

They next tried their hands with "Nothing Superfluous" staged on the 29th March 1832 and the parts of Geafar, Sultan and the fair Gulnair were succesfully represented, as we gather from a letter from an English correspondent who styled himself as a friend of the natives, published in the India Gazette of Saturday March 31, 1832 --

"The play commenced at half after 7, in presence of a highly respectable European and Native audience. The principal characters were the Sultan Salim, Geafar, Sadi and the Fair Gulnair; the courtly figure and the

• Hindu Pioneer Oct 22. 1835. "Like the Hindu Theatre not suffer it to meet with a death-blow in its very infancy

The Calcutta Courier 28 Jan 1840--The Theatre was given up one or two years after its establishment

233

proud independent air of Salim were well suited to the

character of an eastern monarch. Geafiar also sustained

his part with credit to himself and the feminine blandish-

ment, assumed by the fair Gulnair, displayed much fine

taste and a right conception of the character of an eastern

beauty ; but the judgment and theatrical tact displayed

by Sadi throughout the varied and difficult parts he had

to perform, were calculated to surpass the most sanguine

expectations. . . . . .

"The dresses of the actors were superbly rich and

the scenery although inferior to that of the principal

theatres was yet arranged with much taste Tae minor

characters were also very creditably sustained by the

amateurs. In fact, the whole went off with great éclat,

reflecting the highest credit on every one connected wth

the Hindu Theatre.†"

Fulminations of the Anglo-Indian Press.

Then followed a very interesting episode The Anglo

Indian Papers treated the Bengali enterprise in this

direction with great contempt. The "East Indian" made

the following uncharitable remarks:-

".. We hear that the performances are to be in the

English language. Who advised this strange proceeding

we know not, but it is surely worth re-consideration---what

can be worse than to have the best dramatic compositions

† The Calcutta Courier of 4th April 1832 has also the following ---we

can not quit the subject of theatricals without noticing a very entertaining

performance at the Hindu Theatre last Thursday evening. Baou Prasanna

Kumar Tagore has fitted up a neat little stage in his house in Narkeldangah

where some young Hindoo gentlemen admirably schooled in the Histrionic

art exercise their talents for the amusement of their native and European

friends who are admitted by u r tatio l The piece got up for the evening

was a little farce ent tled Nothing Superfluous.

284

in English language murdered outright, night after night,

foreign manners misrepresented and instead of holding

the mirror upto nature caricaturing everything human ?

We recommend our Hindu patriots and philanthropists to

instruct their countrymen by means of schools and when

they are fitted to appreciate the dramatic compositions of

refined nations, it will be quite time enough to erect

theatre ..... A theatre among the Hindus with the

degree of knowledge they at present possess will be like

building a palace in the waste.

Asiatic Journal 1832 Jan.—April.

A similar opinion was expressed by an English writer

of the Asiatic Journal* who criticised about the Bengalees

staging English plays :-

"While upon the subject of theatricals in and near the

Presidency an exhibition, more strange than amusing,

should not pass unnoticed; the performance or rather

the attempted performance of English plays by Hindu

youths ; an undertaking which as may readily be supposed

was not crowned with much success. The inauspicious

beginning however may lead to better things; native

aspirants for the honours of the sock and buskin may

perceive the propriety of confining themselves to the

representation of dramas to which their complexion

would be appropriate ; and when the catalogue of

European plays is exhausted, the Aurongzebs and

Tamerlanes have run themselves out of favour, authors

may start up amidst the corps and employ their pens in

illustrating the public and domestic occurrences of their

country in tragedy, comedy, opera and farce. Though

*A. J 1834 Jan. April. vol. xiii Barrackpore and Dumdum page 25

the execution might not be first rate, such productions could not fail to be extremely curious and interesting ;

they would lead to a better acquaintance with the manners and customs of the people of Hindustan and prevent such

monstrous exhibitions as are presented to this enlightened age in dramas resembling those styled "The Cataracts of

the Ganges," "The Lions of Mysore" etc

The "Enquirer" however differed from the above narrow view and expressed--"there are now to be found

in the Hindu community persons who do not fall short of our European stagers in dramatic informations. These,

in consequence, may by practice do adequate justice to a tragedy or to a comedy . "

But the most effective reply to these mean fulminations inspired by racial pride was given by the intelligents

of Bengal. The dramatist, the actor and the audience all proved that all such observations were quite uncalled

for and baseless. It was thus admitted within a short time, by Englishmen who "expressed the high satisfac-

tion derived from the entertainment of a particular evening which more than confirmed the favourable account

published in various papers of the day"

India Gazette March 31, 1832.

II. "VIDYASUNDAR"

IN

NABIN'S THEATRE IN SHAMBAZAR

Next comes in point of time the Vidyasundar Play which was staged at the Shambazar Theatre situated in

the house of Babu Nabin Krishna Bose at Shambazar Though started a few months after the Hindu Theatre,

it stands today established as the First Bengali Theatre, since we have no clear evidence of other shows being represented in respect of site, time and other details, and since the performances of the Hindu Theatre were in English. Lebedef started the "Bengali Theatre" with the Bengali translation of an English Play, for the entertainment of his European friends, but Nabin Babu spared no pains, and spent money rather in a lavish manner for the entertainment of his Bengali brethren by staging a genuine Bengali play. His big house on the ruins of which the Shambazar Tram depot now stands, laid with spacious garden, orchards, tanks and gravel paths, offered the most magnificent site for the performance of "Vidyasundar" - a bold erotic romance of sensuous school by Bharot Chandra Roy Gunakar who lived at the time of the Battle of Plassy. To display thunder and lightening to the audience, Nabin Babu had apparatuses and mechanical contrivances procured at a heavy cost from England. Yet Nabin Babu had no stage in his house like the one of the present day and the audience had therefore to move several times to different places to witness different scenes. The scene of Sundara seated on the banks of a tank under a Bakul tree was shown in the tank within the garden of Nabin Babu. The stately council chamber of Beersingh the Raja of Burdwan was shown in his drawing room and the thatched cottage of Malini (female-gardener) in another part of the house. Earth was dug to show the underground tunnel leading from Malini's house to the interior of the Rajah's palace. In a similar but in a more crude form Ramlila* is sometimes

acted in upper India, but it reminds us more about the

medieval stage of Europe. The stage in Shakespeare's

time was "a raised bare platform, jutting out some

considerable distance among the audience. so that the

groups of players were seen from any point of view.

The central part of the theatre into which the stage

protruded was unroofed and plays were given by the

light of the day. There was no painted scenery. At

the back of the stage a wooden erection. hollow, and hung

with some kind of tapestry served many purposes. It

was Juliets tomb, canopy of Desdemona's bed . . . . . . .

The top of the structure was used as occasion demanded

for the battlements of Flint Castle in Richard II, or for

balcony in Romeo and Juliet, and so on."

The performances in Nabin's home continued from

midnight to morning (12½ to 6½). The portion was

first read by a person by way of prologue from Bharat

Chandra and the portion incorporated in acting used to be

recited as a dialogue.

The part of Sundar was taken by Shama Charan

Banerjee of Barahnagar, a remarkably handsome young-

man, who had not much of education but was expert in

singing well and Sitar-playing.

The well-known rustic song, the origin of which

we could not ascertain, runs thus :-

Nabin Babu was Kalua

Raja Vaidyanath was Bhulina

Shamacharan Bandopadhya of Barahnagar was

Sundar

showing how Shyama Charan was one of the three

distinguished men of his time

288

Another important feature of this theatre was the introduction of actresses for the exhibition of female characters. The part of the heroine (Vidya) was taken by Radhamoni* (or Mani—a Hindustani Bai born in Bengal of Bengali father) a public woman and two other women of her class Raj Kumari and Joydurga appeared in other roles, the former as Sahachari, and the latter as Rani and Mohini. Rajkumari and Bow Haro Math-rani were amongst the attendants.

Nabin was for long known as the pioneer in introducing actresses for the representation of female characters in Bengali Theatre but we have shown from authentic records that the first appearances of actresses occurred as early as in 1795. That was however forgotten and Nabin Babu appears to have made all possible improvements and in his zeal for effecting dramatic improvements he spared neither pains nor money. Surely he got the idea of introducing women on the stage from the Chowringee Theatre It was about this time that Mrs. Leach and her stage-associates were displaying their dramatic talents and shortly before this a band of performers from Manipur was then exhibiting in Calcutta, representing the sports of Krishna with the Gopess—the musicians were men but singers were women. †

The same journal also quotes another important fact from “Samachar Chandrika” that a company of performers under Haladhar was also acting with great success in the houses of Indian gentlemen; they represented the

Mr. D. N. Bose had the occasion of seeing Moni in her old age how in her poor condition and having lost health and beauty she had to beg from door to door after

† Vide Asiatic Journal 22 April.

Jatras of Vidyasundar the destruction of Sambhu and Nishambhoo of mythological fame,—Nabin evidently got

the idea of staging Vidya Sundar at his house, getting the inspiration from the performances in English theatres

as well as Jatra performers with female actresses at the

time. It will be quite in fitness that we should reproduce here the full text of a contemporaneous article in

Hindu Pioneer of October 1835, quoted in Asiatic

Journal of 1836 (April issue), under the caption “Native

Theatre”

For the first time about 32 years ago, late Pandit

Mohendra Nath Vidyanidhi published the Hindu Pioneer-article, a copy of which he got from Mr. Atal Ch. Sen,

late Honorary Magistrate, Sealdah. The Pandit mentioned however that this theatre was started before Hindu

Theatre i.e. in 1831, which is evidently a mistake—the

article itself shows that Nabin Babu's theatre was started

about 1833, and that the Hindu Theatre was then long

closed. Besides, the Pandit concluded from a surmise

which was not correct. Probably he wanted to show that

the Bengali attempt preceded the English performance.

But this small inaccuracy apart, the Pandit's contributions

as the pioneer and the original research scholar in this field

of Bengali Stage must always be remembered with gratitude and regards by all of us who have followed him.

“THE NATIVE THEATRE”:

“This private Theatre got up about two years ago is

still supported by Babu Nabin Chandra Bose. It is

situated in the residence of the proprietor at Shambazar

where four or five plays were acted during the year.

• Fortnightly Journal Hindi Pioneer Oct 1835

290

These are native performances by the people entirely Hindus, after the English fashion, in the vernacular language of their country : and what elates us with joy, as it should do all the friends of Indian improvement, is that the fair sex of Bengal are always seen on the stage as the female parts are almost exclusively performed by Hindu women. We had the pleasure of attending at a play one evening during the last full moon ; and we must acknowledge that we were highly delighted. That house was crowded by upwards of a thousand visitors, of all sorts--Hindu, Molumadans, and some Europeans and East Indians, who were equally delighted. The play commenced a little before 12 o'clock and continued the next day, till half past six in the morning. We were present from the beginning and witnessed almost the whole representation with the exception of the last two scenes. The subject of the performance was "Bidyasundar". It is tragic-comic and one of the masterpieces in Bengali by the celebrated Bharat chander. I need scarcely explain the details of the play which is commonly known by every person who can read a little Bengali ; yet for the sake of our English readers we must observe that this play is much like that of Romen and Juliet in Shakespeare It commenced with the music of the Orchestra which was very pleasing. The native musical instruments, such as the Sitar, the Saranghi, the Pakwaj, and others, were played by Hindus almost all Brahmins, and among them the violin was admirably managed by Babu Brojonath Goshain, who received frequent applauses from the surrounding visitors, but unfortunately he was but imperfectly heard by the assembly. Before the curtain was drawn a prayer was sung to the Almighty, a

291

Hindu custom in such ceremonics, and prologues were chanted likewise previous to the opening of the play suiting the representation. The scenery was generally imperfect, the perspective of the pictures, the clouds, the water were all failures, they denoted both want of taste and sacrifice of judicious principles and the latter were scarcely distinguished except by the one being placed above the other. Though framed by native painters, they would have been much superior had they been executed by careful hands. The house of Raja Birshingha and the apartment of his daughter were, however, done tolerably well. The part of Sundar, the hero of the poem, was played by a young lad Shamcharan Banerjee of Baranagore, who in spite of his praiseworthy efforts, did not do the entire justice of his performance. It is a character which affords sufficient opportunity to display theatrical talents by the frequent and sudden change of pantomime and by playing such tricks as to prevent the Raja who is the father of the heroine of the play, from detecting the amorous plot. Young Shamacharan tried occasionally to vary the expression of his feelings, but his gestures seemed to be studied and his motions stiff.

The parts of the Raja and others were performed to the satisfaction of the whole audience.

"The female characters in particular were excellent. The part of Bidya (the daughter of Raja Bir Singh) the lover of Sundar played by Radhamoni (generally called Moni) a girl of nearly 16 years of age, was very ably sustained: her graceful motions, her sweet voice and her love tricks with Sundar filled the minds of the audience with rapture and delight. The sudden change of her countenance amidst her joys and her lamentations, her