8. CHAPTER THREE.

CHAPTER THREE.

SANSKRIT DRAMA-ITS CONSTITUENTS AND TYPES.

Drama is the representation by actors (imitators) put up for show at a certain place before spectators ( audience) in the form of imitation of conditions and situations in which persons (imitated: 'original characters') are placed from time to time, by certain means, leading to enjoyment of a particular pleasure. Section A-The constituents of drama. The above definition, on analysis, yields the following constituents : (1) The subject-matter in the form of con- ditions and situations in which persons ( imitated) are placed from time to time, that is, the plot; (2) persons imitated, that is, heroes, heroines and other characters; (3) imita- tors, that is, actors, actresses etc .; (4) means through which imitators ( actors ) imitate persons ( imitated) in their different actions, that is, acting ( Abhinaya); (5) the place where re- presentation for show is put up, that is, theatre (stage etc.); (6) persons before whom representation is put up and to whom appeal is intended to be driven home, that is, spec- tators (audience ); and (7) the particular pleasure aimed at to be realised by spectators, that is, Rasa. (1) Plot. The plot in Sanskrit dramaturgy is the sum-total of conditions, situations and circumstances in which charac- ters are imitated.1 In them they are to be seen carrying

1. D. R. I. 7.

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on various activities by themselves, among themselves or in relation to worldly objects. These various activi- ties, therefore, supply in a way the background in which characters are seen. Some of these may be static and others dynamic in that the latter may show characters in action. They may also show the development of the plot as a whole from stage to stage. But these activities may not all be the imitation of their past and real counter- part in the world ( Prasiddha), they may be invented ( Ut- pādya ) by the playwright, or they may be partly historical and traditional and partly invented by the playwright (Miśra )1. Some of them taken as plot may be depicted as principal, thus forming the principal plot ( Ādhikārika Vastu) in a dramatic piece, while others which help the principal plot in their intended development may be allowed scope not so extensive ( Prāsangika Vastu : Patākā ) as the principal plot but more extensive than others ( Präsan- gika Vastu : Prakarī ) which also help the principal plot but on a small scale.2 These activities belonged to charac- ters who are fully or half divine, infernal, human beings etc. Sometimes there may be ascribed activities to objects and phenomena of Nature or to animals and beasts. The Sanskrit drama, thus, in its plot has canvas so extensive and comprehensive as to include any and everything -- animate or inanimate-in this world.3 These objects and their different activities are not all of them equally attrac- tive, and, therefore, all do not receive equal treatment at the hands of the playwright. It is the difference in their

1. D. R. I. 15. 2. D. R. I. 13. 3. N. S. (K. S. .S) I. 104.

101 treatment which makes him a superb artist. Only those which are engrossing due to fascination deserve detailed treatment, others to keep the link unbroken are only hinted or accorded summary disposal in suggestion.1 When they are pleasure-giving but inappropriate, indecent and dry they are indicated in any of the following ways : Praveśaka (the introductory scence), Viskambhaka (the Explanatory scene ), Chūlikā (the Intimation), Ankāsya (the Anticipa- tory scene) and Ankāvatāra (the Continuous scene ). In the Praveśaka low characters figures carrying on conversa- tion which is not dignified and hinting at incidents, past and future. It occurs between two acts. It can, thus, never come before the first act.2 The Viskambhaka indicates briefly the portions bearing on past and future of the story through characters of middle status. It occurs before an act and is either pure ( Suddha ) when one or more middle characters figure or mixed (Miśra) when characters are middle and low.3 The Chūlika intimates incidents through characters standing behind the curatin.4 It has been fur- ther divided by some authorities into two kinds : Chūlikā and Khandachūlika. In the first, only those characters who stand behind the curtain intimate events. This inti- mation may be made either at the beginning, or in the middle, of an act, and as characters do not make entry or exit it is not reckoned as a part of the act. In the second, that is, the Khandachūlikā some characters stand behind the curtain and others are seen on the stage. They all

1. D. R. I. 57. 2. Ibid I. 60-61 (with com.) 3. Ibid I. 59-60. 4. Ibid I. 61.

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carry on detailed conversation. It, therefore, occurs at the beginning of an act, and as there is no necessity for the characters to make entry or exit it is not considered as forming part of an act.1 Some say that it is to be regarded as the Vişkambhaka but Śinga Bhūpāla rejects the view on the ground that, in the latter, conversation with a character who has not entered the stage is not possible. It may, however, be regarded as the beginning of the Viskambhaka ( Vişkambha).2 The Ankāsya indicates the events of the succeeding act through characters at the end of the act.3 The Ankāvatāra is the continuous opening of the succeeding act with the act. In other words, it is the starting of the succeeding act in continuation with the events depicted at the end of the act.4 When the incidents are intimately connected with what is to be indicated or actually repre- sented they are to be inferred. Others which are dis- gusting or obscene are to be avoided. Then again these events may be such as some of them may be heard by all, others may be meant for select ears and a few not to be heard by any other except the speaker. . This is a division of the plot wholly controlled by the requirement of the stage and, thus, wholly restricted to the stage. That which is to be heard by all is Prakāśa ( Aloud ) and that which is to be heard by the speaker alone is Aśrāvya (Aside ). That which is meant for a select few is Niyataśrāvya which is of two kinds. The first is Janāntika (Personal, address ) in which mutual invitation is made with the Tripatāka hand

1. R. S. III. 183-186. 2. Ibid III. 187-188. 3. D. R. I. 62. 4. Ibid.

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and the course of the story is obstructed; the second is Apavārita (a Confidence) when a character turns aside and discloses the secrets to other. There is, however, an other device which fulfils the requirement of the stage. It is the Ākāśabhāșita ( Speaking in the air ) wherein a character addresses another ( though none else is present) as 'What do you say ?' and poses hearing even though no reply is received.1 Another method usually met with in the Sanskrit drama is Karne (In the ear, i. e., Whispering ). The plot which consists of all the above detailed activities is just like an organism and is to be seen first in its germs ( Bīja ). The germs or seeds are slightly seen in the begin- ing but attain expansion in many ways. 'It is the cause which results in the final aim and is to be shown in five stages namely, (1) sown, (2) sprouted, (3) obstructed ( or rising aloft), (4) sought after and finally, (5) fructified.'2 The seeds finally go to the stage of fruition (Kārya). The Kārya is the final fruition in the form of attaining the Dharma or the Artha or the Kama or the Moksa. It is the last stage in the evolution and development of the Bīja. The seeds may become entangled with other events and thus checked in, or diverted from, their right path. The necessity, there- fore, of a connection is felt. It is satisfied by the connecting link ( Bindu) which is variously interpreted and classified. 'Its analogy is described in a drop of oil expanding on the surface of ocean.'3 'It is of two kinds due to haughtiness (Māna ) and adversity (Vipatti). The first arises out of

1. D. R. I. 63-67. 2. N. L. R. K. p. 7. 3. D. R. I. 17 (with Com.)

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anger, the second from sorrow.'1 'Just as the drop of water falling at intervals from the ends of hem ( of a cloth ) suggests the fall of water even though its current has been obstruc- ted, so this ( Bindu ) does the main purpose, for example, when the purpose has been impeded (in its course) that which brings about a connection till the attainment of the final fruit is called the Bindu. Others say that it is the real nature of Nataka and is all along talked about through in- sult ( Avamāna ) and encouragement ( Utsāha ) in every act.'2 These three elements together with the Patākā which has been interpreted thus, 'As the flag wrapped over the staff and posted at only one place indicates the presence of the whole army so this ( Patākā ) though occurring at one place in Nāțaka illuminates the whole of it ...... Others des- cribe grossly the Patākā as nothing but the incidents of the Upanāyaka ( the secondary hero ),'3 and the Prakarī are called the five Arthaprakrtis ( elements ) of the plot. The seeds if not properly seen to their development are sure to die. They have potentiality but are in a way lifeless. The Kārya also is lifeless as it does not develop further. It depends on the seeds, which form the principal thing and the Kārya the secondary, though both are inanimate. The Bindu, the Patākā and the Prakarī help the seeds to grow into the Karya hence they appear as animate. The Bindu ( among these ) is the principal thing, others are secondary as their introduction in between the germs ( seeds ) and the Kārya is not equally necessary.4 The plot at first in seeds finally

1. B. P. lines 15-16. p. 204. 2. N. L. R. K. pp. 7-8. 3. Ibid pp. 8-9. 4. N. D. pp. 41-42.

105 leading to the Kārya is to be marked in its stages of develop- ment as in the case of every other organism. The sowing of the seeds is its beginning towards the final stage, the Kārya. It is marked by curiosity for the attainment of the final result. This constitutes the first stage ( Arambha) but when it is not attained, hasty effort towards the result is the second stage (Prayatna). The effort made is continued but chances of destrucion are also coming in, hence the state of suspense is maintained though the possibility of attainment is also seen. This stage is the third ( Prāptyāśā) in the development of plot. Chances of destruction gra- dually evaporate and the attainment of the final aim becomes definite. This is the penultimate stage (Niyatāpti), the last one representing the final fruit attained ( Phalayoga or Phalägama ). These are the stages of the incidents and events forming the plot.1 They allow scope to the play- wright for his dexterous hand. As the plot is like an or- ganism wherein everything is well ordered and connected, the five Arthaprakrtis (elements) and the five Avasthās (stages ) of the plot are so combined as to make every inci- dent connected. The Bīja, the Bindu, the Patākā, the Prakarī and the Kārya are respectively combined with the Ārambha, the Prayatna, the Prāptyāśā, the Niyatāpti and the Phalagama.2 The combinations give birth to the Mukha (opening ), the Pratimukha ( Progression), the Gar- bha (Development), the Avamarśa (Pause) and the Nirvahana (Conclusion ) Sandhis ( Junctures ) which may be analogous to the different junctures of the development of the human body with advancing age (Vayahsandhis ). In

1. D. R. I. 20-22. 2. Ibid I. 22-23.

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may show each as Dhīrā (self-controlled), Dhīrādhīrā (partly self-controlled) and Adhīra (lacking in self-control). Each of these may be older or younger. Each of the Anyā in her two divisions, the Sādhāranastrī and the Svīyā with all her kinds (13 in all as shown above) may occupy eight different relations to her lover. She may be Svādhīnabhartrkā (she his absolute mistress and he always exclusively devoted to her), or Vāsakasajjā (fully dressed and delightfully awaiting his arrival) or Virahotkanthitā (uneasy on his delay due to no fault of his own) or Khandita (harsh with jealousy on knowing on his body the marks of the company with another lady) or Kalahāntaritā (driven him away by a quarrel and then felt remorse; Rudrabhatta calls her Sandhitā, Abhisandhitā and Atisandhitā)1 or Vipralabdhā (deceived by his failure to come to the appointed place) or Prositapriyā (her husband gone away to a distant place on some business) or Abhisārikā2 (smitten with love going herself to him or making him come to her to an appointed place as farm, garden, dilapidated temple, house of the go-between, forest etc.3). Rudrabhatta says that Abhisārika is of three kinds according as she is one's own wife, another's wife or coutezan.4 The love-tryst may be kept either in day or in moonlit night or dark night. These different times give three kinds of Abhisārikās as Bhanudatta in the Rasamañjarī puts it.5 He also establishes after a hard discussion a ninth kind called Pravatsyatpatikā (whose husband is about to depart).6 All these different kinds

1. S. T. I. 72 & 77. 2. D. R. II. 15-20 ; 23-27. 3. S. D. III. 80. 4. S. T. I. 84. 5. B. R. M. pp. 140-142. 6. Ibid p. 146.

122 of heroines may be of high, middle, or low status, thus all coming to three hundred and eighty four in number.1 There may be other divisions by permutation and combination which, however, can be multiplied to a still larger number.2 All this testifies to the keen insight of the Sanskrit dramatur- gists into the human nature which was their main concern in the drama as it helped them to produce the effect intended. Inside the palace there are other female characters some of whom occupy very high positions by virtue of their affectionate relations with the hero, while others look after different duties and attend upon him. These are Mahadevīs who are crowned queens coming of high family, having high character, endowed with qualities, of middle age, becoming angry at times, free from jealousy, familiar with nature of the king (who is the hero), passing through thick and thin with their lord, ever wishing and seeking for their lord's welfare, calm and quiet, self-controlled and engaged in the welfare of the inner apartments. These, however, sometimes serve as Pratināyikās of heroines. The Nāțikā type of drama furnishes the instance. Pratināyikās have also been recognized by some authorities. Then there are Devīs who are endowed with above qualities but lack in fine impressions, proud of their good fortune, given to affectionate enjoyments, of pure and brilliant appearance, jealous of their rivals and beautiful on account of youth and handsome form ; and Svāminīs who are the daughters of generals, ministers or servants honoured by the king (the hero) with affection ; they are the beloved of the king because of their beauty, qualities and habits.3 Some other types of

1. S. D. III. 56-87. 2. Ibid III. 88. 3. N. S. (K. S. .S) XXXIV. 32-38 ..

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concubines are Sthāpitās and Bhoginīs. There are other female characters as Silpakāriņīs, Nāțakīyās, Nartikās, Anuchārikās, Parichārikās, Sañchārikās, Preșaņachārikās, Mahattarīs, Pratihārīs, Kumārīs (young maidens), Sthavirās ( old ladies ) and Ayuktikäs.1 These all serve the hero ( and the heroine) in various capacities as described by Sanskrit dramaturgists.2 Bhoja recognizes four kinds of Nāyikās. They are Nāyikā ( the heroine endowed with all the qualities figuring throughout the whole plot), Pratināyikā ( the heroine's rival and cause of jealousy etc. ), Upanāyikā ( venerable and possessed of qualities and merits less than the heroine's ) and Anunāyikā (the heroine's younger sister on the same level with, or a little deficient than, the heroine ). Those who appear like the Nāyikā may be Nāyikābhāsa.3 He also recognizes four kinds of Nāyakas. They are Nāyaka (the hero endowed with all the qualities figuring through the whole plot), Pratināyaka (the hero's rival, unjust, stubborn and the hero's victim), Upanāyaka(venerable and possessed of qualities and merits less than the hero's) and Anunāyaka ( the hero's younger brother on the same level with, or a little deficient than, the hero ).4 Those who appear like the hero may be Nāyakābhāsa.5 He recognizes one more kind, Ubhayābhāsa (Nāyakanāyikābhāsa ).6 In case of birds figuring as heroes and heroines he recognizes Nāyakābhāsas and Nāyikābhāsas.7 Bhānudatta also recognizes Nāyakābhāsa.8

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXIV. 29-31. 2. Ibid XXXIV. 39-56. 3. B. S. K. V. 105-107. 4. Ibid V. 103-104. 5. Ibid V. 107. 6. Ibid V. 102. 7. Ibid. 8. B. R. M. p. 181.

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To the heroine the persons as help are Dūtīs (messengers), Dāsīs (maid-servants ), Sakhīs (companions ), Kārūs (washer-women), Dhātreyīs ( foster-sisters ), Prativeśikās (female neighbours), Linginīs (Buddhist-Nuns) and Śilpinīs (female painters) etc.1 The heroine when becoming affectionate towards the hero displays certain expressions as Bhāva, Hāva, Helā etc. some of which areexpressed through the body voluntarily. Some are involuntary while others natural.2 In the communication of news or in escort of ladies Kārakas, Kañchukīyas, Varşavaras, Aupasthāyikas and Nirmuņdas (eunuchs) are to be employed. For different duties of Devīs Brähmanas, old in age, skilful and free from defects in arts are to be appointed.3 Vaitālikas praise the hero and describe particular seasons. There are also other persons who are to be engaged inside the palace. They are Kiratas, Mūkas, Vāmanas, Mlechchhas, Ābhīras and Śakāra.4 The latter's sister is the concubine of the king ; he, therefore, exercises his powers to unpardonable limits and can pose as very high as well as very low. The hero has his help in an other character who figures as hero in the Patākā. He is called Pīthamarda who is clever and devoted to the principal hero. Rudra- bhatta says that he may also be the attendant of the heroine.5 He stands lower than the principal hero because of being deficient in ceratin qualities. In the main plot there is another male character, Pratināyaka, who is avaricious, self-controlled and vehement, stubborn, sinner, vicious and the enemy of the

1. D. R. II. 29. 2. Ibid II. 30-42. 3. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXIV. 62, 65-66. 4. D. R. II. 44-45. 5. S. T. I. 30.

125 principal hero. He is far surpassed by the principal hero who is rich in qualities springing from the essence of nature (Sāttvika)1 which make the opponent pale into insignificance in all possible ways. The principal hero, therefore, appears in more brilliant colours when placed in contrast with him. In the Bengal Vaişnava system, however, Krșna is the hero possessed of all qailities. He may be present in ' Svarūpa, that is ,as Krsna in himself, or 'Anyarūpa', that is, as some- times he appears as a boy. When in Svarupa, he may be Āvțta (assuming disguise) or Prakața (without any disguise). He is possessed of 64 qualities. With reference to devotees (Bhaktāpekșika) he is of three kinds : (1) Pūrnatama (most complete when all the qualities became expressed in him as in Gokula), (2) Pūrņatara (more complete when all the qualities were not expressed as in Mathurā) and (3) Pūrņa (complete when only a few qualities were expressed as in Dvārikā). As Rūpa Goswāmī himself says, they correspond to kinds of heroes as Śrestha, Madhyama etc. in orthodox Sanskrit dramaturgy. Krsna is again of four kinds as Dhīrodātta, Dhīralalita, Dhīrapraśānta and Dhīroddhata. These kinds, no doubt, correspond with those in the ortho- dox system but the difference lies in this that whereas in the latter the heroes belonging to these kinds are different, the hero in the former is only one, that is, Krsna. Rūpa Gosvāmī says that no objection can arise here as Krsna possesses various qualities and activities. In case of the kind, Dhiro- ddhata, wherein many defects are present, the author points out that because Krsna is engaged in special sports these defects lose their vitiative touch and turn into merits. The hero is possessed of eight Sāttvika qualities as said in the 1. D. R. II. 10.

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orthodox dramaturgy also.1 Krsna may be Pati or Upapati. In his character as a lover he may be Anukūla or Dakșiņa or Satha or Dhrsta. The above relationship is in consonance with the standpoint in the orthodox Sanskrit dramaturgy.2 The hero has certain characters to help him on in his various activities. In the pursuit of religious activities they are Garga etc .; in the war Yuyudhana etc .; in counsel Uddhava etc.3 and in love affairs Cheta, Vita, Vidūşaka, Pīțhamarda (who helps in the Vīra also), Priya- narmasakha, Svayamdūtī and Āptadūtī. Each has been defined as a helpto the hero; the last two are female characters as Vīrā, Vrndā etc.4 He has out of the kinds of these female characters others who help the heroine also.5 The considera- tion of the heroine (Nāyikā), therefore, is to be made first. The heroines are styled first as Hariballabhas. They may be Svīyā or Parakīyā. The latter may be Kanyakā (virgin) or Parodhā (wife of another).6 The kind, Sāmānyā, is also accepted.7 Each of the kinds, Svīyā and Parakīyā, may be Mugdhā or Madhyā or Pragalbhā. Of these three Madhyā and Pragalbhā may each be Dhīrā, Adhīrā and Dhīrādhīrā. They have, according to their condition and relation to the hero, been further divided into eight kinds as Abhisārikā etc. According to the rank they hold in the affection of the hero each may be Uttamā or Madhyamā or Kanișthā.8 All

1. R. H. S. 17-100. pp. 123-181. 2. R. U. M. 9-36. pp. 8-31. 3. R. H. S. 101-102. p. 182. 4. R. U. M. 1-37, pp. 32-37. 5. Ibid 17, p. 37. 6. Ibid. pp. 39 & 43. 7. Ibid 8 p. 85. 8. Ibid. pp. 87-115.

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these kinds fairly correspond with those in orthodox Sanskrit dramaturgy with this difference that in this system the kind, Parakīyā, is recognized as the highest type of heroine, and Krsna as the best type of lover as an Upapati. In the above classification of the heroine this school, as already pointed out, resembles the rhetorical classification, but there is a further classification in this system which is not available in school of rhetorics. Nāyikās are Hariballabhhās and are of three kinds. They are Sādhanaparās, Devīs and Nitya- priyās mentioned as Sādhanasiddhās, Devīs and Nityasiddhās by De.1 Sādhanaparās are those engaged in efforts and have realized ; they are again of two kinds : Yauthikīs (belonging to a Yūtha or combinations of either Munis who became Gopīs as related in the Padmapurāņa or Upanișads who became Gopīs as said in the Purāņas) and Ayauthikīs (belonging to no combination but born alone, two or three in Vraja who, therefore, may be Prāchīnās or Navās). Devīs are Devayonis incarnated with Krsna; Nityapriyās are those who have perpetully attained realization without any effort. Out of these the set of eight consisting of Rādhā and Chandrāvali etc. is the most fortunate. They both stand out prominently but between them Rādhā is more prominent as she represents Mahābhāva and is possessed of all qualities.2 A whole section is devoted to the description of her qualities. The compa- nions of Rādhā have been described to be of five kinds : Sakhī, Nityasakhī, Prāņasakhi, Priyasakhī and Paramaśresthasakhī.3 According to her fortune in love each of the heroines may be Adhikā (excessive who may be Ātyantikyadhikā or Āpe-

1. V. F. M. B. p. 156. 2. R. U. M. pp. 51-59. 3. Ibid. pp. 78-79

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kşikādhikā), Samā (even) and Laghu (light who may be Āpekşikalaghu or Ātyantikalaghu). Of these each may be Prakharā (sharp), Madhyā (equable) and Mrdvī (mild).1 Hariballabhas according to the attitude towards the rival may again be divided into four kinds : Svapakșā (interested in self), Suhrtpaksā (partial to her friend), Tatasthā (indiffe- rent) and Pratipakşakā (hostile). De calls Pratipakșakā as Vipakșā.2 Rūpa Gosvāmī says that the second and the third have been mentioned only incidentally and that it is only the first and the fourth who are conducive to Rasa. The second kind may again be Iştasādhaka (doing good) or Anișțabā- dhaka (averting evils) ; and the fourth may be Istahā (destro- ying the desired object) or Anistakāraka (doing undesired object) through various causes and devices.3 To the kinds of Sakhī according to such consideration as her nature etc. a whole section is devoted, most probably to bring out her importance in this system . Even among these kinds some are more important than others.4 As De says, "Without her the blissful erotic sport of Krsna and Rādhā is not nourished, nor does it expand. No one has access to the sport except the privileged Sakhis and those devotees who imitate (through Rāgānugā mode) their attitude."5 Out of these Sakhīs who act as help to the hero and the heroine both, some act as Dutīs who are of two kinds : Svayamdūtī (who acts as her own messenger bringing about union through words, gestures and expressions of the eye) and Āptadūtī (a

1. R. U. M. pp. 118-125. 2. V. F. M. B. p. 157. 3. R. U. M. pp. 194-197. 4. Ibid. pp. 154-193. 5. V. F. M. B. p. 158 (Footnote).

129 freind reliable to death is employed as messenger). The latter is again of three kinds : Amitārthā (who brings about the union of the lover and the beloved after having known emotions of either through signs), Nisrstārtha (who fulfils the activities of both completely) and Patrahārī(who carries messages of both). The last kind includes the Śilpakārī (female artisan), Daivajñā (female astrologer), Linginī (female ascetic), Parichārikā (maid-servant), Dhātreyī (foster sister), Vanadevī (silvan deity) and Sakhī (female com- panion) etc.1 (3) Actors, Actresses, their Assistants. The actors etc. are imitators of the characters in different situations and circumstances. When a particular dramatic piece is represented on the boards, the actors carry on activi- ties in place of the original characters identifying themselves with them both in appearance and action to as great an extent as possible. They resort to various devices through which the spirit of the original activities of the characters is brought home to the spectators. The devices serve as media which received a thorough consideration at the hands of the dramaturgists. The acting, therefore, of the actors is an art which requires study and practice. 'Indian acting or dancing-the same word, Nātya, covers both ideas-is thus a deliberate art. Nothing is left to chance; the actor no more yields to the impulse of the moment in gesture than in the spoken word.'2 The actor has to undergo a regular training. An amateur actor has, practically speaking, no place in the Indian dramatic representation, for his personal

1. R. U. M. pp. 126-145. 2. M. G. p. 18. 9

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skill and dexterity have hardly any scope here. 'Precisely as the text of the play remains the same whoever the actor may be, precisely as the score of a musical composition is not varied by whomsoever it may be performed, so there is no reason why an accepted gesture-language (angikābhinaya) should be varied with a view to set off advantageously the actor's personality.It is the action, not the actor, which is essential to dramatic art. Under these conditions, of course, there is no room for any amateur upon the stage ; in fact, the amateur does not exist in oriental art.'1 The above passage does not accept variation in the Āngikābhinaya only, but other kinds of Abhinaya also cannot suffer variation. It is true that in the Vāchikābhinaya there may be difference in tone and modulation of voice which is a personal factor, but the particular injunctions in that Abhinaya also have to be followed ; the actor who ignores them and merely exhibits himself through his personal dexterity is altogether eliminated and as such no difference exists between good and bad actor considered on his own particular merits. The beauty and excellence in acting, of course, lie in making the studied things appear perfectly spontaneous and natural. And to effect this there have been laid down some dramatic con- ventions (Natyadharmī). The body, health, actions and the nature of the actors should as far as possible be in fitness with all these equipments in the original characters in order that the former may be fully taken up for the latter.2 The servants and the slaves must be represented by persons who are slow, dwarfish, crooked, distorted, of ugly face, squint-

1. M. G. p. 18. 2. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV. 6-8.

131 eyed, fat, of very prominent chins and noses, of ugly dress and bad-natured; those who are physically lean and thin must represent the fatigued, the exhausted and the sick ; whereas others who are fat should take roles of the healthy characters.1 The different roles should be assigned in accordance with the suitability in points of the particular regions from which characters hail, their dress and resemblance in their personal appearance and make-up2 in order that representation may appear natural. Men may take men's roles and women women's in fitness with their age and sex. The young may take the role of the old and vice versa and the role of men may be taken by women and vice versa. These three kinds of representation have been mentioned by Bharata. They are called the Anurūpā, the Virūpā and the Rupānusāriņī.3 The first and the third receive his approval.4 The third was prevalent even in times of Patañjali in whose Mahābhāsya the word, Bhrūkumśa, in the sense of man in the role of female occurs (VI. 1. 103 ; see Pradīpa and Udyota also). The mild representation wherein mortals exclusively or mortals and gods both figure is to be made by ladies for they are fit persons for such things. The lady who is to take the role of the heroine should have beautiful and handsome appearance, merits, character, youth, sweetness and vitality. She should be of fair complexion, affectionate, sweet-tempered, of sweet words, capable, agitated within restraint, conversant with tunes and notes and possessed of the knowledge of senti- ments.5 The courtezan should be well efficient in graceful

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV. 2-5. 2. Ibid. XXXV. 8. 3. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV. 17-19. 4. Ibid. XXXV. 20. 5. Ibid. XXXV. 62-64.

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manners, fully adept in emotions, possessed of vitality, modesty and sweetness, conversant with 64 arts, clever in the prescribed behaviour towards kings and free from female defects. She should speak sweet words, should have a fund of sweet stories and should be expert in sweet things. She should not show herself easily fatigued.1 In the violent representation wherein gods and demons figure, where fierce and tumultous deeds are perpetrated, where there is no chance for women except one or two to figure, men of violent temperament, of great strength and power should take roles. Bharata calls these two kinds of repre- sentation Sukumāra (mild or soft) and Āviddha (turbulent or agitated).2 Persons imitating the activities in these repre- sentations go under various particular names but there are ceratin general names also. These general names are Śailūșa, Bharata, Kuśīlava, Nata etc. out of which the last is mostly used. He is called a Nața because 'he gives representation of the affairs of the world with sentiments and emotions.'3 'He is devoted to fame and religion, calm, acquainted with the lives of persons of reputed familes, expert in Nātya in its six divisions, adept in the four kinds of Atodya (musical arts), pious, clever, well-versed in acting, discriminating in sentiments and emotions, possessed of the knowledge of costumes and the dialects and the languages of different regions, proficient in arts and crafts, conversant with words, metres and vocabulaty, equipped with the understanding of all the fundamental principles, rid of jealousy and defects, bold in actual representation, well-steeped in the knowledge

1. N. S. (K. S. S. ). XXXV. 60-62. 2. Ibid. XXXV. 30. 3. Ibid. XXXV. 73.

133 of the signs, facial expressions and physical manifestations, fully conversant with nature and temperament of different types of people, knowing science, capable of identifying himself as one with characters as the hero etc., appreciative of paintings, a connoisseur of the pigments and colours used in painting and fully adept in mixing the prime colours to produce mixed colours of various tints.'1 'A Śailūșa is so called because after having assumed the concerned roles he manifests emotions of people of different nature. He is called a Bharata who imitates others in dress, age, actions and gestures through their languages, dialects, colours and other means.'2 'Kusilavas are those who are expert in identifying themselves with the original characters through assumption of different kinds of roles, and representation of action, speech and gestures.'3 Bharata, however, makes them expert in instrumental music and engaged in the arrange- ment of different Atodya.4 The chief of these Natas who is to look after the whole affair of representaion is the Sūtradhāra. He is the man at the helm and is the instructor of other actors in the art. As he is the head, he is to be the ideal for others ; consequently he is to be possessed of many qualities natural, physical and intellectual.5 The other character who helps him is the Pāripārśvaka who has a few qualities less than the Sūtradhāra's .6 The Sūtradhāra may be objected to being mentioned above as one of the Natas because his function

1. B. P. Lines 10-20 p. 226. 2. Ibid. Lines 1-4. p. 288. 3. Ibid. Lines 19-20. p. 288. 4. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV. 84. 5. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV, 45-53 ; B. P. Lines 7-10 & 13-14. p. 288. 6. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV. 53; B. P. Lines 11-12. p. 288.

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is general and he does not take a particular role. But the objection appears groundless on two considerations. Firstly, he is mentioned as such in the Avaloka com. on D.R. III.2 and is to be deduced in the following way :'The two words, Anyo Natah, mean another Nata which may stand for the Sthäpaka. As he is another Nata, there must be one who is to be mentioned before him. The Sūtradhāra is mentioned before him, therefore, the Sūtradhāra is a Nața ;' and secondly, he took the role of the hero Vatsa in the Ratnāvali and the Priyadarsikā. He also assumed the female role as he played Kāmandakī in the Mālatīmādhava. The Pāri- pārśvaka, too, assumed role as he played Kāmandakī's pupil, Avalokitā in the above drama.1 In some treatises the Sūtradhāra is called Bhāva and the Pāripārśvaka Mārșa. The Sthäpaka is another character who had certain duties to perform. He was not on a par with the Sūtradhāra as his qualities were less than the Sūtradhāra's. He was not to aid the Sūtradhāra in the construction of the stage as Keith puts it,2 but was to indicate the main object of the dramatic work.3 In some dramas, therefore, he does not appear as his function is performed by the Sūtradhāra.Other Națas assume roles of characters in the dramatic work to be represented on the boards, but they have to satisfy as far as possible the requirements of such characters in order to appear like them to the spectators. To help these Natas in successful assumption of the above roles there are other characters also whose roles have to be taken. These are Mukutakaras (makers of crowns or head-gears), Ābharanakrts (makers

1. K. S. D. p. 362. 2. Ibid. p. 361. 3. D. R. III. 2 (Com. Sa Cha Kāvyārthasthāpanāt Sūchanāt Sthāpakaḥ).

135 of ornaments), Mālyakrts (makers of garlands), Veșakaras (makers of dresses), Chitrakaras (painters), Rajakas (washer- men), Kārukas (makers of things with lack, stone, iron and wood) and Śilpins (sculptors) etc. All these characters, principal and secondary, are of high status or middle status or low status. All these are to be in keeping with those of the original characters themselves. This accounts for the fact that in the dramatic representation as far as possible resemblance should always be the main consideration. The aim, however, is not achieved merely if the actor appears outwardly just like the original character whose role he has taken ; he should also think in his mind that he is nothing but that particular character and thus play his part through the graceful manifestation of speech, movements of limbs and gait and gesticulation in the same manner as the soul which has relinquished one body and has occupied another body behaves in an other way and expresses itself as possessed of another nature.1 It is this graceful acting as a profession which gave to an actor the privilege of the company of high persons. Bharata, the father of Sanskrit dramaturgy, ranks as Muni and is the director of the dramatic representation in heaven as mentioned in the seventeenth stanza of the second act of the Vikramorvaśīya. Vatsa in the Priyadarśikā plays the part with pleasure. Such references occur in dramatic and other works in plenty which testify to the high esteem in which the eminent exponents of the profession were held. In social matters, however, the actor occupied a low position. In the beginning of the Adbhutadarpana disgust is expressed

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXXV. 13-14.

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at the livelihood of a Sailūsa. References of this nature occur at several places ; but the consideration from the two aspects is from two angles of vision. That the art of actor as such was honoured stands as an undoubted fact. (4) Abhinaya (Acting). The actors imitate the characters in their different activi- ties. In order to do this they have not only to carry out actions which the characters once performed but have also to imitate them in their dress, speech and movements with the imitation of various objects, articles and materials which the characters really used. The actors, therefore, have to be first acquainted with the ways, manners etc. involved in the characters' different activities which go under the name ' Vrtti'.1 Bharata gives a mythical account of the different kinds of Vrtti. 'When the god Visnu had reduced the world to an ocean after having contracted the world through his power of Maya, he slept on the serpent bed. At that time two demons, Madhu and Kaitabha, intoxicated with prowess wished to fight and challenged Visnu. They ran towards him and produced tumultous noise throwing taunts and aspersions. When the Grandfather Brahma heard them roaring he shook in his mind and said, " Is it that the Bhārati Vrtti is evolved out of words ? Kindly do bring them, who are gradually becoming more and more violent, to destruction." The god Visnu replied, "This, the Bhāratī Vrtti, is created in order to serve the performance of the actions. This Bharati Vrtti will consist mostly of words as it is used in speech. I am this day killing them." With pure and unchanged Angas and Angahāras (bodily postures

1. B. P. Line. 14. p. 12; D. R. II. 47.

137 and gestures) Visnu fought the two demons expert in warfare. With the plantings of feet and contacts with the spots on the ground the earth was heavily burdened. Out of it came the Bharatī Vrtti. The Sāttvatī Vrtti was porduced out of Visnū's leapings and jumpings which were violent, brilliant, bold and confident and predominating with Sattva. When the god tied the braid of the top with wonderful Angahāras born out of the graceful movements the Kaisiki Vrtti had its birth. The Arabhati Vrtti came into being from the wonder- ful Karanas as used in fight, full of violence and force of wrath and born of the different kinds of Chārī. '1 'After that, these were called the Vrttis of the Natya connected with different emotions and sentiments and also the bases of different emotions and sentiments.'2 'Then by the order of Brahma, I (Bharata) arranged these, born out of the Nātya Veda and conisting of Abhinaya of speech and movement of the body, for the composition of poetry, the Bhāratī Vrtti from the Rg Veda, the Sattvati from the Yajur Veda, the Kaisiki from the Sāma Veda and the Ārabhațī from the Atharva Veda.'3 'That in which the speech predominates, which is to be used by men, in which women have no place, in which Sanskrit sentences are used, which is used by Bharatas (actors) and is connected with their names is called the Bharati Vrtti. It has four kinds which serve as its parts. They are the Prarochana, the Mukha, the Vithi and the Prahasana.'4 'That which has got the Sattva attribute, is

1. N. S. (K. S. S.). XXII. 2-14. 2. Ibid XXII. 20-21. 3. Ibid XXII. 22-24. 4. Ibid XXII. 25-26.

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connected with appropriate subject-mater, full of happiness and delight and in which the sorrowful emotions have been compressed is called the Sāttvatī Vrtti. It has four kinds : the Utthapaka, the Parivartaka, the Samlāpaka and the Sanghātaka.'1 'That is called the Kaisikī Vrtti which is variegated with the particular graceful costumes, which is connnected with ladies, which is rich in rhythmic movements and songs and in which civilities born of the enjoyment of love predominate. The Narma, the Narmasphūrja, the Narmasphota and the Narmagarbha are its four kinds.'2 'The Ārabhațī Vrtti abounds in qualities as boldness, tricks and deceitful words, bragging and false statements. Allusions, falls, jumpings, crossings and such others, conjurings etc. arranged through illusions and other wonderful deeds occur in it. The Sanksiptaka, the Avapāta (the Avaghāta), the Vastūtthāpana and the Sampheta are its kinds.'3 Sāradātanaya also records the above tradition with one change which is to the effect that the Bharati Vrtti was uttered by the Bharatas hence called after their name. He mentions one more view. When the god Brahmā was witnessing the representation, the four Vrttis along with the four primary Rasas came out of his four mouths.4 Singa Bhūpāla records the origin of the four Vrttis in the same way as Bharata.5 The above detailed account of the Vrttis clearly bears witness to the fact that the Vrttis comprehended under them everything connected with the heroes in any way. Rājaśekhara describes the origin

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXII. 38 & 41. 2. Ibid. XXII. 47-48. 3. Ibid. XXII. 56-57 & 59. 4. B. P. Lines. 8-11. p. 12. 5. R. S. I. 244-260.

139 of Pravrttis, Vrttis and Rītis in a dramatic way. Aumeīy was pleasing Särasvateya and in that connection they came into being. He explains each of the three as a separate thing. The Pravrtti deals with the manner of arrangement of dress, the Vrtti with that of the graces and the Riti with that of words.1 But as discussed above the Vrtti is a very wide concept and it includes the Pravrtti and the Rīti also. 'In a way, Vrtti comprehends both the Pravrtti and the Riti, for it is the name of the whole field of human activity. Therefore it is that we find the inclusion of graceful dress -- Ślakşņa-Nepathya -- which is Pravrtti (Dāksiņātyā), as part of the definition of the Kaisikī Vrtti. Similarly the Sättvatī has exchange of hot words and thus comprehends the realm of the Rītis also.'2 Bharata mentions four Vrttis only but later on there arose another one called the fifth Vrtti which was an Artha Vrtti.3 Śāradātanaya refutes it and says that some authorities advanced in its absence an other one called the Viśrāntā.4 Bhoja adds two more Vrttis to the traditional four. They are the Madhyama Kaiśikī and the Madhyama Ārabhațī.5 Vidyānātha also mentions these two.6 All these Vrttis contain every activity, every 1. K. M. p. 9. N. B. It is to be remarked here in connection with the above Foot- note 2 that the Kaisiki Vrtti was the exclusive concern of the ladies, for when Bharata submitted to the Grandfather that males were unable to act it, the Grandfather created for it the Apsarasas out of his mind. (N. S. 'K. S. S.' I 46-47). 2. S. P. R. p. 209. 3. D. R. II. 61. 4. B. P. Lines. 6-7. p. 12. 5. S. P. R. p. 204. 6. P. R. 23. p. 61.

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movement, in a word every detail connected with the charac- ters. They are, therefore, called the mothers of represen- tation 'Natyamatarah.'1 'The poet first fixes all these Vrttis in his mind and then produces the particular work. They exist even in a composition which is not meant for repre- sentation as nothing devoid of activity is fit to be described. The representation of the dramatic piece proper starts after the preliminaries called the Pürvaranga have been obser- ved. During that time hardly any activity is depicted hence no Vrtti is to be seen. This, however, should not be counted as a defect, for even with it (the so called de- fect) the drama can be called Vrttimaya because it abounds in Vrttis. Similarly when a character goes into trance it cannot be said that the representation at that time is not Vrttimaya. The Nātya is called Vrttimaya due to abun- dance of activities in it.'2 In these Vrttis various items for imitation are to be found. They were all intermixed in the sense that elements present in one were not its exclu- sive and particular contents. But they were so named due to the predominance of one element or another. 'Though they are intermixed they are counted as four because of particular constitutents predominating in each.'3 Sāgaranan- din specifies the element preponderating in each in the following way : 'The Vāchika (verbal) in the Bhāratī, the Sāttvika (psychic) in the Sāttvatī, the Āhārya (sartorial) in the Kaisikī and the Āngika (bodily) in the Ārabhațī.'4

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 4; N. D. p. 152. ?. N. D. p. 152. 3. Ibid. p. 152. Ataḥ Sankīrņatvepyamśaprādhānyāpekśayā Vrttayaś Chatasraḥ, 4. N. L. R. K. p. 44.

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The dramatists wrote the plot and showed characters in different activities. When the dramatic piece is put on the boards, those different activities in their suggestions have to be made clearly intelligible to the spectators. For this the actors make use of different means the majority of which may be relating to his own physique. A clear proof is thus borne to the fact that the actors have to be perfect masters over their own movements and actions. These means the actor in the dramatic representation em- ploys making them as his own by demonstrating them as his personal concern. He thus brings to the understanding of the spectators1 what was actually or apparently done by characters. These different means have been classified into four kinds : the Āngika, the Vāchika, the Sāttvika and the Āhārya. The Āngika Abhinaya may be relating to body, face or movements. All these have to be demons- trated with all their parts and sub-parts.2 The parts are the head, hand, breast or chest, sides, waist and feet, and the sub-parts are eyes, brows, nose, lower lip, cheeks and chin. The movements, poses and gesticulations with their various parts make the actor suggest different objects to the spectators.3 The morning, persons on the earth, differ- ent planets, different seasons, beasts, gods, demons, rivers, the five Arthopaksepakas (means of indication of objects which are obscene etc.), poison etc. have all to be suggested through gesticulations and poses.4 Gestures for repre- senting the ten Avatāras (incarnations) of Vișnu, different 1. N. S. (K. S. S.) VIII. 6. 2. Ibid. VIII. 11. 3. Ibid. VIII-XII. 4. Ibid. XXVI.

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castes and various relations have been recorded in details along with others by Nandikeśvara also.1 The manners of walking of living beings according to their nature, different kinds of gait prescribed for persons filling up various offices, the gait of women taking up male roles and vice versa, speeds of different kinds of conveyances, velocity and movements of things falling down from higher places-are all to be represented through bodily gesticu- lations.2 The movements of the different parts of the body were utilized in dancing which should in a way be included in the Angika Abhinaya. Siva while witnessing the dra- matic representation of the Tripuradāha on the Himalayas was reminded of the dance with different postures and ges- tures of the body (Angahāras with Karanas and Rechakas). Śiva asked Tandu to tell it to Bharata at the request of Brahmā. Tandu did so.3 Śiva had indulged in this dance after the destruction of Daksa's sacrifice and the different postures were named Pindībandhas by Nandī etc.4 This type of dance was expressive of violent emotions; it was called Tandava because it was transferred by the god to Tāndin (Tandu).5 Pārvatī originated the mild type of dance when she saw Siva dancing.6 It was later on called Lāsya. It is to be borne in mind here that dancing was not enjoined as an indispensable element; it was simply to serve as an aid to beauty as Bharat's response to the

1. A. D. M. 216-244. 2. N. S. (K. S. S.) XIII. 3. N. S. (K. S. S.) IV. 9-18. 4. Ibid. IV. 248-255. 5. Ibid. IV. 257-258. 6. Ibid. IV. 247.

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query of the Rsis shows.1 The second kind, that is, the Vāchika Abhinaya deals with speech in all its constituents and parts. It constitutes the foremost means among all. Efforts should be made in practising it accurately as it is the structure of the representation, and all the parts of the human body, dress and essential factors suggested. The different Śāstras are composed of speech, they are based on speech, therefore, there is no other thing except speech. Speech is the cause of all effects. The substantive, verb, indeclinable, preposition, compounds, Taddhita, Sandhis (combinations) and the terminations are included in this kind. The Päthya (that which is to be read out) is of two kinds : Sanskrit and Präkrit.'2 The letters are to be pro- perly studied in their origin and use which should be appro- priate. For instance, the short, the long and the prolated vowels should be used in specific purposes.3 The different metres come under this kind of Abhinaya. They are to be read thoroughly and mastered for proper occasions. The 36 Laksanas were regarded by Bharata as a matter of Vāchika Abhinaya, though later on they became the subject of hot controversy. Dhanika says that they are absorbed in figures of speech as Simile etc.4 Viśvanātha also accepts at first no distinction between the Laksanas and the Nātyalankāras and then says that they are absorbed in some of the Gunas, figures of speech, Bhāvas and Sandhyan-

1 N. S. (K. S. S.) IV. 260-261 (The dance comprised of elements from different kinds of Abhinaya hence it will receive further attention later on.). 2. Ibid XV. 2-5. 3. Ibid XVII. 115. 4. D. R. IV. 84.

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gas. But he says that they should be given place in the Nataka and effort should be made in this direction.1 The Prākrit Pāthya is the opposite of the Sanskrit Pāthya as it is devoid of refinement.2 The assignment of different languages to different characters is a matter of the Vächika Abhinaya. It is a matter worth consideration in that the languages and the dialects are assigned to different characters on the basis of their differents ocial status as also their cul- ture which may account for the phonetic capacities. The languages and the dialects wherein Sanskrit and Prākrit are used have been classified into four kinds : the Atibhāșā, the Āryabhāșā, the Jātibhāșā and the Jātyantarībhāșā. The last one, it should be kept in mind, is the imitation of the different sounds made by wild and tame beasts, birds etc.3 The Präkrit dialects, originated in different parts of the country, are to be used by persons of those places. The dialect of the rustics, having very low position in the society, is called the Vibhāsā.4 Different forms of address befitting the status and the dignity of persons and different walks of life, the seven Svaras, the three Sthanas, the four Varnas, the Kākus, the six Alankāras, the six Angas etc. are included in the Vächika Abhinaya.5 The constituents of music as the Jatis etc. also received consideration. Music was put in as a part of the Vachika Abhinaya. Some

1. S. D. VI. p. 96. (For a detailed study of these Laksanas see chap. 1. in 'Some concepts of the Alankāra Śāstra' by Raghavan, The Adyar Library, Adyar, 1942.) 2. N. S. (K. S. S.) XVIII. 2. 3. Ibid. XVIII. 23-25 & 27-28. 4. Ibid. XVIII. 36-37. 5. Ibid. XIX.

145 have attached so much importance to it that they have tried to see even in the name Bharata nothing but a summary of the different constituents of music. In the word Bharata the constituents are explained thus : 'Bha-Bhava, feeling or emotion, Ra means Raga or musical mode and Ta means Tala-beating time in music by means of cymbals.'1 The third kind of Abhinaya is the Sattvika which deals with the representation of psychic conditions arising from the vital principle itself. Sveda (perspiration), Stambha (motion- lessness), Romāñcha (horripilation), Svarabhanga (change of voice), Vepathu (trembling), Vaivarnya (change of co- lour), Aśru (tears) and Pralaya (fainting) are the eight psy- chic conditions. It is but pertinent here to distinguish them from the Angika Abhinaya as some scholars seem to have misinterpreted them.2 They express the psychic conditions and do not depend on external things as the Āngika Abhinaya does. Being the product of the psyche, they pervade the whole body and cannot be put under con- trol or restraint as the Āngika Abhinaya can be. How they are to be represented on the stage has been treated in details in order to make spectators convinced as to their genuineness in the representation.3 One kind of Abhinaya sums up the ingredients of all the above three kinds with the addition of those of the fourth kind Āhārya to be con- sidered later on. It is born of speech, the parts of the body and the psyche and it also makes use of such things as or- naments etc. This fact accounts for its appellation, the Sāmānya Abhinaya (the common acting or the acting in which 1. T. I. S. p. iii (Introductory chap., Footnote). 2. K. S. D. p. 368. 3. N. S. (K. S. S.) VII. 93-105. 10

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ingredients of all kinds of Abhinaya are found together). The predominance of the Sättvika element is, however, asserted, as the Jyestha (high) Abhinaya has excess of the psychic manifestation. That in which the psychic element is equal in proportion with others is the Madhyama (middle). The Adhama (low) is devoid of the psychic element.1 The fourth kind of Abhinaya which is of high importance is the Āhārya Abhinaya. It depends on the Nepathya which may include the general make-up of the actors in dress, ornaments with paraphernalia, decorating and em- bellishing of the body, different stage properties and drama- tic devices as machinery, living beasts allowed to be intro- duced in course of the dramatic representation, different kinds of weapons to be used etc. It is of four kinds : the Pusta, the Alankāra, the Angarachanā and the Sañjīva. The Pusta is of three kinds : the Sandhima, the Vyājima, and the Chestima. The Sandhima is the object made up of boards, cloth, skins etc. The Vyajima is the object manipulated with the machine. The Chestima is the ob- ject which is moved about. Forests, conveyances, aerial cars, objects covered with skin, armours, banners and mountains shown in the representation go under the general name, the Pusta.2 The Alankāra includes Mālās (garlands), Ābharanas (ornaments) and Vāsas (dresses and robes). The garlands are of five kinds : the Chestita (moving about), the Vitata (extended), the Sanghātya (collected together), the Granthima (knotty) and the Pralambita (pendulous). The ornaments are of four kinds : the Avedya (earrings etc.), the Bandhanīya (armlets etc.), the Praksepya (anklets

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXIV. 2. 2. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXIII. 5-9.

147 etc. ) and the Āropya (necklace etc.).1 These ornaments differ in different parts of the country and according to different castes. They also differ as to fit different parts of the body of living beings of different regions. Bharata at first divides all sorts of covering into three kinds : the Śuddha (pure ), the Rakta ( red ) and the Vichitra ( variegated ). Then he says that dresses and robes are to be of three kinds: the Suddha ( pure ), the Vichitra ( variegated ) and the Malina ( dirty ).2 Persons in various walks of life, in different mental states and following various pursuits or belonging to differ- ent order are to put on dresses suitable to them. The Angarachanā consists in painting and decorating the parts of the body in fitness with the country, castes, age and nature. It also includes the general make-up of the beard, hair of the head etc.3 The Sañjiva is the introduction of living beings as quadrupeds ( wild and village cattle ), bi- peds (birds and human beings ), the footless (snakes etc.). These are to be introduced in battles, sieges and the like operations with many kinds of weapons and armours which should be in proportion to the size of persons using them.4 Other equipments as flag-staff, rod, head-gear, umbrella, chowrie, banner, jar etc. are also to be utilized. Special care is to be taken in the selection of the flag-staff of Indra's banner called the Jarjara which is used in the preliminaries of the dramatic representation. As said before dance has constituents which comprise elements from different kinds of Abhinaya, hence to treat it here is quite pertinent. The 1. N. S. (K. S. S. ) XXIII. 10-14. 2. Ibid. XXIII. 115-116. 3. Ibid. XXIII. 88-89. 4. Ibid. XXIII. 152-155.

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N. S. as shown before recognizes two kinds : the Tāndava (the violent dance of Siva ) and the Lāsya or Sukumāra ( the mild dance of Parvatī). The Tandava consists of poses and violent movements of the different parts of the body called the Rechitas, the Angaharas and the Pindibandhas. It was imparted by Siva to Tandin who in his turn changed it into a form of dance accompanied with songs and instru- mental music. Because of this fact it was called the Tān- dava. The Lāsya has been mentioned as having the follow- ing kinds : the Geyapada, the Sthitipāthya, the Āsīna, the Puspagandhikā, the Prachchhedaka, the Trimūdha, the Saindhava, the Dvimdha, the Uttamottaka, the Vichi- trapada, the Uktaprayukta and the Bhāva or Bhāvita.1 Dhanañjaya in the Daśarūpaka calls the Nrtya as the Mārga and the Nrtta as the Desi. He divides each into two kinds : the Madhura and the Uddhata. The Madhura is the Lāsya and the Uddhata is the Tandava.2 He again considers the former in connection with the Bhana where he says that the Lasya is of ten kinds : the Geyapada, the Sthitapathya, the Āsīna, the Puspagandikā, the Prachchhedaka, the Tri- gūdha, the Saindhava, the Dvigūdha, the Uttamottaka and the Uktapratyukta.3 The Abhinaya was, thus, one of the most cultivated arts in India. In it lay the highest contribution to the dramatic art. 'The highest contribution, however, to the art of the theatre, perhaps, lies in the Hindu actor's duty of represen- tation ( abhinaya ) of the states or conditions of the personage

1. N. S. (K. S. S.). XX. 138-139 & 152. 2. D. R. I. 9-10. 3. Ibid. III. 52-53.

149 for whom he stands.'1 The four kinds of Abhinaya supple- mented one another in a way which did not leave any defi- ciency, small or great, incomplete or unremoved. The invective, therefore, of some authorities to the effect that there was no introduction of scenery in the representation and that use was made of minor properties to a limited extent only2 hardly stands justified. (5) Theatre. The four kinds of Abhinaya naturally implied the exis- tence of a place where a representation could be given. The Sanskrit dramas were meant to be staged on various occasions such as the celebration of the vernal festival, of the victory of a king etc. The first chapter of the N. S. mentions the representation of the destruction of demons which excited them-a fact which unmistakably proves that the Sanskrit drama is for representation if the intended effect is to be produced. Traces of dramatic representation are to be found in cave inscriptions also. 'As a matter of fact we find traces of dramatic representations in the cave inscription of Nasik during the time of Sri Pulumayi (2nd century A. D.) and in the Hatigumpha inscription of Kha- ravela of Kalinga (2nd century B. C. ).'3 'The Sanskrit drama of the theorists is, despite its complexity, essentially inten- ded for performance, nor is there the slightest doubt that the early dramatists were anything but composers of plays meant only to be read. They were connoisseurs, we may be certain, in the merits which would accrue to their works

1. Y. I. T. p. 46. 2. K. S. D. pp. 364-365. 3. T. I. S. p. 45.

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from the accessories of the dance, music, song and the attractions of acting; the Vikramorvasī must, for instance, have had much of the attraction of an opera, and as a mere literary work loses seriously in attraction.' The drama is termed not the Śravya but the Drśya Kāvya, the Rūpa which conclusively proves it to be intended for representa- tion. Kālidāsa, the poet-dramatist, voices the same view when the elected judge, Kauśikī, recognized as the great connoisseur in the dramatic art, says that the Nātyaśāstra is mainly intended for representation.2 The four orthodox theories which arose as interpretations of the famous but cryptic formula in the form of the Sūtra of Bharata centre round the skilful performance of the Nata and it is only in two of them that the word Kävya has been inserted as indi- cating composition other than the drama. The poet-dra- matist, no doubt, furnishes his work with all possibilities and potentialities for their development in a full picture before an acute and constructive imagination; it is, how- ever, the actor who brings them to full maturity and pre- sents a complete and living picture before the audience, but for whose acting the picture is dead and, in some cases, even distorted. It is sometimes said that a great drama needs no theatre. It is perhaps intended thereby that in case of a great drama the sympathetic readers can supple- ment the requirements of the stage from their own imagi- nation. Here, however, one consideration is ignored. Even in case of the sympathetic readers or spectators there are times when their minds are otherwise distracted and to bring them back to their mood of appreciation preli-

1. K. S. D. p. 358. 2. M. A. I. p. 193. in K. G. (Prayogapradhānam Hi Nāțyaśāstram).

151 minaries as the Pürvaranga etc. have to be observed (in case of the spectators ). But this can only be done when the dramatic work is represented, therefore representation has ultimately to be resorted to even in the case of the great drama. 'The drama and the theatre produce each other. A dramatic work becomes most impressive when acted within the four walls of a theatre; and a theatre is a most powerful engine for the development of the drama.'1 Bhoja considered the subject from the view of the poet- dramatist and, therefore, shifted the whole importance to their dexterity. He was not primarily concerned with dramaturgy but with poetics. He, therefore, little cared for the fact that Bharata's N. S. was a treatise on the Drya Kāvya, that is, the Nātya dealing in extenso with Abhinaya. It is the acting which infuses life into the dead pages of the playwright. Dramas are always meant for representation, it is quite an other thing that they may become poems rather than remain as dramas for representation. Bharata in the N. S. fixes the times of day and night for representation. He calls them the Nātyavāras and enumerates them as Prādoșika (evening ), Ardharātra (midnight ), Prābhātika (morning ), Paurvāņhika (before noon) and Āparāņhika ( after noon ) times. He points out particular kinds of sub- ject-matter for representation with respect to the above fixed times. He, however, excludes midnight out of the above list. He also expressly excludes noon and the time of evening meal.2 The Sanskrit dramas generally mention the occasions of their representation and count their success in the favourable verdict of the assemblage before which

1. T. I. S. p. ii (Introductory Chap.) 2. N. S. (K. S. S.) XXVII. 85-87 & 93.

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the representation is given. The statement, therefore, that 'great dramas need no acting, and acting, however great, cannot make insipid plays great,'1 does not hold. The representation is to be given on the stage for which infor- mation, though very scanty and less definitive, is available in some cases as an ancient theatrical stage unearthed by Dr. Bloch in a cave in Ramgarh, the ruins being proved 2,300 years old. The dramas were mainly staged in the palaces of princes and rulers. The directions given by Bharata about the construction of the theatre house may apply to royal theatres in the palaces of kings. Rehearsals were perhaps usually held in the music hall ( Sangītasālā ) as in the Mālvikāgnimitra. Temporary construction might have been put up at festivals. Hence no permanent stage is available even as ancient relics as in the case of the Greek theatre which was wholly a democratic institution. The Indian dramaturgy, however, mentions different kinds of theatres and gives details of construction and arrange- ment of the stage. These theatres were very likely public theatres, as we hear of troupes of actors and actresses tra- velling in different parts of the country. Bharata, the acknowledged and original authority on Indian dramaturgy, records in the first chapter of the N. S. the orders of the Grandfather Brahmā to Viśvakarmā to construct a theatre hall furnished with all equipments and satisfying the ne- cessary requirements. The second chapter of the N. S. dilates on the details of the theatre hall. Three kinds of theatres have first been mentioned. They are the Vikrsta, the Chaturasra and the Trysra. The first is a rectangular

1. S. P. R. p. 85.

153 formation and not a square. This has been so explained by Abhinava in the Abhinavabharati.1 The second and the third kinds are square and triangular plans. Just after the enumeration of these three have been mentioned their three measures, the Jyestha (big), the Madhya (middle) and the Avara or the Kaniya (small ). This close proximity gave scope for speculation in that some scholars applied the Yathāsankhya Nyāya and said that the rectangular, the square and the triangular theatres were respectively of the big, the middle and the small dimensions, whereas others held that each of the three kinds was of three dimensions. The first camp, therefore, held only three kinds but the second believed in nine kinds. All this may not be of particular use, but it proves keen insight of the dramatur- gists into details and points out the tenets of different schools.2 As regards the measures, the Jyestha, the Madhya and the Avara are to be 108 hands, 64 hands and 32 hands respectively. The first is prescribed for gods, the second for kings and the third for others. The Madhya kind of theatre is praised for mankind on acoustic grounds. The various instruments being played upon and the different songs being sung can without any difficulty be listened to in the theatre of this kind. Bharata then gives the dimen- sion of this kind as 64 hands in length and 32 hands in breadth. He describes how the selection and ground- planning are to be done. The length of 64 hands is to be equally divided. The back portion is to be equally divided into the Rangasīrsa and the Nepathyagtha. The religious element is to be seen in commencing the work under aus-

1. N. S. (G. O. S.) II, p. 50. 2. Ibid.

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picious constellations. Those persons who are in any way of evil dispositions, given to display, devoted to particular sects or wear yellow clothes are to be discarded. The perliminaries as offerings of oblations to respective quarter deities, the Brähmanas and the kings are to observed when the walls are being constructed. Then the four pillars dedicated to the four castes in four directions with various ceremonies are to be erected. The Rangapītha then is to be made after which the Mattavarani with four pillars of the dimension of the Rangapitha and half a hand higher than the former is also to be made. The Ranga- mandapa is to be of the same height with them. The Rangaśīrsa should have six planks and two entrances to the Nepathyagrha, it should never be like the back of either the tortoise or the fish. It should be even like the surface of the mirror and there should be made two doors here lead- ing to the Nepathyagrha. The walls and other parts of the theatre should be profusely decorated with wooden net-work, statues etc. designed and cut beautifully and they should be plastered. They should have the paintings of ladies and gents. The Nātyamandapa should be like the mountain-cave and should have two Bhūmis (stories) with a small window not exposed to draught and should have good acoustic qualities. Abhinava records different opin- ions on the two Bhumis. One view held that the Rangapī- tha had two portions, higher and lower, thus believing in the play house having two stories; these were the two Bhumis. Some said that there must be another wall running all round the Mattavāraņīs, just as in a temple there always stood two walls with an intermediate passage for going round. These, therefore, were the two Bhūmis. Others went in for another mandapa on the terrace. Still

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others gave the view that the compound should be read as Advibhūmiḥ (in the Sanskrit text). The personal view of Abhinava, however, was his own master's view which ran thus. From the Rangapitha, whence the seats for the spectators begin, to the exit-door Bhūmis should be erec- ted, the hind ones higher than the front ones, thus, the last equalling the height of the Rangapitha so that the front tiers of seats with the spectators may not shut out the back ones.1 This explanation is in fitness with the model arrange- ment of seats in a theatre where every spectator was sui- tably accommodated.2 The first explanation which des- cribes the stage as double-storied appears more in consonance with the necessities of the Sanskrit dramas extant, for ex- ample, the hermitage of Mārīcha in the Abhijñānaśākun- tala, the magician's scene in the Ratnāvalī etc. These scenes must have been staged in the upper story. The Chaturasra kind of theatre is then described. It has been enjoined to be 32 hands in length as also 32 hands in width. Ten pillars strong enough to support the Mandapa are to be driven. By the side of these pillars the Pitha of the shape of steps (Sopāna) is to be made. The auditorium is to be made up of bricks and wood. The seating arrangement is to be in a way as different rows of seats may be each one hand higher than other in order to ensure visibility of the Rangapītha. After that six more pillars are to be erected in various directions to support the mandapa. The eight pillars are again to be raised after which the Pitha of the dimension of eight hands is to be made. The Nepathya- grha is to be made; it should have one door for entering

1. N. S. (G. O. S.). II. p. 65. 2. S. D. S. R. VII. 1351-1360 ; Cf. K. M. pp. 54-55.

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into the Rangapītha. The audience is to be given admi- ssion through the front side where there should be made a second door. The Mattavaranī, square in dimension, even in surface and decorated with a mound should be made of the measure indicated previously. The Rangapītha is to be made here beside the mounds; it is to be elevated in case of the Vikrsta theatre and even in case of the Cha- turasra. These are the details of the Chaturasra theatre. The details as given above do not furnish one with accurate information about the build of the theatre. It has, there- fore, to be elaborated from the exaplanation recorded by Abhinava in his com. to the text of the N. S. In it he has made clear the different positions and localities of the differ- ent partitions of the theatre.1 The third kind of theatre, the Trysra, is thus described only in hints. It should be in a triangular form. The Rangapitha which is of triangu- lar form in the middle is also to be triangular and should have one door in that very corner for entry into it. Ano- ther door should be made at its back. What has been enjoined upon in case of the Chaturasra theatre in matters of walls and pillars should be followed in the construc- tion of this kind of theatre as well.2 Here, too, Abhinava is to be resorted to for elaboration. It is to be noted, how- ever, that no specific measurement here as in cases of the Vikrsta and the Chaturasra has been given which may be taken as a hint that this kind was not much in vogue. The above three kinds of theatre have been mentioned for various kinds of audience and not exclusively for kings as is the case in the B. P. In it Śāradātanya mentions

1. N. S. (G. O. S.) II. 2. Ibid. II. p. 71.

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three kinds of theatre, the Chaturasra (square), the Trysra (triangular) and the Vrtta (circular). The author gives no other description of these kinds but only determines their nature with reference to the audience, though the king is invariably one of the audience in all the three. That theatre is called the Vrtta where the king along with good men, citizens and prominent men in the country has songs and music played upon. That is called the Chaturasra where the king has songs and music with the audience con- sisting of courtezans, ministers, traders, generals, friends and sons. In the Trysra theatre the king is present with sacrificial and religious priests, preceptors, ladies of the royal household and the crowned queen. In the Trysra kind the music should be the Märga (high style) whereas in the Chaturasra the Mārga and the Deśa (popular style) should be mixed. In the Vrtta theatre the beautiful mix- ture of the two should be used.1 Like the B. P. the Śil- paratna also has some discussion about the theatre, which description clearly seems to be of the Nātyamandapa attached · to the royal palace. It runs, 'before the palace, four man- dapas, the Mukhamandapa, the Pratimāmaņdapa, the Snā- namandapa and the Nrttamandapa (Nrtta here stands for Natya ) are to be made.'2 Some details have been devoted to the Natyamandapa. In the absence of any ancient thea- tre being available no definite information as to the exact build and construction of the theatre is in possession. Scholars have variously interpreted the instructions supplied by Bharata and his commentators, and have attempted to draw plans of different kinds of theatres. Miss Godavari

1. B. P. lines. 9-18. p. 295. 2. S. K. S. R. XXXIX. 35-36.

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Ketkar in her 'Bhāratīya Nātyaśāstra' gives the diagrams of the Vikrsta, the Chaturasra and the Trysra theatres. The plan of the Vikrsta follows the dimension of 64 hands in length and 32 hands in breadth and that of the Chaturasra 32 hands each side. Of the Trysra no dimension has been noted.1 R. K. Yajnik in 'The Indian Theatre' supplies the diagram of the Vikrsta theatre.2 D. R. Mankad in 'Hindu Theatre' also furnishes diagrams of the three kinds of theatres.3 The Vikrsta kind of theatre illustrated in three diagrams by the above scholars differs according to their interpretations. The Chaturasra and the Trysra kinds illustrated by Ketkar and Mankad differ as regards the shape, the locality of pillars etc. Each seems to be correct is his or her own way, with, however, one exception. It is not to be understood as to why Ketkar has left some open space between the Rangapītha and the Preksāgrha. As has been observed before Bharata praises and recommends the Madhya kind of theatre on the ground that human senses · can best adapt themselves to different activities going on there. The descriptions afforded are of the Vikrsta and the Chaturasra kinds having dimensions, 64 hands in length and 32 hands in breadth, and 32 hands each side respecti- vely. As is obvious the dimension of the Vikrsta is of the Madhya Vikrsta and of the Chaturasra also the dimension is of the Madhya Chaturasra. This has been ingeniously shown by Mankad. Of the Trysra he himself is not quite definite as its dimension is not mentioned by Bharata. For want of any ancient theatre the efforts of these scholars can 1. G. B. N. pp. just following the 30th., the 34th. and the 36th. pages. 2. Y. I. T. p. 41. 3. H. T. M. in I. H. Q. Vol. VIII.

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best be construed as approximate approaches. A few points here crop up for consideration. The first is if there was any curtain used. Bharata mentions 'Pata'.1 Scho- lars contend that it was 'Yavanika'-a word, which is also mentioned by Bharata (N. S. 'K. S. S.' V. II). Windisch believed that there was only one curtain which was hung up between the Nepathyagrha and the Rangasīrsa. It does not stand to reason here as to why the curtain is to be hung up here at all when a wall is already constructed between these two partitions.2 Keith also drives the same way in the words, "Behind the curtain are the actors' quarters ( nepa- thyagrha ) or tiring rooms."3 That he has misconstrued the text is quite clear. Wilson believes that in some cases there was used a transverse curtain, 'but this is doubtful' as Yajnik puts it.4 There was a curtain, no doubt, but it was hung up between the Rangaśīrsa and the Rangapītha.5 When one would enter on the stage suddenly, it was done violently with a toss of the curtain (pati ) which was also called the apatī, the tiraskariņī or the pratisīrā.6 'Nor- mally the entry of any character is effected by the drawing aside of the curtain by two maidens, whose beauty marks them out for this employment (dhrtir yavanikāyāh).7 This entry of the character on the Rangapitha is called the descent on it ( Rangävatarana) which suggests the re-

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XIII. 3. 2. N. S. (G. O. S.) II. p. 62 (Nepathyagrhabhittilagnau). 3. K. S. D. p. 359. 4. Y. I. T. p. 44. 5. N. S. (G. O. S.) V. p. 212 ( Tatra Yavanikā Rangapīthatachchhira- sormadhye ). 6. K. S. D. p. 359. 7. Ibid. pp. 359-360.

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lative height of the Rangasirsa. The view of Weber to the effect that Nepathya denotes a place which was lower than the Rangaśīrșa also corroborates the above position. That both these views are consistent and not opposite is borne out by Bharata who says that the Rangasīrsa should be elevated and even in cases of the Vikrsta and the Chaturasra theatres respectively.1 On either side of the Rangapītha the Mattavaranīs are erected. These Mattavāranīs also have been variously explained by scholars, Keith perhaps interprets the Mattavāranī as 'a verandah with four pillars.'2 Mankad holds that it was a special portion of the Ranga- pitha.3 Prof. Bhanu says that it was a fence to check the entry of the mad or intoxicated persons.4 The Mattavāranī was neither the verandah nor the special portion of the Ranga- pitha nor the fence as explained above. It was rather the side wing, one on each side of the Rangapitha supported on four pillars. And it was to be one and half hands higher than the auditorium. Yajnik concurs with the view of Abhinava when he says, " An interesting feature of the scene-building is a set of two side-buildings or wings ( Mattavāranīs ) or 'Parascenia' ( 12 by 12 ft. each )."5 Here different places in the economy of the theatre occupied by singers, spectators, connoisseurs etc. may briefly be hinted at. Abhinava has mentioned, between the Nepathyagrha and the Rangaśīrșa,

1. N. S. (G. O. S.) II. 104. 2. K. S. D. p. 359. 3. H. T. M. in I. H. Q. p. 485 ( Footnote ) & p. 491 ( Footnote ). 4. G. B. B. N. p. 30. 5. Y. I. T. p. 40. Rājaśekhara says about the Kavisamāja, "It should have 16 pillars, four doors and 8 Mattavāranīs." Eight Mattavā- ranīs, in case of four doors clearly prove their being side-wings, two for each door. (K. M. p. 54).

161 a wall with two doors.1 In the space between these two doors singers and dancers would take their seats resting themselves against the wall.2 Bharata mentions the places to be occupied by singers and persons playing on different kinds of musical instruments facing different directions.3 At a distance of twelve hands from the Rangaśīrsa, that is, at a distance of four hands from the Rangapitha the seats for the spectators would commence1 and the connoisseurs(Prāśnikas) would occupy the front seats with persons ( Siddhilekhakas ), who noted the merits and the defects of the dramatic works being represented, very near them.5 One more point deserves a passing reference here. It is in connection with those places in the stage from where the characters effected their entry upon, and exit from, the stage as Abhinava puts it.6 They are called Kaksyās. They were three : the Abhyantara, the Madhyama and the Bahya. Bharata in the N.S. ( chapter XIV of K. S. S. and chapter XIII of G. O. S.) gives their details and different ways of using them. Different kinds of scenes, stage properties etc. to be exhibited and arranged in these Kakşyās have also been mentioned. That these Kaksyās, therefore, were not less important places in the economy of the theatre stands clear. (6) Spectators (Audience ). The spectator in the Sanskrit dramaturgy has been accepted as the standard. It is on his verdict that a particular 1. N. S. (G. O. S.) II. 72 ( with Com. pp. 62-63 ). 2. Ibid. XIII. 2. 3. N. S. (N. S.) XXXIV p. 429. 4. G. B. N. p. 32. 5. Ibid. p. 41. 6. N. S. (G. O. S.) XIII. 3 ( with com. p. 197). 11

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dramatic work is to stand or fall. The dramatists even of the highest order as Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti, Harșa etc. voice their opinions as to the judgment of the spectators. The Sūtradhāra in the second stanza of the Prastāvanā to the first act of the Abhijñānaśākuntala says to the Națī that he does not regard the science of representation upto the mark till the learned ( spectators ) are not wholly staisfied. Such a verdict of the spectators was a great appreciation of his works to the dramatist who could fully count them as lasting un- scathed through times immemorial. Kālidāsa's works furnish an instance in point. Centuries have rolled on, yet his works are as new and fascinating as ever. The verdict, then, of the spectators will stand good for all times if it is impartial and sincere in the right direction. The author of the Dhvanyāloka records the view of one school which says that the Dhvani is beyond the scope of speech and can only be perceived by a man endowed with aesthetical judgment.1 Bhatta Nāyaka who advances his own interpretation of the Rasasūtra of Bharata postulates one function called the Bhojakatva or the power of enjoyment which has exclusive reference to the spectators. If this power is not postulated, or if its absence is admitted in the spectators, the whole interpretation falls down. Kuntaka, the author of the Vakroktijīvita, who includes Rasa in one of the striking ways of expression, also relies on the appreciation of the writer's work by one who knows it well ( Tadvidālhādakāriņi).2 This view in a way esta- blishes well the importance of the sympathetic connoisseurs. Bhavabhūti, on not receiving due recognition of his works, clamours in the 8th stanza of the Prastavana to the first act

1. D. L. p. 33. 2. V. J. I. 7.

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of the Malatīmadhava for an appreciative person having the same qualities and merits as he (Samānadharmā). Rūpa Gosvāmī in the Prastāvanā to the first act of the Vidagdha- mādhava, through the words of the Pāripārśvaka, says that the Sahrdayas excel gods even in point of learning etc. The qualities and merits in the spectator have been very con- cisely put together by Abhinava. He calls an appreciative reader or spectator a Sahrdaya, possibly suggesting that he should have the same heart as the author, that is, he should appreciate the work with the same emotions and sentiments as moved and prompted the author to compose the work. Abhinava in the Lochana com. to the Dhvanyāloka calls the Sahrdayas those who have the capacity to become one with the description, their minds like mirrors, as it were, having become clear and pure due to practice by study of the Kāvyas.1 This view emphasizes mainly practice, though purity of heart is also mentioned as the result of it. Viśvanātha also recognizes one kind of Vāsanā which consists of experience in this life (Idānīntanī) and says that one may develop the capacity of appreciation by study of poetry and experience of life. According to him this capacity may also be acquired from previous births ( Prāktanī ).2 In case of the grammarians and the philosophers this capacity becomes deadened even if it exists at all in any form in them. But some rhetoricians say that this capacity is inborn ; it is a kind of Śakti which is present in the particular person in the form of the latent emotion ; when it is aroused it makes the reader or the spectator feel one with the description or the spectacle. In case of the Madhura Rasa of the Vaisnava school of Bengal

1. D. L. pp. 38-39. 2. S. D. III. p. 3.

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the same Sahrdaya comes to be called Bhakta.1 The Krsna- bhaktas are of two kinds : Sadhakas and Siddhas. The former are those who are in the process of realization whereas the latter are those who have already realized. The latter are further divided into two kinds : Samprāptasiddhaya, who have realized through either Sadhana ( effort ) or Krpā ( grace ), and Nityasiddhā whose realization is eternal and spontaneous in that they are ever full of eternal bliss. They are like Mukunda himself and are possessed of his qualities. The Gopis etc. are prominent among them. According to their nature or position in life they are further divided into five kinds : Śānta, Dāsa-suta ( servants etc. ), Sakhās, Guru- vargas, ( elders etc. ) and Preyasīs (beloved as Gopīs ).2 The above five kinds have further divisions which will be con- sidered later on. All this, however, explains clearly the different states of the Sahrdaya's mind when his dormant emotion becomes awakened. Viśvanātha says that the Sahrdaya by whom this bliss is enjoyed is, like the Yogin, deserving of this preference due to his accumulated merits ( Prāktanapuņyaśālibhiḥ ).3 The acceptance or the rejection of the Santa Rasa depends on the experience of the people ( Akhilalokānubhavasiddhatvāt ).4 Nāgeśa in the com. to the above establishes the Sänta Rasa in the drama on the basis of the universal recognition of the Prabodhachandrodaya as drama.5 Thus both Jagannātha and Nageśa rely on the Sahrdayas as regards the recognition and establishment of

1. D. S. P. Vol. II p. 336. 2. R. H. S. pp. 182-187. 3. S. D. III. p. 1. 4. R. G. p. 30. 5. Ibid.

165 the Sänta Rasa. There may, however, be some Sahrdayas who may not appreciate the work. Rājaśekhara calls them Bhävakas and classifies them into three categories : Aro- chakinah ( those having natural aversion which can hardly be effaced or which may prove to be the origin of knowledge ), Satrnābhyavahārinah (the vulgar persons having indiscri- minate faculty ) and Matsarinah ( the envious ). Those who truly and impartially appreciate are really very few.1 This justifies the remark of De that ' the critic as well as the poet is born, and not made.'2 Both have been mentioned together as both the artists, that is, the poet or the dramatist and the critic or the spectator have to share a common inspiration. The Sahrdaya and the object of appreciation have to be simultaneously present. How for this is true may be under- stood from the remarks of the dramatic critic as Dhanañjaya when he says that ' this experience depends upon the specta tor's own capacities, and does not arise from the perfections of the hero, or because the work was deliberately designed to create a beautiful effect ; it is their own effort by which the audience is delighted, just as in the case of children playing with clay elephants, whose imagination bestows upon their toys a varied and abundant life.'3 In the above quotation two things have to be kept in view. Firstly, the emphasis is laid on the subjective element in the spectator ; and secondly, though the perfection of the hero or the deliberate design of the work to create a beautiful effect is not the main consideration, yet the indispensable element is the work itself, for without it no complete self-concentration is possible in

1. K. M. p. 14. 2. D. S. P. Vol. II. p. 271 ( Footnote ). 3. M. G. p. 21.

181 should have four acts.1 Some say that there is no Vimarsa Sandhi here.2 The hero :- The hero is to be of the Dhiralalita kind.3 There should figure two ladies, one the elder queen, the other the youthful maiden. The latter's union with the hero depends upon the former's sweet will.4 Either or both may be renowned, thus the Nātikā may be of four kinds.5 The sentiment :- The Śrngāra Rasa is the principal sentiment here.6 Prakaraņī or Prakaraņikā. The plot :- The plot here should be as in the Nāt kā. The hero :- The hero should be as in the Prakarana and the heroine should be suitable to the hero. The sentiment :- The sentiment that is depicted as principal here is the Śrngāra Rasa. Rāmachandra and Gunachandra advocate the separate existence of the Prakarani which is accepted by Viśvanātha also.7 Dhanañjaya refutes it as a separate type.8 1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 62 ; D. R. III. 44. 2. B. P. Line. 4. p. 244. 3. D. R. III. 44; B. P. Line. 19. p. 243. 4. D. R. III. 48; B. P. Line. 3. p. 244. 5. N. D. 71. p. 120. 6. D. R. III. 44; B. P. Line. 21 p. 243. 7. N. D. 73 (with com.) p. 122; S. D. VI. 306. 8. D. R. III. 43 (with com).

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Satțaka. The plot :- It is a variety of the Nātikā ( based on the Nrtya )1 perhaps due to predominance of Nrtya in it. It should have acts called the Javanikās2 or Javanikāntaras as in the Karpūra- mañjarī. It should have no Viskambhaka or Praveśaka. It should have only one language and not a mixture of Sanskrit and Prākrit.3 Some say that it must be full of Śaurseni, Mahārāsțrī etc. According to some authorities the king may not speak Präkrit while others prescribe for him Māgadhī or Saurseni. Still others say that it must be wholly in Prākrit.4 The last view is also held by Viśvanātha.5 It should have no Sandhi.6

The hero :- The hero should be as in the Nātikā. The sentiment :- The sentiment should be depicted as in the Nāțikā. Viśvanātha, however, prescribes the predominance of the Adbhuta Rasa.7 The Raudra Rasa etc. should not be depicted.8 Totaka or Troțaka. The plot :- The plot should be as in the Natika, but it should arise out of the contact of divine and human elements.9 It is

1. B. P. Line. 1 p. 269. 2. S. D. VI. 277. 3. N. D. 1. p. 213. 4. B. P. Lines 4 & 7-10. p. 269. . 5. S. D. VI. 276. 6. B. P. Line. 3 p. 269. 7. S. D. VI. 276. 8. B. P. Line. 2. p. 269. 9. N. L. R. K. p. 114 ; B. P. Line. 4. P. 238.

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also to be marked with the presence of the Vidūsaka in every act.1 It should have five or seven or eight or nine acts.2 The hero :- Human and divine beings should figure as heroes. The sentiment :- The sentiment should be the same as in the Nātikā. Viśvanātha, however, prescribes the Śrngāra Rasa as the principal sentiment on the ground of the Vidūsaka being present in each and every act.3 Second Group :- (1) Dima. The plot :- The plot should be famous ( Prakhyāta). There may be fighting, tugging, striking, magical illusions and other magi- cal feats. There should also be seen eclipses of the moon and the sun, shooting of meteors etc. It should have four acts. The Vimarśa Sandhi should not be observed here.4 It should have Praveśaka and Viskambhaka according to Śāradātanaya and Śinga Bhūpāla who also adds Chūlikā. Viśvanātha, however, says that Praveśaka and Viskambhaka have no scope here.6 The hero :- Bharata says that the heroes should be Udatta7 whereas 1. N. L. R. K. p. 114 ; S. D. VI. 273. 2. B. P. Line 7. p. 238 ; S. D. VI. 273. 3. S. D. VI. 273 (Com). 4. D. R. III. 60 ; S. D. VI. 244 ; B. P. Line 20. p. 247. 5. B. P. Line 2. p. 248 ; R. S. III. 283. 6. S. D. VI. 242. 7. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 88.

184 other dramaturgists are of opinion that they should be Uddhata. According to all they are gods, Gandharvas, Yakśas, demons and Nāgas etc. and are generally to be six- teen in number. The sentiment :- Bharata says that there should be all Rasas except the Śrngāra and the Hāsya1. According to others the principal sentiment is to be the Raudra ; the Hasya and the Śrngāra are to be totally avoided and others may be depicted as secondary. The Śanta Rasa should also be avoided.2 (2) Samavakāra. The plot :- The plot is to depict the incidents of gods and demons. It is to have three acts. The first act is to be of 12 Nādikās, the second of 4 and the third of 2. It should depict three kinds of Kapata (deceit), three kinds of Vidrava (calamity ) and three kinds of Śrngära.3 The deceits may be due to the nature of the thing ( Vastusvabhāva), fate or enemy ; the calamity may be due to siege, war or the action of natural phenomena. The Śrngāra may be for the Dharma, the Artha and the Kama.4 There should also be observed Āmukha etc. as in the Nataka.5 Nearly all dramaturgists say that there should be no Vimarśa Sandhi, no Bindu and Praveśaka. The Vithyangas should be used according to suitability.

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 89. 2. N. D. 86. p. 129. 3. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 66-67 & 70-71. 4. D. R. III. 66-67. 5. Ibid. III. 62.

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The hero :- The heroes should be gods and demons, Udātta by nature and tweleve in number according to all dramaturgists. The sentiment :- Bharata says that there should be three kinds of Śrngāra but makes no explicit mention of the principal sentiment. Others advocate the Vira as the principal sentiment.1 There is, however, one opinion which prescribes the Raudra and the Vira both as principal sentiments,2 though the com. in one way prescribes either as principal in the words, 'Tena Triśrngāratvepi Vīro (ra-) raudro (drau ) Pradhānam.' (3) Ihāmrga. The plot :- The plot consists of the actions of divine beings. Battles etc. take place for the attainment of the divine lady difficult to get as a gazelle. All kinds of agitation, confusion, disturbances etc. are seen and the fight is suppressed on some pretext. The death of the Pratināyaka even though resulting as a logical conclusion is avoided.3 Other dramaturgists advocate the inclusion of mortals as heroes, the mixed plot, three Sandhis and four acts. Some, however, advocate one act also as an alternative.4 The hero :- Divine beings are to be the Uddhata type of heroes. The Pratināyaka must not be able to attain his object. 1. D. R. III. 64;B. P. Line 19 p. 248; R. S. III. 250 ; S. D. VI. 236. 2. N. D. 76. p. 124. 3. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 84 ; D. R. III. 75. 4. S. D. VI. 249.

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Saradātanaya says that there can be four or five or six heroes.1 Śinga Bhūpāla says that there may be five or six Pratināyakas.2 Viśvanātha says that the heroes must be ten comprising the principal heroes, Pratināyaka and the Patākānāyaka.3 The heroine must be a divine lady. The sentiment :- Bharata says that the sentiments of the Vyāyoga ( to be described later on ) must be depicted here.4 According to Dhanañjaya the Śrngārābhāsa (the semblance of the erotic sentiment) must be suggested in slight touches on the part of the Pratināyaka trying to abduct the heroine5- which view Viśvanātha also advocates.6 āradātanaya and Śinga Bhūpāla prescribe the exclusion of the Bhayā- naka and the Bībhatsa7 whereas in the N. D. the inclusion of the Śrngārābhāsa and the depiction of the Vira, the Raudra etc. have been enjoined.8 As the hero gets the heroine the Śrngāra Rasa should be the principal sentiment. Third Group :- (1) Bhāna. The Plot :- The plot consists of the experiences of the hero himself or of other person. The device, Akāśabhāșita (in the air ).

1. B. P. Line 12 p. 253. 2. R. S. III. 286. 3. S. D. VI. 248. 4. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 85-86. 5. D. R. III. 74. 6. S. D. VI. 247. 7. B. P. Line 15 pp. 253 ; R. S. III. 287. 8. N. D. 92. p. 132 (com.).

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of which Bharata gives the description only, is to be used. There is to be only one act dealing with all the incidents.1 Other dramaturgists say that the plot can be invented also. The subject-matter is to be arranged into two Sandhis, the Mukha and the Nirvahana, and the Läsya in its ten sub- divisions is to have full scope here.2 One view holds that there should be one act, for the action must last only for one day.3 The hero :- According to all the dramaturgists the hero is to be the Vita. One dramaturigst, however, says that the Vita or the Dhūrta (a clever man ) can be the hero.4 The sentiment :- Bharata makes no mention of any Rasa but all the other dramaturgists advocate the Vīra and the Śrngāra as the principal sentiments. The B. P., however, records the view of Bhoja and others which prescribes the Śrngāra as the principal sentiment.s The Häsya can also be depicted but as subsidiary.6 (2) Vīthī. The plot :- The plot is to be arranged into one act according to all dramaturgists. Authorities other than Bharata say that

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 112-114. 2. D. R. III. 51 ; B. P. Lines 12 p. 245; R. S. III. 233 & 236 ; S. D. VI. 230. 3. N. D. p. 127. (Com. Tathā Mukha-nirvahaņasandhisampūrņa Ekāhanivartanīyatvādekānkaḥ). 4. N. D. 82. p. 127. 5. B. P. Line 5. p. 245. 6. N. D. p. 127 (Com. Śrngārāngatvāt Hāsyopyatrāngatayā Varņanīyaḥ)

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the Mukha and the Pratimukha Sandhis should be observed and that its thirteen parts must also be shown. For the observance of the ten Lāsyāngas Sāradātanaya quotes the opinion of Kohala-which also regards these as optional.1 The opinion is accepted by Śinga Bhūpāla also.2 Viśva- nātha says that Ākāśabhāșita should be used.3 The hero :- Bharata accepts the introduction of the three Prakrtis ( characters ): Uttamā (high ), Madhyā ( middle ) and Adhamā (low), but says that the characters may be one or two.4 Viśvanātha allows only one character of any one of the three Prakrtis.5 Śinga Bhūpāla allows the courtezan or other's wife as the affectionate heroine and says that the mistress of the family ( Kulapālikā) must never figure here.6

The sentiment :- Bharata enjoins all Rasas which Rāmachandra and Gunachandra also accept.7 Dhanañjaya, Śāradātanaya and Viśvanātha accept the Śrngāra as the principal sentiment; other sentiments, they say, are only to be touched upon.8 Śāradātanaya, however, quotes Bhoja who advocates the Śngāra as the principal sentiment.9

1. B. P. Line 6. p. 251. 2. R. S. III. 266. 3. S. D. VI. 253. 4. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 116. 5. S. D. VI. 253 (with com.). 6. R. S. III. 267. 7. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 117 ; N. D. 93. p. 132. 8. D. R. III. 69 ; B. P. Line 3. p. 251; S. D. VI. 254. 9. B. P. Line 7. p. 251.

189

(3) Prahasana. The plot :- The plot is divided into kinds according as it deals with the incidents of the lives of different persons. Bharata and Rämachandra and Gunachandra divide it into two kinds : Śuddha ( pure ) and Sankīrņa (mixed). The first contains the humorous speeches of the rich, the hermit, the Vipra etc. It should have no Prakrit language. The second has hetaerae, servants, eunuchs, parasites, cunning persons etc.1 Dhanañjaya says that it must have plot, Sandhis, their divisions, the Lasya etc. as in the Bhāna, but he divides it into three kinds : Śuddha (pure ), Vikrta ( deviated ) and Sankīrna (mixed ). The first is the same as in Bharata. The Sankīrna kind of Bharata seems to have been divided into two kinds : Vikrta and Sankīrņa by Dhanañjaya. The Vikrta has characters as eunuchs, ser- vants etc. and the Sankīrna has mixture with the parts of the Vīthī.2 Śāradātanaya follows Dhanañjaya in toto.3 Śinga Bhūpāla also follows him with two exceptions; firstly, that he enumerates and defines its kinds in an other way and secondly, he enumerates its ten elementary parts(Angas) not given by others.4 The hero :-- The heroes are devotees, hermits, Vipras, Vitas, he- taerae, eunuchs, parasites, servants and all other low characters who can be objects of ridicule and laughter.

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 106-109 ; N. D. 83-85. p. 128. 2. D. R. II. 54-56 (with com.). 3. B. P. Lines 1-12. p. 247. 4. R. S. III. 268-270.

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The sentiment :- Bharata makes no mention of any particular Rasa. Others, however, prescribe the Hasya as the principal sentiment. (4) Aka or Utsrstikānka. The plot :- Bharata says that the plot here may be famous or other- wise, though seldom.1 Dhanañjaya says that it must be famous, but its details may be arranged by the author with the help of his own intellect. Viśvanātha agrees with him.2 Śāradātanaya and Śinga Bhūpāla say that it may be famous or invented.3 Ramächandra and Gunachandra, how- ever, advocate that it must deal with subject-matter based on the famous war.4 Dhanañjaya, Rāmachandra and Gunachandra and Viśvanātha say that it must have act, Sandhis etc. as in the Bhāna.5 Sāradātanaya records that according to Bharata there must be one act, according to Kohala two and according to Vyāsāñjaneya three and the Sankīrna Viskambhaka and Praveśaka must be intro- duced.6 He also records that death may be represented if revival is to be shown.7 In all these respects Singa Bhūpāla follows him with, however, certain exceptions. While enumerating the acts as one, two or three he does not quote any authorities, he does not call the Viskambhaka

1. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 98. 2. D. R. III. 70 ; S. D. VI. 251. 3. B. P. Lines 11-12. p. 251 ; R. S. III. 224. 4. N. D. 88. p. 130. 5. D. R. III. 71 ; N. D. 88. p. 130 ; S. D. VI. 252. 6. B. P. Lines 19-22. p. 251. 7. Ibid. Line 5. p. 252.

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the Sankīrna and he adds one more condition for represen- ting death. He says that death may be represented if the result to be achieved is to be more delightful and heart- ravishing than the revival.1 Sāradātanaya further records that there should be the Mukha and the Nirvahana Sandhis according to Kohala or the Sandhis may be as in the Dima or the Ihämrga.2 According to all authorities wailings of ladies are to be amply shown. The hero :-- The heroes are to be ordinary people and not divine beings in the opinion of all dramaturgists. The sentiment :-- All the dramaturgists prescribe the Karuna as the princi- pal sentiment. Sāradātanaya also advocates bright patches of the Bhyānaka at some places in the canvas.3 (5) Vyāyoga. The plot :-- The plot is to be of the famous (khyāta) kind. All dramaturgists except Bharata ( who mentions only fight ) say that the battle should not be caused by a woman. That the subject-matter should consist of the incidents of one day is also the view of nearly all dramaturgists except Viśvanātha who is silent on the point. The two Sandhis, the Garbha and the Vimarsa, should not be observed. Bharata, however, mentions no opinion of his own on the point. The rest of the Sandhis should be fully observed

1. R. S. III. 226-227. 2. B. P. Lines 23-24. p. 151. 3. Ibid. Line 18. p. 251.

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and according to all authorities in only one act. Śinga Bhūpāla says that there should be Praveśaka and Chūlikā also in this type.1 The hero :-- The hero is to be a famous personage. The divine hero should not figure according to Bharata, Dhanañjaya and Rāmachandra and Gunachandra2 while Śāradātanaya and Viśvanātha say that he can be a divine hero.3 He should be a king of good family. Dhanañjaya and Viśvanātha say that the hero should be Uddhata4 whereas Śāradātanaya says that he should be Udatta.5 Ramachandra and Guna- chandra say that this type should be devoid of heroine.6 Śāradātanaya fixes the number of heroes as three, four, five but not more than ten.7 Singa Bhūpāla says that the hero must be one and that too helpless and there should figure less than ten Pratināyakas.8 The sentiment :-- Bharata, Dhanañjaya, Śāradātanaya and Rāmachandra and Gunachandra say that Rasas depicted here should be the Dipta Rasas, that is, the Vira, the Raudra, the Bībhatsa, the Adbhuta, the Karuna and the Bhayānaka.9 Sāradā-

1. R. S. III. 231. 2. N. S. (K. S. S.) XX. 96 ; D. R. III. 60 ; N. D. 75. p. 123. 3. B. P. Line 8. p. 248 ; S. D. VI. 233 4. D. R. III. 60 ; S. D. VI. 233. 5. B. P. Line 8. p. 248. 6. N. D. 75. p. 123. 7. B. P. Line 9. p. 248. 8. R. S. III. 229. 9. N.S.(K.S. S.) XX. 97 ;D. R. III. 61 ; B. P. Line 14. p. 248 ; N. D. 75. p. 123.

193 tanaya recommends a little touch of the Śrngāra also.1 Viśvanātha excludes the Śrngāra, the Hāsya and the Śānta Rasas from being principal sentiments.2 Śinga Bhupala says that it should be devoid of the Hasya and the Śrngāra. He gives the Raudra as principal.3 One work on dramaturgy enumerates the Uparūpakas along with the Rūpakas under the generic name, the Nātaka, without drawing a line of demarcation between the two.4 Other does practically the same but at the end of the enu- meration explicitly says that the first ten types are based on Rasa and the remaining twenty on the Bhäva; the Up- arūpakas are often called the Rūpakas because they can be represented and seen.5 The ten Rūpakas, therefore, were based on Rasa though the Uparūpakas also to a certain extent depicted it. The predominance in the Uparūpakas was of the Bhäva and according to the dictum : Prādhān- yena Vyapadeśāh Bhavanti (an object is named after the most predominant factor in it), they were called the Uparū- pakas. Because of their being based on the Bhāva no consideration is opportune as well as relevant here, hence they have been left out. The ten Rūpakas have their basis in Rasa which, therefore, requires now comprehensive consideration.

1. B. P.Line 14. p. 248. 2. S. D. VI. 233. 3. R. S. II. 230. 4. A. P. 337. 1-4. 5. B. P. Lines 4-12. p. 221. 13

PART TWO-RASA