THE CHOWKHAMBA SANSKRIT STUDIES

Vol. XXXI

UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC

COMPILED FROM DIVERS SOURCES

TOGETHER WITH VARIOUS ORIGINAL NOTES ON HINDU MUSIC

BY

RAJA SIR SOURINDRO MOHUN TAGORE

THE CHOWKHAMBA SANSKRIT SERIES OFFICE P. B. No. 8. Varanasi-1 ( India ) Phone : 3145

Publisher : The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi-1 Printer : Vidya Vilas Press, Varanasi-1 Edition : Socond, 1963. Price : Rs. 20-00

The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office Gopal Mandir Lane, Varanasi-1 ( INDIA ) 1963

PHONE : 3145

CHECKED 2001

PUBLISHER'S NOTE

Music pervades all nature. It is co-eval with the creation. There is nothing in nature that arouses our attention or affects our feelings so quickly as a musical sound. But inspite of this universal appeal, there is a great deal of diversity in the musics of different countries of the world.

Sri S. M. Tagore, is a great exponent of musical theortes and has written various books on this subject. In the present work he has assembled an account of the music of varlous nations, civilized or uncivilized, on the face of the habitable Globe. Specimens of the songs of different nations have been given in this book not only because Music and Poetry are, according to Sanskrit lore, presided over by one and the same deity, Sataswati, and are therefore intimately connected with each other, but also because an acquaintance with the spirit of a natton's songs facilitates the understanding of the spirit of tts mustc and poetry which are, but the outward expression of the innet workings of a nation's heart. This is the only and by far the most comprehensive work on this so diverse yet untversal subject, and was being sold for exhorbitant prices as it was out of print. We have now published it by photo-offset process from its 1896 original Edition, and priced it very moderately. We earnestly hope that it will receive due patronage from all the lovers of music.

To

Bhe Bon'ble Sir Alerander Oarkentit,

K. €. 8. I.

&c. &c. &C,

Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal,

Ibis Book is, with permission,

.Most Respeetfully Dedicated

By

Hws Honor's most obedient servant,

S. M. TAGORE.

PREFACE.

QHE following pages furnish an account of the music of various nations, civilized or uncivilized, on the face of the habitable globe. It must be acknowledged, however, that this treatiso does not pretend to be exhaustive, nor are the descriptions characterised by a uniformity of system in the manipulation of the subjeot. Specimons of the songs of different nations have been given in this book, not only because Music and Poetry are, according to Sanskrit lore, presided over by one and the same deity, Sarasvati, and are therofore, intimately connect- ed with each other, but aiso because an acquaintance with the spirit of a nation's songs facilitates tho understanding of the spirit of its musie and poetry which are but the outward expression of the inner workings of a nation's hoart.

A fow facta concerning Hindu musio are given a placo in the Appeudix. To enter into details of tho kind in tho body of the work would be going beyond its general scope.

My acknowledgments are pre-ominently due to tho authors of the several valnable works from which I have gleaned the materials for this compilation. They have been alluded to in some portion or other of the book. To'those whom I may have omitted to mention by name and to others, including editors of Eneyclopadias, Musical Dictionaries and Gazettoors, and publishers of general history and geography ' tako this opportunity of tendering my grateful thanks.

S. M TAGORE. HARA KUMAR BHAVAN, PATHURIAGHATA RAJBATI,

Oulcutta, 31st August, 1896.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ... 1 ... NATIONAL MUSIC ... .... 11 THE SAVAGE NATIONS ... 14 ...

ASIA.

China 22 ... ... Siam 31 ... Japan 35 Corea 40 ... Thibet 42 Burmah 44 ...

India

Hindu Period 50 ... ... Mahomedan Period ... 54 British Period 59 ... North-Western Provinces 60 ... Central India and Rajputana 61 ... Central Provinces ... 63 ... Hyderabad ... ... Mysore and Coorg ... ... Bombay ... 65 Madras 67 ... The Punjab 73 ... Nepal Bengal, Behar and Orissa ... 76 ...

Ceylon 90 ... Persia 93 ... ... Arabia 100 ... ... Turkestan 106 ... ...

II UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

Turkey in Asia ... 108 ...

Assyria 110 Phœnicia ... 115 Asia Minor ... ... Palestine ... ... 116

AFRICA.

North-Eastern Africa

Egypt 125 Abyssinia 136 Nubia ... 139 Northern Africa

Algerla ... 141 Morocco Tunis ... 142 Fezzan ... ... ** Western Africa 144 ... Upper Guinea Ashantee 140 Dahomey ... 151 Benin ... ... 152

Lower Gulnea

Congo Central Africa 154 ... Sahara 150 Soudan 157 Bornou Southern Africa 160 Kaffraria 162 Hottentotia 165 Zululand 108 Eastern Africa 169 Madagascar ... 171

CONTENTS. III

EUROPE. Greece Ancient Period ... 172. ... Modern Period 183 ... -Turkey 186 ...

Roumania ... ... 190 Servia 1 91 ... ... Austria 192 ... ... Hungary ... ... Bohemia 195 ... ... Dalmatla ... ... Galicia ** 4 ... Tyrol ... Styria 196 ... Russia 197 ... ... Poland 202 Finland ... Lapland ... 204 Scandinavia Norway ... 205 ... Sweden ... ... 206 Denmark ... 208 ... Holland ... ... 210 Belgium ... ... 211 Germany ... ... 214 Switzerland ... ... 224 Italy Ancient Period 227 Modern Perlod 230 ... Sicily ... ... 240 Sardinia 241 ... Spain 242 ... ... Portugal ... ...- 246

IV UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

France 248 ... England 256 ... . Scotland 274 ... Ireland 281 .. Iceland 287

AMERICA.

General Remarks 288

North America 291 ...

Greenland 292 The Unitad States 295

Alaska 297 Dakota 299 Arizona 301 ... New Mexico British America 302

Canada British Columbia 303 Vancouver Island ... Mexico 304 Norfolk Sound 306 Port des Francals ... 307 Nootka Sound ... ... 308 Lake Superlor

The West Indies

Cuba 310 Jamalca ..* Central America 313 ... South America 314 ...

Gulana Colombia 315 317 Peru ... Chill 318 Brazil Bollvla ..* 319

... .. 320

CONTENTS. 4

OCEANIA.

Malaysia ... 323 ... Java Borneo 325 ... 327 Australasia Australla ... 329 New Hebrides 333 New Zealand ... New Caledonia ... 340 New Guinea ...

Polynesia 342

Marquesas Islands ... Soclety Islands ... 344 Fiji Islands ... 345 Sandwich Islands ... 347 Samoan or Navigator's Islands ... 349 Tonga or Friendly Islands 351

APPENDIX.

A Few Facts Concerning Hindu Music.

The Three Gramas 1 The Six Ragas ... The Eight Rasas The Seat of Music in the human body Iv The Origin of sound ... v Murchchhana vi Suddha Tana ... vil Kuta Tana ix Music as a means to salvation ... xiv

UNIVERSAL

HISTORY OF MUSIC.

INTRODUCTION.

VE USIC pervades all nature. Itis co-eval with the creation. There is nothing in nature that arouses our attention or affects our feelings so quickly s a sound. The murmuring of water, the sighs of the zephyrs, the whispers of the evening breeze, the roar of the storms, the chirpings of the birds, the cries of the animals, the hum of distant multitudes, and the concussion of sonorous bodies, excite in our minds feel- ings of pleasure, pain, or fear, and contain in them the germs of music. A musical sound is a noise no doubt, but every noise is not a musical sound. There is a marked difference between the two. Noise is a con- fused combination of sounds resulting from the con- cussion of non-elastic bodies; musical sound is a pure harmonious effect, produced from a simple elastie body, such as the tone of a bell. It flies further and is heard at a greater distance than a noise. The musical in- struments played at a gathering may be henrd at a distance of a mile, but the noise made by the people at the gathering, however overpowering it may be on the spot, is scarcely audible at a similar distance. Sound

2 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

(Sanskrit, Nada) has been described as either inarticu- late (Dhanyatmaka), or articulate (Varnatmaka). In- strumental music is considered inarticulate, and vocal music articulate. By the curious structure of the vocal organs, man is capable of making a grenter variety of tones than any other animal, and has at his disposal the power of giving expression to every emotion. The human voice, in its tone and accent, is undoubtedly the purest and most sonorous of any which distinguishes the vocal animals. In those countries where man may be said, like a plant, to grow and flourish, the voice expands, ripens, and attains to perfection; but in the Northern and colder regions, where the mouth is more constantly kept elosed, the voice is restrieted and escapes with diffi- culty. Hence it is that the Afghan, Duteh and similar other languages are so guttural that in the delivery of some of their words, the speakers seem as if they are choked; and hence it is that in India, Greece, L'aly and other Southern countries, the climate of which is noted so much for its beauty and mildness, the vocal art has risen to so much fame.

Time plays an important part in musie. and like music itself is born in nature .* The vibrations of the pulse or the manuer of our walking furnishes correct notions of time. If we listen to the sound of our own step, we fiud it equal and regular; corresponding with what is called ordinary time in musie. Probably tho time in which we walk is regulated by the action of the heart, and those who step alike have pulses benting in

. The erawing of tha euck covers all tho time meawures of masie. i. r.halfa unit, a unit (shoit), two units (long), and three or more units in sucoession, thus :=

3 eorresponding, rempectivaly, with the Ardha, Hiares, Duyha, and Pluta mesuros of lliudu musio.

INTRODUCTION. 3

the same time. Soldiers are compelled to preserve an exact pace, when marching in a body. Armies are moved with the greatest regularity in the time of a march which is always in common time .- Artisans, such as smiths, tailors, and paviors, who work in unison with the pulse, acquire accurate habits of keeping time. Stage- coachmen have the faculty of ascertaining the lapse of time, almost with the regularity of a watch, by an attention to the pace of their horses. Sir Gore Ousley says that the Persians vary the rhythm in so masterly a manner that their music not only pleases the ignorant, but even the learned. The most effectual and ready way to acquire a knowledge of musical time is that of play- ing in concert; and the 'larger the band, the greater is the chance of its being correctly kept.

The mere recurrence of sounds at regular intervals does not represent all the properties of musical sound. Accent is necessary to add beauty and grace to the time, such as rhythm and ear will approve. The ear takes no pleasure in listening to a series of monotonous sounds: it tires and grows wrary with the uniformity. Owing to the peculiur strueture of the ear, it is unfitted to receiva two sounds of equal force in succession. The differant degrees of loud and soft constitute one of its greatost pleasures. An accented sored invariably de- prives the following one of its energy, and thia is only natural, for after the weight of voice has been thrown upon the accented note, the next one is uttered under some degree of exhaustion and is rendered weuker in consequence. If we listen to the trotting of a horse or the tread of our own feet, we cannot fail to notice that each alternate step is louder than'the other, and here nature furnishes us with the idea of accent. The musi- col measures of a nation are mostly founded-on the

4 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

tire which they generally adopt in the ordinary pur- suits of life. It has already been remarked that the walking pace of a man is in common time, and that armies are always moved in this measure. In Venice where the people are constantly moving upon the water, the oars are thrown in the movement of triple time, which is speedily communicated-to the wave ; and hence it is that all their celebrated airs and barcarolles are written in triple time. Roussean says that these pirs are composed and sung by the gondoliers and have so much melody and an accent so plensing that there is scarcely a musician in Italy who does not insist upon knowing or singing them.

Rhythm may be said to be the map or ground-plan upon which a musical composition proceeds. It is to the ear what order and regularity are to the eye. And herein, too, nature furnishes the idea. When we observe the symmetry of the hnman form, we find the arms, the hands, the eyes, the fingers, equidistant from n line drawn down the nose, through the centre of the body. A similar regularity is observed in the vegetablo tribes, and the very -principles of architecture are depondant on these due proportions. Though the ear cun receive only one impression at a time and has to wait for the coming sounds to form a musical iden, yet in this eue cession it demands the same order which' to the eye is presented at once. Music and Poetry have been com- bined from time immemorial. There is a Bauxkrit stanza to the effect that Music and Poetry are the two teats of Sarasvati, the Goddess of the two artx. Plutarch snys that in the early times such was the fondness for rhythm and numbers thnt all instruction was given in musical rerse. Voltaire remarks that before Herodotns the Greeks wrote all history in verse, which custom they

INTRODUCTION.

borrowed from the Egyptians. The Egyptians, in their turn, might have most probably derived their idea from the Hindus whose sacred and classical writings were all clothed in verse, such as the Mahábharata, the Ráma- yana, tne Tantras, the Puranas, &c. The object of his- tory being to preserve to posterity the memory of great men, the verse was laid hold of to assist the memory. A boy who beats a drum may be innocent of all know- ledge of melody and harmony and yet have an ear for rhythm; and such is exactly the case with those who play the cymbals or musical cups in the melo-dramatic performances in Hindusthan which popularly go by the name of. Jattras. The jugglers of India, who exhibit such extraordinary feats with swords, cups and bells, depend upon the rhythm of the movement for the succass of their performance. The bells are of different gravities, and are thrown with a certain velocity, so that they shall fall into the hand in the time of quavers and semi-quavers, and from their being hollow and made like a coral bell they give a jingling sound, by which they are more easily canght. Rhythm is as much neces- sary to please the ear as to relieve min in the common pursuits of labour. The regularity with which the smith throws his hammer on the anvil, the woodman his axe on the timber, and the palki bearer of India hums out his jargon, serves to charm away the ennni which these men feel in the discharge of their laborious duties. Withont rhythm no music can be considered beautiful. Ideas that may in themselves be good and pleasing lose their charm, if bereft of the symmetry which rhythm gives them. A confused heap of colored stones affords no pleasure to the eye, but viewed in a kaleidosco pe, they delight us by the beauty of their arrangement and the infinity of their combinations. Rhythm is at the root of every form in which mian desires to manifest his

UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

feelings, whether it is by throwing the voice into song, the speech into verse, or the gestures into dance. Dancing has been described as an art in which the "sentiments of the mind and passions are expressed by measured steps or bounds, that are made in cadence, by regulated motions of the body, and graceful ges- tures; all of which can only be successfully produced by that law of nature called rhythm". To mark out the rhythm as a governing principle in these motions, musie has been found to be the most efficient method. In the dances of the savage Santulas* and other nations this is simply done by the clapping-of hands, or the beating of a drum or sticks together, but sinco melody and the phrases of music can make the fineat gradations in rhythm perceptible to the ear, not only grace, but passion and sentiment have followed as natural ex- pressions in the motion and carriage of the human form.

Rhythm connects the musician and the poet into a brotherhood. The painter, however, is in larger sym- pathy with the musician; so much so that he dencribes his picture in a language made up of musienl terms. The musician returns the compliment and attributes to his favorite art another quality which he denominat.s color :-- and here nature supplies another idea. If, am Newton supposed, the impulse upon the nerves of the eye produced by color is similar in kind or degree to that produced upon the ear by sounds, tho impression upon the sensorium or seat of sonsation in the brain will probably be the same, or so nearly so, that the ideas of the respective external objects will be associated in tho mind. On the basis of this theory, the different musical

*g mtdlas i. r., Samatálas, from samc, rqonl, and tála, mearure : ailud- ing to the regularity of their movemcxts lu danciug.

INTRODUCTION. 7

instruments have been characterised by corresponding colours and fancifully classed as under :-

WIND INSTRUMENTS.

Trombone Deep red. Flute ... Sky blue. Trumpet Scarlet. Diapason .. Deeper blue. Clarionet Orange. Double Diapason. .Purple. Oboe Yellow. Horn ... Violet. Bassoon (Alto) ... Deep yellow.

STRINGED INSTRUMENTS.

Violin Pink. Violoncello ... Red. Viola Rose. Double Bass :... Deep crimson red.

In connection with the above, it should be under- stood that the lowest notes of each instrument partake of the darkest shades of its color, and as they ascend they become of a ligliter hue. As regafds the/human voice, the lowest tones, i.e., those formed in the chest, partake of the most sombre hues and forcibly express our inmost feelings; as they ascend, they become more bright and cheerful, expressing the more lively sensations of mirth and joy. There is thus independ- ently of words, a language of nature, it which the passions find a universal and an instinetive utterance, and if these are attended to, it will be found that they may all be referred to the gradations of the musical scale. According to Sanskrit authorities the seven notes are respectively represented by the following colours :-- Black, tawny, golden, white, yellow, purple, and greon,

8 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

re embling very nearly those mentioned in Field's Chro- matics*

• The seven principal notes of Bindu Musir, aa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, corresponding to the notes of European'Musir, O, D, E F, Q, A, B, are based on phonological principles, these notes belng relsted to th seven principal vowel sounds in the Banskrit lauguage, thus := Sa, ri; ga, mn, pa, dhn, nt.

Hindu Muaic is divided into three Grámas, namely, the 84 gráms' the Ga giama, and the Ma gramn. The ides cf thene Grdmas weems tn be connected with that of the three primitire vowels, a (m), i(x). and u (e from which, according to philologiats, all the varioos rowel sounda in the Aryan languages have been developed. The threo Grdme# are thus indicated :-* 4

Sa, o gn, ma, 0, 0, 0.

The twenty one Murchhands spoken of in Hindu masic are thu" traced :- (Vowels) 1 2 8 4 5 7 3 0 10 11 12 18

(Consonants) 15 10 17 18 19 20 21

The forty-nine Kuta-tanas are dorived from the 14 vowels and 83 consonants thnt form the siphabet of the Sanskrit :suwuaws. The vowels enumerated above are 14 in number, and to thess be tmn 'and : are to be added, thus making ap the total pamber 10. The con sonants aro b of the group-riz., . ", T. T, 5 5 viz,, z, 3, s. x. w, 5 77

5

4 थ

4

• 33 In the Sanskrit Grammar Kalpa occurs the following,sphorism सिसे वर्ष सभामाय :

INTRODUCTION. 9

Harmony is an effect inherent in nature. Every sound is a mixture of three tones, or, the first, third and fifth, in the same way as a ray of light is composed of three prismatic colors, namely, blue, red and yellow, which are the colors attributed, respectively, to C, E, and G of the major diatonic scale. This union is called the common chord. The musical scale*, which has been formed from an observation of the effects of every sound in nature,

which means that the vurnas (letters of the alphabet, are Siddha, i.e., eternal or self-manifested. So are the masical notes. The prinoipal notes are seven just as, according to the Ayurveda (Medical soience of the Hindus), the const'+uant parts of the body are seven, namely, मेद (Marrow), मास (Flesh9), भज्जा (Pith), अष्िरि (Bone), पक्र (Semen), Ter (Fat), and arfaa (Blood). The days of the week are seven ; the cceans of the world, acourding to Pauránic geography, aro also sevon.

• The musioal soale is derived, aocording to Sanskrit authors, from the cries of birds and beasts in tho following order :- 0 Pescook. O to G C to D Ball. Kokil (a sweet-voiced Indian bird). O to E GoAt. O to A O to B Horse. O to F The ories of birds have furnished hints for severul musical composi- Jaokal. Elepbant

tions in Europo. The voes! organs of both man and beast present a general resem- blance to eanh other. Some of the quadrumana bave large sacs bet ween the thyroid osrtilage and the ov hyoideum, which have much to do with modifying and inoreasing the resonauce of the voice. The bray of the ass has beon traced to two large saos existing between the vocal ohonds aud the inuer surfuce of the thyroid oartilage. A few of the Mammalis, us for instance, the giraffe, the porcupine, and the arma- dillo, have no vooal obords, and are therefore mute. Birds possess a superior larynx which differs conaiderably from that of the Mammalla, and has nothing to do with the production of soand. Below this is the inferior larynx at the lower end of the trachea, just before it bifurostes into the two bronohi. This is the organ of voice, and differs a great doal, both in furm and atruoture, in the several species of birds. In sonte birds the inferior larynx hus as many as five muscles, in others, nonn, as in the case of vultures. The two membranes, membrana samilunaria, and membrana tympuniformis (the latter being highly developod in amging birds), which are attached to the thin rod of bone (om trunwoor aule), correspond to .the vucal chords in the Mummalis, sounds being produred by the vibration of their margine. The various notes are caused by changes in the degree of tension of the membranes, by differences in the furce of the air-current, and by changes in the length and degree of tension of the trachea and other parta. The range of the voice in birds in usually within an octave, but may be much ereater. The sounds produoed by most insects are pro-

10 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

may be called the prism of the art whereby all com- binations of sound are divisible into their component parts. The Sanskrit authorities divide the notes into castes, C, F, and G (each of which contains 4 arutis) being Brahmanas; D and A (each having 3 srutis) being Kshatriyas ; E and B (having 2 srutis each) being Vaisyas; and the sharps and flats being Sudras (or pariahs, these having lost caste, so to spenk, by the relative values of the notes they represented being affee- ted). This grouping furnishes the key to the combina- tion that should be resorted to in setting a musical. piece to harmony. The arrangoment of the colors, too, furnishes an important guide in the arrangement of chords.

duced.externally and not internally. The stridulation of the criokut or grass-hopper is made by rubbing certain fle-like organs agairst the edges of n.embranous drums on the wings. The pitch of the sound# proJuced by the oricket is high, consisting of 4,096 vibrations per second. The buzzing of flies and gnata is produced by the rapid vibratiun of two rudimentary posterior wings called halteres. The hummiop of humble- bees, beetles, and the like, is due to the passage of the air throngh the apiracles. Fish, with few exceptions, bave no special monorous spparataw. It is possible that the air-bladder opening into the pharynx which is possessed by soms fish may enable them to emit sounds ; and the fact that they can emit sounds, and sweet ones too, is testifed to by Lieutenant White, Sir James Emerson Tennant, and other Buropean travellers who had personal opportunities of listening to the musio produced by the fpny denizens of the.deep.

NATIONAL MUSIC. 11

NATIONAL MUSIC.

T has been generally accepted that most countries have a music of their own, the character of which may be called national. The primitive tones of the human voice are much the same in all countries and prior to the progress of the art and to the period when the music of one country came to exercise some in- fuence over that of another, the songs of a nation could exprcss only the sensations of the heart, and have been little better than the mere tones of the voice. The Moors have exercised. a p ceptible influence upon the music of Spain. The well-known German "Dessauer Marsch" is of Italian origin. Certain authorities doubt if the English National Anthem is not an importation from abroad. The adoption occurs oftenest in a nation whose music has a less marked national .character, and between nations whose music does not differ widely in its prominent features. In che case of civilized nations where music is cultivated on scientific principles in the upper strata of society, and where it has reached a high degree of development, one must look to the less educated classes for obtaining a strictly correct idea of theif national music. National music means a faith- ful erpression of national feelings, and these feelings are best manifasted under circumstances that are not controlled by extraneous influences. The shepherd tend- ing his flock, the fisherman mending his nets, the labourer in the paddy field, the cartman driving his cart,

12 UNIVEKSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

has no inducement to sing his favorite tune, unless he is prompted to it by the emotions of his heart. The professional musician, on the other hand, has several inducements to compose or perform music which he does not really feel. The peculiar character of the popular music of a nation depends to a large extent upon the climate of the country, upon the oceupation and habits of the people, and, as some go to the length of asserting, upon the food upon which they chiefty subsist. National airs are mostly without instrumental accompaniment, and this could hardly be otherwise, for the people generally sing at their daily occupations and on similar occasions where an instrument could searcely be used, not to mention the practice that is required to enable one to play upon an instrument. The only instrument used on such occasions may be the drum, or somc- such thing that can mark out the rhythm; and it is only in countries where music has made some progress that stringed instruments are used.

The study of the music of various nations is advan tageous to the musician for a number of reasons. The variety of rhythm and modulation and the deep and beautiful expression that prevail in some of the melodies may present to the student excellent models in composi- tion. The study is important from an ethnological point of view, as it affords him an insight into the inward man, and displays the character and temperament of different races, and the relation they bear to one another. It is also important from a historical standpoint, for it shows the different stages of progress which music has made in different countries. Having dwelt on some of the aspects of music in as succinct a manner as the scope of the present book will allow, and having for our object the presentation to the student of a birds'-eye view

NATIONAL MUSIC 18

of music as it prevails in the civilized world, we shall now proceed to our task, after making a few observa- tions on the music of the savage nations of both the new and old hemispheres.

14 ONIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

THE SAVAGE NATIONS.

ONHE collection of tunes made by G. W. Steller shows that the people of Kamtschatka possess music far more expressive and beautiful than their ignorance and their wretched life would lead one to suppose .* The natives of the Fuegian Archipelago are said to possess a fine ear and great fondness for music. In his " Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition,"Captain Wilkes states that one of them sang with promptness and precision the diatonic and chromatic seales which- had beeu played to him upon the violin. The Esquimaux, when visited by Captain Parry, had no instruments except a species of drum and tambourine, though they were found to be very fond of music. They had songs but these were characterised by neither variety, compass, nor melody. When conquered by the Spaniarde the Mexicans were found to possess two drums as their chief instruments. The one was called the Hushuetl and the other, the Teponaztli. They had, besides, horns, sea-shelle, * The Kamtschadales have a kind of dance called the Bachia, or Bear dance in which two persons imitate the attitudes, trioks, and uncooth postures of two bears while the spectators singing incessantly repont the words Bachia da hog! Tilesius, who witnessed one of themn per. formances and wrote down one of the tunds employed, remarke that the dancers en.itted at interrals a grunting sound, ang, or ugh, whleb is supposed to be an imitation of the noise made by the animals which they represented. The people of Kamtechatka evince an extraordiosry talent for extempore songs. It is related that when two Russian offoers and a naturaliat visited them the natives soon oommetorated iu a song what they had observed regarding the doings of the visltors and of their servante. The Aangitach songs form a particalar class of national songe of the Kamtschadales, their name and origia beirg derived from a wild duck (Anas Glacialis) which appearn in Kamts. chatka at a certain season in large focks. The notes of this bird are O, E, G, O, F, A, of the major diatonio soals,

THE SAVAGE NATIONS. 15

and little pipes, as also an instrument used by their dancers, and designated the Ajacaxtli. From the descrip- tion given of it, this instrument appears to have been little better than a child's rattle. The music of the Indians of North-West America, as described by Mr. Weld in his "Travels in North America", was very rude and indifferent,and equally devoid of melody and variety. Their celebrated war-song was littie better than a dull recitative. Singing and dancing went hand in hand. The only instrument they used in addition to the drum was a 'flute formed of a thick cane or reed. The tones of this instrument admitted of a pleasing modulation; but Mr. Weld never came across an Indian, including those who were in the habit of singing, who could play a regular air upon it. Captain Hall who visited the Creek Indians in 1828; was present at one of their grand ball plays which, he was informed, was " a perfestly genuine unsophisticated display of the Indians, who had resided on the spot from time immemorinl." At this festival were present "two musicians, one of whom was hammer- ing away with his fingers on a drum, formed of a piece of deer skin, stretched over the hollowed trunk of a tree, while the othor kept tune with a large gourd con- taining a han lful of gravel." Soon after the arrival of Captain Cook at Otaheite, he was treated to a specimen of native music by one of the chiefs. Four persons play- ed upon flutes, which sounded like German flutes; the performer, instead of applying the instrument to his mouth, blew into it with one pestril, while he stopped the other with his thumb. To these instruments four other persons sung. The Captain and his fellow- voyagers found, to their surprise, that generally they were the subjents of the songs, which were unpremedi- tated. The Otaheiteans possessed drums which, how- ever, were beat with the hands. At Amsterdam, one of

16 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

the Friendly Isles, the Captam and his officers were entertained by the women with songs, and they accom- panied the music by snapping their fingers. Here only three instruments were found, "vit., a flute, another wind instrument (like the Syrinx or Pan's pipe), and a drum. In his description of the Tonga Islands (which represent a part of the Friendly group), Mr. Mariner remarks that the inhabitants are fond of singing, and that on festive occasions they go singing about all night. Some of their songs have neither rhyme nor re- gular measure; but there are others that hnve both. They also sing a kind of lament over the corpses of the dead. The Indians of Chili used flutes made of the bones of the enemies whom they had slain in war; they likewise made them of the bones of animals; but the Indians of war danced only to the former. In his work entitled the "Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Chili," Alonso de Ovalle mentions that their way of singing was to raise their voices altogether upon the same note; and that at the conclusion of each song, they played upon the flutes and a kind of trumpet. The Indians of Brazil also used pipes made of human bones The Bachapina, a tribe of the Caffres, ^have only one instrument called the Lichaka which is simply a reed pipe, and which is cup- able of producing only one note. When several playert meet, some of these pipes are tuned in unison, while others take different notes in the -scale, the interval between the lowest and the highest pipe comprising about twelve notes. Burchell in his Travels says that there is no particular air in their music, though a certain cadence is perceptible now and then. He sup- poses that prior to 1812 when he visited the tribe they had not heard European airs; and that when he, for the first tie, played some on the violin, several boys who

THE SAVAGE NATIONS. 17

had heard them attentively, soon picked them up and sung them to him with surprising readiness and pre- cision. It would appear that love-songs and serenades are not the monopoly of civilized lovers ; for we find that the North-American Indian blows his little court- ing whistle ; that the Bushman in South Africa twangs the solitary string of his bow-shaped gorah; and that the Corsican youth sings his melancholy vocero referring to death in the prime of life. In his work entitled "Voyage of His Mujesty's ship Alceste," John M'Leod mentions that in the island of Formosa, "when a young man fixes his affections, he hovers about the house where the object of his regard resides, and plays upon some musical instrument, which signal the lady answers by coming out to meet him, and to settle the matte", provided he is to her taste; should it be other- wise, she takes no notice, the gentleman 'whistles in vain' and must try his fortune elsewhere." "Captain Cook observed that the Sandwich Islanders while engaged in preparing their favorite drink, called ava (which is expressed from the root of a kind of pepper plant) invariably sang hymns. When the liquor was prepared, the chief among them, after chanting by himself for some time and being responded to by the people in chrrus, would pour tome of the ava on the ground, evidently as a libation to the gods. Marco Polo, who travelled in Asia during the latter half of the thirtrenth century, relates of the Grand Khan of Tartary thns ;- "when drink is called for by him, and the page in waiting has presented it, he retires three paces and kneels down, npon which the courtiers and all who aro present, in like manner make their prostration. At the same moment all the musical instruments, of which there is a numerous band, begin to play, and con- tinue to do so antil he has ceased drinking, when all

18 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIO.

the company recover their posture ; and this reverential salutation is made so often as His Majesty drinka." Francisco Travassos Valdez, in his work called "Sir Years of a Traveller's Life in Western Africa," relates of the Kafirs in Loanda, Lower Guinea, that if a death occurs among them, the friends of the deceased perform- ed songs and dances not only at the funeral, but resume this manifestation of grief at the expiration of eight days, and then again at the close of a month. In her "Ten Months in the Fiji Islands," Mrs. Smythe remarks that the natives possess some songs which are said to be so ancient that many of the words are no longer intelligible. Bowdich, when he enquired about the antiquity of a popular air which he frequently heard sung by the Negroes in Ashanti, was told that "the song was made when the country was made." The music of the aboriginal tribes of Western, Southern, and Eastern Africa presents surprising points of similarity. The Negroes are proverbially fond of music. " The general excellence of the Negro ear for music," observes Dr. Charles Pickering in his work or "The Races of Man," " is a subject of common remark in the United States." He goes further and states that much of the popular musie in the United States can be traced to a Negro source. Remarking on the musical talent evinced by the Negro slaves in Georgin, Mra. Fanny Kemble says in her " Journal,"-" with a very little skilful adaptation and instrumentution, I think one or two barbaric chants and choruses might he evoked from them that would make the fortune of au opera." The music of the American Indians hus very little in common with that of the Negroes. The in- struments which were in use among the Indians when America was discovered, and those subscquently found in old tombs and other places, where they had luir

THE SAVAGE NATIONS 19

undisturbed for several centuries, point more to Asia than Africa as the country whence they were imported. These genuine evidences of the progress made in music by the American Indians before they came in contact with the European-and African races, go to support the theory that America was in the very remote past colonised by the Hindus. The use of the rattle in incantations and of songs for the cure of diseases is common to the abori- gines of Amerca and Africa. The maraca of the Brazilian Indians is a rattle made of a gourd containing grains of maize and having a wooden handle attached to it. Precisely similar is the pehi of the Indians of Guinea which is used by the sorcerers in their incanta- tions (called obiah) for the purpose of expelling a malady or inflicting one. The same kind of rattle is to be found with most Negro tribes in Atrica and with the Kafirs in Eastern Africa. Again, the Indians on the Rio Haupes (a tributury of the Rio Negro, South America) possess a musical instrument called Juruparis or " devil," which is aaid to be an object of very great veneration. Women are never allowed to see theve instruments, nor young men either, until they have been gubjected to a scries of fastings and other preparations. Captain R. F. Burton mentions an equally myAterinus instrument which the Negroes in Abeokuta, Western Africa, are in the habit of sounding on certain peculiar occasions to terrify their women. The Rev. Dr. J. Lewis Krapf relates that the Wanika, a Kafir tribe nem Zunzibar, make use of an instrument called muan- sa-a-kurri which is teld in great veneration and awe. It is always brought into play when the Wanika people sacrilice or pray for rain, or are going to strangle a mis- shapen child in the wood, or promulgate any new laws. Il is only those who are initiated into the mystery of

20 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the muansa that are allowed to hear the bellow of this terrible instrument.

The development of musin is found to be much slower than that of other arts, and this is speciall, the case with the music of uncivilized countries. But curious as the fact may appear, it has been observed that some of the savage nations posseas a kind of notation, rude though it well may be, but calculated to help the memory of the singer in a very suggestive method. In his work entitled " Information respecting the History, Condition, and Prospects. of the Indian Tribes of the United States," Dr. H. R. Schoolcraft tells us that the North American Indians paint pictures upon birch-bark or some other suitable material to which the ainger refers as to a book. Dr. Schoolcraft has published several of these mysterious representations. In one of the war-songs, there are only four symbolic figures, vir .--

1. The sun.' 2. A warrior pointing with one hand to the sky, and with the other to the earth. 3. A warrior oppearing under the symbol of the moon. 4. Vonus, the evening star, called "The Esdarn woman." These figures recall to the mind of the si ger a whole verse, eaeh symbol repreyenting a prticam sentiment as the following trunslation will expluin :--

2. I am rising to seek the war-path; 2. The enrth and the sky are before me. 3. I walk by day and by night, And the evening star is my guide.

THE SAVAGE NATIONS. 21

In another war-song are depicted :- 1. The hero with his war-club and magic rattle. 2. Birds of prey flying in the sky. 8. The hero lying slain in the battle-field. 4. The hero appearing as a spirit in the sky. The interpretation of the above is as follows :- 1. I devote my body to battle. . I take courage from the flight of eagles. 8. I am willing to be numbered with the slain; 4. For even then my name shall be repeated with praise. Mr. G. Catlin, in his " Letters and Notes on the manners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians," gives a fac-simile of a song of the Chippe- way Indians in North America. From this chart it would appear that besides the suggestive figures such as those described above, there are certain symbols which are no doubt musical signs. The traveller Kohl relates, in his " Wanderings round Lake Superior," that an Indian, named Kitagiguan (or The Spotted Feather), gave him a music lesson, in which the master took one of the birch-bark books in his lap, and, pointing with his finger to certam of the depicted figures, proceeded to in- struct his pupil by remarking that those signs meant no- thing further than that they showed him how he should go on singing. Pointing to some others he observed :- "This sign signifies that the same voice and the same tune continue ; and this sign indientes that the voice shall go up." The music of other savage or semi-savage nations will be noticed further on under the hendings of the coutries to which they respectively belong.

22 UNIVERBAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ASIA.

CHINA.

y HINA is one of the oldest countries in the world, and it is no wonder, therefore, that the invention of the music of that country should be attributed to · Fo Hi, its first prince, who was, according to some authorities, contemporary to, and according to some others, identical with Noah. Chao-Hao, and after him Confucius, greatly improved the art. The latter is said to have compiled a work on the science, but according to M. Klaproth it was burnt by command of Emperor Shihuang-ti, who flourished about 246 B. C. Music was held in high estimation among the early Chinese. It was calied " the Science of Sciences ; the rich source from which all the others spring." Father Amiot speaks enthusiastically of the skill of the Chinese in the musical art. He goes to the extent of saying that Linghen Kouie (who is said to have lived 1000 years before Orpheus and to have remarked, " when I strike harmonious chords, the beasts of the field encompass me, leaping for joy",) was superior to Hermes Trismegistus and that the Kin of Pin-mou-kai far excelled the lyre of Amphion. Father Alvarez Semedo, in his work entitled " The History of the Great and Renowned Monarchy of China," gives an account of the music and musical instruments of this nation. He mentions therein that Confucius took great pains in having the people instructed in music. There were wandering minstrels, and blind minstrels who went about the country, singing or playing at feasts and

ASIA -- CHINA. 23

festivals, and marriages and birth-days. The priests also used music in their offices and funeral ceremonies ; and this sacred music was somewhat like the canto-fermo of the Romish Church. The Chinese sang in unison and not in harmony. Their singing was with one voice, accompanied by a single instrument. Their first instru- ment was of metal and contained " bells of all sorts, cymbals, sistra," &c. The second was made of jasper, "like the Italian squadra." They had the ordinary drum, the kettle-drum, the violin, the viol (with silk strings), the flute, a kind of wooden castanets, as also an instru- ment like the syrinx or Pan's pipe. In addition to these there is one instrument-the most ancient on record- called the Hiuen, which Father Amiot attempted to trace 3000 years before the Christian era. It is in the form of an egg pierced with five holes, two being at the top and threc at the bottom. Dr. Burney makes mention of cne instrument which he saw in Paris with the Abbe Arnaud of' the French Academy. It was a kind of harmo- nicon, consisting of bars of wood of different lengths, as sonorous as if they had been of metal. A specimen of this was observed by Carl Engelin the Museum of tho United Service Institution, London. Two of the most im- portant of Chinese instruments are the King and the Chong. The King consists of stones cut into the shape of a carpen- ter's square, each stone being suspended by the corner in a wooden frame. It is played by being beat with a round mallet like a gong, which latter is also a Chinese instrument. The King had, according to Father Amiot, 25 bridges, of which 5 were blue, 5 red, 5 yellow, 5 white and 5 black. The Cheng has a gourd or bamboo for its basis, and represents, in the arrangement of its reed or bamboo pipes, the column of an organ. It has from 13 to 19 pipes whieh emit sound either by blowing or inhaling, so that a

24 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

tone may be continued to any length. It does not sound till a hole is stopped, and as many openings as are covered by the fingers, so many sounds are produe- ed. Duets may, therefore, be played on a single in- strument or even chords. The tone of the Cheny is not loud enough for a theatre or concert hall, but in a small room it is known to discourse exquisite music. According to the Chinese, there are eight different kinds of musical sound in nature, named as below, and their instruments are classified necordingly :- (1) sound of skin; (2) sound of stone; (3) sound of metal; (4) sound of silk; (5) sound of wood; (G) wound of bamboo; (7) sound of gourd; and (8) sound of baked earth. Under heading (1) come the varieties of the Kou (drum) viz., Ying Kou, Kin Kou, Tau Kou, Tao Kou, Pang-Kou, Thai-pang-kon and the (hi-sian (tambourine). Under heading (2) are comprised the King and its modern variety the Pirn-King, Tae King, Yu-ty and Yu-hstao (flutes), and Har-lo (conch-trumpet). No. (3) includes the varieties of the Chung (bell), tho Lo (gong), the Po (eymbals), the La-pa or long trumpet and Hao tung, a long. cylindricul inatrument. No. (4) is represented by Kin or "the seholar's lute," the favourite instrument of Confucius, the Se, the Pepa (balloon guitar), San-Heen, Yue-Kin, Hu-Kin, Ur-Heen (two-stringed violin), and Yang-Ain also called the foreign harpsichord, because it is ulso found in Syrin, Turkey and Egypt. No. (5) is now represented by the Chu (a rectangular box), the Ya in the form of n crouching tiger resting on a reetangular hox, the Mu-Yu or "wooden fish, " shaped like a skull, the Pai- pan, and Shon-pan, the last two being varieties of castanets. The wind-instrumeuts come under class (6) and consist of varieties of the Pai-hao or pipes, the Ty or flute, and the Sona or clarionet. Under hend-

RY. BECUNDERARIRe ASIA-CHINA. 25

ing (7) comes the Cheng or the "mouth-organ" already described. Class (8) is represented by the Hsuan, a kind of ocarina said to have been invented 2700 years before the Christian era. It is described as " a reddish yellow cone of baked clay or porcelain, ornamented with designs of dragons, clouds, &c., and pierced with six holes,-one at the apex to blow through, three in front, and two behind. " In his work, entitled "The Chinese as they are " (London, 1841.), Mr. Tradescant Lay mentions the Chinese Pepa, a kind of guitar with four strings. "It is often used at festal rites of a religious charac- ter, and accompanied by the three-stringed guitar ( San-Heen ) ; so that we see something like music in parts, though of a very humble kind." Of the latter instrument he remarks :- " The sounds of the San-Heen are low and dull, which adapt it for the purpose of subduing the shrill sounds of the Pepa by some- thing like a bass. Performers do not appear to have anything like a score,-one plays from memory or in learning from notes, while the other accompanies him according to the best ideas of harmony he is master of." Of another instrument, . the Yue-Kin or "full-moon guitar", he remarks: "I once saw a musician at one of the strolling theatres who displayed a great deal of execution upon it, with very pleasing effect. On another occasion it was used as an accom- paniment to the Ur- Heen (a species of fiddle), and, as the musician understood his business, the result had some- thing peculiarly merry and exhilarating about it." The Chineme duleimer, Yang-Kin, is furnished with brass strings which ere struck with two'small hammers; " when touched by a skilful hand, it yields a very gay and lively combination of harmonious and melodious sounds."

D

26 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Mustc enters largely into the composition of the Chinese drama; and in remarking on the songs with which their plays are interspersed, Bishop Hurd, in his " Discourse on Poetical imitation ", states that they evince a remarkable likeness to the ancient chorus of the Greek pieces. But the Chinese do not make use of musie in their dramatic representations merely with the object of affording amusement. The aid of music is invoked when the author has reached the climax of passion, and only when words alone are found inadequate to convey the desired expression. Sir George Staunton says that at Turon in Cochin China, the embassy were treated to a performance of a kind of historical opera, in which the recitative, the air, and the chorus were as regular as apon the Italian stage. Some of the female performers were " by no means despicable singers2' "At Zhe-hol", adas Sir George, "the singers' had such a command over their voices as to resemble the musical glasses at a distance." The English ofticers who accom- panied Lord Mucartney on his embassy shewed a great contempt for Chinese music, and compared their military and theatrical bands to the " confused jingle and jargon of Bartholomew Fair." Mr. Ellis remarks-" Myriads of cracked penny trumpets give the best ided of Chinese military music." About 18 years ago a troupe of Chinese artistes gave some performances at the Opera House, Calcutta, and the newspapers of the time were full of bitter complaints mude by the neighbouring Euro- peans against the company for disturbing the peace of night. The Chinese, in return, show their utmost indifference for English music, for when Lord Mucartney's band was heard by them, they declared that it wus not made for Chinese ears; and yet they secmed pertectly well aware of what should be the effect of music; as, on a previous occasion, when two of Rameau's best pieces

ASIA-CHINA 27

were played to them, one of the Chinese people remarked after the performance was over :- "()ur melodies go from the ear to the heart, and from the heart to the mind; we feel them; we understand them; but the music which you have just played we neither feel nor understand-it doca not move us." He further observed-"Music is the language of feeling ; all our passions have their corre- sponding tones and proper language; and therefore music,to be good, must be in accord with the passion it pretends to express." From the result of the investigations which Father Amiot made, during his residence in Pekin, regarding the acience and history of Chinese music, it would appear that the ancient Chinese divided the octave into the twelve. equal parts. The scale, as commonly. used, consisted, however, of only five notes, which were called koung, chang, kio, tché, yu, corresonding with the European F, G, A, C, D. The intervals corresponding with the European B and E were called Pien-tché and Pien-oung, respectively. F was considered the principal or normal key, just as C is regarded in European music. Converted into the " C" scale, the Chinese scale would stand C, D, E, G, A, i. #., the notes F and B would be avoided. These two intervals were used only in exceptional cases, and almost all the musical instruments were constructed with a view to the pentatonic scale. The Hiuen, as already stated, had only five holes through which this scale would be emitted. The Kin was similarly con- structed. Another very old instrument called the ou, which was in the shape of a crouching tiger, had six notes, corresponding to F, G, A, C, D, F. The modern inatruments are constructed to suit the pentatonic scale. It is said. that when Prince Tsai-yu. towards the close of the sixteenth century of the Christian eru, attempted

28 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

to introduce a diatonio scale by the inclusion of Pien-tehé and Pien-koung, the innovation met with strong opposi- tion at the hands of the musicians. Apparently th e diatonic scale never became popular, as almost all the tunes collected by Europeans in China are strictly based on the pentatonic series. This scale seems to be the earliest in existence,* and the simplest of all. Children in their first attempts to intone the diatonic scale after it has been sung to them are apt to omit the fourth and seven.h. From this fact it would appear that the pentatonic series comes most naturally to those whose ear has not been accustomed to any particular scalo. On account of the similarity of scales, Chinese music baars a strong resemblance to the Scottish. But aa Dr. Burney thinks there is no reason to conclude that the one borrowed it from the other, especially baving reyard to the fact that the Chinese are extremely tena- cious of old customs, it may safely be asserted in the language of the learned Doctor that the pentatonic scale is " natural to a people of simple manners during the infancy of civilization and the arts among them." The uses of this scale among other nations will be noticed when they come to be dealt with, The earliest information of the existence of a system of musical notation among the Chinese is to be found in a manuscript of Father Amiot transcribed by Laborde in Paris in 1780. They seem to have a certain system for vocal music and another kind for certain of their instru- ments. Fétis mentions a Chinese treatise on the art of playing the in, or " Scholars' Lute," which contains a notation peculiar to that instrument. Carl Engel

• This is borne out by the fact that the eix principal Rdges (melody types of the Hindne) which, with referenos to their mythulo- piral venenin, sprang from the dve mouths of Mahédeva and the mouth of Párvatí inolude one, tbe (Megha), which in practically of the pente- tonio rcule.

ASIA-CHINA. 29

reproduces the words and music of a Chinese song "Siau Chok," and attempts an explanation of the various sym- bols used to denote duration of time and to indicate the higher octa ves. In the " Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Shanghai, 1859," The Rev. E. W. Syle thus describes the mode in which the Chinese add the musical notation to the"words of a song :- "The words are written down in a severe and stately column,and the music isleft to find room for itself in the best way it can. All the vocalization that is to be done upon any particular word is made, as it were, to flow off from it sidewaysand downwards ; the performer must look sharp after"his notes and rests and beats among the odds and ends of writing that appear to the uninstructed like the after-thoughts of hasty composition." In.China great attention is paid by the State to the cultivation of music. The connection of the State with music is chown by the names of the notes of the old- est musical scale, F being called Emperor; G, Prime Minister ; A, loyal subjecta; C, state of affairs; and D, mirror the world. One of nine tribunals who have charge of the general affairs! of the State superintends the musical rites and ceremonies. The professors of music "have a higherstatus than those of Mathematics and have their college in the enclosure of the Imperial Palace. It is said that the Library at Pekin includes 482 worka on music.

China is no exception to the eustom of singing by beggars with a view to aolicit alms. The Chinese beggars use castanets made of bamboo. In his. "Perso- nal narrative of threc years' service in China" published in London in 1883, Lt .- Col. Fisher mentions that in Canton, there exists a poor-law which provides that no beggar who enters a shop or a similar place and sounds

82 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

(of which one is brass, and the others are of silk, on the frets, and strikes them with an ivory plectrum. Of the instruments of the violin species are the Saw Tai and the Saw Samsai, both being mounted with three strings. The Saw Duang and Saw Oo, which are two-etringed violins differing only in size, bear a close resemblance to the ordinary Chinese fiddle. The Pee, which is the most important wind instrument of Siam, may be made either of marble, ivory, or ebony. Another instrument of this class is known as Peechuwar, or Java flute, which has seven holes and is generally made of ivory. Bamboo flutes are also in use. The Klui is a variety in which the pitch may be altered by covering one of the holes with & membrane. In Laos and Siam there is a species of organ constructed on a principle similar to the Chinese Cheng, though entirely dissimilar in outward look. The name for cymbals is Charp and that for castanote, Ching. The latter is used by the conduetor of an orchestra to keep time during the performanee. The orchestra, like the instruments, is divided into two clanses,- Mahoree or "light-sounding," and Bhimbhat or " heavy-sounding," the former being intended for in-door performances and the latter, like the brass bands of Europe, for out-dioor . purposes. In his account of Siam and Cuchin (Tina, Mr. Craw- furd remarks that a Sinmese band " ought not to consist ef less than ten instruments. The frat of these in rank is a kind of staccato, in the form of a semi-cirele, within which the player sits, striking with two sinall hammers tle notes, or keys, which conxist of inverted veasels of brass. The second is another sluccato, of the same materials, but less compass, in the form of a boat ; the third, a violin with three strings ; the fourth, a guitar with four strings, played with a bit of wood fastened to the finger; the fifth, a flute ; and the sixth, a flageolet.

ASIA-SIAM. 88

To these are occasionally added an instrument with four Etrings, in the form of a boat ; and the band is complet- ed by the addition of a drum, cymbals, and castanets " At the International Tnventions Exhibition held at South Kensington, London, 1885, the King of Siam caused to be exhibited specimens of the principle instru- ments used in that country, and a Siamese' orchestra gave performances of their national music.

The music of the Siamese is characterised by a great deal of softness, playful sweetness, and simplicity. It differs from that of other similar people in being piayed in a minor key ; and many of their melodies are, necording to Crawfurd, analogous to the Seoteh and Irish tunes. There is no harsh or jarring sound, no sudden or unexpected trausition, no disagreeable sharp- ness in their music. " Its principal charaeter", observes Mr. Gearge Finlayson, in his work entitled Mission to Siam and Huh, " is that of being soft, lively, sweet, and cheerful, to a degree which seemed to us quite surprising. They bave arrived beyond the point of being pleased with mere sound; the musician aimed at far higher viewa, that . of interesting the feelings, awakening thought, or exeiting the passions. Accordingly, they have their different kinds of masic, to which they have recourse. according as they wish to produce one or the other of these effects Their pieces of musie are very numerous. A performer of some notoriety who exhibited before us stated that he knew 150 tunes." A number of Siamese tunes collected by Captain James Low, of the Madras Army, were published in the "Journal of the Royul Asiatic' Society," Volume IV, London, 1837. Among these is " Phriyadun", or the King of Siam's March, which consista of only four different intervals, but it is evidently founded upon the pentatonic scale, like all

3

84 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF KUSIC.

the other Siamese melodies in Captain Low's collection. "Cha lok loang" and "Cha Hong" are among the po- pular airs of Siam. The following two translations of songs give some idea of the spirit of Siamese poetry :--

I.

A mother's merits, who can asy How inappreciable they P A mother's werits, earth can bring Nought 'gainst them in the scale to weigh The fire-ay's light'a a lovely thing; But those are bright as noon-tide ray. Wide is the air, vast heaven's arched hall ; Yet they are narrow, they are small, With mother's merits when compared : The sea, the stream, the water-fall, Mount Meru * to its summit bared, Are trifing and unworthy all. Yes ! mother's merits, high and true, They can eclipse, outweigh, outris The earth, with towering Mount Mern. And the huge ocean and the sky. II.

Hatoful, repuisive to the eye, The ngly vulture foats on high ; Yet harmless, faultless in hir waye Upon the dead alone he preys ; And all his acts in every place Are rseful to the human race. The snowy Ibis, beantifal And white as softest cotton-wool, Preys on the living, and its joya Spring from the life that it destroys. So wicked men look sleek and fair Even when most misobievons they are * The holy mountals of the Buddhists.

ASIA-JAPAN.

JAPAN.

WONSIDERING the circumstance of the Chinese and the Japanese possessing much in common in reli- gion and usages, and having regard to the fact that the musical instruments of these two nations bear a atrong resemblance t) each other, it will require no stretch of imagination to conclude that the spirit of the mnsic of both should be substantially the same. As might be er- pected, the pentatonic scale is mostly in use in Japan. The specimen of a Japanese song published with musio in " A.ll the Year Round," London, May 11th, 1861, shows that the melody is constructed upon the pentatonic scale It is, however, not in Major, like similar melodies, but in Minor,-F sharp being the tonick. This specimen was obtained from the Japanese envoys, who, with a suite of seventy officers und attendants, visited the United States of America, shortly before the publication of the article on "Music among the Japanese" in the journal alluded to. Siebold's work, published in Leyden in 1832, contains soude beautiful drawings of the musical instruments of Japan .* According to the traditions of the Japanese, # The sothor of tho present work has in his collcorion the follow. ing lnstromrnts of Japan presanted to him in 1878 by His Mojesty the Mikado of Japan :- A pair of time beaters. A kscura fute. A moath-organ. A dagoolet and reed. A flute .. A koma fute A Japanore harp with bridges. A late with plectrum and strings. A barp with bridges and fingor-tips A gong and stioks. A large dram and sticks. A small drum and-sticks.

36 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, hid herself in a cave, being offended by the other divinities, and refused to come out until she was charmed out of it by the musie which the gods had invented with a view to bring her out. This is the mythological account of the origin of Japanese music. Historically, however. it has been asserted that Japan derived its musie from India through China and Corea. It is said that in 453 of th e Christian era, the King of Shiragi (in Corea) being deeply grieved at the news of the death of the Emperor of Japan sent enghty ships full of presents with eighty musicians of different kinds. Thia is the firat authentic record of the musical connection between thr two countries. A great impetus wds given to the culfivation of musie with the introduction of Bnddhimm. iv h52 ot tho Cbristian era. Priuee Shotoku commmnded the propi to learn music, and it is related of him that when he over- threw Moriganodaijin, he led on his army to the tone ut Bairo, a piece of ciaspical musie. From the begianire of the seventh century, when cotomunimntion was Siat opened between Japan and Chinn, the claesieal pamt' and musical instrements of the laiter rame ta ;e jn. troduced int the former courtry. Nim th tnith century, however, wheu the relatrms berwn the '*) countries became strataed, the eulti ato of t'e rigrdra! music of Chmg hns heen givn up, and pyorar munh hs come into grenter prominenee in the conatss. Japanen musicians are divided into four classes the frt berg e:lled Gakkunine (who devote themsrlves cxeluaivel; to Racred music and from whom the orchestra of the Mikueo is recruited); the second, Guenin (whn ore pruetiea players and perform secular music alone); the third, the corporation of what are called Feki-blind municiunw. who perform both sacred and secular music; and the fourth being designated Ghekos or singing-girla who

ABIA-JAPAN. 37

sing the popular songs of the day and are rorbidden to take part in sacred music. The Buddhist chants in Japan are accompanied by the free use of the gong and drums. Music is extensively cultivated in Japan ; there is scarcely a house mn which a musical instrument of some kind does not find a place, and there is scarcely a class cf women who is not proficient in the art. The Japanese are a highly imitative people and are gifted with a very accurate ear; and it is no wonder, therefore, that European melodies are heard whistled with preci- sion in most of the streets of the capital cities. In the year 1878, the Japanese Government appointed a Com- mission to enquire into the character of European music with a view to ascertain its fitness for introduc- tion into the school system of the country. In 1880, a national institute of music was. opened in connection with the normal school of Tokio and the services of Mr. Luther Whiting secured as instructor of music.

The Japanese instruments are divided into two classes-perfect and imperfect; the former being represented by those used for sacred music, the latter embracing all others. This distinction has reference to details of construction and ornamentation, to the charac- ter of strings, to the manner of tuning, and so forth. The most important of the stringed instruments are the Koto, the San sen, the Kokiu, and the Biwa. The Koto has several varieties (from the Summa-koto with its single string to the Lono-koto with its 18 strings), wnd me of these, called Schikenkin or Kinno-koto, corresponds to the Kin of China. The Samisen ( Siamisen ) is a three-string- ed guitar frequently used to accompany songs, and is the favorite instrument of the Gheko. The Koliu is a four-stringed instrument of the violin class, while the Biwa, the favourite of the Feki-blind musicians, is some-

36 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Amaterasu, the goddess of the sun, hid herself in a cave, being offended by the other divinities, and refused to come out until she was charmed out.of it by the music which the gods had invented with a view to bring her out. This is the mythological account of thu origin of Japanese music. Historically, however, it has been asserted that Japan derived its music from India through China and Corea. It is said that in 453 of th e Christian era, the King of Shiragi (in Corea) being deeply grieved at the news of the death of the Emperor of Japan sent eighty ships full of presents with eighty musicians of different kinds. This is the first authentie record of the musieal connection between the two countries. A great impetus was given to the cultivation of music with the introduction of Buddhism in 552 of the Christian era. Prince Shotoku commanded the peeple to learn musie, and it is related of him that when he over- threw Moriganodaijin, he led on his army to the tune of Boiro, a piece of classical music. From the heginning of the seveuth century, when communication was Sret opened between Japan and China, the classical moci- and musical instraments of the latter came to be in- troduced into the former country. Sinee the tenth century, however, when the relations between the iaD conntries became stramed, the cultivation of te classical musie of Chine has been giren up, and popular music has come inte grenter prominence in the country. Japaneem musicians are divided into four classes -- the first beirg cilled Gakkunine (who devote themselves exclusively to sacred music and from whom the orchestra of the Mikado is recruited); the second, Guenin (who are practical players and perform secular music alone) ; the thirds the corporation of what are called Feki-blind musicians, who perform both sacred and secular music; and the fourth being designated Ghekos or singing-girls who

ASIA-JAPAN. 37

e popular songs of the day and are rorbidden to Lrt in sacred music. The Buddhist chants in Lre accompanied by the free use of the gong and Masic is extensively cultivated in Japan ; there ely a house mn which a musical instrument of nd does not find a place, and there is scarcely a : women who is not proficient in the art. The se are a highly imitative people and are gifted very accurate ear; and it is no wonder, therefore, ropean melodies are heard whistled with preci- most of the streets of the capital cities. In the 78, the Japanese Government appointed a Com- to enquire into the character of European rith a view to ascertain its fitness for introduc- D the school system of the country. In 1880, a L institute of music was. opened in connection > normal school of Tokio and the services of her Whiting secured as instructor of music.

Japanese instruments are divided into two -perfect and imperfect: the former being Lted by those used for sacred music, the latter ng all others. This distinction has reference to >f construction and ornamentation, to the charac- rings, to the manner of tuning, and so forth. st important of the stringed instruments are the e Sanisen, the Kokiu, and the Biwa. The Koto ral varieties (from the Summa-koto with its single > the Lono-koto with its 13 strings), and one of Llled Schikenkin or Kinno-koto, corresponds to the "hina. The Samisen ( Siamisen ) is a three-string- r frequently used to accompany songs, and is rite instrument of the Gheko. The Kokiu is a nged instrument of the violin class, while the e favourite of the Feki-blind musicians, is some-

38 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

what like the Chinese Pepa. It is called after the Biwa lake, from the fact of the outlines of its shores resem- bling the body of this instrument. It is used both for classical and popular music. Among the wind instru- ments of Japan, may be mentioned the Fuye or Teki (the flute), and its varieties the Riyuteki, Shakuhachi, Seouno- fuye (Pan pipes), and Shichiriki. The Sona and Cheng of China appear in Japan under the names of Heang-ti and Sho. The Rappakai or conch trumpet is used as a war horn and also at religious festivals. Taiko is the Japanese name for drum, so called after a celebrated warrior. The varieties of the drums are O-Tzudzumi and Ko-Tzudzumi (hand-drems), Jamagacrou-guine-taico (great war-drum), and Kagura-Taiko (a large drum nsed in the Buddhist temples). The Dov, or gong, appears in several varieties, and so do the Nihoihagi or cymbals. The Mokkine is a kind of Xylophone consisting of 16 wooden keys of unequal length, played with two wooden-tipped drum-sticks. The Mokugyo is a hollow wooden drum with which the Buddhist Priests accom- pany their prayers. The Soezoew consists of a cluster of bells attached to a handle. The orchestra plays an important part in the theatres of Japan which, though of a comparatively recent origin, have become very popular in the country, In martial scenes the Taiko, or bass drum, is very freely used. The plan of arranging the representations may be noticed en passunt. Supposing five plays are to be acted in a day, the performers go through the first act of the first play, then the first act of the second play, and so on, until they have successively taken the first act of every play. They then take the second act of each play, and so on until the whole is concluded. The object of this rather singu- lar custom is to enable spectators wishing to follow a

ASIA-JAPAN. 39

particular play to see one act, go away, and come

again in time for the next act. As regards the question whether the Japanese had any system of musical notation, it is stated by Saris, . whose account dates as far back as the year 1611, that " their tunes were pricked." . Referring to the present times it has been asserted that the Japanese possess for their sacred music alone a relatively complete system of notation. They have no signs to indicate the time. Like the Chinese, they write their music in verticle lines from right to left. In vocal music the words are written to the left of the lines.

The following translation of a Japanese song appeared in the " Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century," which was published in New York in 1845 :-

Upright in heart be thou, and pure, So shall the blessing of God, Through eternity be upon thee; Clamorous prayers shall not avail, But truly a clear conscience, That worships and fears in silence. The following is a song of a Japanese girl :- Yes! eager is my longing To look upon thy fuce, With thee some words to speak! But this I must renounce ; For should it in my dwelling Once chance to be divulged, That I with thee had spoken, Then grievous were the trouble Would surely light on me : For certain my good name Were lost for evermore.

40 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

COREA

ITHE people of Corea are passionately fond of music, though, like the Chinese, the upper classes consider it undignified to take part in instrumental music and prefer listening to the performances of paid musicians. The women, too, seldom take part in instrumental performances. Singing is popular with both sexes and among all classes of people. Dancing is held in great favonr but men and women never dance together, and generally only one person at a time takes part in the performance. The dance consists of a slow movement of the feet, with a backward and forward motion of the body, similar to the dancing of the Spanish Gypsies. The Coreans, who gave their music to the Japanese, received theirs from the Chinese. But they are a highly conservative people, and the pentatonic scale is still in use among them. It is rather peculiar that music plays little part in the Buddhist rites practised in Corea, and that it seldom finds a place in the theatrical per- formances which are conducted by the Buddhists and patronised by the lower classes. Of the wind instruments of Corea, the Nallari, or clarionet is the most popular. The Toungsyo, or flute, is one of the commonest instruments of the country, and is depended upon by many a musician as the means of earning his livelihood. The Rev. G. W. Gilmore, who was resident in Corea for some time, attempted to buy a specimen from a blind musician, and was told that he

ASIA-COREA. 41

would part with it if the Reverend gentleman undertook to support him during the rest of his natural life. The Saihwang corresponds with the Cheng of China and Sho of Japan During the last few years, some brass bugles have been imported from America, and these are played before the King in his progress from one palace to another. The Komounko is the most characteristic instru- ment of Corea. It is said to be the direct ancestor of the Japanese instruments of the Koto kind, though w differs from the ordinary variety of the Koto in several essential particulars. The Yang-Kum is a smaller variety of the Yang-Kin of China. The Haggum, or violin, is, in principle, the same as the Ur-Heen of China. The most important variety of the Corean drum is known as the Chan-Gou, which consists of a frame of hollow wood, in the shape of an hour-glass. It is beaten on one head with a stick, and on the other with the fingers. A variety of sounds is produced by the player beating on the top, or on the edge, or between the two, by using alternately the fingers and the entire fists. Orchestral performances are held in private houses, specially at dances, and dinner-parties, the musicians. playing in a room adioining that in which the party is held. On such occasions, the Komounko, the Haggum, flutes, and the Chang Gou are commonly used The Yang-Kum is sometimes added.

42 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

THIBET.

CHIBET may appropriately be called the head-quarters of Buddhism, which, of all religions in the world, has the largest number of adherents. There is scarcely any religious denomination on the face of the earth in whose sacred ceremonies music holds a more prominent place than Buddhism, though its tenets contain strict injunctions against the encouragement of secular music. The temple music in Thibet is specially remarkable for the large and powerful brass instruments used in it, combined with various other instruments of equal power. The trumpets of the Buddhist priests in Thibet are noted for their enormous size. The Drilbu is the little hand-bell which they use in connection with the religious ceremonials, which are said to resemble those of the Roman Catholic Church in some respects. In his "Account of the Embassy to the Court of Teshoo- Lama, in Thibet, " London, 1800, Captaln Samuel Turner says that in Thibet " there is no religious edifice but what is adorned with the head of the lion at every angle, having bells pendant from his lower jaw, and the same figure is equally common at every projection of the palace walls. " Oaptain Turner was informed by the Buddhist priests in Thibet that " their music was written down in characters which they learnt." The Captair

ASIA-THIBET. 48

deseribes an annnal ceremony in honor of the dead, performed by the Budlhists, which he witnessed in Teshoo-Loomboo, the residence of the famous Teshoo- Lama. On that occasion all the inhabitants of the town illuminated their house-tops. The summits of the buildings belonging to the Buddhist monastery, and the dwellings of the villagers in the distance, were similarly lighted up. Sounds of the bell and various musical instruments broke the tranquillity of the night, and when the noise subsided, the people chanted their prayers in memory of their ancestors. These observances, adds Cap- tain Turner, " were all so calculated, by their solemnity, to produce serious reflection, that I believe no human ceremony could possibly have been contrived more effectually to impress the mind with sentiments of awe."

44 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

BURMAH

QHE Barmese are very fond of music and poetry> and, like the Chinese, have an extreme aversion for European music. Captain Henry Yule, who went to Bur- mah in 1855 in connection with the mission sent to the Court of Ava by the Governor-General ofIndia, has trans- lated into English one of the Burmese dramas. In this the hero is represented as having had presented to him by a nat (a sprite) a golden harp, and when he sings and plays "the wild elephants of the forest come around him, and are obedient to his voice and harp." The same drama shows that the Burmese are acquainted with the power of music for the expression of various emotions. A sprite addresses the band-"So now. as I am about to fly, strikce up a victorious melody, O leader of the orchestra !" Afterwards, it says, "Now, that I may easily reach the large tree in my own mountain from this country of- Kauthambi, play a soft and simple air, O leader of the orchestra." And a hunter in the forest concludes his monologue by addressing the orchestra-"Now, as I go on a grand expedition, burst forth like thunder !"

The principal stringed instrument of Burmah is the Soung, or Soum, a harp, which in shape " somewhat resembles a canoe with a deck." The Thro is an im- portant instrument of the violin class. The Indian

ASIA-BURMAH,' 45

Sarinda is also found in the country. The Tuk-kay of Siam appears in Burmah under the name of Megyoung. The flute is called the Puloay, and, along with the oboe, forms an important adjunct to the orchestra. The Ranat of Siam is known in Burmah as Pattala. Gongs of various kinds are in use, and are sometimes combined into an instrument called Kyee-wain, which corresponds to the Klong-yai, or gong-organ of Siam. This instru- ment is considered an essential part of the orchestra. The cymbals used are chiefly divided into Ya-guin (big cymbals) and Than-hin (small cymbals). The Kyee-zee is a plate of sonorous brass of a triangular shape, used by Buddhists to attract attention to their offerings. The Khew is a small bell hung from the roofs of Buddhist temples. The gigantic bamboo castanets, called Wahle Khoks, play an important part in the orchestra. The Seing-weing consists of & carved circular frame round which a number of drums are hung.

Several of the Burmese instruments were captured in war and taken to England by Colonel Miles with whose consent they were exhibited in the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London. They cousisted of- .

, 1. The Patola *- a kind ef guitar, fantasticalls sbaped like an alligator.

2. The Soum-A kind of harp. This instrumest has 13 silken strings, to the ends of wbich are attached tasselled cords, which are bound round the curved upper part of the frame in a way which admits of their being pushed up or down. By this means the instrument is tuned, as the tension of the strings can thus be increased

• Modern writers remark that the Purtala or Patola is a percussive instromeut resembling the Ronat of Siam, and that the alligator-shapad geitar is oslled the Megyoung, which has been mentioned above.

46 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC:

or diminished at pleasure. These cords are made tO serve also as ornamental appendages, as in the Assyrian harp.

3. The Turr, otherwise called the Thro, or violin, very nearly resembling the European instrument, and most elaborately carved and ornamented.

4. An instrument of the oboe species, but with the bell-end of the common trumpet. 5. The Tom-Tom, or Indian drum.

5. The Harmoncia, a boat-shaped instrument, hollow, and with bars of metal crossing it transversely. It was tuned to the natural minor scale of Europe.

6. A set of Gongs, 16 in number, of different sizes, suspended to two sticks of bamboo, tuned nearly according to the diatonic scale, played upon with a small hammer.

7. A Gong, made of very thin metal and producing a somewhat soft sound.

8. Cymbals.

9. Flutes, or Fifes.

10. The following is a description of this item, taken from the catalogue which was sold to the visitors :-

"It is a triangular piece ot compound metal, seven inches and a half in width, and four in. depth, an analysis of which shews it to be composed of silver, copper, and bell-metal. It is of sacred origin and use, and is perfectly unique io this country. Its history is, that at the capture of Tavoy, the high-priest,

ASIA-BURMAH. 47

an active and leading officer, became a prisoner with the viceroy and second commander; the two last were immediately confined, but to the former, Colonel Miles gave instant liberty. In token of his gratitude for this unexpected mark of clemency, he took from- his person this talisman, and gave it to the Colonel, as the most valuable gift it was in his power to bestow. When struck, the hearers, be they whom they might, were compelled immediately to fall down on their faces, in token of submission. The sound it emits is powerful and beautiful."

Besides the above, the Burmese have another instru- ment which the writer who describes it in the Quarterly Musical Review, Vol. VII, calls a Cat, as it is in the form of that animal sitting, with its legs folded under it, and its tail brought in a semicirele over its back, and to these the strings are attached. It has usually 12 or 13 strings, and, supposing the lowest to be D, the scale does not rise by tones and half tones, D, E, F, G, but thus,-1st string D; 2nd, F; 3rd, A. The 4th then begins with G, and the two following are B and D. The 7th string, again, begins with C. The 8th and 9th are Eand G; and so on with the remainder. The other stringed instruments play in concert with this one; and a bass is formed by means of a circular instrument called a Boandah which consists of a number of different sized drums, which the musician strikes with violence. * In the description of the "Golden Pagoda " at Rangoon, in his work " Six Months in British Burmah," (London, 1858), Mr. Christopher Winter mentions

• The writer of the preseot work received a pregent of the following mugicul inatrnments, from His Majesty the Kiug Theebaw of Buimah in the year 1878- A harp, an alligator-shaped guitar, and a violiu.

48 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

a large Burmese bell, under which, he says, he was able to stand upright with ease. He further states :- "There is, in a pagoda in Maulmain, a great bell suspended in the usual way between two posts ; it has an inscription in the Burmese character. The bell is suspended in front of the temple; and when an offer. ing has been made, or some religious duty performed, it is generally struck by the devotee once or twice with a deer's horn, several of which are usually placed near the bell."

The sacrificial ceremonies in the Buddhist temples in Burmah are accompanied by solemn chanting by the priests, and by dancing by chosen maidens, to the tune of the oboe and drum. The Burmese plays (or operas, strictly speaking), consist of a combination of acting, singing; dancing, and orchestral accompaniment. The subject of the representations is usually mythological, the adventures of the Hindu deity Rama being a special favorite. It is said that the royal library at the capital contained a large number of works on the theory of music. It is sonsidered treasonable to sing a new song before the king, and it has been asserted that the great singer Moung Thah Byaw was several times condemned to death for transgressing this injunetion.

An interesting collection of Burmese. melodies wns presented to the Royal Asiatie Society, London, by Mr. Fowle, who resided for many years at Rangoon. It con- tains thirty different pieces, which, according to Mr. Fowle, include all the principal popmar tunes of the Burmese : most of them are of considerable length. From the letter of Mr. Fowle to the Secretary of the Asiatic Society, it would appear that these melodies have been arranged for the instrument Thro. Traces of the pentatonic scale are to be found in these tunes.

ASIA-BURMAI. 49

The following translation .of a Burmese Morning Hymn is taken from "Four Years in Burmah" by W. H. Marshall ; London, 1860, Vol. II :-

Hail the sun s bright rays Chasing the night ! Our roices applaud The great Giver of Light ! Hail to the flowers Fresh from their beds, Rich with the fragrance The night-dew sheds! Hail to the bird who With musical voiee Bids the sleeper awake And come forth and rejoice ! Lo! the broad river, The source of our food ! Hail to the Giver- Munilicent Buddh.

4

50 UNIVERSAI HISTORI OF MUSIC.

INDIA

HINDU PERIOD.

ITH the Hindus. music is of divine origin. In fact, it is considereu as divinity itself. Before the creation of the world, an all-pervading sound rang through space. Brahma, the Creator, Vishnu, the Preser- ver, and Mahadeva, the Destroyer, who comprise the Hindu Triad, were not only fond of music but were prac- tical musicians themselves. Vishnu holds the Sankha (the conch-trumpet) in one of his hands, and this Sankha, according to some of the Puranas, was one of the valuable articles or gems, recovered from the deep, at the churning of the ocean On one occasion Vishnu is said to have been so charmed with the vocal performance Mahadeva that he began to melt, and thus gave birth to the sacred Ganges. Mahadeva invented the Pinaka, the father of stringed instruments. It was out of his five mouths that five of the original Ráqas (melody-types) of Hindu music were produced, the sixth springing from the mouth of his consort Parvati, these being respectively named Sri, Vasanta, Bhairava, Panchama, Megha, and Nata-Narayana. After slaying the demon Tripura, Mahadeva was so much elated with joy, that he began to dance, and Brahma prepared the drum (with which he asked Ganesa, the son of Mahadeva, to keep time to the perfermance) out of the earth saturated with the demon's

ASIA-INDIA 51

blood, his skin serving as the skin with which the instrument was covered at its .two heads. Itis further stated that Mahadeva composed the Raga Sankara- Vijaya, in commemoration of this victory Brahma added six Raginis to each of the principal Ragas and began to impart a knowledge of music to five of his disciples. Of these, Huhu and Tumburu (the invertor of the stringed instrument called after him, Tumbura) cultivated and spread the knowledge of vocal music ; Rambha, the celestial female dancer, learnt and taught dancing ; and Narada (the inventor of the Mahati Vina, the principal stringed instrument) and Bharata (the father of the drama) practised the theory of music. Each of these musicians composed a musical treatise, but the one produced by Bharata had currency on earth. It was he who, out of the combination of the six Ragas and thirty six Raginis, composed 48 Ragims and designated them as their children. Innumerable combinations followed and it is said that each of tne sixteen thousand milk-maids, with whom Vishnu in his incarnation of Krishna in the Dirdpara Yuga held dalliance in Brindavan, composed a Ragint for his delectation. The court of Indra teemed with celestial musicians who entertained him with songs and danee and dramatic exhibitions. Brahma created the tour Vedus (or revealed scriptures of the Hindus) and, out of them, four Upa-Vedas of which Gandharca Veda (musical science) was one. Th s was evolved out of the Sáma Vedo .. The hymns in the Suma Veda used to be chanted accord- ing to rules laid down which are still followed in most parts of Incha. barasvati, the consort of Brahmá, presides over the letters and music

Coming down to the heroic ages Jescribed in the Ramáyana and Mahabharata, it will be found that music

52 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

was cultivated and encouraged by the princes and the people. It is related that Bhagiratha escorted the river Ganges from her heavenly residence to the terrestrial Aarth, blowing a conch all along the journey. Lava and Kusa chanted the Ramayana in the presenre of their father, to the accompaniment of the Vind which was taught them by the sage Valmiki, the father of metrical composition in Sanskrit. Several instruments used in the field of battle are mentioned in the Ramayana. Ravana, the ten-headed giant-king of Lanka (Ceylon), is credited with the invention of the Ravany astram, the prototype of stringed instruments of the violin kind. The Mahabharata also abounds in descrip- tions of the musical instruments of war. The conch-trumpet was much in use at this time. Krishna used the conch called Panchajanyu. The fve Pandava brothers, Yudhisthira, Bhima, Arjjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, respectively, used the conches named Ananta-vijaya, Paundra, Devadatta, Sughosha, anc Manipushpa. Krishna is crodited with the invention of the Murali (fute). He was such a dexterous player on this instrament that the milk-maids of Vrindavarz neglected iheir domestic duties and ran to listen to its strains while the river Jumuna in bewildered ecstacy forgot its onward course.

Coming further down to the period of tan- gible history, one might observe that music held a high place in polite society. In Mrichchhakatil Nálaka, which is the oldest drama extant and ig said to have been written at, or shortly before, the beginning of the Christian era. Rebhila is mentioneal as a distinguished musician of Oujjein in Malwa, and Chárudatta is deseribed as returning home late at nighi from a concert given by Rebhila. This concert is also

ASIA-INDIA. 58

described as including a performance on the "tuneful Vina" which " cheers the lonely heart and lends new lustre to the social meeting." Kalidasa who flourished in the reign of Vikramaditya (B. C. 56), King of Oujjein, who was a great patron of learning, mentions in his drana, called Malavikagmimitra, that the principal queen Dháriní sent her attendant maid to the Sangita-sala or music saloon, to enquire of Ganadása about the progress made by his pupil, Malavika, in dancing and singing. In a subsequent portion of the play, Malavika is described as singing an Upa-gána or prelude, and a Chatuspada Vastu in Madhya-laya (andante time) The play mentions the name of Haradatta, ansther professor of music. The classical dramas speak of the Vaitálikas being in atten- dance on the kings. They are, as Professcr Wilson puts it, " a sort of poetical warder or bard who announce the fixed periods of the day, dawn, noon, or evening, in measured lines and occasionally pour forth strains arising from any incidental occurrence. " It may be observed here en passant that the original name of the bard of Hindustan, (which has now been corrupted into Bhat) was Bardai, which Abul Fazil has translated as * musi- cian." It is perhaps more than a mere coincidence that the name and functions of the Bardai and the Celtic Bards should be found almost identical.

The following are some of the principal treatises of music belonging to the Hindu period -Sangita Ratnákara by Sárangadeva; Sangita Darpana by Damodara Misra; Sangita Parijata by Ahavala Sastri ; Nárada Samhitá and Náradi Sikshá by Rishi Narada; Bharata Samhita by Rishi Bharata; Narttaka Nernaya by Pundarika Vichchila ; Sangita Naráyana by Gajapati Narayanadeva; Sangíta-Sára by Harináyaka; Rága Bibodha by Somesvara; Dhvani Manjariby Visvavasu;

54 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Raga Sarvasva-Sara by Silhana; Sangita Bhaskara by Bháskaráchárya; Sangítarnava by Kallinátha; Sangita Bhashya by Rishi Matangaja; Tándava-tarangesvara by Andhuka Bhatta; Tumburu- Samhita; Kohaliya; Gita Siddhanta Bhaskara by Ramananda Tírthas.ámí; and kangodaya by Sámbhaváchárya.

MAHOMEDAN PERIOD.

NHE Mahomedans as a ruling nation came in contact with the people of Indis for the first time in the 11th century, and since then a change has been worked into the musical system of the country. The Mahomedans did not much encourage the theory of the art, but they patronized practical musicians and were themselves instrumental in composing or introducing several styles of songs or devising new forms of musical instruments. It is related by Mahomedan historians of the period that when Dacca was invaded by Alla-uddin in 1294 (after Christ) and the conquest of the South of India was completed some years later (about 1310), by his Mogul general Malik Kafur, the profession of music was found to he in such a flourishing condition that all the musi- cians and their Hindu preceptors were taken with the royal armies and settled in the North. It is said that the celebrated Persian poet and musician Amir Khusru came to India during the rule of Alla-uddin and defeated in a contest the musician of the South, Nayaka Gopal, who had come to Delhi with a view to challenge the musicians of the court. Amir Khusru is reported to have given the name of Setar to the Tritantri Vind of the classic days and to have divided the Rágas into twelve Mokams which were subsequently subdivided by other

ASIA-INDIA. 55

Mahomedan musicians into 24 Sobhas and 48 Grisvas. Rajah Man who ruled in Gwalior (1486-1516) was a grreat lover of music. It is said that he brought the Dhrupada style. of song to its present state and that he com posed several songs in this style. Sultan Hossein Shirki (of the Shirki family which flourished in Jounpur in the 15th century) introduced the style of song which has come to be known as the Kheyal. During the reign of the Mogul Emperor Akbar (1550-1605), musicmade consider- able progress and received substantial encouragerent. It was in his court that the famous musician Tansen (pupil of the venerable Haridas Swami) fourished. Tansen, who was rormeriy, in the service of Rajah Ram, is said to have received from him one crore of Tankas as a present. The Emperor Akbar is mentioned in the. Ain-i-Akbari as being excessively fond of music and having a nerfect knowledge of its principles. another portion of the Ain it is stated that he was an ex- cellent hand at performing, especially on the Naqgarah. His court teemed with musicians of various nationalities, Hindus, Iranis, Turanis, Kashmiris, both men and women. The musicians were divided into three classes, Gayandahs, singers; Khwanandahs, chanters; and Sazandahs, players. The principal singers and musicians came from Gwalior, Mashad, Tabriz, and Kashmir. The schools in Kashmir had been founded by Irani and Turani musicians under the patronage of Zain-ul-Abidin, King of Kashmir. The Gwalior school dated from the time of Rajah Man Tunwar, in whose court as well as in that of his son Vikramjit, the famous Navaka Baksu lived. When Vik- ramjit lost his throne, Baksu went to' Rajah Kirat of Kalinjar. Shortly after, ne accepted a situation in the court of Sultan Bahadur (1526-1536) at Guzrat. Ramdas and Mahapatar, both of whom had been with Isiem Shah at Lucknow, were among the court musicians of

56 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Akbar. The number of the principal musicians named in the Ain is 36, and included Tansen, Tantaranga (his son), Baz Bahadur (ruler of Malwa, and inventor of the style of singing known as Baz-khai), Birmandal Khan (player on the Sarmandal), and Qasim, surnamed Koh-bar, who invented an instrument intermediate between the Qubuz and the Rabab. The following were the instru- ments used in the Naggarah-khanah :- (1) the Kuwargah, commonly called Damamah (18 pairs more or less); (2) the Naggarah (20 pairs more or less) ; (3) the Duhul (of which four were used) ; (4) the Karana or Karrana (made of metal :- never blown tewer than four); (5) the Surna (Persian and Indian kinds- aine blown together) ; (6) the Nafir (Persian, European, and Indian kinds-some of each kind being blown); (7) the Sing (made of brass in the shape of a cow's horn ; blown two together) ; and (8) Sanj (cymbals, of which three pairs were used). The Ain gives details of how and when the band played and other musie was performed for the amusement of the Emperor. The following stringed instruments are described in the Ain as being in use at the time :- The Junter (which is mounted with 16 frets and six wires, and has half of a gourd attached at each end of the neck) ; the Bheen (something like the Junter, but having only 3 strings) ; the Kinner (having a longer neck than the Bheen, and the gourd with two strings) ; the Sirbheen (like the Bheen but without the frets); the Ambriti(having one iron wire, and only one gourds placed under the middle of the neck which is smaller than that of the Sirbheen); the Rebab (having strings of gut, numbering in some 6, in others 12, and in some others, 18) ; the Sirmandal, (resembling the Quanun and having 21 strings, some of which are of iron, some of brass, and some of gut) ; the Saringee (also called Soorbotan-of the shape of a bow, with two hollow cups inverted at

ASIA-INDIA. 57

each end ; mounted with one string of gut resembling a bow string, and played with a plectrun): the Adhowtee (having a gourd with two wires) ; and the Kingerah (resembling the Bheen but having only two strings of gut. and smaller gourds). Seven varieties of the drum are mentioned-viz., the Pukuwej, Awej, Dehl, Dheddeh, Irdahwej, Duff and Kenjir. Only two percussive instru- ments are described, these being the Tal, (a pair of brass cups with broad mouths) ; and the Kut-h Tal, (resem bling small fish and made of wood or stone ; a set consisting of four). The wind instruments were the Shehna, (the same as the Persian Sirna or trumpet) ; the Mushk (called in Persian Nai Amban or the bagpipe) ; the Moorle (a kind of flute) ; and the Owpunk (a hollow tube, an ell long, with a hole in the centre, in which is placed a small reed). The songs of Vidyapati (who adorned the court of Siva Sinha of Tirhut, Behar, in the 14th century) were in vogue in the time of Akbar. It was also in this reign that Mira Bai, the wife of a Rana of Udaipur and a celebrated songstress and composer of hymns, flourished. The Emperor had opportunities of listening to her excellent vocal performances. The blind poet and musician Stiradas, who is said to have composed 125,000 Vishnupadas (hymns to Vishnu) lived also in this reign Suradas was the son of Ramdas, who has been already described as one of the musicians of Akbar's court. The following singers are named as belonging to the reign of Akbar's son Jehangir (1605-1627) :- Jehangirdad ; Chatr Khan; Parwizdad; Khurramdad ; Makhu; Hamzan. It was in the reign of this Emperor that Tulsidas died. Tulsidas was a popular composer of hymns regarding Rama and Sita. During Shahjehan's reign (1628-1658), the following musicians lived :- Jaganath (who received from Shahjehan the title of Kabrai) ; Dirang Khan; and Lal Khan upon whom was conferred the title of Gan-

58 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

samundar (ocean of singing excellence). Lal Khan was son-in-law to Bilas, who was a son of Tansen. Taganath and Dirang Khan were both weighed in silver and received each 4,500 rupees. Aurangzebe, who succeded Shahjehan to the throne of Delhi and occupied it from 1658 to 1707, abolished the court singers and musicians. A curious incident is related as having taken place after the order was promulgated. The court musicians brought a bier in front of the Jharorah (the window where the Em- perors used to show themselves daily to the people), and attracted the attention of the Emperor by their loud lamentations. On Aurangzebe appea ring at the wiudow and asking whom they had on the bier, the musicians replied " Melody is dead, and we are going to the grave yard." "Very well," said the Emperor, " make the grave deep, so that neither voice nor echo may issue from it." During the years the ten successors of Aurangzebe ruled in Delhi (1707-1857), m usic continued to be cultivated but not with the vigour it hhad attamed in the preceding reigns. Mahomed Shah was the last of the Emperors who had renowed musicians flourishing in his time. There are several vocal compositions extant which are associated with his name. The famous songs- tress Shori brought the Tappa song to its present degree of perfection in this reign. It is said that her husband Golam Nubi. composed the songs and coupled them. with her name. The chief feature of music of the Mahomedan period was the combination of the Hindu style with the Persian one. Some types of classical music were brought out under Persian names, while some entirely new ones were introduced such as the Trivat, the Terana, the Gazal, the Rekhta, the Quol, the Qulbana, the Gul Nuksh, the Maulud, &c. The Mahomedan musicians did not write any original works on music ; what they composed were merely the rechaufe of Sanslcrit treatises

ASIA-INDIA. 59

on the subject, and among those might be particularized the Toftel Hind by Mirza Khan: The style of music they cultivated is now the standard high class music of India, leaving out of course, the provincial airs which are noticed later on. Some of the emine religious reformers of India were born during the Mahomedan period and contributed to the making of a literature of hymns in this country. Among these were Kabir who flourished (1880-1420) in the reign of Sikandar Lodi. Kabir is credited with having created the sacred literature. of Hindi, composed a number of songs himself, and caused a good many more to be composed by his followers and successors. Jayadeva, who was a native of Birbhum in Bengal, composed his melodious stanzas in Sanskrit in the 12th century. Nanak, who flourished in 1469, and Chaitanya, who was born at Nuddea in Bengal in 1486, gavea strong impetus to the vocal literature of the religion they respectively represented and preached. Dadu, a. religious reformer, was born. at Ahmedabad in 1544. The Abhangas or spiritual poems of Tukaram or Tukoba, who flourished about 1609, represented the highest flight which Marathi poetry reached. Chandidas, who was contemporary to Vidvapati, was a native Brahmin of Birbhum, and was the first Fengali whose sweet stanzas were set to music and cung as the original Kirtan songs of Bengal. The perforr ances of Kirtan songs used to take place so early as Akbar's time as mention of them is made in the Ain.

BRITISH PERIOD.

NDER this heading will be noticed not only what has taken place in different parts of the country during British rule, but also what has continued since the preceding periods.

60 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

THE NORTH-WESTERN PROVINCES. Lucknow is celebrated for the musicians, vocal and instrumental, as well as dancers, male and female, that have been supplied to various Indian courts From time to time. The court of Rampur has always maintained a high standard of efficiency in the department of music. Benares is noted for its temple music. The chants that are sung in the temple of Visvesvara are characterised by great solemnity. The Nowbut, which is an out-door hand, said to have been invented by Alexander the Great, and held in favour in all Mahomedan courts, is engaged in Hindu temples as well. The Nowbut which plays in the temple of Visvesvara and at the Dascsvamedha Ghat at Benares is of a very high order of merit. Bajpai and Babu Mahesh Chunder Sirkar (a native of Bengal) were two of the best Setar-players of Benares of the modern day. The latter was an amateur. Vrindavan and Muttra are the eradle of much of the festive and periodical songs that are sung in connection with Krishna's carer. The Hori is sung in celebration of the Dol Jattra festival : the Jhulan or Hindola, at the swinging festival which takes place about the full moon of August; and the Badhai, on the occasion of the birth of Krishna. The Chaubes of Muttra and Vrindavan are great vocalists. To the principal shrines of Vrindavan are attached a number of musicians who sing and play at regular intervals. The Thumri song, which is sung by the Nautch-girls, is com- posed in an impure dialect of the Vraja Bhashá. The beggars at Muttra and Vrindavan sing stanzas from Jayadeva or other songs celebrating the loves of Rádhá and Krishna. The Rasadhari Jattra which is much in vogue in these provinees is a characteristic representa tion of the early career of Rádhá and Krishna, in melodious song graceful dance, and captivating con-

ASIA-INDIA. 61

versation. Lucknow and Benares were once noted for their dancing girls. The Taza-ba-Taza and Hili-mili- pania are two of the light songs sung by these girls which find much favour in European ears. Jivan Shah and his brother Piyar Khan were two distinguished players on the Vina who flourished at Benares in the latter part of the 18th century.

CENTRAL INDIA AND RAJPUTANA,

According to Sir John Malcolm, most of the villages in Central India have attached to them men and women of the Nutt or Bamallee tribes (a kind of wandering gipsies), who have among them rude musicians and minstrels whose music and songs form the principal entertainment of the peasantry. These musicians are divided into two classes, Charims and Bhats. They boast of a celestial origin and exercise a great deal of influence over the people. The bards attached to the courts of the Feudatory Princes (who, by the way, asa rule, keep a number of good musicians in their establishment), used to compose and sing the chivalrous events of ancient and mediæval times, relating to the glories of the Rajput race in general and to those of the progenitors of their employers in parti- cular. The Rajputs are all fond of music. The chief of Kotah is mentioned by Col. James Tod as baving kept the largest band of his time in Central India. The Mashek or the Indian bagpipe is known to the Rajputs. The Chohan is described by the celebrated poet Chand as master of the art of music, both vocal and instrumental. The Tooraye is mentioned by Col. Tod as a trumpet much in favour in the mountainous regions of Central India. He also speaks in high terms of the performances of the hermits singing the praises of Pataliswara from their

62 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

pinnacled abode of Abu. Colonel Meadows Taylor says that the sing (horn) is indispensable in all processions, temple services, and specially at marriages and other festivities in Central or Southern India, and that this instrument is also blown by the village watchman at sunset and again at certain hours during the night.' In the large cities every mahulla or ward is stated to have a horn-blower attached to its night watchmen or police. The horn is used to play wailing blasts for the dead at the funerals of the lower classes of the Hindus, and sometimes at the cremations of Hindu Princes. The Karkhas are the war-songs of the Rajputs or hymus in praise of their kings. These are generally sung by a class of singers called Dharis. The Dadra and Nukta are sung in the dialect spoken in the Districts of Bundelkhund and Bughelkhund and are confined to the lower classes. Col. Tod describes the Ras-mandal, or the mystic dance, which he compares with the Pyhrric dance, or the fire- dance of the Egyptians, and which he frequently witnessed at the Gwalior court. In this dance Krishna is reprasented with a radiant crown in a dancing attitude, playing on the flute to the nymphs encircling him, each holding a musical instrument. These nymphs are also called the no-Ragini, from the Ragini or mode of song over which each presides, and no-resa, or nine passions excited by the power of music. Col. Tod observes: " the movements of those who personate the deity and his fair companions are full of grace, and the dialogue is replete with harmony." He asks if the Ras-mandal is not typical of the zodiacal phenomena and whether in this a trace cannot be found of the origin of Apollo and the sacred nine. He adds that " in each sign a musical nymph is sculptured in alto-relievo in the vaulted temples dedicated to the god, or in secular edifices by way of ornament, as in the triumphal column of Chitor.,'

ASIA-INDIA. 68

Gwalior has been the seat of much musical learning and the nursery of miny eminent musicians of India. The Library of the Bikanir State, a catalogue of which was prepared by Rajah (then Doctor) Rajendra Lala Mitra, C. I. E., contains some of the old Sanskrit treatises on music. The Rana of Udaipur of the time when Col. Tod was there is mentioned by him as a greåt patron of the art of music. Maharajah Ram Sing, the predecessor of the present ruler of Jaipur, was alsoa great lover of music. He had some eminent musicians in his establish- ment. In the temple of Govindji situated within the compound of the Jaipur palace, sacred music is regularly pertormed. The Bhils or aborigines inhabiting the hilly regions of Rajputana and Central India have a music of their own which they vigorously practice in company

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

At the instance of Mr. Colin Browning, Inspector- General of Education of the Central Provinces, music was introduced in 1877 into Government Vernacular Schools in the District of Raipur and taught according to the vocal manual Gitavali which was published in Hindi at his request by the author of the present work.

HYDERABAD.

His Highness the present Nizam of Hyderaba d maintains in his establishment a number of musicians, chiefly Mahomedan, who perform the Mahomedan style of music.

M. SORE AND COORG.

The rulers of Mysore have ever been known to encourage music and musicians. The music of this

64 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

country partakes largely of the character of the music of Southern India which will be noticed further on His Highness Chama Rajendra Woodayar Bahadur, G.C.S. I., the late Maharajah of Mysore, was a great lover and a practical pertormer of music. Under his auspices, a music school was started in the capital for the purpose of promoting the study of Hindu music. Savaya Sachi, Shamana, and Sheshana are three of the distinguished musicians of Mysore of the present century

The people of Coorg celebrate the Huttari or harvest festival with great eclat. The ceremonies proper last for seven days and are accompanied by much singing and dancing. The time for these performances is from sun- set till after 10 o'clock. When the assembly is full,-the attendance of all males from six to sixty being religi- ously enforced,-a space is marked out for the per- formances. At a little distance, a band of musicians, two Holeyas or slave horn-blowers, and two Meda- drummers, sit near a fire. The horns are large and made of brass. The drums are a pare (large drum) and a kudike-pare (kettle-drum of a smaller size) The Huttari-chants resound in every house during the night. Four after-Huttari days are added to the festive week. On the eighth day, the Wrukolu, or village stick-dance, takes place. Four women-a pair leading and a second pair following-come forward, all beating cymbals and chanting ancient songs or impromptu verses. When they have arrived at the place of meeting, they sit down in groups with the children, and look at the dances which are performed only by the males who go through the evolutions peculiar to the country, beating small sticks, of which they carry one in cach hand, while they move to the time of the music played at a little distance by a group of Holevas. Theatrical exhibitions are added to

ASIA-TNDIA. 65

these performances. After dinner, on the ninth day, the Nadukolu commences-this being an assembly of the whole district. The programme of the Urukolu is repeated, only on a larger scale. While the music and the dances continue, a couple of men from different villages and armed with a small shield and a long rattan, come for- ward from opposite sides and step into the ring with a defiant shout Keeping time with the music, they ap- proach and evade each other, swinging their rattans and dealing blows at the legs of the opponent and warding them off with their shield. The mock-fight thus intro- duced sometimes takes a serious turn and has often. to be stopped by the spectators. In the afternoon of the tenth day, the Devarakolu" (stick-dance in honor of Bhagavati) takes place in every village. The proceedings are the same as on the two preceding days. On the 11th day the festivities are closed with a large public dinner to which eclat is given by the united exertions of the musicians, bards, and drummers. The guests who assemble at the house of the bridegroom before he sets out for the house of the bride are treated to a dinner and music. If the house be wealthy an improvisatore is engaged to sing the praise of each guest before his face. The guests at the bouse of the bride receive simi- lar compliments. The bridal procession includes singing and music. The Coorgis have some very pleasing wed- ding songs, cremation songs, and nursery rhymes ; these last are sung only by the women, and as they . would not repeat them for tne information of foreigners, difficulty has been felt by Europeans in procuring samples.

BOMBAY

In the Mahratta country ballads and love-songf are numerous, whether of the Mahomedan period, the Mahratta risings against them, and the more recent

5

66 UNIVERHAL HISTORY OF MURI',

• English and Mahratts wars, nud arp full of loenl ad- venture and spirited deseription. The Saraagi in as much used in the Bombay Presideney as elsewhere, nnd it ia related that Captain Giberne, of the Banlmy Army, wan so fond of it that he prefermel oue of thear 1istruments to his own violin for eoneprted pieres in which the violin tonk a soprano part. The Halar. h wnai. spr cimens of which along with varions other Imian inatru- mente wore preseuted by Colnnml P T. Freuek to the Irish Acndemy of Musir, are drarrihedl ax Teing mome. whut like the fageolets in appraranee and the bag- pipes in sound. Thee are oe aaoualy 'omrd' in the Nobut in the Mubratta emntriex wheir .he payera of these pipes nre called Gurare. The ofiee of piper im hereditary in every village or town, aud ar ompanind by portions of land, and eertnin propoilions uf the rinpa nt Farvest time. The offiep of Hurser intolos awerping the temples, lighting the lnmps, and offiriating at eertain eermnonios ; and the Huraes in entitld to corlamn priqui sites on all ocrnsions of marringes, fratirala, funrraln, and the liko. The Zieras spories tf sin whih ia full of spiritunt aud moral sentiments uriginniml in Guriat, : it boing sung in the dialeet uf that rouatry I warmnba duced mto the other parta of the rountry hy Qua !! Mahmon 1. The court of Baroda is nutrl for the num. ber of rfirient musirinns it inrhuled in ds establishient One of the distinguishnt musirgoas of this court, Monwla Buksh, mple n tour of Itplin, and wop the admiration of all whu ponld appueriate muse, by his portormanees on the Vind and Jaltaranga, Hr visited Caleutta iu 184 Rnt wns awarlel n gnld wedal by the ereaont of the Dengal Musie Nehool at n pubbe mreting hrld at the whool on the 2ath Novembor uf that yrar. He is øyually ponversant with the musie of Northern and Nouthern India, and sings Sauskrit bymnw with a ro.

ASIA-INDIA. 67

markubly correct pronunciation of the language. The theatres of the Parsis of Bombay have generally song's of the Mahomedan style sung in them. The Gayan Samij which has been recently started at Poona nas ror its object the cultivation and encouragement of Hindu music and has done much to propagate a knowledge of the art among the people.

MADRAS.

The influence which a contact with foreign nations exercised over the habits, doings, and arts of the Hindus having been less strong in the south of India, Hindu music in its original purity appears to have been maintained and cultivated there as a science long after it had ceased as such in the north. There are still to be found in the south musical works in the Telegu, Canarese, and Tamil languages. The practical music of the south (or Kar- natic music, as distinguished from Mindustani music which prevails there to a certain extent) being more in accordance with the rules laid down in the classical works, it differs in essential particulars from what is per- formed in the north. There are some Ragins current there that are entirely unknown to the musicians of the Mahomedan school of the north; again there are some othere sung in the south that are known under dif- ferent names in the north. The elaborate system of solmization, and the rhythmic arrangements chiefly differentiatc the music of the south from that of the north. Certain musical instruments are found in the Pre- sidency which have no counterparts in other portions of India, while there art others in use which are modi- fications of those used elsewhere, or bear different names. A bagpipe called Tity was taken from Coimbatoor and deposited some years ago in the East India Museum,

68 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

London. A drawing of a similar instrument is given in Sonnerat's " Voyage aux Indes Orientales", where it is called Tourti. The Vina is extensively practised in the Presidency. Colonel Meadows Taylor mentions that on one occasion he heard a Vind-player of the south execute his instrument a great portion of Beethoven's Sonata in A. The musician explained that " having once taught an English lady a good deal of his own music, which she played upon the piano, she had in turn taught him this Sonata, which he preferred, he said, above all other English music." Col. Taylor remarks that his version of it was " really very beautiful." The Madrasi hymn is a characteristic music of the country. One Bisvanath Sastri, a native of the south, visited Calcutta in 1872, and was awarded a silver medal by the President of the Bengal Music School where he gave a performance on the 19th August of that year and charm- ed the audience by his vocal performances, and specia lly by his elaborate solmization. His Highness the present ruler of Travancore has introduced the study of Hindu music into the girls' schools in the State where vocal music and perforinance on the Vind are regnlarly taught. The Musical Association which has lately beco establish- ed in Madras has made considerable progreas in piuypa- gating a correet knowledge of the ecience and art amoag the native people. The Svarajotas Verna ms (ballads), Kruthis and Kirthanas (sacred songs), Javadis and Pathams (love songs), are among the styles of voral composition peculiar to Madras. Tanjore is now-a-days the chief seat of music in Southern India as it bas been so since early times. The Maharajahs of Tanjore have liberally encouraged musicians and the cultivation of music. Among the renowned musicians of th' present century in Southern India might be named Tigya Raj, who was a native of Trivadi in the Tanjore District and

ASIA-INDIA. 69

a pupil of Venkatraman Iyer; Siama Sastri; Sabharayya Sastri, a native of Pudukota ; Kshetrya, (who was also a poet and composer of a large number of love songs) ; Nathiva Vadivelu (who is said to have introduced the use. of the European violin into Southern India) ; Kalyana Krishna Iyer, a Vina-player in the service of the Maha- rajah of Travancore; Suryanarayan Rao Pantulu, a Vina- player in the service of the Maharajah of Viziana- gram ; and Mahadeva Iyer, a violinist in the service of the Maharajah of Travancore. The late Maharajah Kola Shekhara of Travancore was a composer of. no ordinary repute.

The folk-songs of Southern India in the several dialects that prevail there contain mn many of them deep spritual and-moral sentiments, some of these being the productions of eminent poets of the times when thev were composed. They embrace a variety of topics; in fact the Southern people have songs for every event in life. "They cut the first sheaves of harvest to a song," observes Mr. Charles E. Glover, " they come into life, are married, and die to the music of some chant, song, or requiem." The "Dasarapada" of the Canarese is a song of the Dasaras (or Dasas), or slaves, who, from being attacned originally to some of the pagodas as menial servants, have become, in course of time, a singing caste. Those who are not attached to a temple obtain a liveli- hood by begging. The Bagada and Kota tribes who live about the Neilgherry hills have some very beautiful chants in their repertoire. The Bagadas specially are a musical race. They play on the pipe and also sing. The village people will sometimes join the singer of an evening and dance to the song. Prior to a corpse being taken for cremation, the male relations circle round it and dancing and singing go on, in which sometimes the

70 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

females will take a part. The Malayalam songs are mostly of an amourous type and relate to the love- quarrels of some of the Pauranic deities. Mr. Glover has collected a specimen of " riddle" songs, which class of composition, he says, holds a high place in the lower literature of some of the Dravidian tongues. The Telegu language, which is called the Italian of the East, and which has been compared with Greek for flexibility and fullness, contains a large number of serious songs. The thousands of quatrans of purely popular love which go by his name are said to have been either composed or arranged by Vemana who liyed about the end of the twelfth century. The Telegus were once a very great nation. " All over the Indian Seas," remarks Mr. Glover, " we find the tokens of a great Telugu dominion. What are the Klings of the Malay Peninsula, but Kalingas, a branch of the great Kalinga or Telinga nation ? Whc built the monster temples of Sumatra, Java and the Archipelago, whose towering summits still point to the heaven of Swerga ? No other people than the Telegus, the Phonicians of the Indian ocean. In Burmah and Siam are the foot-prints of the same people." Telegu beggars are frequently found in Calcutta singing hymns in their national style. The Tamil language is spoken by 20 millions of people, who form the foremost of the Dravidian nations. The better classes are fond of the Adwaita songs, i. e., songs relating to the non-dual system of Hindu theology. At the other extreme are the "labor" songs. Midway between the two and common to all classes, except the very lowest, are the songs of the Cural which is the most venerated and popular book south of the Godavery. The Cural is considered as " essentially the literary treasure, the poetic mouth-piece, the highest type of verbal and moral excellence among the Tamil people.' The

ASIA-INDIA. 71

author of the Cural is Tiruvalluva, " the holy pariah," who flourished about the third century of the Christian era. The legends about his birth and eariy career, and the story of his work successfully stand- ing the test to which it was put, have served to give a mythical interest to the Oural. Pattanattu and Pati- rakiriyar, both of whom lived in the 10th century, com- posed several moral songs which are also very popular in the Tamil countries. Such is the tenacity of the natives for their national institutions, that even the Christian converts recruited from the lower ciasses would not take kindly to the European music ard songs, and steps had to be taken to compose songs and poems, in imitation of those so popular among the worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, and to have them set to popular indigenous music. The "labor" songs have attached to each stanza a refrain such as " Yo Ho! Yo Ho!", or " Heave O! Heave O ! " or " Ho ! Ho! work hard!", or similar expression serv- ing as stimulants to physical exertions. The Bayaderes are dancing-girls attached to the pagodas, and they are not despised to the same extent as Nautch-girls are in other parts of India. The Bayadere's song has found a place in the "labor" songs of the Tamil people, and its presence there is accounted for by the "re-active feeling which makes the worker dream of the idle, and the hungry' delight in visions of luxurious meals." The "labor" songs represent the utterance of an illiterate class. Some of them are possessed of much humour, such as the song of the " Wife," which, in view of its general application, is reproduced below :- To every man is tied a wife, She clings to him as long as life. Yo Ho! Heave O ! Of all our wealth she takes two-thirds Yet thinks we pick up more like birds Yo Ho ! Heave O !

72 UNIVERBAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

If any day we give her none, You'd think her wrath would ne'er be done. Yo Ho! Heave O!

While still 'tis dark ahe turns us out, But sleeps for two hours more, no doubt ! Yo Hc ! Heave O !

We toil all day, with spade or bar ; To bring our dinner 'tis too far. Yo Ho! Heave O !

Oh ! How we strain and heave and sweat ; While she buys cloths and runs in debt ! Yo Ho! Heave O ! No moment may we stay to rest ; She works an hour a day at best. Yo Ho! Heare O ! We are too busy e'en to eat ; She scarcely ever leaves her seat. Yo Ho! Heave O ! What comes of all the wages we earn ? Ah ! That from her no man can learn. Yo Ho! Heave O !

Our breasts are bruised by rope and pole ; That ne'er prevents her daily stroll. Yo Ho! Heave O !

Our pain is more than we can bear; She combs and oils her jet-black hair: Yo Ho! Heave O ! Sometimes we faint through heat and toil To sweep the house her cloth would soil ! Yo Ho! Heave O !

'Tis well if we may earn some pice ; At home her month is filled with rice. Yo Ho ! Heave O !

We rest,-the master stops our pay .- She soolds and bawls till morn is grey. Yo Ho! Heave O !

How strange and odd a world is this, To us the work, to them the bliss ! Yo Ho ! Heave O !

ASIA-INDIA. 73

THE PUNJAB.

Delhi was at one time the emporium of music. Even in the present day, some eminent musicians are found there. At Lahore music is cultivated to a great extent. In the Golden Temple at Amritsar, where the sacred Grunth is deposited, singing and chanting take place all through the day. Mahamahopadhyaya Sirdar Sir Atar Sing, K. C. I. E., Chief of Bhadour in. Ludhiana, is a great patron of music and successfully cultivates. the theory and practice of the art. He has some old treatises on mnsic in his possession. In a leader which appeared in the Times of November 23rd, 1864, the writer, in describing a certain diplomatic demonstration held in India in the presence of Feudatory Chiefs, remarks that the Indian ear loves of all European music that of the Scottish bagpipe alone. "When the pipers of the 93rd were ordered out to play, the gratification of Her Majesty's princely vassals was complete. Three times were the pipes brought up and played round the great tent to the delight of the company ; and the Maharajah of Kashmir, we are informed, has sent an embassy to Sealkote for the express purpose of getting instruction on the instrument from the Highland corps quartered there,- while another hill chieftain bas bespoken the genuine article direet from Edinburgh." At one time Kashmir was noted for the dancing girls sent out to different parts of the country. The Tuppa song which has been re-modelled by Shoree originated among the camel-drivers of the Punjab.

NEPAL.

The Nepalese are broadly divided into two races, vis., the Newars and the Parbuttiahs. There are certain musical instruments which are peculiar to either race,

74 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

and there are certain others common to both. Newars are extremely fond of muwje, awl many of higher and middle eastes praetiee it professionall: indulge in it as amateurs. Among the instrumen use among them are the (1) Phinge, or the " mat instrument of the gods," a trumpt mucle of cc and played at every religioun ernmony : (2) the Mo. or flageolet, to which the Iaborers danen and whi employed at fensts and weddinga; (3) the Beaug clarionet ; (4) the Dimhi, or drum ; (b) The Bel Krishna-beh, the pastorul fute of Krishni. Amon Parbuttiahs, the lowest eastes of whom generally fn: professional musicians, the fidlwing itruments a use ; (1) the Sinhyu, or Nara Singha, or horn : entirely of copper and comped of 4 pires put tog in the shape of n cow's horn : (2) the Nay-phene or almost similarly construeted as the Singha, but smaller size ; (8) the Muralh, a small chriosnet mac a single pieen of lmmbon, and lookmg the samne a Beaugh, and (4) the Dhulurh whirh han only one covered with leuther. Among the instruwents con to both the races are the Bunauli, or " rurn1 flute"', cymbals of varions wizen which are rmploywl at all s and religious ceremonies. Nevral imtrunts belon te other parts of Indin are nlao uaed in Nopl, such a Sárangt and Netar. Kuropean imtruments, such as h bugles, trumpeta &c, have been imitatrd or bodily 1 duced into the country. There aresome old San treatises on musie to be fuund in Nopl. Latt much attention has lawn paid by the Maharnjtth's D: to the subject of musir, and wh imtitution has opened in the chiof city whmt Hindu muwie is taug students by cotpetent profemsurs. Home years a collection of Neplese musionl matrumenta was pre ed by Dr. A. Cumpbell to the Asiatie Hocie ty of B

1389

ASIA-INDIA.

and deposited in the Calcutta Museum. The music of Nepal is essentially the same as that which prevails in other parts of the country. The Gurkhas creditably play European airs in the military bands which have been organized and are conducted under the supervision of European band-masters. 1389 17 BENGAL, BEHAR, AND ORISSA.

It is on record that Mahapatar, one of the musicians in the Court of Akbar, was once sent as ambassador to Mukund Deo of Orissa. The lower classes of the people of Orissa use a trumpet called Benu, which is made of a long piece of bamboo. The Jattras, which they hold in honor of the deity Satyanarayana, consist of the playing of the Khol and cymbals and the singing of chants or recitatives, the combined effect of which is by no means soporofic in its tendency. Sometimes, companies are observed performing Jattras in the Bengali style The palki-bearers of Orissa are well known for the ex- tempore poetry they make while carrying the palli with its contents on their shoulders. In his " Popular Account of the Manners and Customs of India", London, 1847, the Revd. Charles Acland has translated a song which the bearers sang on an occasion when they carried Mrs. Acland. The words run as follow :--

Sh's not heavy, cubbadar ! Little baba, cubbudar ! Carry her swiftly, cubbadar ! Pretty baba, cubbadar ! cubbadar ! cubbadant Trim the torches, cubbadar ! For the road's rough, cubbadar ! Here the bridge is, cubbadar ! Pass it swiftly, cubbadar, cubbadar ! Carry her gently, cubbadar ! Little baba, cubbadar ! Sing so cheerily, cubbadar ! Pretty baba, cubbadar, cubbadar, cubbadar.

76 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The verses which the bearers improvised on the occasion when they carried the Revd. gentleman himself were by no means complimentary to his person, as the following translation will show :-

O, what a heavy bag ! No; it's an elephant ; He is an awful weight ! Let's throw his palkee down- Let's set him in the mud- Let's leave him to his fate. No, for he'll be angry then ; Ay, and he will beat us then With a thick stick. Then let's make haste and get along, Jump along quick !

" And then," says Mr. Acland, " suiting the action to the word, off they set in a nasty jog-trot, which rattled every bone in my body, keeping chorus all the time of ' jump along quick, jump along quick', until they were obliged to stop for laughing."

Golam Rezza, and his son Ali Rezza, noblemen of Patna, a district of Behar, were noted players on the Setar, and the style of their execution has been followed in some parts of the country. The principal' aristocratic houses in Behar have continued to patronise music. The Maharajah Sir Lachmiswar Sing, K. C. I. E. the present chief of Durbhanga, is a great admirer of the. art He plays on the Setar excellently well, and has in his service a performer on the Sarod, who is considered one of the best players on the instrument of the present day. Maharajah Newal Kissore Bahadoor, the grand-father of the late Maharajah Harendra Kissore of Bettia, composed a large number of songs on Durga or Kali, which are as- sociated with his name and are reverently sung by Hindu musicians hailing from the province. Behar claims to

ASIA-INDIA. 77

have given birth to Vidyapati, whose mellifluous stanzas on the loves of Radha and Krishna are considered the ideal of lyric songs and are extensively utilized in the Kirtanas and Jattra performances of Bengal which are noticed further on. The following is a translation of one of Vidyapati's lyrics made by Mr. O. C. Dutt, a prominent memher of the Rambagan Dutt family of Caleutta, very appropriately called by Captain D. L. Richardson "a nest of singing birds" :-

O vain the attempt to describe the sweet pleasures, The exquisite bliss which from Love doth proceed, For they change every moment, and lo ! at his bidding, New pleasures and aweeter each other succeed.

From my birth. I may say, I have looked on Love's

But my eyes are insatiate,-would see them more clear, features,

Tho' oft have I heard his low tones of endearment, Their accents seem new, O so new to the ear !

With him have I paes'd long nights of deep rapture, But no trace of those transports,-tho' leng have I

For oyoles I've kept him enshrined in my bosom, griev'd:

Still my heart's bitter anguish remains unrelieved.

O- Love bas been worshipped by poeis nnnumber'd, But none has the spirit of Love e'er divined, Says sage Vidyapati,-to give balm for the heart-aohe In hundreds of thousands not oue shall we find.

In Bengal the strains were simultaneously taken up by Chandidas, a native of Birbhum, and a contemporary of Vidyapati. Chandidas is considered the earliest writer of lyrical literature in Bengal, and his melodious effusions are also recited or sung in Kirtanas and in Jattras of the ancient style. The following is a translation of one of Chandidas's songs representing Radha's appeal to

78 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Krishna which, even in the foreign garb in which it has been elothed by Mr. R. C. Dutt, C. I E., (of the Bengal Civil Service, and another " singing bird" of the Rambagan " nest"), so characteristically depicts the loving heart of the Hindu heroine :-

Dove ! what more shall I say P In life, in death, in after-life, I'll be tby duteous wife. Yes ! to thy feet my beart is tied By silken ties of love, I offer all,-my heart and soul ; I'll be your doating slave ! I've thought if in this wide, wide world Another friend I own, In loving tuues to name mv name, Alas ! Alas ! there's none ! On earth, in heaven, in after-world, Alas ! who loveth me ? Oh ! to thy feet, I turn for help, To thee alone ! to thee ! Oh ! do not spurn me-I am weak, Oh do not turn away. I've thoughr and felt, without thy help, I have no other way. If for a moment thee I miss, A death-like trance I own ; I'll keep and nurse thee on my heart, E'en as a precious stone.

Another native of Birbhum was Jayadeva, who fourished in the 12th century and whose Sanskrit lyric called the Gita Govinda has also furnished songs for Kirtana and Jattra performances. His language was highly poetic and emiuently suited for music. The first stanza of one of his songs, beginning with the words " Viharati haririha sarasa vasante," has thus been rendered into English by Sir Edwin Arnold, K. C. S. I .-

ASIA-INDIA. 79

I know where Krishna tarries in these early days of spring. When every wind from warm Malay brings fragrance on its wing; Brings fragrance stolen far away from thickets of the clove, In jungles where the bees hum and the Koil flutes her love ; He dances with the dancers, of a merry morrice one, All in the budding spring-time, for 'tis sad to be alone

Bengal has been prolific in reformers and devotees whose feeling compositions have contributed so much to enrich the religious literature and national songs of the country. The Kirtana is one of the earliest national songs of Bengal. As has already been mentioned, Vidyá- pati and Chandidas were the pioneers in the field of this kind of religious song. Chaitanya, the promulgator of the doctrine of Bhakti or faith, who flourished in Nuddea in the fifteenth century, introduced the Nagara- Sankirtana for the street processions in which Kirtana songs were sung in chorus in a somewhat different style, to the accompaniment of the Khol and Karatala (cymbals). His contemporaries, disciples, and followers, among whom rere Brindavan Das, Murari Das, and Govinda Das, com- bosed a large number of Kirtanas which now form the tandard songs in this line. The District of Burdwan >roduced several Kirtana-singers of note. The Kirtanas Lave for their subject the praises of Krishna, his early areer, and the loves of Radha and Krishna. As the ieople expressed a desire to see the adventures of Trishna represented not only in words but also n action, the Jattra came to beintroduced. The original attrá was a melo-dramatic performance in which the lassical.stanzas of Vidyapati, Chandidás, and other

80 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

early composers preponderated, and these compositions were sung either solo or in chorus. Prem Chand and Paramananda were among the earliest leaders of the Játtrá. Govinda, a disciple of the latter, and Badan followed in their wake and were prominent singers in the middle of the present century. .The Jattras being the direct outcome of the Kirtanas* had also for their subjects the career of Krishna and in this sense were somewhat like the Mysteries of mediæval Europe. Latterly, however, other subjects from the Puranas as also incidents from the Mahabharata, or from popular legends, have been chosen for representation, and the Dhol; Tabla, Mandira, violin and other instruments have been introduced. The Kholand Karatála are essentially the instruments employ- ed in musical performances of a religious nature. The Chandi songs, which are based on the incidents described in his work by-Mukundarama Chuckerbutty, who lived in the 16th century, are also sung to these instruments Jagannath Swarnakar was a well known singer of Chandi songs : his grandson Rajanarayana made a name in this direction in the third quarter of the present century. The Ramayana songs, which are based on the popular version of that great epic made by Kirtibas Ojha of the Nuddea District, who flourished in the 16th century, are sung to the rhythmic ascompaniment of the Mandira alone. Ramprasad Sen contributed a great deal to enrich the literature of devotional songs by his compositions on the Goddess Kak. He was

• The Dhap song is & compromise bet ween the Jattra and Eirtana. It is sung in the manner of the Kirtong, the musio having more of the oharaoter of the Jattra than of the Kitana About 60 years ago tbis kind of singing was introdnced by Mobnn Dasa Baul His disciple, Madhu Sudan Kaora, popularlv known as Madho Kan, composed a large number of pieces of this kind, which are still popular in the country.

ASIA-INDIA. 81

born in 1720 and received much encouragement at the hands of Maharajah Krishna Chunder of Nuddea, who was a great patron of literature and the art of music. The songs of Ramprasad are full of devot:onal fervour and up to this day furnish the means of liveli- hood to many a Hindu mendicant. Maharajah Srish Chunder, the grand-son of Maharajah Krishna Chunder. composed a number of religious songs which are held in much regard by the followers of Kali.

The Kabi song had its rise at the time of Maharajah Nava Kissen of Sobhabazar, Calcutta, who flourished during the rule of Lord Clive. The creators of this kind of song were Rasu Nrising, Nalu Nanda Lal, and Raghu- nath Das. Haru Thakur used to entertain the Maharajah with these compositions and eventually received help from him to form a company. At first the company was formed of amateurs, but latterly it became a professional one. Haru Thakur, who could compose the songs, is con- sidered the first professional Kabi-wala. His contem- poraries were Nityananda Bairagi, Bhabar Churn Banik, Bhimdas Malakar, and others, who started an anta- gonistic company, whose object was to sing replies to the questions mooted by Haru's party ; the replies being at that time framed previous to the performance taking place and after the subject-matter had been ascertained from the opening party. After the death of Maharajah Nava Kissen Haru Thakur gave up the profession, and Nilu Chuckerbutty and his brother Ramprasad on one side, and Bhola Nath Moira on the other, all disciples of Haru Thakur, formed two companies. At this time several other companies were started, led by Mohan Sirkar, Nilmani Patuni, Anthony (a Eurasian), and others. Prominent among those who composed the songs for these companies was Ram Bose of Sulkea (in

82 CNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the District of Howrah, situated opposite to Calcutta, on the banks of the Hugli). It was he who introduced the system of composing replies and rejoinders on the spot. At one time Kabi-singing was the rage in Caleutta and other places in Bengal. After the death of the master- composers (whose effusions may still he heard repeated by the old men of this country), the Kabi system began to decline. Later on, Mohan Chand Bose of Bagbazar (in Calcutta) introduced the Dánda Kabi and, shortly after, the Half Akrai *, which were cultivated, and are to some extent even now practised, by amateur parties. The difference between the two classes of singing was this :- The former was sung standing and to the accom- paniment of the Dhol and Kansi, exactly on the lines of the original Kabi; the latter was sung sitting, and to the accompaniment of the Dholak, Tumbura, violin, Mandira, and other instruments employed in the drawing-room. The subjects of these performances were the same as those of the original Kabi, viz., hymns to Kali, the adventures of Krishna, love and the pangs of separation, and sallies of an erotic nature. Umpires were selected to decide on the merits of the musical performance of the two parties and on the propriety of the questions and the correctness of their answers. A rival party to that of Mohan Chand at Bagbazar was started at Jorasanko (also in Caleutta), for which Ram Chand Mukherjee nsed to compose the songs.

• Kului Chunder Sen was a musician with Maharajah Nava Kissen. He was the originator of a system of singing, then called Akrai, which was improved upon by his sister's son, Ramnidhi Gupta, who started two amateur companies, about 1806. The chief feature of the Akrar lay in the preponderance of in trumental music. At that time the system of singing reply-songs was not in vogue : the musical compositions were ratber diffcalt of rendering, and hence, perhaps, the Akrai style of singing was discontinued after a few performanees. It was when Mohan Chand (wbo was a disciple of Ramnidhi) devised the Half Akrai, on the aystem now in use, that the axrni came to be called Full Akrai, in coutradistinction to the term Half Akrai.

ASIA-INDIA. 83

Both Mohan Chand and Ram Chand composed tunes for the songs for the companies they led, and these have been followed as standard airs up to the present date. The well-known poet Iswar Chunder Gupta (born 1809). and his contemporary Gopal Chunder Bannerji of Bhowanipore, used to compose songs for some of the companies of the latter days. Mano Mohan Bose a dramatist and poet (born about 1833), is considered one of the best living composers of this kind of song. The Danda Kabi and Half Akrai performances have always been confined to gentlemen amateurs. The music and composition represented by the Half Akrai and Dándá Kabi being beyond the reach and comprehension of the masses, the Panchali was introduced in about the first quarter of the present century. It consists of alternate recitation and singing, the subjects being chosen trom the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Bhagavata. Dasarath Ray was the first great leader of a professional company of this kind. He was born in 1804 and died in 1857, and was the composer of several pieces which he and his brother Tinkari performed. The Panchali is an ex-parte affair so far as composition is concerned, bnt two companies are sometimes employed to perform and their respective excellenee has to be deeided by umpires. Sanyasi Chuckerbutty was the last singer of the Panchali, who excelled in the professional line. This kind of performance is, like the professional Kabi, going out of fashion. Sometimes gentlemen amateurs organize Panchal companies for special performances, and among those started in the recent timos might be mentioned the parties of Agarpara (a village aboat 8 miles north of Caleutta), Jorasanko, Bag Bazar, and Bow Bazer, in Caleutta, and Bhowampore and Kalighat in the suburbs of Calcutta. Respectable Bengali gentlemen trom time to time start amatenr Játtras which are a

84 UNIVERAAL HISTORY OF MURIC.

combination of the professional Jattra and dramatie ncting. They also sing in chorua in street processions anch as issue on the occasions of the Rath Jattra and Dol Jattrå festivals. The songs aung on such oecaaions aro composed and set to musie on the lines of the Half Akrai. Amateur theatricals are started now and then in Culcutta and other parta of Bengal. The firat Hengali antateur theutre was atarted in 1838 at the Belgatehia Villa of Rajah Pratap Nurain Singh of Paikpara in the auburbs of Calentta, under the mupervimion of soine of the prominent mombers of the rdursted Hindu mociety of Calentta. Maharajah Bahndur Su Jotrendro Mohun Tagore, K. C. 8. L,"took an artlve part in its get-up, and composed for the orcheatra orgsniand for it n few nirs which are the firxt of their kind. This orchestra consisted mostly of Europran instrumrnts. Iter on, when thentrienla began unnually tu be given at the Maharajah's fumily reaidenee in Pathuriaghatia Ntreet, Calcutta, the orchestrn was made ap entireh of 1 Indirn instruments, and most of the nirm pliyed in it were composed hy the author of thin publication. Somo professional thoatrea have, within tho lnat 24 years, heen set up in Calcutta in most of whose orebestras Hiudu muaic in played on Europenn inntrumats. Auimg partieg arp sometunes formed in imitation . f th 3a4s, a seet of veligious m mdicantx who danee aud sing tof munic of KWara, Gopgantra and Aaanda I don.

The old Rajwhs of Bisaraian T te D,t of Bankura were femous for the imgwtus the gae *r the eause of muaie by onpourwging musicaina lyenng its prictice in the country. At our timge the progn . inade here wax so grrwt, and the number of muurjans it pruduced so large, that the country .aiue bu he desig nated the "Delhi of Bengnl." Kam Bankar Rhattarharya

ASIA-INDIA. 85

was one of the most distinguished musicians of the place. The tradition for its love of music has in the modern days been kept up in the country by the establishment of a Musical Society at Bankura in connec- tion with which two Music Schools were opened in 1883, one at Bankura and the other at Bissenpur, chiefly with the object of training teachers for the behefit of the surrounding Patsalas (primary schools). Mr. J. Anderson, at that time the Magistrate of the District, helped a great deal in the establishment of the schools, where elementary music began to be taught by means of a manual of vocal music, called Gita-pravesa, which the writer of the present publication prepared for the purpose.

Music plays an important part in the service of the Brahmo Somajes or Theistic Churches of the country. Rajah Ram Mohan Roy (1776-1833), who established what is called the Adi (or first) Brahmo Somaj in Calcutta in 1830, composed a number of hymns which were sung here as well as elsewhere. At the present time hymns set to high class music are sung here under the supervision of the talented members of the familyof Maharshi Debendro Nath Tagore, the present head of the Somaj. In the Brahmo Somaj of India which was opened by Babu Keshub Chunder Sen in 1869 in another part of the town, hymns composed in the Kirtan and other popular styles are sung to the accompaniment of the church organ and the Khol. The songs sung by the members and followers of this Somaj in their street processions are quite in keeping with the national style. In some of the Native Christian Churches, hy-mns are sung to the music of the country. A few years ago a Jattra was started in the District of Nuddea where

86 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

some of the incidents related in the Bible were rendered in the meio-dramatic style. Sometime ago the Christian Missionaries adopted the style of the Kathaks for the propagation of their religion. The Kathaks are learned Brahmanas who elucidate the texts of the Hindu Sástra or relate the Puranas by means of recitations and songs. Among the most noted of them in the modern days were Krishna Mohan, Dharanidhar, and Sridhar.

The aristocratic families of Bengal and specially of Calcutta have always encouraged musicians who visited them from time to time. Some of them were practical musicians. The late. Maharajah Mahatab Chand of Burdwan composed a large number of songs and patronised Ramapati Banerji who also composed some excellent songs in praise of the Goddess Kalí. Babn Ashutosh Deb of Calcutta, popularly known as Shatu Babu, kept a number of distinguished musicians on his establishment. He was a skilful player on the Setar, and the composer of many songs. Rajah Sir Radha Kant Deb Bahadur, K. C. S. I., Babu Gopi Mohan Tagore, and Babu Prosunno Cumar Tagore, C. S. I .. were great lovers of music and supported several musicians, among whom might be mentioned the songstress Hira, the Mridanga-player Golam Abbas, the vocalist Haddu Khan, the Sur-Sringar player Kashim Ali Khan, and the Kabab player Basud Khan. His Majesty Wajed Ali Shah, the ex-King of Oudh, who, since the annexation of Oudh in 1856, resided at Matia- bruj in the suburbs of Calcutta, kept some very good musicians on his staff, among whom Taz Khan is still living. His Majesty was a practical musician himself and is said to have been the originator of the kind of song known as " Lucknow Thumri." His Highness the Nawab Nazim of Bengal, father of the present Nawab,

ASIA-INDIA. 87

had some distinguished musicians in his court. One of them, Ata Hossain, had accompanied His Highness to England where he gave some specimens of his skill before H. R. H. the Prince of Wales. Ata Hossain received a silver meda from the President of the Bengal Munis School in May 1883 when he visited Calcutta. The tirst Bengali treatise on music was written about 50 years ago by Babu Radha Mohan Sen of Calcutta. The first treatise in the same language, written on a systematic plan, embodying the theory and practice of music, was brought out by Professor Khetra Mohan Goswami in the year 1868. He composed several airs for the Setar and the orchestra, as also a number of songs which he published later on in his work called. Kantha Kaumude, or a treatise on vocal music. Among the distinguished vocalists of the third quarter of the present cen- tury were Ahmud Khan and Gopal Prasad. The latter's brothers, Luchmi Prasad and Sarada Sahay, were first-class players on the Vind and the Setar. The present Maharajah of Hill Tipperah is well- known for the encouragement he gives to the art. He is himself a practical musician of no ordinary ability. Madan Mohan is a good Mridanga player of the day. Lala Kebul Kissen, Kadau Sing, and Badau Sing also distinguished themselves in this line two decades ago. The Tuppa songs composed by Babu Ramnidhi Gupta, who flourished in about the first quarter of the present century, are still popular among those Bengalis who sing or listen to erotic compositions.

The year 1881 is full of importance to the history of Indian music. It was on the 3rd of August of this vear that a school of music named the Bengal Music School- the first of its kind in India-was established in Calcutta, where vocal music and some of the drawing-room irstru-

88 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ments began to be taught with the aid of books and according to a system of notation. It was founded by and has ever since been under the presidency of the writer of the present work. In the year 1881, the Bengal Academy of Music was founded by him. The object of this institution is mainly to encourage the study and practice of Hindu music by the establishment of schools and by the awarding of complimentary titles and in- signias thereof to distinguished musicians. These two institutions have always received the enconragement of the highest officials of the land. The Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, while he was Viceroy and Governor-General of India, was the High Protector of the Academy. Since 1880, the Bengal Music School has been receiving a grant-in-aid from the Government of Bengal. Some years ago, a class for teaching theoretical music, as also one for the teaching of Vedic chants, were opened at the Sanskrit College of Calcutta,-both with the support of the present writer and the sanction of the Govern- ment obtained by him. He has with him a distinguished musician Babu Kally Prosonno Banerji who plays skil- fully on the Vina, Sur-bahar and Setar. His performances on the Nyastaranga, an instrument peculi ar to India, have always challenged the admiration of his listeners, among whom might be named Their Royal Highnesses the Prince of Wales, and the Duke and the Duchess of Connaught, the Earl of Northbrook, the Marquess of Dufferin and Ava, the Marquess and Marchioness of Ripon, besides distinguished Government officials and visitors from Europe and America. Since the foundation of the Bengal Music School, the science and art of music have received considerable attention at the hands of the Indian people, and several books have been published tending to a clear understanding of the subjest. In view of the help of the Government

ASIA-INDIA- 89

of the land, the exertions of friends, and the interest shown in it by the Indian people at large, the revival of Hindu music and its restoration to its pristine glory and purity may fairly be considered as an accomplished fact.

L

90 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

CEYLON.

appears that music was formerly cultivated in Ceylon, and reduced to principles. Pieces of music in regular notes might be seen in some of the old books in the Pali language. The gamut was termed Septa Souere (Sanskrit, Sapta Swara, or the seven notes.) There were no particular signs for these notes, each of them being formed of as many letters as were necessary for their pronunciation. The Singalese have several instruments in use. They are very fond of the trumpet, called Hoveneve, or Horanawa, which they consecrate to the temples. Their horn, named Kombone, is said to produce as annoying a sound as their trumpet. They have a kin d of hautboy, which, however, is not so unpleasant as the others. It is very narrow, considering its length. The two extremities are tied by cat-gut strings to the belt on which the instrument hangs ; this belt goes over the shoulder. They have several kinds of drums. The Daoul, a long and narrow instrument, is struek with a curved stick called Daoul kadipone, the left hand only being used. The Tammetam (Tom-tom ? ) is a kind of kettle, covered with a skin on the top, and beat with an instrument called Kaddipoiv. The Ravani, (perhaps so called in honor of Ravana, the monster-king of Ceylon of the mythological days), is a sort of timbrel, minus the bells. It is held with the left hand, and the fingers of the right are made to slide on it. It is placed on the

ASIA-CEYLON. 91

ground and three or four people together (sometimes women) beat it continuously for hours without reference to musical time. The Odikie or Udakea is the best of all their drums, and capable of producing a good effect in a piece of music. It is the instrument of the man of taste, and the performer, therefore, is paid more liberally than those on the other varieties of the drum. The Berrigodea is a kind of long drum made of jack-wood, covered with deer-skin, and beat with the hands. The Tallea, made of brass, is beat with a stick. M. Sonnerat, in his Voyage aux Indes Orientales, (Paris, 1806), says that the Hindus maintain that the Ravanastron, one of their old instru ments played with the bow, was invented about 5,000 years ago by Ravana, a mighty king of .Ceylon. The Venah or Venavah is a stringed instrument sometimes seen in the hands of strolling beggars. It is mounted with two strings of different kinds (one made of a species of flax and the other of horse-hair), and is played with a bow which is also made of horse-hair and has bells attached to it. The hollow of the instrument is half a cocoa-nut shell, polished, covered with the dried skin of a lizard, and perforated below. The people of Ceylon are very fond of hearing songs. When on his travels, a great man has often one vocalist before and another behind his palki. These two men, each in their turn, sing stanzas of an intermediate length, for it so happens some- times that the singer, quite taken up with the subject, gives some extempore verses. The songs are either religious, in which case the virtues of Buddha and other gods are extolled ; or they are historical, and then the virtuous actions of some of their kings are recited. Sometimes the songs relate a love adventure. But in all cases the air is a mournful one, gay music among the Singalese being an uncommon thing. The measure is constantly changing, the movement remaining the

92 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

same-always slow. The most admired tune of the Singalese is what is called the " Horse-trot," from the resemblance which it bears to the sound of the trotting of a horse.

ASIA-PERSIA. 93

PERSIA.

NHERE is every reason to think that music was more generally cultivated and brought to a much higher pitch of perfection before the conquest of this country by the Mahomedans in the seventh eentury of the Christian Era than it has been since. Music was performed at the courts of Susa and Persepolis. Athenaus mentions that Darius had in his harem no less than 329 female musicians. Xenophon substantially supports the remarks of Athenæus, In the time of the Sassanides, music was employed in all the festivities of the Persian court. Fetis holds that the music of ancient Persia bore a resemblance to that of India. One of the results of the Mahomedan conquest was the destruction of the arts and literature of the Persians. From the letter of William Erskine to Sir John Malcolm, which was published in the Transactions of the Literary Society of BomBay, Vol II, it would appear that, when the Mussul- mans conquered Persia, Saad, the son of Abu-wakhas, wrote to Omar, (who was the second Caliph after Mahomed), to be allowed to send a number of books to him. Omar's answer was, to throw them into the water, as useless to the faith. This order was so completely carried out, by the burning of all books, that the only musical work now. known to exist in the Persian language is oie entitled Heela Imaeli, mentioned in a catalogue of MSS. appended to Mr. Fraser's History of Nadir Shah. The third part of .this book treats of

94 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

musical instruments. It is said that music was intro- duced into Persia by Gjemshid, or Giamschid, the fifth sovereign of the first, or Pischdalian dynasty. Nizami, a Persian writer, describes in enthusiastic terms the musical entertainments of Parviz, a Persian monarch, who flourished about 590 of the Christian Era, as being in a style ef great magniticence. Anim, a musician of Hindusthan, states that the seven primary modes were in use among the Persians before the reign of this monarch. Sir William Jones speaks of their having 84 modes, " which they distribute, according to an idea of locality, into twelve rooms, twenty-four recesses, and forty-eight angles or corners." The prin- cipal modes, like those of the Greeks, are called after the different countries or cities; as the mode of Ispahan, the mode of Irak, the mode of Hijaz, and so on. Considering the softness of the Persian language, the strong accentuation of the words, and the tenderness of the songs that are written in it, Sir William concludes that "the Persians must have a natural and affecting melody, which is, certainly, true music ; but they seem to be very little acquainted with the theory of that sublime art." In his " History of Persia," Sir John Maleolm says : "The Persians deem music a science, but it is one in which they do not appear to have made much progress. They have a gamut and notes, and a different description of melody, that is adapted to various strains, such as the pathetie, vo luptu ous, joyous, and war-like. The voice is accom panied by instruments of which they have a number ; but they cannot be said to be further advanced in this science than the Indians, from whom they are supposed to have borrowed it."

The first writers in Persia who treated music as a sciene were Arabs, who adopted the musical instru-

ASIA-PERSIA. 95

ments of the Persians. From their works it would appear that the compass of the octave was divided into 17 intervals, there being consequently two intervals between each whole tone; in other words, the octave was divided into 17 one-third tones. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, however, some theorists adopted a system in which the octave was divided into twelve intervals, like the semi-tones of the chromatic scale of Europe. M. Taugoin, in his " Journey in Persia", describes the " funeral games" of the Persians, in which music plays an important part. These games are called the Tazias, or Desolations; and they were instituted in memory of the martyrdom of the Imams Hassan and Hossain, who perished at Kerbela in a great battle against the false Caliph Yezid. During this solemn festival, the Mollahs, stationed in pulpits, chant in a mournful tone, sacred hymns and lamentations, and the whole auditory respond to them with tears and deep- drawn sighs. Music forms also a part of the nuptial ceremonies of the Persians. M. Von Hussard, an amateur of musie, who held an official situation in Persia, took to Enrope some of the choruses of the Persian dervishes, which appeared to be possessed of considerable musical mierit. These dervishes hold meetings on certain days, at whieh their supemor presides, and they dance to the music of the flute and the drum, whisking themselves round with great swiftness. Of the various secis into which the dervishes are divided, the Mewliach, or Mewlowi, are the most devoted to music. These choruses are described in the Hurmonicon as having " considerable originality and force of expression," and as being " throughout, faithful to the meaning and spirit of the poetry." Further on : "The change of time that some- times occurs exactly resembles the French dramatic

96 CNIVERHAI HIRTORY OF MURIC.

music : it doea not offend the ear, and never apprara to be out of its proper place. The compass amounts 'o no more than an octave and a half, from C to P ; conse- quently these songs, transposed acrording to cirrum. stences, are within the compaas of every voiee." Kot. zebue, in hit Narratine of the Ruanian Embasny to Persia in 1817, says that when the ambasndor srrived at Erivan "the troops premented arms, the drums best, and the fifes played the Englinh nationnl nir of 'find Nave the King."' The programme of the musieal outertainmnenta given to the ambnasador and hix suite ineluded " a guitar, n sort of violin of three wtringa, two tambarines, and a singer. ... Three handaomne boys had small mrtal castanets, whirh they atruck in time with the danrp." In the yrar 1834, a troop of Peraian sobhiern went to Warsnw. Arrrtain Rumminn Prines whn was there at the time gave them nn eutertaimmueat a part of whirh ronmatrd of a grand roneest of their owh mude. The Irader of the batul waw ordered by his mnster the Prinre to arrauge the nirs which the Persians were iu the habit of minginy, for the full orchratra. This was dope, hut it waw a grrnt dimppointment to the Pripce to he told by him Prrainn gurata, after thes had Batrned to the performanee, that tl arranyement with harmony entirely destroyed the beauty and eharmn of thep tuelodies.

Thongh now rarely tart with, the harp was formerly n well-known inatrument in Persia. The celebrated Persian poet Amir Khuaru (who fouriahed ahut the year 1315) make» thw fullowing mention of it in u pirm ontitlod the Mirahei-Iskhundw . " The harp's soft uotrs to bruven wytled und from the flagon flowed the muhy wave; the lute's swert tones angels from heaven attrarted. The organ and the dulrimer, wth gentle untes, a sooth

ASIA-PERSIA. 97

ing charm diffused." Sir Robert Ker Porter gives some illustrations of the harp in his sketches from the old sculptures which exist on a stupendous rock, called Tackt-i-Bostan, situated near Kermanshah, ten days' journey north-east of Bagdad. These sculptures, which are said to have been executed during the reign of Khusru Parviz (towards the end of the sixth century of the Christian Era), include representations of boats filled with women playing upon harps resembling in construction those of the Assyrians. Major O'Neri remarks that " the figures are in perfect preservation, and the strings of the harp completely visible." En- gravings of some Persian harps of a later date may be seen in Lane's edition of "The Arabian Nights' Enter- tainments." The harps are about 400 years old. The drawings from which the engravings are derived were received by Mr. Lane from Sir Gore Ouseley. The harp, called Chang in Persian and Junk in Arabic, is now almost entirely fallen into desuetude. The Persians have a dulcimer called Santir, which in point of construction and treatment is almost the same as the German Hackbret. Its antiquity in Persia is established to a certain extent by the representation of a Persian lady playing on it, of which Hommaire de Hell, in his " Voyage en Perse" has given a sketch taken from an illustration which is known to be very old. The other stringed instrnments in present use in Persia are the Oud (or lute), the Schtareh (guitar,) the Tar, varieties of the Tamboura, the Kemangeh (literally, " bow-instru- ment"), and the Rebab. The Schtareh corresponds to the Qitarah of the Arabs and Moors. The Tar, which literally signifies " a string," is furnished with 24 frets of gut, mounted with five strings, and played with a plectrum of wax and brass. The Tamboura is with used in Persia, as elsewhere, to accompany

M

98 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

vocal music. The Kemangeh (otherwise called the Kamancha) is an instrument of the violin kind, and the parent of all the Arabic instruments of the same name. It is used to accompany both singing and dancing. The Rebab of Persia is an almost exact counterpart of the Rebec, which was formerly so popular in Western Europe. In. his " Travels in various countries of the Fast, more particularly Persia," Vol I, London 1819, Sir William Ouseley states that he met with the bagpipe in Persia where it goes by the name of Nei ambanah (from Nei, a reed or pipe, and ambánah, a bag), and where also "it appears to have been more general in former ages than at present." That its construction is nearly identi- cal with the Scottish instrument is evidenced by Sir William's remark that a Scotch gentleman " played on it several tunes of his own country, in a very pleasing manner, without any previous practice." Besides the bag- pipe, the wind instruments of Persia consist of the Nay (or Nei, flute), the Zourna (or oboe), and the Shaberba (Chabbabeh or flageolet). The Kouwal is the largest speci- men of the tambourine class. The hand drum Dombeg is very popular and is specially used to accompany social dances and singing. The Dohl is another variety of drum commonly used in the country. Castanets and cymbals are also in use. The Kurduis, a part of the military force of Persia, have bands whose instrumentg are, according to Kotzebue, " little drums fastened to the saddle of their horses, and a species of clarionet, of a harsh, squeaking tone." The voices of the Persian dervishes are described as specially good. Comparing Per- sian singers with the Arab musicians, Fetis remarks, with reference to the former, that " they sing with more taste, more expression ; and the ornaments of their melodies are less numerous and better adapted to the character of the phrases." The Persians are especially

ASIA-PERSIA. 99

celebrated for their love-songs. The following two translations of Persian songs are taken from "Specimens of the Popular Poetry of Persia, &c.," by Alerander Chodzko, London, 1842 :--

"The late Prince of Shiraz, the well-known Fermanfer- mah, having fallen in love with an Armenian girl, this song was composed and sung throughout all Persia."

A PERSIAN SONG.

Joy and bustle resound in Shiraz ; a sugar-mouthed girl came there. Faith ! Reyhana, come and embrace the Mussul- man creed. Truly ! I will not turn to the Mussulman faith. I will not be a Mussulman. If I do so. I shall be killed. O, Shahzade ! restore Reyhana to liberty. I will give thee a turban and a calotte ; I will give thee a Cashmere shawl and a satin petticoat ; I will give thee a dagger richly set with diamonds. I will bestow on thee riches and plenty. Come, Reyhana, and embrace the Mussulmar faith. I do not want either a turban or a calotte. I entreat you in the name of Allah, Shahzsde ! rostore me to liberty !

A PERSIAN LOVE SONG. Ferruh walks prondly through the bazaar. I perceive. her red dress. I am afraid she will come to me. Woe to me !. Ferruh has kindled a fire in my soul ! O do not be cruel- do not spill my blood ! Ferruh's dress is scarlet; her face shines, burns ! Ferruh is a kid, born in the spring. O do not be cruel-do not spill my blood ! Ferruh's eyes call me. My fancy dreams odd freaks. Her beauty makes a Mussulman of a Kafir. O do not be cruel-do not spill my blood ! I will write your name on a slip of paper; I will put it near my heart, and will keep it there. I will steal you from your father ! Woe to me! O do not be cruel- do not spill my blood !

100 UNIYERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ARABIA.

FN the olden days the Arabians seem to have had their musical instruments and names for the different notes. It has been asserted that an Arabian Hute was not only known but also popular in Greece in the time of Menander. Their lutes and pipes wero probably very simple, and Sir William Jones imagines their musie " to have been little more than a natural and tuneful recitation of their elegiac verses, and love songs." According to Don Calmet, "the Arabs had rhyme, before the time of Mahomet, who died A. D. 632; and in the second century, they used a kind of poetry in measures similar to the Greeks, and set to music." After the wandering Bedouins had become conquerors of tie world, they nequired a taste for the pleasures ot lifc. Then the chanters and musicians of Greece and Persia went to Mecca and took service under the Arabs Then flourished the celebrated chanters Meehit and Tawis Saib Hathir ; and after them, Moid-ebn-Cherih who, along with others, improved the art of chanting until it reached the summit of perfection under the Abbassides. Bagdad was at that period the centre of musical excellence. Here, and at this period, were invented costumes for the dancers, castanets for their use, various kinds of dances, and a species ef pantomime. The celebrated Haroun-al-

ABIA-ARABIA. 101

Rashid, who reigned from 786 to 809 of the Christian era, was a great lover and patron of music. In his reign flourished the famous flute-player Ishac. Wonderful effects are attributed to the music of the Caliph Abu- Nasir-Mahomed-al-Farabi who was called the Arabian Orpheus. From a collection of ancient Arabian MSS. in the British Museum, it would seem that the Arabians possessed a rude species of counterpoint prior to the year 1060.

The notes of the Arabic scale are designated by the numbers from I to 7, thus :- Jek (C), Du (D), Si (E), Tachar (F), Peni (G), Sehesch (A), Heft (B flat.) The notes are sub-divided into 17 one-third-tones, in the following way :- C D F G A B flat (C) .

This scalo came to be adopted by the Persians when they were subjugated by the Arabs, and as mentioned elsewhere, continued to be in use till it was modified into one of 12 intervals later on. The Arabs divide their music into two parts; the telif (composition), or music, considered in its relation to melody; and the ihaa (cadence of sounds), or the measured cossation of melody, regarding instrumental musie ouly. They have four principal modes, from which are derived eight others ; and they have also six compomte modes, formed out of the union of these. Their manner of noting musie is by forming an oblong rectangle, which is divided by seven lines perpendicular to its sides, representing, together with the two extrome lines, eight intervals. The highest of these is ealled by a name signifying the interval of all the tones ; and the seven others, beginning with the lowest, contain the seven Persian names of numbers. Each of the lines is of

102 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

a different color, which must be remembered, as well as the name and the interval. The simplicity of character, attributed by Sir William Jones to the music of the ancient Arabs, seems now to have been lost, considering how complex is their system of notation. The musical instruments of the Arabians are chiefly those of percussion, or thrum med with the fingers or nails. "They have indeed," says Dr. Burney, " a flute called Nai with ventages. The tube is a section of reed, with a mouth-piece of horn. It is to the sound of this flute that the Dervishes dance." The Arabs have also an instru- ment called the Aoud, or El oud (literally "wood"), which in name and shape, resembles a lute, and they ascribe as many marvellous effects to it as the Greeks did to the lyre of Amphion, or the Chinese to the Kin of Pin-mou-kai. "They tell you," says M. Ginguene, in an article on Arabian music in the Encyclopedie Methodique, "with the utmost gravity, that each of the strings of this instrument, four in number, has particular virtues ; the first, for instance, acts as a specific against bile and phlegm ; the second is a sovereign cure for the most inveterate melancholy and vapours ; the third gives health and vigour to young people of both sexes; and lastly, the fourth string affords relief, the instant it is heard, to a sanguine temper' and disposition." The power of these strings depends greatly on the manner they are mani- pulated. "They have," continnes the same writer, "a particular pizzicato, or pinch, for every action and passion; courage, liberality, and noble sentiinents, are inspired by one mode of thrumming ; love and pleasure by a second ; the dance is inspired by a third ; sleep and tranquility by a fourth." The Arabs have a kind of dulcimer called the Kanun; and a violin called Kemangeh a gouz. With regard to the latter, M. Fetis observes :- "If we compare thc Omerti with the Arab instrument Kemangeh a gouz, we

ASIA-ARABIA. 103

at once perceived that the latter took its origin from the former", which is a Hindu instrument of the fiddle species. Further on, he says with reference to the Rabab of the Arabs, of which there are two varieties, viz., Rabab esh Moganny, or "singer's Rabab", and Rabab esh Sha'er, or "poet's Rabab," that it is "only a,modification of the Ruana of the Hindus, the only difference being in the body of the instrument." Some of the Arabic instruments are constructed so as to enable the performer to produce accurately the seven- teen one-third tones of the scale. The frets on the Tamboura, (a species of mandoline with a long neck), for instance, are regulated with a view to this object. The Kemangeh, already mentioned, has its body common- ly formed of a cocoa-nut shell, with a piece of skin ex- tended over it, and is mounted with three strings of catgut or horse-hair. This instrument as well as the drum are commonly used by the itinerant musicians who accompany the dancing women. The Marabba is another instrument of the bow species. It is mounted with a string of horse-hair, and covered with a skin stretched upon the body. It accords well with the shrill voices of the singers in the coffee-houses. The Arab name for flute is Nay, of which the two most common varieties are the Nay-chah (large Nay) and Nay-giref (little Nay.) The Shami or Chami, and the Sulami belong to the flute species. Both are made of cane and pierced with several holes. The Bouk is a tube of metal, about forty-four inches long; contracted at the mouth, where a small reed is inserted, and enlarging towards the other end, where it is as wide as the hand. Most of the instruments in use in Turkey and Persia are met with in some parts of Arabia. The Sheriff of Mecca has a band of martial music, consisting of kettle-drums, trumpets, fifes, &c. Similar bands are kept by the Pashas at Aleppo and Smyrna.

104 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

In the course of his travels in Arabia, Mr. Buckingham observed that the church service at Assalt was very similar to that of the Greek churches in Asia Minor, the difference lying only in the language in which it was per- formed. At the church in Damascus, the sermon was followed up by fine peals of music on the organ, and the choristers, who were composed chiefly of children of both sexes, sang hymns, in responses to each other, in the Arabic tongue. In the ordinary amusements of the Arabs, music holds a prominent place. " In a coffee- house," continues Mr. Buckingham, " encounters at a sort of single-stick are animated by the sounds of a tambourine and fifes, which varied in their performance as the contest became closer." He came across a party who sang Arabic songs in thirds and fifths; and one sang an octave to the strain. The choral song,. called Djok, is sometimes sung by the young men at night, in the coffee-houses, its measure being accompanied with the clapping of hands. The music of Arabia, as indeed of certain other Eastern nations, is remark- ably. florid in its style, the. air (cantus firmus) being. in some cases almost entirely hidden by the introduced passages and grace-notes. One of the famous Arabian songs is the " song of the Sakas, or water-carriers in Mecca," which is described by John Lewis Burckhardt, in his " Travels in Arabia", (London, 1829, Vol I), as " very affecting, from its simp licity and the purpose for which it is used." " The wealthier pilgrims," observes he, " frequently purchase the whole contents of a Saka's water-skin on quitting the mosque, especially at night, and order him to distribute it gratis among the poor. While pouring out the water into the wooden bowls with which every beggar is provided, they exclaim Sebyl Allah ya atshan, Sebyl ! (" Hasten, O thirsty, to the ways of God!") and then break out

ASIA-ARABIA. 105

in this short song of three notes only, which 1 never heard without emotion." The words are : Eddjene wa el moy fezata ly Sahab es-Sabyl; that is, " Paradise and forgiveness be the lot of him who gave you this water !"

Singing is extremely popular with all classes of the Arabs. Many of their songs are soft and mournful in character, while others are cheerful and sprightly. Most of the melodies are simple, but they are so overlaid with trills and ornaments as to become almost unrecognizable. These variations are improvised by the singer. and form the chief beauty of the performance.

The following translation of an Arab extempore song is given in the " Narrative of Travels and Dis- coveries in Northern and Central Africa," by Denham and Clapperton ; London, 1826, Vol II :- Oh &She was beauty's self, and shone in matchless symmetry ! when shall I hear news of her ?- how support her absence and her loss ? My hopes are but as the fandastic dreams of night; yet with this hopelessness my love does but increase, even as a star shines the brightest in the blackest night. O! Mabrooka! Thy head sinks too with sorrow at losing him whose thoughts are still of thee; but as the desert-bird drops and smooths its wings, but to display the richness of its plumage, so will thy silent grief but cause thee to appear with increased charms ! Vain and cruel delusion! At the moment of the posses- sion of earthly happiness to doom us to melancholy despair, was as if the traveller should draw water to the brink of the well, and then see the wished-for draught snatched from his thirsty lips. What she looks upon becomes graceful, enchanted by

of life. her loveliness! Oh! she is beauty's self, my polar star

106 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

TURKESTÅN.

The inhabitants of this country are of a hybrid stock-half Kirghiz half Persian, with an admixture of Kalmucks (Sans. kala mukha or black face). The Kalmucks use a kind of trumpet in their religious per- formances. This trumpet is usually far too long and too heavy to be held up by the performer himself; in proces- sions there are attendants in front, who carry it before him, while in the temple it rests upon a frame, so that he has only to raise it slightly when blowing. M. Hommaire de Hell saw among the Kalmucks in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea an instrument cf the guitar species similar to the San-Heen of the Chinese, or Samisen of the Japanese. This instrument is also considered almost identical with the Russian Balalaika, which is said to be of high antiquity and originally derived from the East. The following is a translation of a Kalmuk song :-

Having fettered my camel near the source of the river Manich, whose waters are bitter, I should like to sit with my Sogonda and play with her, snatching the smoking pipe from her.

The brand on my wild grey horse has the shape of a gun. If, after having him well bridled, from my Sogonda, should I be guilty ? I could run away

The crows and the owlets sit in rows on the bushes. I should like to play with the sweet-tongued Sogonda, wresting a steel and a flint from her.

ASIA-TURKESTAN. 107

The grass is waving on the meadow ; the image of the beautiful Sogonda comes to my mind. What is she doing now ; she who shared her heart and thoughts with me?

The following is the translation of a song represent- ing an Astrakan Tartar's last farewell :--

My. bay horse was fond of my singing a tolgaw * while. I was riding. My bay horse will remain in the stables.

My Tarter girls, beantiful as the waves, remained in the tent. My beautiful Tartar girls will find a husband for themselves ; my bay horse will find a rider.

My old mother, after losing such a warrior as I, will stoop from grief, and will find.a dark grave for herself. * Tolgaw-The popular song of the Tartarg.

108 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

TURKEY IN ASIA.

r NDER this heading will be briefly described, along with that of others, the music of some of the countries and cities that played prominent parts in ancient history. A succinct general account of such countries aud cities will not, perhaps, be found quite out of place here.

Assyria .- The first Great Empire of antiquity, celebrated in the Bible. Its limits are not ascertained, but it appears to correspond nearly to Kurdistan-the country of the Kurds, a rude and mountainous district, belonging partly to Asiatic Turkey and partly to Persia.

Babylon .- "The earliest post-deluvian city and the oldest in the world of which there are any.traces remaining." Anciently the capital of the Babylonio- Chaldean Empire, in an extensive plain on the Euphrates River. The modern town Hillah occupies a portion of its site. The ruins of Birs Nimrod, on an elevated mound, are supposed to be the Tower of Babel of the Scripture, and the temple of Belus, described by Herodotus. Babylon is supposed to have been originally built 2230 B. C. It was at the height of its power in the time of Nebuchadnezzar. It was beseiged and taken by Cyrus, B. C. 538, and afterwards by Alexander the Great.

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 109

Chaldea .- Modern Irak-Arabi, a province compre- hended in the moderu pashalic of Bagdad. It is watered by the Tigris and the Euphrates.

Ninevel .- A famous city of antiquity, capital of the ancient kingdom of Assyria, the ruins of which occupy an extensive space around the village Nunia, on the Enst bank of the Tigris, opposite Mosul. The city was over- thrown and its empire merged in that of Babylon ir. 625 B. C.

Palestine .- Culled in Scripture also the Land of Canaan; the Land of Promise ; the Land of the Hebrews ; the Land of Israel; the Land of Judah; the Land of Jehovah ; The Holy Land. The population comprises Syrians, Mahomedans, Druses, Maronites, Christians, Jews, and Turks. The Pasha resides at Beyrout, the chief commercial city, and under him is the Pasha of Jernsalem.

Pluenicia .- A tract of country in the north part of Palostine, in which Tyre and Sidon were chief cities. The people of Phonicia were fumous for their sleill in navigation, and their active encouragement of c onimerce.

Syria .- A province of Asintie Turkey, famed in ancient history, lymg aloug the rast coast of the Medi- terranean. It is now divided into the pashalios of Aleppo, Damaseus, and Beyrout or Sidon. The trade of Byria is chiefly conducted by Christians, Jews, or Armenians. The Mahomedans are most numerous in the secondary towns and in the rural districts. The musical instruments in present se in these countries are mostly those derived from Persian and Arabic sources.

110 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ASSYRIA.

Very little is on record about the music of the Assyrians. The discoveries which have only been made in the present century, however, throw a flood of light on the subject,-in fact they form the only sources from which any substantial information can be derived. The discovered monuments, on which the musical instru- ments of the Assyrians are represented, consist of bas- reliefs. Most of these are now to be seen in the British Museum. They have been obtained from three extensive mounds near the Tigris, called the mounds of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kouyunjik. Nimroud, situated about 20 miles to the south of Mosul, was explored in 1847 and 1850 by Mr. Austen Henry Layard. Khorsabad, about 10 miles to the north-east of Mosul, was excavated by M. Botta, French Consul at Mosul. The mound of Kouyunjik, which is believed to contain the ruins of Nineveh, is situated in the immediate vicinity of Mosul on the opposite bank of the Tigris. Here, too, Mr. Layard made discoveries of some sculptures. Another series of slabs from this last place was obtained, later on, by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, and by Mr. Loftus, who excavated the mound in 1853 and the two following years, under the direction of Sir H. C. Rawlinson, who was at that time British Consul-General in Bagdad. The most competent judges on Assyrian history assert that the period when these monuments were executed commenced about 1000 years B. C. The musical instru- ments carved thereon must, as a matter of course, be older, perhaps by many centuries previous to that period. Considerations of an antiquarian kind establish clearly the fact that, among the Assyrians as well as the anciant Egyptians and Hebre ws, not to mention the

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 111

Hindus, music attained to a degree of perfection very much higher than is observed in many of the nations of the present day. The monuments alluded to show not only that the Assyrians possessed a variety of pulsatile, wind, and stringed instruments, but also that they knew how to employ different kinds of stringed instruments in concert, either vocal or instrumental. Moreover, it would appear that they were acquainted with the use of the finger-board, by means of which they could obtain a great number of distinct notes on a few strings, like those on the guitar or mandoline. As the bas-reliefs chiefly represent historical even ts, religious ceremonies, and royal entertainments, it is more than probable that the Assyrians possessed several popular instruments, which, on account of their not having been employed on occasions under representation, do not find' a place on the bas-reliefs.

One of the instruments noticed in the sculptures is the Harp. It is about four feet high and held befre the breast of the performer, and played by him while stand- ing or walking. The upper portion of the frame contains the sounding board ; two soundin g-holes, somewhat in the shape of an hour glass, are seen on one side. Below them 'are the screws, or tuning pegs, arranged in regular order. The strings run from these pegs down to the horizontal bar of the frame, round which they are fastened. Ornam ented tassels were sometimes appended to the lower part of the frame. Representations of three kinds of lyre occur in the seulp tures, differing in shape as well as in the number of strings. It would seem that in one case the performer carried the instru- ment before him by means of a band slung over his right shoulder, and that in all cases he employed both hands in twanging the strings, which was done with the plec-

112 UNIVERSAL HINTORY OF MURIC

trum as well as with the fingers. The Dulrimer, of which an imperfect representation was obtained, seemed to.have been played with a plectrum held by thn per- former in his right hand. The left hand apprar also to have been uned either in twanging the strimgs, or, per- haps, with the view of checking any undrairable vibrn. tions of the strings. There is another instrument found on the seniptures which, in the abarne of any sperifio name, has been called the Amor owing to ita reartn- blance to the Hebrew instrument of the samo name. In this, the stringa are pluced horizontally une ndovn the other at regular distancen. The lowest atring in the shortest, produring the highemt note, and the uppermost string is the longest prodwmng the deepest note. The front bar of the tatrmuent is surmounted by a small hand which, sumne one ronjre* tures, served as # stand to hold written mnnr. Thn instrument is supported by n belt jseard over the shoulder of the performer, whome hands wete thus frre for the execution of his muuir. The Ausyrinns had a kind of guitar with many fretm which, ior want of # name and on nerount of itw similurity with the Egyptiun instrument, bax been draignnted the Tamboura, Mr. J. Bonomi in his work "Nineveh and ite Palarre", 'lamdon, 1858), deaerite & Syrian Tambeurn which " baa ten strings of mwuall wire, forty seven atops, and is miarmbh highly enriched and inlnid with muether-of-prarl. The Tamboura is in common tar upon the shures uf tha Euphrates and Tigris." A aponimen of the double pipe is observed in the Awsyrian aculpturrs. Judging from tho shortness of the longth of the Asnyrian trampeet, it would appear that it waw suited for prodncing three or four notes belnnging to the Triad, or comtuon -hord. The " bell" end of the instrument ia rlearly discernable in one of the representations. The Gruw met with on

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 113

the sculptures have this feature in common that they are covered with skin only on their upper part, and that they are beaten with the hands instead of with sticks. The Assyrians used bells of different sizes, probably to represent different scales or succession of intervals. They also used the Tambourine and cymbals. Some varieties of the latter were funnel-shaped. Captain, Willock discovered in the ruins of Babylon, Birs-i-Nimroud, a little pipe of baked clay which he presented to the Museum of the Royal Asiatic Society. It is about three inches long, and has only two finger-holes, placed side by side, and consequently equidistant from the end at which it is blown. The opposite end has no opening. In this respect, the instrument resemble a whistle. If both finger-holes are closed, it produces the note C; if only one of them is closed, it produces E ; and if both are open, it produces G. Travellers state that the Syrinx or Pandean Pipe is used at present in Syria and other Oriental countries, chiefly by the lower classes. Perhaps, it was known to the Assyrians of old, and from the fact of its having been a popular instrument, it did not pro- bably find a place on the monuments. It is surmised that the Bagpipe.and the Sistrum were also known to the Assyrians. It is said that the Assyriaus invented the Trigonum or Triangulum, a stringed instrument of a triangular shape, played upon with a plectrum. From the nature of the instruments represented in the sculp- tures, it would appear that Assyrian music was soft and soothing, and devoid of the noisy element that is so inti- mately connected with pereussion mstruments. From the construction of their instruments, specially rom that of the harps, the strings of which could be touched with both hands simultaneously at ditfereut parts, and from the use of the double-pipe, itwould appear that the Assyrians were in the habit of producing together

114 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIG.

different notes which seemed to them agreeable in enncord. It would also appear that the pentatonic scale, which was in use among almost all ancient nations, was in favor. As the Persians were indebted to the Assy- rians for their early civilization, it stands to reason that the former obtained from the latter the knowledge of the use of smaller intervals than semi-tones. That msic was brought largely into requisition by the Assyrians in their religious ceremonies has been abundantly proved by the sculptures, and confirmed to some extent by the Scriptures as the following extract from Daniel III, 1-5, will show :- "Nebuchadnezzar the king made an image of gold, whose height was three score cubits, and the breadth thereof six cubits. Then an herald cried aloud, To you it is commanded, O people, nations, and languages, that at what time ye hear the sound of the cornet, flute, harp, sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of musick, ye fall down and worship the golden image which Nebuchadnezzar the king hath set up." There is no positive evidence as to whether the Assy- rians possessed a musical notation, but considering the progress which they made in music and other arts, it would not be surprising if they had. Perhaps, further discoveries may throw some light on this subject. Some hope of this is held out in the following remarks made by Professor Max Muller in his "Lectures on the Science of Language," London, 1862 :- " In a letter dated April, 1853, Sir Henry Rawlinson wrote: 'On the clay tablets which we have found at Nineveb, and which now are to be counted by thousands, there are explanatory treatises on almost every snbject under the sun; the art of writing, grammars and dictionaries, notation, weights and measures, divisions of time, chronology, astronomy, geography, history, mythology, geology, botany, &c. In fact, we have now

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 115

at our disposal a perfect cyclopædia of Assyrian science.' Considering what has been achieved in deciphering one class of cuneiform inscriptions, the Persian, there is no reason to doubt that the whole of that cyclopædia will some dav be read with the same ease with which wre read the mountain records of Darius."

PHŒNICIA,

Sanchoniathon, the historian of the Phœnicians, attributes the invention of music to a celebrated woman of this nation, named Sido. They had several musical instruments, one being called after their country, Phænices. They had also the Naublum which was played upon at the feasts of Bacchus. A kind of flute was used at funerals. It was about a foot long, and pro- duced a wailing, mournful sound, and was called, in their own language, Gingre. According to Herodotus, the Phoniciens had among them a popular song called Maneres, which is, perhaps, the prototype of the Corsican Vocero-a dirge lamenting the death of a beloved friend or relative. There are professional singing-girla in modern Egypt known as 'Awalim, which term is derived from the Hebrew or Phonician word 'Almak meaning 'a girl' and ' a virgin', particularly, 'a singing-girl'. Mr. Lane thinks it probable that in the olden times the most celebrated of the singing-girls in Egypt were Phanicians.

ASIA MINOR.

In Asia Minor, the natives accompanv their dancing with tambourines, which are either cireular pieces of wood, ur earthen pots, covered with skin, and played upon with the fingers. The Doff is the most elegant of the variety, and to this the women are said to dance in the

116 UNIVERKAL HIRTORY OF MURIC.

harems. The castanets also form one of their musical instruments. Some of the mendicants carry diffrrent kinds of horns and drums, which they sound beforo asking alms. The music of the Georgiana is described by Sir R. Ker Porter ax particnlarly rudr. They have small double drums, and a kind of gustar which in played upon with a bow. The music produced by the combina- tion of these has been compared to the noine of a waler mill, but without ita harmony.

PALESTINE.

The materialn from which any relisble knowledge ran bo derived of the musie of the Hchrows paiat in the Beriptures. The first mention made there of vither voral or instrumental musie after the Driuge andt prier to the Exodus is the pnmsngo in Gonesin xzr, 26, 27, whrrn Lmban (who lived ahont 1700 B. Co reprotehra Jaroh with stealing awny from him seeretl, instead uf inturin- ing him of his intanded departure, that ho might havo sent him " awny with mirth and with songs, with tabret and with harp." As Laban waww Myrinn, Ht hns hemn contended by some that the paasage refere to Syriar rather than Hebrew mnwir. The hoxt ment m orra in conneotion with the departure of the eh.ldcer .t lara .! out of Kgypt, and the destructom of Pherogh sint iw host in the Red Hen. On thia ceennam, Momnp rotpoaA the ode -snid to be thn eurlieat xpeeinon of . pie pontty extant (about B. C. 1401) -wbich in found in the 15th chapter of the Exodus. In rondering thia mule, thn lara Nitew wero divided into two grent choirs, Moans and Aaron being at the hond of the mon, and Miriam lrwing the women. After this period, the Dible makee frequent men- tion of muaic as connected with the roligious ceremonies of the Joww : and it haa been wupposed that this munic

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 117

was derived from Egypt, for Moses is said to have been "learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians,"-"but above all in medicine and music." David effected great improve- ments in the science and art of music. From 2 San.uel, VI, 5, it would appear that "David, and all the house of Israel played before the Lord on all manner of instru- ments, made of firwood; even on harps, and on psal- teries, and on timbrels, and on cornets, and on cymbals." He appointed four thousand of the Levites, according to Chronicles xXIII, 5, "to praise the Lord with instru- ments which he made to praise therewith." Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun, were chiefs of the music of the tabernacle, under David Solomon, the son and succes- sor of David, "spake three thousand proverbs, and his songs were a thousand and five." He himself says-" I gat me men-singers and women-singers, and the delights of the sons of men, as musical instruments, and that of all sorts;" (Ecclesiastics ii, 8). Josephus, who lived in the first century of the Christian era, states that the number of musicians whom Solomon employed at the dedication of the temple was two hundred thousand. Considering that the length of the temple, according to 1 Kings vI, 2, was 60 cubits, its breadth 20 cubits, and its height 30 cubits, the statement of Josephus must be taken with a very liberal allowance of salt The supposition that Solomon did not accomodate two hundred thousand musicians in the temple, but caused the same number of trumpets to be merely deposited in ite vaults at the inauguration of the temple, is decidedly against the proverbial wisdom of that celebrated monarch. When Moses received the law on Mount Sinai, it was given to him not only with the sound of trumpets, but with songs also. The Jews are consequent- ly prohibited from chanting the Bible in any other manner than as it was recited to them by Moses, the

118 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MITSIC.

tune of which is supposed to have been handed down from generation to generation until about the fifth century when Rabbi Aaron Ben Aser invented certain characters to represent the accent and true tone that were given to each word, by means of which the original chant has been preserved to this day. The Scrip- tures abound in passages showing that the Hebrews also had military music, triumphal songs, love songs, funeral songs, convivial songs, music at bridal proces- sions, and secular songs in various other forms. Two historical facts show the extent of the power of Hebrew music and how fully it was appreciated. These are, its use as a cure in nervous disorders, and its employ- ment as a means of stimulating prophetic inspira- tions. King Saul became afflicted with attacks of a nervous malady,-"And it came to pass, when the evil spirit from God was upon Saul, that David tuok an harp, and played with his hand : so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him", (1 Sam. XVI, 16, 23). Elisha being required by the kings of Israel, Judah, and Edom, to prophesy before them, his request was for a musician. "But now bring me a minstrel. And it came to pass when the minstrel played, that the hand of the Lord came upon him. And he said, Thus saith the Lord, Make this valley fall of ditches," &c. &c., (2 Kings, III, 15). Ther were schools of the prophets in various places, in which mugic seemed to have been systematically taught. It is not unlikely that the Hebrews possessed written treatises on the prin- ciples and practice of music. A musical performance on a certain occasion in the Temple of Jerusalem is thus described in 2 Chron., v, 13 :- " It came even to pass as the trumpeters and singers were as one, to make one sound to be heard in praising and thanking the Lord." This passage is interpreted by some authorities as

ASIA-TURKEY IN ABIA. 119

indicating the use of wmion, and by others that of harmony, in Hebrew music. Those who suppose that harmony is meant argue that it is not likely that a performance in wnison could be implied, for that would not be specially recorded if no other mode of combining the voices and instruments had been known. .

Many were the musical instruments in use among the Hebrews of old, and mentioned in the Scriptures. But it is somewhat difficult to establish the identity of some of these. Some of the instruments mentioned in the Book of Daniel may have been synonymous with some which occur in other portions of the Bible under Hebrew names-the names given in Daniel being Chal- dæan-which, according to Professor Max Muller, is the name " given to the language adopted by the Jews during the Babylonian captivity." "Though the Jews," observes he, "always retained a know- ledge of their sacred language, they soon began to adopt the dialect of their conquerors, not for conversation only, but also for literary composi- tion." The English translations of the Bible, again, give in some cases different names to the same instru- ments. The following is a fairly correct list classified under general headings.

1. The Harp .- It is difficult, however, to make out which of the Hebrew names of the stringed instruments mentioned in the Bible come under the designation of harp.

2. The Dulcimer .- Some conjecture the Nebel, others the Psanterin (mentioned in the Book of Daniel), to have been a kind of Dulcimer.

120 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

3. The Asor .- A ten-stringed instrument, played with the plectrum and supposed to have borne some resemblance to the Nebel.

4. Th Lyre .- This instrument is reprosented on a Hebrew coin supposed to be of the time of the High- priest Simon Maccabaus. The Kinnor, the favourite instrument of king David, was most likely a lyre.

5. The Tamboura, or Guitar .- Minnim, Machalath, and Nebel are usually supposed to be instruments of the of the guitar or lute species.

6. The Pipe .- Chalil and Nekeb were the names of Hebrew pipes or flutes.

7. The Double Pipe .- Probably the Mishrokitha mentioned in the Book of Daniel.

8. The Syrinx or Pandean Pipe .- Probably the Ugab, which, in the English authorised version of the Bible, is rendered " organ." The Hebrew name is derived from a word ugab which means to delight in.

9. The Bagpipe .- The word Sumphonia is supposed to denote a bagpipe. The Italian peasantry of the present day call the bagpipe by the name of Zampogna. Another Hebrew instrument, the Magrepha, which is generally described as a small organ, was more probably only a species of the bagpipe. Others state that the Muyrepha was a kettle drum; some others, that it meant a fire-shovel. A kind of bagpipe represented on one of the terra-cottas of old w as excavated in Tarsus, Asia Minor, by Mr. W. Burckhardt Barker. These remains are believed to be 2,000 years old, and they

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 121

give some idea of the nature of the instrument then in use.

10. The Trumpet .- Three kinds are mentioned in the Bible, vis., the Keren, the Shophar, and the Chatzozerah. The first two were more or less curved, something like horns. The last mentioned instrument was straight trumpet, about two feet in length, and some- times made of silver. It has been already stated that the law was received by Moses on Mount Sinai with the sound of the trumpet. This instrument is supposed by Padre Martini to have been the Buccina, made of the horn of the ram, (or some other beast, for a ram's horn is not hollow). Moses was subsequently commanded by the Lord to make two trumpets of silver, (Numbers, x, 2), from which time, probably, these instruments were made of metal. The Tuba, called by the Hebrews the trumpet of jubilee, was a simple instrument made of metal.

11. The Drum .- Several varieties of the drum were used by the Hebrews. The Toph (translated in the English Bible as Timbrel or Tabret) appears to have been a tam- bourine or a small hand-drum. This instrument was specially used in processions, on occasions of rejoicings, and frequently by females. It was found in the hands of Miriam when she was celebrating in songs the destruc- tion of Pharaoh's host (Exod., xv, 20) ; and in the hands of Jephtha's daughter when she went out to welcome her father (Judges, xI, 34). Almost synonymous with the Hebrew Toph, there exists now in the Oriental countries a small hand-drum called the Doff or Dampha.

12. The Sistrum .- Some authorities are of opinion that the Menaaneim, mentioned in 2 Sam. vr, .5,

122 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

signifies this instrument. The word is translated cymbals in the English Bible.

13. Cymbals .- The Tzeltzelim, Metzilloth, and Metzilthaim, seem to have been varieties of symbals.

14. Bells .- The little bells on the robe of the high- priest were called Phaamon. At the present day, the . Jews have, in their synagogues, small bells attached to the " rolls of the law," containing the Pentateuch,-a kind of ornamentation supposed to have been in use from time immemorial.

The Jobel, beliered to have been derived from Jubal, the inventor of musical instruments, is classed with the trumpets. Shalishim, mentioned in 1 Sam. XVII, 6, is said to denote a Triangle. The Sabeka, (mentioned in Daniel), which is believed to have been identical with the Greek Sambuka was also an instrument of the triangle kind. Some say it was a species of the guitar. The terms Nechiloth, Gittith, and Machalath, which occur in the head- ings of some of the Psalms, represent, according to some, certain musical instruments, and, according to others, peculiur modes of performance, or certain favorite melodies to which the Psalms were directed to be sung. The Machol, mentioned in several portions of the Bible, is believed by some writers to have been a kind of flute, especially used for accompanying dances ; by others, to mean the dance itself.

The Jews, since their dispersion as a nation, have been forbidden the use of instruments. Nathan, in his "Essay on the History and Theory of Music," remarks that " they have, with increased tenacity, preserved their ancient melodies." The Shophar, however, is still

ASIA-TURKEY IN ASIA. 123

retained. The Jews in Germany possess several hymn- tunes of an undoubtedly high antiquity. The " Peni- tential Hymn" which they sing is said to have been composed by King David. The " Blessings of the Priests" is said to be identical with the melody which used to be sung in the Temple by the priestly choir. Another favorite melody of the Jews, the " Song of Moses," is stated to be the same which Miriam and her companions sang after the deliverance from Pharaoh's host. The characteristic chanting, which musicians call cantillation, and which may he heard in every synagogue, bears a close affinity to certain vocal perfor- mances of the Arabs and Persians. Some of the Rabbins have attempted to discontinue the cantillation altogether, and to adopt simple hymn-tunes and part- singing instead. Even some of the tunes of the Pro- testant Church, the Chorales, have been adopted and are sung in some of the synagogues to the accompaniment of an organ,-innovations which, on the Continent of Europe, have contributed to divide the Jews into two parties, the reforming and conservative. In modern Jerusalem, there are several distinct Jewish commu- nities. Among these, the Sephardic constitutes the largest. The Aschkenasim community consists of Jews from Germany, Holland, Russia, Poland, Bohemia, and other parts of Europe. They all understand the German language, of which they have created a strange dialect ; while the Sephardic Jews. principally derived from Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco, Algiers, India, and Persia, use the Spanish language. Dr. Frankl, who had stayed in Jerusalem for a long time, found the singing of the Sephardic Jews closely allied to that of the Arabs, "more rhythmical than melo- dious, shrill rather than soft, and closely bordering on snuffling." Still, he preferred it to the singing of the

124 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

Aschkenasim Jews, consisting of a kind of cantillation. which is usually called Polish singing. Burekhardt, in speaking of the Jews of Tabaria, o> Tiberias, in Paleatine, describes how the congregotion imitate by their voice and gestures the meaning of some remarkable passages in the Psalms of David when they are recited by the Rabbin; for instance, when he says, " Pruise the Lord with the sound of the trumpet," they imitate the sound of the trumpet through their closed fats. When a "horrible tempest" is spoken of, they puff and blow to represent a storm; or when "the rries of the righteous in distress" is mentioned, they all set up # loud screaming. Padre Matini has puldlished, in hin " Storia della Musica," a number of chante from wyna- gogues in different Europenn countries, some of the chants being nearly 800 yeara old. Mr. Wrintraub observes that the oldest and most univermally uard chanta are generally in the Phrgyian and Mizolydian modea, The Jews are limited in their choice of oreupation for gaining a subsistence, by their religions, and, in many countries, by their civil laww. Henen thrir innate love and predilection for mumic, and henen the ex- traordinary talent which some of them have dimplayed for this art. It would be worth mentioning that the celebrated [composers Halevy, Meyerbrer, and Men- delssohn were eithor Jewa, or were of Jewish extrar* tion. Their compositions bear evidence of the peculiari- ties of Hebrew mmic, amony which are the ume and frequent repetition of short melodioue phrases, and passages of a peculiar rhythmical effoct.

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 125

AFRICA.

NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA.

EGYPT.

QNHE first mention of music or musical instruments in the Bible is made in Genesis, where in con- nection with the enumeration of the posterity of Cain, it is said that " Jubal was the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ." Padre Martini supposes that Adam was instructed by his Creator in every art and science including music, and that he utilized his knowledge in praising and adoring the Supreme Being. The Genesis further informs us that in the days of Seth, about the period of the birth of Enos, (8664 B. C.), " men began to call upon the name of the Lord." Padre Martini considers this the first introduction of music into religious rites. The Alexandrian Chronicles say that the " sons of Seth did according to the angels, invoking in the angels' hymn." This is nearly all that is known of music before the Flood. According to Archbishop Usher, the Deluge took place A. M. 1656, and 2348 B. C. The sons of Noah, after the waters had passed from the face of the earth, first settled in the plains of Shinar, part of the ancient Mesopotamia, the

126 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

modern Diarbekr. The first migration of Noah's des- cendants took place about 2281 B. C., when several of the younger branches of the family of Ham, if not Ham himself, travelled towards the west and south, and settled in Phonicia and Egypt, taking with them, as some say, Noah himself. Others, soon after, migrated to the east, and the enapires of Assyria, Babylon, India, Persia, and China were founded. The Egyptians are generally supposed to be the fountain whence the arts and sciences were diffused over the greater part of Europe. Certain authorities attribute to them the invention of musio amongst other arts. The earliest account of this country, as indeed of all ancient countries, is enveloped in a myth ; and if any records existed, as in all likelihood they did, they were destroyed by Cambyses, who con- quered Egypt in about 525 B. C., and overthrew the temples, where such records were likely to be deposited, and slew the priests. Some writers suppose that Noah reigned in Egypt, and identify him with Osiris, to whose secretary Hermes Trismegistus, the invention of the lyre is ascribed. It is said that owing to an overflow of the Nile, several dead animals were left on the shores, and, among others, a tortoise, the flesh.of which was dried and wasted in the sun, and nothing remained within the shell but nerves and cartilages, which being tightened and contracted by the heat, became sonorous. While walking along the banks, Hermes happened to strike his foot against this shell, and felt so pleased with the sound produced, that he at once formod the iden of constructing the lyre. The first instrument of the kind he made was in the form of a tortoise, and was strung with the sinews of dried animals. Athenmus (a Greek grammarian born in Egypt in the third century after Christ) ascribes the invention of the flute to Osiris himself. Kircher, however, supposes that the Egyptians

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 127

very early formed flutes and pipes from the rushes which grew upon the shores of the Nile.

The varieties of representation in sculptures and paintings as well as the specimens discovered give an idea of the musical instruments of Egypt. Among these are the following :-

The Harp .- The name of the harp was Buni, or Beni. In the Egyptian paintings the words Sek an ben, " scraper on the harp", have been found written in heiroglyphs over the figure of a harper. The number of strings vary in different specimens. Some of the harps were placed on the hand when played, others were put on stands. Two harps, one mounted with 13, and the other with 10 strings, and both excellently carved and elaborately decorated, were first noticed by Bruce. These were painted in fresco on the wall of an ancient sepulchre at Thebes, which is supposed to be the tomb of Rameses III, who reigned about 1250 B. C. A draw- ing of one of these harps appeared in Dr. Burney's " History of Music." Soon after, engravings of both were published in Bruce's " Travels," Vol I. A kind of harp with twenty-one strings was discovered in a well- preserved condition and deposited in the Paris Museum. The absence of the front pillar is a peculiarlity common to all the specimens.

The Lyre .- These instruments also vary in shape and in the number of strings. The Hermean Lyre is said to have been monnted with three strings represent- ing the three recognized seasons of the year, and producing an acute, a mean, and a grave sound,- corresponding, respectively, to the summer, the spring, and the winter. Some lyres were held perpendiculasly.

128 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUHI'.

The frame was frequently ornamented with the carved head of the horse, gazelle, or some other favorite animal. Dr. Burney, in his " History of Music," given a drawing of a Trigonon with ten strings, and observes that it is called by Sophocles a Phrygian instrument, and that one Alexander Alexandrinus made a great impresnion in Rome where he displayed his skill on it. "The prr- former", continues the Doctor, " being a native of Alex- andria, as his name implies, makes it probable it was an Egyptian instrument upon which he gained his ro- putation at Rome." Amphion is said to havo built tho walls of Thebes by the music of his lyre.

The Tamboura .- Egyptian name, Nofre. It was played with a plectrum. Some apecimens were provided with frets. A variety with n comparatively short neck resembled the modern guitar, or rather tho Arabian Oud.

Specimens of certain peculiar atringed instrumenta of Egypt have been discovered and deposited in the British and the Berlin Museums.

The Pipe .- Small pipes have often been disrovricd, made of reed, usnally with four fiuger.holes. Thn Monaulos, or single pipe, was used in the religions norship of the Egyptians. The Flate .- The common variety wax of ronsiderabio length. The Coptie name of the Bute is Nrbi, the word being often found in the heirglyphiem with the repre. sentation of this instrumnnt, and, nx it in nlso the name of the leg-bone, it has been suppomed that the Nrhi was originally made of bone. The Photinr, or crooked flute. was shaped like a bull's horn.

The Double-pipe .- Egyptian name, Mam, This seoms to have been a favorite instrument with the Egyp

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 129

tians of old, as it occurs frequently in the representa- tions of their musical performances.

The Trumpet .- This is supposed to have been the Buccina, which Festus describes as a crooked horn. Other varieties were made of brass or wood.

The Drum .- Three varieties are known. One' of them resembles the small hand- drum beaten with the hands on both ends, and slung over the shoulder of the player. A snecimen of another kind was excavated in 1823 at Thebes. It was beaten with two sticks slightly bent. The third variety is almost the same as the Darabukkeh of modern Egypt.

The Tambourine .- This instrument was generally play- ed by the women. It was either round or square. The latter variety is supposed to have been the same as the Toph of the Hebrews and the Doff of the Arabians.

The Sistrum .- This consisted of a frame of bronze or brass, into which three or four metal bars were loosely inserted, so as to produce a jingling noise when the ins- trument was shaken. A few metal rings were sometimes strung on the bars to increase the noise. The top of the frame was sometimes ornamented with the figure of a cat. On the lower part was a handle by which the ins- trument was held. Virgil describes Cleopetra as using it for a signal. It sometimes did duty for a trumpet in war. The Sistra were generally used by females in re- ligious performances. Villoteau, on the authority of Jablonski, believes cencen to have been the common name of the Sistrum, and he suggests that its present Ethiopian designation Sanasel (Tzenacet or Cenacel) and also the Hebrew Tzeltzelim may have been derived from the same name.

180 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

The Crotala .- This served to produce rythmical effects, like the Greek instrument of the same name or the castanets of the present duy. The Crotala consisted of two balls or knobs, sometimes made to represent human heads, probably of metal, and hollow, to which were affixed handles, either strnight or slightly curved. The name castanat in derived from castana (chesnut), of which it was usually made in Npuin. One of the Crotalas was held by the player in ench hand, and the heads were struck together, to mark the time in instrumental performances or in dances. The Crotala has its counterpart in India where it is called Karatali or clapper.

Cymbals .- These closely resembled similar in- struments of the present; day. One of the paira, out of two, deposited in the British Museum, wam found in a coffin enclosing the mummy of Ankhhape, & sacred musician.

Bells .- Among the specimens to be found in the British Museum is one having on it a face with a protruding tongue, which represents Typhon, the evil spirit of the ancient Egyptians.

Two peculiar instruments of pereuasion are repre- sented in the engravings. The one held with thn loft hand by a man, and accompanying the performance of two harpers, is most probably a kind of gong struek upon with a piece of ivory or woud. The other looks as if it was constructed of metal, with a view to produce, when beaten or shaken, a sound like a gong or bell; and, perhaps, some loose pieces of metal were attached to it to produce a jingling noise like that of the Bitrum.

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 131

This second instrument is represented as being played by one preceding another who is singing.

As already mentioned, the Egyptians were subjugat- ed by Cambyses, about 525 B. C. Since then they have alwaye been under a foreign yoke. After the establish- ment of the empire of the Ptolemies, the hieroglyphics, in which their ancient records were written, gradually became unintelligible to the Egyptians themselves ; and the memory of their ancient greatness and learning was lost. The first three of the Ptolemies, Soter, Philadel- phus, and Euergetes encouraged music to a considerable extent. But it was Grecian music, as the arts and philosophy of that people supplanted those of Egypt. In describing a Bacchanalian festival which was celebrated by Philadelphus, Athenæus states that more than six hundred musicians were employed in the chorus, and that there were no less than three hundred performers or the Cithara. He also states that it was in the time of the second Ptolemy Euergetes that Ctesi- bius, a native of Alexandria, invented the Hydraulicon, or water organ, an instrument which was played, or at least blown, by water, but the exact method of execution is not indicated. In the collection of antiquities be- queathed to the Vatican by Queen Christina of Sweden, there is a large and beautiful medallion of Valentinian, on the reverse of which is a representation of a hy- draulic organ, with two men, one on either side, seeming to pump the water which plays it. It has only eight pipes placed on a round pedestal, and, as no keys or performers are visible, it is most likely that it was played by mechanism. During the reign of the seventh Ptolemy, there were never a people more skilled in music than those of Alexandria ; "for," observes Athenaus in his rare and valuable work known as the Deipnosophist, " the

132 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

most wretehed peasant or laborer amongst them is not only able to play upon the lyre, but is likewise a perfect master of the flute." Owing to his extreme fondness for the flute, the father of Cleopetra, the last of the Ptolemies, was called Auletes, or the Flute-player. The history of Egypt closed with Cleopetra and the Empire became a Roman Province. Since then, the cultivation of music was neglected and finally prohibited Strabo, who wrote his history about the time of Christ says, "the sound of instruments was not heard in their temples, but their sacrifices were made in silence." Herodotus (born 484 B. C.) relates : "among the many wonderful things I have met with in Egypt this one astonishes me specially, whence they can haye obtained the song of Linus; for they seem to have celebrated him thus from time immemorial. The Egyptians call him Maneros, and they say that he was the only son of the first king of Egypt: Happening to die in the prime of life, he is lamented by the people in this dirge, which is the only song of the kind they possess in Egynt." Plato, who lived about 400 years B. C., and who is eaid to have sojourned in Egypt thirteen years and systemna- tically studied the science of music, records a fovourable opinion of the charaeter of Egyptian music. Diodorus Siculus, who visited Egypt about 60 year B. C., speats of the universal mournings of the Egyprians on the death of a king. On such an occasion the temples were closed, and all feasts and solemnities forbidden, for the peried of seventy-two days. Men and women in large numbers walked about, twice a day, throwing dust upon their head, and singing mournful songs in praise of their deeeased monareh. Dr. Samuel Biroh, in his " Introduetion to the Stady of the Egyptian Hiero- glyphs," gives in original and in translation the song of the thrashers te the exen treading out the corn. This

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 133

song is one of the oldest metrical poems of the Egyp- tians now to be met with. It was written in hierogly- phics over a representation of oxen so employed. The translation is reproduced below :-

Thrash ye for yourselves, Thrash ye for yourselves, O oxen, Thrash ye for yourselves, The straw which is yours, The corn which is your master's.

The following specimen of religious poetry, w'ich was, no doubt, sung or chanted by the Egyptians,- the first stanza of a hymn to the Nile (taken from a papyrus in the British Museum)-is also reproduced from Dr. Birch's work :-

A HYMN TO THE NILE.

Incline thy face, O Nile, Coming safe out of the land, Vivifying Egypt, Hiding his dark sources from the light, Ordering his sources ; The streams of his bed Are made by the sun To give life to all animals, To water the lands which are destitute, Coming all along the heaven, Loving fragrance, offering grain, Rendering verdant every sacred place of Phtha !

The dances of the Egyptians were characterised by lively figures, and rapid evolutions, and consisted of several varieties. Sometimes both sexes joined in the dances ; and these were, in some cases, accompanied only by the rhythmical sounds produced by clapping the hands and snapping the fingers. From the accounts given by various classical authorities, it appears clear that the Egyptians possessed written treatises on the theory of music.

184 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

After the conquest of Egypt by the Mahomedans, in the seventh century of the Christian era, the arts and customs of the Arabs were introduced into this country along with their religion. The bulk of the present inhabitants of Egypt are Muslim-Egyptians (also called Arab-Egyptians), a mixed race, principally descended from the Arabs. The music of modern Egypt is more closely allied to that of the Amsyrians and Chaldæans than to that of the Egyptians of old. There are, however, a few remains of the original instruments to be found in the country, and among those are the Kissar (the Nubian lyre), the Darabukkeh, and the Sistrum. The Tamboura and most other instruments aro now observed in modified forms. The Muraounh, n modi- fication of the Sistrum, is used in their roligiona corn- monies by the Copts, who are descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the country and are # Chrintian sert, dispersed throughout parts of Egypt. The Krmumgeh roumy of modern Egypt is a violin mnid to havr boen introduced here from Greece. The musical mrale of modern Egypt admits of one-third-tones like that of tho Arabs, but the common people whose ear has not bern specially trained to them do not, generally wpruking. appear capable of distinguishing them. Honce tho absence of one-third-toner in the populur melodios which Europeans have collected in Egypt. Mr. E. W. Lane, in his "Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians", (London, 1860), romarks :- " I havn heard Egyptian musicians urge aguinnt the Europran systems of music that they are deficient in the number uf sounds." Among the varieties of the modern drum are the Bas (or Dervish drum), the Tubl Brledre for rountry drum), Tabl Shami (Syrian drum), and the Duvonl (or base drum). The Arghool is a wind instrument of the " Double-pipe" kind, one of its tuben being consider.

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 135

ably longer than that of the other, and serving as a drone. The Zummarah is another variety of the Double-pipe, in which the tubes are of equal length. It is some sometimes played at weddings when the bride is being conducted through her apartments, and oftentimes by the boatmen. The singing of the boatmen on the Nile is one of the characteristic performances of the modern Egyptians. It usually consists of alternate solo and chorus in short phrases, and varies with the nature of the occupation in which the men happen to be engaged. For instance, one particular air is sung when they shift the sails; another, when the boat has struck on a sandy bank, and they are working to set it afloat again ; a third when the wind is favorable; a fourth, when a village is approached ; and so on. The male professional musi- cians of modern Egypt go by the name of Alateeyeh; the professional singing-girls, by that of 'Awalim. The common dancing-girls are called Ghawazee, who, according to Lane, " are descended from the class of female dancers who amused the Egyptians in the times of the early Pharaohs." Mr. Lane reproduces in his work, "Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians," the words and music of the " Call to Prayer" of the Muezzin, from the minaret of the mosque. The Zikrs, or religious dances of the Dervishes, have been frequently described by travellers in Turkey, Egypt, and other Eastern countries. The Dervishes assemble in the mosque, and perform their sacred evolutions to vocal and instrumental music,-the latter consisting generally of drums and pipes. The choruses, which are accompanied by those instruments, partake, in some instances, of the character of a short chant, which is several times repeated ; in others, they most resemble the Christian hymn-tunes in rhythmical construction. The Nay, otherwise called the " Dervish Flute", which is one of the principal instruments accom-

136 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

panying the Zikr, consists, according to Lane, of " a simple reed, about eighteen inches in length, seven- eighths of an inch in diameter at the upper extremity, and three-quarters of an inch at the lower. It is pierced with six holes in front, and generally with another hole at the back. . . . .The sounds are produced by blowing through a very small aperture of the lips against the edge of the orifice of the tube, and directing the wind chiefly within the tube. By blowing with more or less force, sounds are produced an octave higher or lower. In the hands of a good performer, the Nay yields fine mellow tones, but it requires much practice to sound it well." In his " Travels in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa", (London, 1810), Mr. E. D. Clark gives an interesting detailed description of the Zikr, a per- formance of which was witnessed by him in a mosque at Tophane, a suburb of Constantinople. The Egyptians are in the habit of honoring their celebrated Saints by an anniversary birth-day festival called Moslid. Villo- teau witnessed a musical performance at the Moolid of Seyyideh Zeyneb, a female Saint and a grand-daughter of Mahommed the Prophet. The Fakirs, a class of Der- vishes, executed a religious dance, singing at the same time a short air. The melody was sung by the monched, or leader, and the bass part by the whole chorus. The words of the air were simply the phrase " La Ilahi Illulla,"

ABYSSINIA,

Perhaps, the kingdom next in antiquity to Eg.r is Abyssinia or Habesh. Here the pentatonic scale ot old seems to have been retained on some of the musical instruments. The lyre of the Abyssinians is, as regards

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 137

the mounting of the strings, constructed on the same principle as some of the Assyrian lyres, viz., that the strings are tied round the bar so as to allow of their being pushed upwards or downwards with a riew raising or lowering their pitch. Some of the Ivres had to

the two sides of the frame made of the horns of animals, or of wood formed in imitation of horns. The traveller Bruce states that founerly they were made of the horns of a kind of goat called Agazan, about the size of a small cow and common in the province of Tigré-a State in the N. W. portion of Abyssinia. He saw in that country several of these lyres " elegantly made of such horns, which nature seems to have shaped on purpose." The Abyssinians have a tradition, according to which the Kissar was introduced into Ethiopia from Egypt by Toth, or Hermes, at a very early period. A Kissar from Abyssinia, deposited in the East India Company's Museum, is so far different from the ordinary Nubian Kissar, that its body is square, without sounding hules, and it has ten strings which rest upon a large wooden bridge. A plectrum, made of horn, about 3 inches long, is affixed to the instrument by a leathern thong. According to Villoteau, the Bagana, or the ten-stringed lyre of the A byssinians, has only five differenc notes, but each note has its octave. By the name of Sanasel, the Sistrun is used by the priests of a Christian sect in Abyssinia. Its sound is supposed by them to drive away the evil spirits, and it was specially employed by the ancient Egyptians for the like purpose. Its Egyptian name was Seshesh. Mr. Mansfield Parkyns, in his "Life in Abyssinia," (London, 1853), describes the Wattas of the present day who are "musicians and buffoons, sometimes attached to the courts of the chiefs of Abyssinia, but also frequently itinerant in their habits, making professional tours, something

138 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

after the manner of ballad-singers." Similar to the Tarantula dance which is suposed to cure a person bitten by the Tarantula spider, the Tigritiya dance is believed to exercise a curative effect in a mysterious nervous disorder, known as Tigritiya, to which females are almost exclusively prone. With some patients it is necessary to have recourse to music beforo the real cause of this complaint can be discovered. If her illness be of an ordinary kind, she will of course beg the musi- cians to desist; but if possessed, she will jump or full from the couch, and keep dancing in time with the music and going through various evolutions with a velocity and power of endurance that wonld bn surpris- ing even in a person of an ordinarily strong constitntion. "On her dancing and singing", observey Mr. Purkynm, "is supposed chiefly to depend her chance of recovery." The traveller Nathaniel Pearce mentions thnt the Abya- sinian Christians regard St. John as the patron of dunc- ing. Honce it is supposed that the Tigritiya was originally a religious performance like the famous St. John's dance which was so much in vogue among tho pious people of the Netherlands and Germany during the fourteenth century. Mr. Bruce mentions that the Abyssinians believe that the fute, kettle-drum, and trumpet (which along with the Tambourine are used in war), were brought from Palestino by Menelek, the son of their Queen of Saba, by Solomon, who wax their first Jewish king. Mr. Bruce describes their trumpet as being made of a piece of cane, to which a round pirce of the neck of the gourd is affixed, which is, on the out- side, ornamented with small white shells. It is all covered over with parchment and produces only one note, E, in a loud and hoarse tone. The guitar is sometimes seen in the hands of Mahomedans in Abya- sinia. It is said to have come here from Arabin. The

AFRICA-NORTH-EASTERN AFRICA. 139

Right Revd. Samuel Gobat gives, in his " Journal of & Three Years' Residence in Abyssinia", (London, 1847), a specimen of an Abyssinian dirge, which is reproduced below :-

Alas ! Sebagadis, the friend of all, Has fallen at Daga Shaha, by the hand of Oubeshat. Alas ! Sebagadis, the pillar of the poor, Has fallen at Daga Shaha. weltering in his blood ! The people of this country, will they find it a good thing To eat ears of corn which have grown in the blood ? Who will remember Michael * of November ? + Mariam, with five thousand Gallas, has killed him. For the half of a loaf, for a cup of wine : The friend of the Christians has fallen at Daga Shaha !

NUBIA.

Nubia is the modern name of Ethiopia of old. Kissar, the principal musical instrument of this country, is a lyre, the body of which consists of wood, hollowed in the form of a bowl, and covered with sheepskin. The cover is generally pierced by three sounding-holes equidistant from each other ; sometimes there are more. The Kissar has five strings made usually of the intes- tines of the camel. The strings rest on a kind of bridge made of wood which is placed near the end of the body.

St. Michael. * +++ i. e., to give alms. Him, i. e., who remembered to give alma.

140 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The instrument is played with a small plectrum, made of a' piece of leather or hoin, and fastened with a cord to the instrument. The plectrum is held in the right hand, and the strings are struck with it, while the performer twangs some strings with his left hand, using the plec- trum and his fingers either alternately or together. Sometimes the body of the instrument is made square instead of circular, and sometimes six or even more strings are used. But five is the usual number, as the Kissar is supposed to produce the pentatonic scale. The first string is tuned a fifth from the second string which has the principal interval or tonic of the songs. The modern Egyptians call this instrument Qytarah Bar- baryeh, which indicates that this is considered the national instrument of the Barabras or Berbers (Sanskrit Barbara, which means, uncivilized ?) who are believed to be descendants of the original inhabitants of Egypt. Niebuhr says that he saw in the hands of a Barbari, or an inhabitant of Dongola, (one of the territories in Nubia), a sort of harp which he does not specify by name, but which, from the description given, cannot be any thing else but the Kissar. The songs sung to the accompaniment of the Kissar are called by the Nubians Ghouna. Some of these songs have nothing in common with the Arabic language; some others contain not only Arabic but also corrupted Italian words. Dr. E. Ruppell witnessed in Nubia the performance of a dance resorted to by the people with a view to relieve a young man from a malady from which he was suffering for a long time. The patient, who was made to dress well, was placed on a raised spot in the middle of a circle formed by the dancers. The object may have been. to benefit the low-spirited sufferer more by the cheering influence of the scene than by any pretended power of effecting a radical cure.

AFRICA-NORTHERN AFRICA. 141

NORTHERN AFRICA.

ALGERIA.

nHE Arabs in Algiers, the capital of Algeria (ancient Numidia), have a composition called Nouba, which is a kind of fantasia upon popular melodies in a certain prescribed form. The Revd. J. W. Blakesley, who visited a Jewish synagogue in Algiers, was surprised to find that " the air to which the Psalms were chanted coincided almost exactly with one of the Gregorian tones." The instruments in use in Algiers are chiefly the Kuitra (a kind of guitar), the Gunibry (Kuniberi, something like the Banjo and having its body made of tortoise shell), the Rebab (a two-stringed violin, shaped like a fish), the Raita (oboe), the Gasba (fife), Bendir (drum), and Tar. (Tambourine). MOROCCO.

The Tabla (a sort of kettle-drum), the Triangle, the Erb'eb (an instrument akin to the Grecian lyre, but having only two strings), and a rude kind of flute, are des- cribed as the principal instruments ased in Morocco. In Tangier, one of the chief towns of Fez, the music is chiefly confined to bagpipe players, who are said to have no fixed airs, and play only from memory. Mr. G. J. Cayley being invited to a Jewish wedding in Tangier, found a company, including about 36 young Jewesses, singing, clapping hands, and dancing to the music of a

142 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Kemangeh which the chief Rabbin, an old man, played upon. The Revd. Thomas Debary describes the cere- mony of the circumcision of a little Jew boy in Tangier during which the Psalms were chanted.

TUNIS.

The Revd. Mr. Blackesley describes a Jewish custom which he observed in Tunis on the lst of May, on which occasion a kind of bower, composed of flowers and wax-candles, is carried in procession to the synagogue, the people all the while chanting and the females uttering the peculiar sound of ly-ly-ly, in the manner of the Mahomedan women at weddings and funerals. After the arrival of the singers at the syna- gogue, the whole building is decorated with flowers and the wax-tapers are lighted.

FEZZAN.

Fezzan is chiefly inhabited by the Arabs, Moors, and Negroes.

The following lines are taken from the " Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa," by Denham and Clapperton : London, 1826 :-

AN ELEGY OF THE FEZZANEES ON THE DEATH OF A HERO.

Oh ! trust not to the gun and the sword ! The spear of the unbeliever prevails. Boo Khaloom, the good and the brave, has fallen ! Who shall be safe ?

Even as the moon amongst the little stars, so was Boo Khaloom amongst men ! Where shall Fezzan now look for her protector ?

AFRICA-NORTHERN AFRICA. 143

Men hang their heads in sorrow, while women wring their hands, rending the air with their cries ! As a shepherd is to his flock, so was Boo Khaloom

Give him songs! give him music ! What to Fezzan.

words can equal his praise ?

His heart was as large as the desert ! His coffers were like the rich overflowings from the udder of the she-camel, comforting and nourish- ing those around him. Even as the flowers without rain perish in the field, so will Fezzanees droop ;for Boo Khaloom returns no more ! His body lies in the land of the heathen. The poisoned arrow of the unbeliever prevails. Oh ! trust not to the gun and the sword ! The spear of the heathen conquers ! Boo Khaloom, the good and the brave, has fallen ! Who shall now be safe ?

144 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

WESTERN AFRICA.

ESTERN Africa is chiefly inhabited by the Negro races, and is divided into three portions, viz. Senegambia, Upper Guinea, and Lower Guinea. The fol- lowing are the principal musical instruments of Western Africa :- The Trumpet, which is simply the hollowed tusk of the elephant; the Zanze (in different parts of Africa known also by the names of Am- bira, Marimba, Ibeka, Vissandschi) consisting of a wooden box on which a number of sonorous slips of wood, or tongues of iron, are fixed in such a position as to admit of their being made to vibrate by pressing them down with the thumb or with a stick ; the Boulou or Ombi, a kind of harp the strings of which are made from a kind of creeping plant, or from the fibrous root of a tree ; the Balafo, which is a species of harmonicon ; and the Valga (also known as Wambee, Kissumba, &e.) which is some- what like the Sancho, a small stringed instrument also in use in this part of the country. The neck of the Valga consists of several canes, generally five, which are stuck into the holes in the underpart of the body of the instrument, and can be pushed in or drawn out indepen- dently of each other. As each string is affixed to the extreme end of one of the canes, it can be tightened or slackened by drawing the cane further out, or pushing it deeper in ;- by which way it is tuned. The strings are made of the same materials as those of the Boulou. The

AFRICA-WESTERN AFRICA. 145

Negroes of Senegambia and Guinea have a class of musicians called Guiriots, or Griots, who are poets as well as singers, and whose calling it is to recite the ancient legends and war-songs of the people, and to improvise either panegyrics or satires upon others.

Major A. L. Laing (who, in 1826, succeeded in accem- plishing what Europeans for three centuries had failed to do; viz., in penetrating to Timbuctoo, but who was murdered on his return homewards), had jotted down his experiences of African music in his work " Travels in Timanee, Kooranko, and Soolima Countries in Western Africa", London, 1825. He found that music formed a prominent part in all the public ceremonies of these people. Some songs were im- provised on the oernsion of his visit. At Seemera, in the Kooranko countri +he King Bee Simera sent him his Griot to play to him and sing a song of welcome. This man performed on a sort of fiddle, the body of which was formed of a calabash, in which two small square holes were eut. It had one string, composed of many twisted horse-hairs, and only four tones could be got out of it. At Soolima, the Major was treated by the King Yarradee to a military spectarle, and while the warlike movements were going on, about a hundred musicians kept playing on drums, Autes, Balafos, and other instruments. Two of the large drums used on the ocension were shaped like a chess-castle turned upside down. An extempore dialogue was then chanted between ono of the jelle-men (minstrels) and some remales, who, towards the close of the performance, sang a song in honor of the king. They also sang a warsong which was composed in honor of a great victory that Yarradee obtained over the Fouluhs (an amiable Negro race widely diffnsed through Western Africa), and which was always

46 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

rehearsed before him on all public occasions. This war- song is reproduced below from Major Laing's work :-

Shake off that drowsiness, O. brave Yarradee ! thou lion of war ! Hang thy sword to thy side, and be thyself ! Dost thou not behold the army of the Foulahs . Observe their countless muskets and spears, Vying in brightness with the rays of tho doparting san ! They are strong and powerful, yea, they "are men ; and they have sworn to the Alkoran that they will destroy the capital of the Soolima nation. So shake off thy drowsiness, O brave Yarradeo, thou lion of war ! hang thy sword to thy side, and be thysolf !

The brave Tahabaeere, thy sire, held the' Foulahs in contempt; fear was a stranger to his bosomu. He set the firebrand to Timbo, that nost of Islamitos; and though worsted at Horico, ho scorned to quit the field, but fell, like a hero, cheering his war-mon. If thou art worthy to be called the son of Taha. bacere-shake off thy drowsiuess, O brave Yarraden! thou lon of war! hang thy sword to thy sido, and be thysolf! Brave Yarradee stirred; he shook his garment of war, as the soaring cagle ruffes his pinions. Ten times he addressed his greegrees, * and vworo to them that he would.eithor return with the sound of the war-drum, t or with tho cries of the Jelle The war-meu shonted with joy-Behold, 'he mhuken from him that drowsiness, tho lion of war! he hungs his sword to his side, and is himself again ! " Follow me to the tield !" exclaimed the heroio Yarradco ; "fear nothing ; for let the spear bo wharp, or the ball swilt, faith in thy gruegroo will promervo thee from dan ug"

Amule a. t i. m., in trinmph. * ++ The Jelle, or Jellekon, are employed to sing at tho bu4 of ahy great man.

AFRICA-WESTERN AFRICA. 147

" Follow me to the field! For I am roused and have shaken off my drowsiness. I am brave the lion of war ! I have hang my sword to my side, Yarradee, and am myself ! "

The war-drum sounds, and the sweet notes of the balla * encourage warriors to deeds of arms. valiant Yarradee mounts his steed; his head men The

follow. The northern gate of Falaba is thrown open, and a rush is made from it with the swiftness of leopards. Yarradee is a host in himself. Mark how he wields his sword ! They fall before him-they stagger-they reel !-

Foulah men, you will long remember the day; for Yarradee has shaken off his drowsiness, the lion ot war ! he has hung his sword to his side, and is himself !

The daughter of a Negro chief of Ngumbo, a District in Western Africa, south of the Equator, having seen a young English traveller, gave forth her feelings in tLe following extempore effusion :-

In the blne palace of the deep soa Dwella a strange creaturo : His skin as whito as salt; His hnir long and tangled as the sea-weed ; Ho in more great than the princes of the carth; Ho is clothod with the akins of fishes, Fishes more beautiful than birds. Hit house is built of brass rods ; Hip vardon is a forest of tobacco. On his aoil whito bends are scattered Like sand grains on the sea-shore.

The following " Song of a Negro mother to her babe" appeared in " Savage Africa," by Winwood Reade, London, 1863 :-

Balle, or Balafo.

148 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Why dost thou weep, my child ?

The sky is bright, the sun is shining: wky dost thou weep ?

Go to thy fatner, he loves thee; go, tell him why thou weepest.

What'! thou weepest still? thy father loves thee ; I caress thee; yet still thon art sad.

Tell me then, my child, why dost thon weep ?

Mr. T. E. Bowdich, the author of " Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee," London, 1819, mentions that in the Empoongwa country, he came across a Negro performer (from the interior country of Imbeekee), who had a harp, formed of wood, and mounted with eight strings. After running through a varietv of notes, lie burst forth in the notes of the Hallelean of Handel. Mr. Bowdich remarks-" To meet with this chorns in the wilds of Africa, and from such a being, had an effect I can scarcely describe, and I was lost in astonishment at the coincidence."

Various kinds of- dances are in vogue among ine tribes in Western Africa, as indeed among all savage nations. The Apono t-ibes have a peculiar dance caliod Qcuya, or giant dance, which is performed by a man whe enacts the part of the giant and raises himself to the necessary height by means of stilts. The moon-dance which is performed by the Fan tribes is accon panied by the playing on a drum and an instrument called the Handja, a kind of harmonicon, which goes by the name of Balonda in Senegambia and Marimba in Angola. The Fans are described as having some ear for music and possessing some pretty though rudely constructed airs.

AFNICA-WESTERN AFRICA. 149

UPPER GUINEA.

. ASHANTEE.

With the Ashantees, the singing is almost all in the form of the recitative, and this is the only part of music of which the women partake ; they join in the choruses, and, at the funeral of a female, sing the dirge itself. The men employed in the canoes have, like the gondoliers of Venice, a natural talent for music. Their airs, which Mr. Bowdich says, "have a sweetness and animation beyond any.barbarous composition," are said very much to resemble the chants used in Christian cathedrals. Some of the Ashantee airs are very old .; indeed, one of them, according to the statement of the natives, " was made when the country was made." Their instrumental music is executed in the most rapid manner. Their, flutes are made of a long reed, and pierced with only three holes. They have a kind of bagpipe, the drone of which is scarcely audible. Their drums are made of hollow trunks of trees covered with skins, and struck upon with sticks. The most highly esteemed of the drums are covered with leopard skin, and played like a tamhourine with two fingers. The instruments called the Fetish drum and trumpet are used as accompaniments to the sacrifice of human beings. The bands of the caboocees (noblemen) are principally composed of horns and flutes playing concert. Mr. Bewdich remarks that " all the superior captains have peculfar flourishes or strains for their

150 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

horns, adapted to short sentences, which are always recognized, and will te repeated on enquiry by any Ashantee you may meet walking in the streets, though the horns are not only out of sight, but at a distance to be scarcely audible. These flourishes are of a strong and distinct character. .. . The king's horns go to the market-place every night, as near to midnight as they can judge, and flourish a very peculiar strain, which was rendered to me ' King Sai thanks all his captains and all his people for to-day.'" Mr. Bowdich further states that whenever the king drank, his royal band played, while ihe executioners (who decapitate victims destined for human sacrifice on certain public festivals) holding their swords with their right hands, covered their noses with their left, whilst they sung his victories aud titles. About half a dozen small boys stood behind his chair, and finished the whole with a hymn. The Fantees are a Negro tribe in the Ashantce country and on the Gold Coast. Their musical instru- ments are much the same as those of the Ashantees. Regarding their flute, Mr. Bowdich observes that its " tone is low at all times, and when they play in concert they graduate them with such nicety as to produce the common chords." Their music is described as wild and irregufar, and scarcely amenable to the rules of harmony, and yet characterised by a sweetness and liveliness beyond that of most barbarous nations. Remarking on a dirge of the Fantees which Mr. Bowdich has set to notation, he says-" I must add, that in venturing the intervening and concluding bass chord, I merely attempt to describe the castanets, gong-gongs, drums, &c., Sarsting in after the soft and mellow tones of the flutes; as if the ear was not to retain a vibration of the sweeter melody."

AFRICA-WESTERN AFRICA. 151

The dances of the Fantee tribe are rather peculiar. Two dancers stand opposite each other, and stamp on the ground with each foot alternately. The stamping becomes faster and faster, until it is exchanged for leaping, and at every jump the hands are thrown out with the fingers upward, so that the four palms meet with a sharp blow. The couple go on dancing until they fail to strike the hands, and then they leave off and make room for another pair.

DAHOMEY

Mr. Richard F. Burton, in his " Mission to Gelele, King of Dahomey," London, 1864, states that as the people of Dahomey have no written language, anything that happens in the kingdom, from the arrival of a stranger to an earthquake, is formed into a kind of song, and being taught to professional men is thus transmitted to posterity. Commander F. E. Forbes relates in his work " Dahomey and the Dahomans," that on one occasion when he found the king was drinking before his people in the capital of his kingdom, Abomey, " there thundered forth a salute of guns almost drowned by the shouts of the multitude. The ministera and eabooceers danced, and the eunuchs and ludies held cloth before the king. Men must not see the kings cat or drink." The natives of Dahomey possess a great aptitude for remembering foreign tunes which they ouce hear. One man Attah is said to have played all the old Scotch airs in a creditable manner. The king retnins an army of female warriors who, on certain public solemnities, extol the greatness of their master and their country. The following extempore song of the Amazons of Dahomey appeared in Commander Forbes' work :-

152 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

1. When the wolf goes abroad, The sheep must fy.

2. Gezo is king of kings ! While Gezo lives we have nothing to fear, Under him we are lions, not men. Power emanates from the king.

3. Let all eyes behold the king ! There are not two, but one, One only, Gezo ! All nations have their customs, But none so brilliant or enlightened As of Dahomey. People from far countries are here : Behold all nations, white and black, Send their ambassadors !

4. When we go to war, let the king dance, While we bring him prisoners and heads.

BENIN.

The musical instruments of the peopie of Benin consist of drums of different sizes, covered with skins of beasts. They have, besides the instruments in use in other parts of Upper Guinea, a kind of harp, strung with five or six reeds. The performance on this is accompanied by singing and dancing.

LOWER GUINEA.

CONGO

The natives of Congo have a lute of a rather peculiar kind. The body and neck resemble those of the European lute ; but the belly, i. e., the part where the rose or sound-hold has place in the European variety, is of very thin parchment. The instrument is strung with

AFRICA-WESTERN AFRICA. 153

the hair of an elephant's tail, or the bark of the palm- tree. The strings extend from one extremity of the instrument to the other, and are fastened to rings. Small iron and silver plates are fastened to these rings, and when the whole is put in motion by thrumming the strings, it produces a murmuring harmony, not alto- gether disagreeable to the ear. The Zanze appears in Congo under the name of Vissandschi. The Negroes of Congo have a rude kind of bagpipe, which emits a shrill and piercing tone. A curious stringed instrument from the Congo River has been deposited in the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History in New York. It has a narrow wooden body, ornamented at the upper end with two small horns, and mounted with five strings of vegetable fibre.

154 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

CENTRAL AFRICA.

CHE Karague, a tribe of the lake region of Central Africa, have a kind of flageolet, as also certain reed instruments made in telescopic fashion. They have also a kind of guitar in which six of the seven strings agree perfectly with the diatonic scale of Europe, the seventh only being discordant. In his "Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile," Captain John H. Speke gives a picture of one of the concerts of the Karague tribe, in which seven performers are represented as taking part : -one playing upon a harp with seven strings, a second upon the flute, a third upon a trumpet, a fourth upon the Miramba, a fifth upon a large kettle-arum, and the sixth and the seventh each beating a pair of smaller drums.

Mr. J. G. Wood, author of the "Uneivilized Races of Men", mentions a curious instrument of the Shillooks of Central Africa, which was in his collection and which, for want of a better word, he calls a flute. It is made of some hard wood, and is rudely covered with a spiral belt of iron and leather. Inside the flute is fitted an odd implement which may be called the cleaner: it is com- posed of an ostrich feather with the vanes cut short. The sound produced by the flute is described as being of " a wailing and lugubrious character."

The Sansa is one of the most popular instruments of the Batoka tribe in Central Africa. The principle. cf the Sansa is exactly that of the musical boxes of

AFRICA-CENTRAL AFRICA. 155

Europe, the difference being that the teeth or keys of the latter are steel, and that they are sounded by little pegs, and not by the fingers as in the case of the former. The best form of the Sansa is that in which the sounding- board is hollow (which increases its sound), and tne keys are made of iron instead of wood,-which pro- duces a really musical sound. The instrument is enclosed in a hollow calabash which has the effect of intensifying the sound, and both the Sansa and the calabash are furnished with bits of steel and tin, which make a jingling accompaniment to the music. The Sansa is used in accompanying songs. Dr. Livingstone mentions that a genuine native poet attached himself to the party, and composed a poem in honor of the white men, singing it whenever they halted and accom- panying himself on the Sansa. At first he modestly curtailed his poem as he did not know much about his subject, but as, day by day, his knowledge extended, the poem became at last quite a long ode. There was an evident rhythm in the piece, each line consisting of five syllables. Another poet is described as having been in the habit of amusing himself every evening with an extempore song in which the deeds of the white men were enumerted. The Marimba is also in use among the Batoka tribe. A similar instrument is made with strips of stone, the sounds of which are superior to those produced by the wooden bars. It might be mentioned here that the Marimba has been introduced into England under the name of " Xylophone."

The Felatas of Central Africa appear to belong to the same stock as the Foulahs of Senegambia. From the country of the latter races, the former nation ori- ginally wandered out with their flocks and herds in

156 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

small companies and in the former times never resided in towns. Now the Felatas are the ruling race of a good part of Negro land. The bulk of the Felatas are Moslems but many hordes are still pagans. The chiefs are accompanied by many personal followers (both horse and foot), some of whom form a band. The Barca Gana, or head general of the Shiek of Bornou, when visited by Major Denham, had close behind him five mounted performers, who carried a sort of drum hung round their necks, and beat time, when they sang extempore songs. One carried a small pipe made of a reed ; and another blew loud blasts on a buffalo's horn. This band sung some extempore verses when the Major joined them. The following is a literal version of the stanzas sung on the occasion :-

"Christian mian he come, Friend of us, and sheikhobe ; White man, when he hear my soug, Fine new tobe give me. Christian man all white, And dollars white have he; Kanourie like him come, Black man's friend to be.

See Felatah, how he run; Barca Gana shake his spear : White man carry two-mouth. d gun, That's what make Felatah fear."

The Felatahs have, among other instruments, some long pipes, like clarionets, ornamented with shells; and trumpets from twelve to fourteen feet long, which are made of pieces of hollow wood, with brass mouth-pieces.

SAHARA.

In his account of " Travels in the Interior of A frica," 1820, Mr. G. Molliens mentions that the Moors

AFRICA-CENTRAL AFRICA. 157

of Sahara have a rude kind of guitar, the music of which, as also that of their songs, partake of the character of Spanish music. As both the Spanish and Moorish musie were derived from the same source, namely Arabia, this coincidence is easily explained.

SOUDAN. . Soudan, or, as it is also called, Nigritia, is inhabited principally by Negroes of various tribes as the Felatahs, Mandingoes and Arabs. The Niam-Niams and Mon- buttoo of the Soudan have large signal drums. Some of the smaller drums are shaped like an hour-glass or a double Darabukkeh, and provided with a head of iguana skin. The Mittoo of the Soudan have a rude lyre which greatly resembles the Nubian Kissar. The Negroes of the Soudan have a kind of cymbals which consist of two plates of iron, with leather handles, which are used to accompany the beating of their drums, which are called by the same name as that of the ancient Egyptians, namely Dhaluka, and are almost identical. The Nanga of the Soudan, which is a com- posite of the lute and the barp, is also a characteristic instrument of Egypt. The Niam-Niams of the Soudan have a class of professional bards or minstrels, called Nzangah, who use a combination of harp and mandolin as an accompaniment to their recitatives. These bards are looked upon with contempt by their hearers, as is indicated by the name Hushash (buffoon) applied to them by the Arabs of the Soudan. BORNOU.

Bornou is one of the most powerful kingdoms of Central Africa. The people of Bornou, as well as the Mosees, Mollowas, and other natives from the more

158 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

remote parts of the interior, have a rude species of violin, the hody of which is a calabash and the top covered with deer-skin. Two large holes are eut in it for the sound to escape. It has only one string com- posed of cow's hair; the bow used is like that of a violin. There is another instrument in use called the 'Oom- poochwa, which is a box, one end of which is left open ; two flat bfidges are fastened across the top, and five pięces of thin carved stick, scraped very smooth, are attached to them, and (their ends being raised) are struck with some force by the thumb. The Sheik of Bornou expressed great wonder at the musical snuff-box, which was shown him by Major Denham, and his feelings were completely overcome when he beard the celebrated Swiss air " Ranz des Vachea." He covered hia face with his hand, and remained in silence; and when a man near him broke the charm by a loud ejaculation of wonder, he struck him a blow and put to terror all his followers. He asked if one twice as large would not be better. On being told that it would be twice an denr, he exclaimed it would be cheap if it cont a thousund dollars.

The following ex tempore song of the Negro bnrdx of Bornou in praise of their Sultan, is taken from the "Narrative of Travels", by Denham and Clapprrton :- Give flesh to the hyenas at day-brenk : Oh ! the brond spoars ! The spear of the snltan is the brondeat. Oh! the broad spears ! I behold thee now-I desire to see none othor. Oh ! the broad sponrs ! My horse is as tall as a high wall. Oh! the broad spears ! He will fght against ten ; ho foars nothing. Oh ! the broad spears ! He has slain ton ; the guns are yot behind. Oh! the broad spears !

AFRICA-CENTRAL AFRICA. 159

The elephant of the forest brings me what I want. Oh ! the broad spears ! Like unto thee-so is the sultan. Oh ! the broad spears ! Be brave ! be brave, my friends and kinsmen ! Oh ! the broad spears ! God is great !- I wax fierce as a beast of pray. Oh ! the broad spears ! God is great !- To-day those I wisned for are come. Oh ! the broad spears !

160 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

SOUTHERN AFRICA.

nHE melody of the vocal music of the Bechuanas is simple enough, consisting chiefly of descending and ascending by thirds. Two-part harmony is sometimes used. The instrumental music of the tribe consists mainly in blowing a reed pipe called " Lichaka", which emits only one note, repeated as often as the performer chooses to play on it. These pipes can be tuned to any required note by pushing or withdrawing a movable plug which closes the reed at the lower end. They run through a scale of some eleven or twelve notes. Blow- ing a penny whistle, or a key, produces a correct imita- tion of the instrumental music of this tribe. In his "Travels in the Interior of South Africa," Mr. James Chapman mentions that the Bechuanas have " a musical bow with a hollow calabash attached to one end, on which is stretched a twisted string made of sinews, on which the performer strikes with a thin stick, modifying the iones with his fingers by running them along the string." The sound produced by this instrument is said to be audible only to the player, as one end of the bow being constantly between his teeth, " the sounds vibrate powerfully to his own ears, and are lost on the by- standers." The dance of the Bechuanas is described as a very fatiguing affair. Each dancer is at liberty tc take any step he chooses, and to blow his reed pipe at any intervals that may seem most agreeable to him.

AFRICA-SOUTHERN AFRICA. 161

The Damaras spend their evenings at home in sing- ing and dancing. Their principal instrument is the bow, the string of which is tightened and then struck with a stick in a rhythmic manner. The Damara musician thinks that the chief object of his pertormance is to imitate the gallop or trot of the various animals. Great skill is usually displayed. in doing so, the test of an accomplished musician being the imitation of the clumsy canter of the baboon. The dances of the Damaras are remarka ble, as would appear from the following account which appeared in Mr. Baines's work :- "Atnight, dances were got up among the Damaras, our attention being first drawn to them by a sound between the barking of a dog and the efforts of a person to clear something out of his throat, by driving the breath strongly through it. We found four men stooping with their heads in contact, vying with each other in the production of these delect- able inarticulations. while others, with rattling anklets of hard seed-shells, danced round them. By degrees the company gathered together, and the women joined the performers, standing in a semi-circle. They sang a monotonous ehant, and clapped their hands, while the young men and boys danced up to them, literally, and by no means gently, beating the ground with nimble feet,' raising no end of dust, and making their shell anklets sound, in their opinion, most melodiously. Presently the leader snatched a brand from the fire, and, after dancing up to the women as before, stuck it in the. ground as he retired, performing the step mound and over it when he returned, like a Highlander on the broad- sword dance, without touching it. Then came the return of a victorious party, brandishing their broad spears ornamented with flowing ox-tails, welcomed by a chorus of women, and occasionally driving back the few enemies who had the audacity to approach them." 11 8

162 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The Makololo tribes usually show their joy and work off their excitement in dances and songs. "The dance," says Dr. Livingstone, " consists of the men standing nearly naked in a circle, with clubs or small battle-axes in their hands, and each roaring at the loudest pitch of his voice, while they simultaneously lift one leg, stamping twice with it, then lift the other and give one stamp with it; this is the only movement in common. The arms and head are thrown about also in every direction, and all this time the roaring is kept up with the utmost possible vigour. The continued stamp- ing makes a cloud of dust ascend, and they leave a deep ring in the ground where they have stood."

KAFFRARIA.

The Kaffirs are generally believed to be of the Negro race, and are of a dark brown color. They have no writtenr characters, but their language is sonorous, resembling Italian. They are divided into hordes, and governed by hereditary chiefs who exercise absolute rule. It is said that after the death of her hushand, the Kaffir wife meets with other women in some open space of the village, where they sing together, at the same time beating the ground softly with their feet. The following "Kaffir Widow's Lament" appeared in the " Narrative of an Exploratory Tour to the North-East of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope," by Arbousset and Daumas; London, 1852 :-

Women. We are loft ontside ; We are left to sorrow ; We are left to despair, Which incroases our miseries.

AFRICA-SOUTHERN AERICA. 163

Widow. Oh, that there were a refuge in heaven ! That there was a pot and fire ! That there were found a place for me ! Ob, that I had wings to fly thither !- Why have I uot wings to fly to heaven ? Why does there not come down from heaven a twisted rope ?

I could oling to it, I would mount on high, [ would go and live there. Oh, foolish woman that I am ! When eveming comes I open my win dow, I listen in silence, I watch, I fancy that he returns.

The. sentiments expressed in the above tally with the remarks made by Dr. Prichard in'his "Natural History of Man," that the Kaffirs believe in the immortality of the soul and also in the attendance the souls of their deceased relatives, whose ard they occasionally invoke.

The whistle is considered a valuable instrument in the limited orchestra of the Kaffirs. The Marimba is also in nae among the Kaffirs. They have a curious instrument of the stringed kind, which is a bow mounted with a string of twisted' hair, and having a geurd attached to the framne-work. Without the gourd, this instrument looks exactly like the Pinaka of India, which is describ- ed as being the invention of the Hindu God Mahadeva, and the father of all stringed instruments. It is not un- likely that the Pinaka made its passage to South Africa, from the Northern regions, the people of which, the Egyptians in particular, were in constant commercial communication with India; or it might have found its way to Egypt, or the Barbary States, the land of the Barbaras, (Sanskrit name for uncivilized races), where the Yuduvansa, the relations of the Hindu God Krishna,

166 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of her dancing. If another girl catches it, the dancer has to make room for her, and she goes through the same manœuyres, and thus the sport continues till the dancers are tired, when the dance is given up. The dance of the Bushman is also of a singular cnaracter. One foot remains motionless, while the other dances in a quiek' wild, and irregular way. When one foot is tired out, the second one comes forward to take its place and goes through similar evolutions. The dancer uses the word "Wawa-koo" repeatedly, while the spectators respond with the word " Aye O," separating the hands at the first syllable, and bringing them sharply together at the secônd.

Herr Lichtenstein, who lived for several years in South Africa, states that the Hottentots produced on the Gorah, their favorite national instrument of old, the interval of a third standing between the major and minor third of the European scale; a fifth between the perfect and diminished fifth ; and a seventh between the minor seventh and superfluous sixth. He adds that the Hottentots stuck to these intervals in their songs as well. The fondness of the Hottentots for. music and their susceptibility for harmony have been mentioned by several writers. The missionaries mention that when- ever they taught the Hottentots a simple hymn or psalm. tune, they instantly added the second of thoir own accord as if by natural instinct. The men are generally possessed of a tenor voice. Mr. W. L. Burchell gives a description and some specimens of the songs of the Bushmen in his "Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa." These songs, which are also dances, consist of one part which is sung by the dancer, of a second part sung at the same time by the spectators, and of a rhyth- mical accompaniment of the water-drum, which, at the performance at which Burchell was present, was beaten

AFRICA-SOUTHERN AFRICA. 167

with the right fore-finger by an old woman. The water- drum is a bamboo or wooden jug with a piece of wet parchment strained over the top, and containing water to keep the parchment wet. The Gorah, mentioned above, is a siender stick, with a string of cat-gut, drawn from end to end, so as tu give it a slight curve like the bow of a violin. To the lower end of this string, a flat piece of an ostrich's quill, about an inch and a half long, is attached, which connects that end of the string with the stick. This quill, being applied to the lips, is nade to vibrate by strong inspirations and respirations of the breath; and whilst the principle upon which its different tones are produced may be classed with the trumpet or French horn, the tone itself, in the hands of a master- player, approaches to that of the violin. At time of playing, the performers sometimes put one of their fore- fingers into their left nostrils, holding the instrument with that hand, and the other into their right ear. The Hottentots have contrived to construct a rude kind f violin, having become acquainted with that instrument through the Dutch boors who settled among them. modified form of the Goura (or Gorak), under the name of Joum joum, is used by the women, who do not play upon it by the breath, but strike it with a stick. On account of the portable size of the Jew's harp (whose tone the Goura resembles), the Hottentots and the Bush- men have latterly shown a preference for it. There are two more musical. instruments used by these people, one being a guitar called Rabouguin, (which looks somewhat like the Banjo of the Negroes), and the other a drum designated the Romelpot, which is made of a hollowed log, over one end of which a piece of tanned skin is tightly stretched, and which is beaten sometimes with sticks and sometimes with the fists Among the offshoots of the Hottentots is a tribe called

168 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Kora, Koraqua, Korans, or Korannas. of whom the Missionary Moffatt has expressed a very high opinion. They were found by him impatiently desirous of gaining knowledge. While he was one day engaged in teaching some of the young Korannas the rudiments of learning, some of the young people came dancing and skipping towards him and insisted upon being taught the A B C with music-a discovery which they had made through one of his boys. " The tune of Auld Lang Syne," says Mr. Moffatt, " was pitched to A B C, each succeeding round was joined by succeeding voices until every tongue was vocal and every countenance beamed with heartfelt. satisfaction. The longer the song, the more freedom was felt, and Auld Lang Syne was echoed to the farthest end of the village."

ZULULAND.

In his work, "Missionary Labors and Scenes in Southern Africa," London, 1842, the Missionary Robert Moffatt describes a dance of the Zulu Kaffirs in which the king himself acted as director. Moselekatse (the king) took his stand in the centre of an immense circle. of his soldiers, numbers of women being present, who, with their shrill voices and clapping of hands, took part in the concert. About thirty ladies from his harem marched to the song backward and forward. War songs, and one composed on the occasion of the visit of the strangers, were sung under the guidance of the king. After the performance was over, he sat down on his shield of lion's skin, and asked Moffat if it was not fine, and if he had such a thing in his own country. The Zulus have the musical bow, which they call the Gubo ; but, unlike the variety in use among the Kaffirs, it has no gourd resonator attached.to it.

AFRICA-EASTERN AFRICA. 169

EASTERN AFRICA.

nHE Revd. Dr. Lewis Krapf in his." Travels, Resear- ches, and Missionary Labors," London, 1860, makes mention of a singular kind of telegraph by means of drums, made by the people of Kaffa, a district in Eastern Africa :- " At given distances drummers are placed near a tall tree, any one of whom upon sighting an enemy immediately climbs the tree and signals the event by so many beats of the drum, which is taken up by the next drummer also mounting his tree for the purpose, and so on to the end of the line. They have various other signals, all well understood." The Kaffirs in Eastern Africa use a kind of rattle for the purpose of expelling a malady: Captain Burton describes the Sange of the medicine-men and rain-makers of the Kafirs on the coast of Zanzibar, as " a hollow gourd, of pine-apple shape, pierced with various holes, prettily carved, and half filled with maise, grams, and pebbles ; the handle is a stick passed through its length, and secured by cross-pins." A person suffering from illness is believed to be visited by an evil spirit, called p'hepo, and the Mnganga, or medicine-man, is expected to heal the patient by expelling the unwelcome guest by means of his mysterious chants and rhythmical noise. The airs of the natives of Mozambique have a deal of liveli- ness in them. The Ambira is popular among the people of Mozambique. The inhabitants of the East use a "huge bassoon of black wood," which goes by the name of Siwa. The Zeze (Tzetze) or Banjo is one of the most

170 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

important instruments of the East Coast. The Wajiji, an East African tribe, have a rude tom-tom made, as Captain Burton says, of "a pair of foolscap-shaped plates of thin iron, joined at the apices and connected at the bases by a solid cross-bar of the same metal." This drum is beat with a muffled stick. The drums used in Mombassa are covered on the head with snake skin.

AFRICA-MADAGASCAR. 171

MADAGASCAR.

ADAGASCAR is inhabited by Malagasies, Hovas, and other tribes of Papuan, Malay, Arabian and Kaffir origin. The Malagasies have some knowledge of musical sounds and are known to have invented some instruments which are far perior to those of the African tribes. One of the best is the violin. Another instrument of Madagascar is the Lokanga which is a guitar with four strings and a wooden body grotesquely carved, painted and decorated with feathers. The Rev. William Ellis relates that he has often seen more than a hundred men dragging a single tree past his house, "keeping time with the Lokanga played on the way before them."

172 UNIVERSAI HISTORY OF MUSIC.

EUROPE

GREECE.

ANCIENT PERIOD.

C'T is stated that Cadmus landed in Greece, at the head of a Phonician colony, and founded the kingdom of Thebes, about two years before the Exodus of Israel (B. C. 1493). He is said to have first brought to that country letters and music. This account is, perhaps, not altogether correct ; for it would appear from the Oxford marbles, that Hyaguis, a native of Celenm (the eapital of Phrygia), who flourished 1506 B. C., invented the flute, or pipe, and the Phrygian mode, as well as the nomes or airs that were sung to Cybele, the mother of the gods, to Baschus, to Pan, and to other deities. It may, therefore, be concluded, that the Greoks derived their music partly from Phrygia, partly from Phamicin, and partly from Etolia, Ionin, and Doris, after which countries their principal modes were subsequently named. According to some authorities, Harmonia, the wife of Cadmus, introduced the Monaulos or single pipe, into Greece : according to others, the invention of this instrument is attributable to Minerva, who is said to have substitutod it for the Syrinx or pipe of Pan Pan was led to the invention of this pipe from noticing the effect of the wind rushing through and over a bundle of reeds which he clasped in his arms, instead of the

EUROPE-GREECE. 173

nymph Syrinx, she being changed into reeds when flying from his embraces. The Syrinc consisted of a number of reeds, of unequal lengths, tied together. It was played upon by blowing into them, one after the other, moving the instrument baokwards and forwards to admit the wind into each tube. It was for lorg a popular instrument with the shepherds, and was sub- sequently improved by the use of foramina or holes and stops. The Greeks who lived by the sea-shore, very likely, used shells as musical instrument; and this fact would account for the blowing their conches representation of the Tritons before the chariot of Neptune. They also had pipes, formed out of oaten reeds, called Avena. The Tibia was originally a pipe made of the shank or shin-bone of an animal. After the discovery of the art of boring had been made, the flutes were made of box.tree, laurel, brass, silver, and sometimes of gold. Sometimes the flute had a horn attached to the end of it, by which it took the shape of a lituus, or clarion, which was the characteristic of the Phrygian flute. To Mercury is attributed the invention of the lyre. He is said to have retired with some oxen (which he had stolen from Apollo), to the foot of a mountain in Arcadia where he found a tortoise which he killed and ate. While amusing himself with the shell, he noticed the sound it emitted from its concave figure, on which he cut several thongs from a bull's hide, fastened them tight to it, and thus invented a new kind of music. The art of playing upon the lyre is ascribed to Apollo, well known in Greece as the great patron of music. At the Pythian games (which were instituted in honor of his killing the serpent Python), music and poetry formed subjects for prizes. Some of the earliest speci- mens of Grecian poetry are hymns to this deity. Con- temporary with him was Marsyas, the reputed invertor

174 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

of the double flute. Among the other musicians of the fab ulous period were the Muses, Bacchus, and the Sirens. Bacchus was celebrated for performing on the flute. The Muses added the string called mese, or A, to the lyre which had up to that time consisted of three strings, viz., Hypate meson (E), Parhypate meson (F), and meson Diatonos (G). The most celebrated Greek musicians of the ancient period were (1) Orpheus (B. C. 1300), who wrote several hymns, improved the flute, and added to the lyre the strings named Hypate (B), and Parhypate (C), and who is reported to have attracted wild beasts by the charms of his music; (2) Linus, (the pupil of Orpheus and tutor of Hercules), who added one string to the, lyre (D) ; (3) Musæus, the son or pupil of Orpheus; (4) Thamyris, to whom Orpheus taught the use of the lyre (5) Chiron, the tutor of Achilles ; (6) Amphion, (the son of Jupiter and Antiope), to the music of whose lyre the rocks danced, and the stones arose and formed them- selves into the walls of Thebes, and to whom the inven- tion of the Lydian mode is attributed.

In the Iliad and Odyssey, Homer mentions not more than three instruments, viz., the Lyre, the Flute, and the Syrinx ; from this it may be justly concluded that no others were known at the time of the Trojan war. From his works it would also appear that the bards or rhapsodists, who sang their poems eatempore in the streets or palaces, were treated with the greatest respect. The Greeks had special songs suited to their different trades and rural occupations. Homer describes Calypso weaving and singing, thus :-

While she with work and song the time divides, And through the loom the golden shuttle guides. Odyssey (Pope's Translation).

EUROPE-GREECE. 175

Again, when the companions of Ulysses approached the palace of Circe :- "Now on the threshhold of the dome they stood, And heard a voice resounding through the wood : Placed at he r loom within, the goddess sung." In Book IX of the Iliad, Homer mentions a Phor- minx (a kind of lyre) made of silver :- "The well-wrought harp from conquer'd Thebæ Of polish'd silver was its costly frame." came;

The Greeks had blind mendicants singing and soli- citing alms from door to door. The singer carried on his hand a raven (Greek name, Oorone,)-a bird sacred to Apollo. The following is the first stanza of a song of one of these beggars which Athenæus has preserved from Phœnix of Colophon, an iambic poet :-

Ye who to sorrow's tender tale With pity lend an ear, A tribute to Corone bring, Apollo's favorite care. These mendicants were called Coronistæ, and their songs Coronismata. During the period which is being described, the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the Isthmian games were instituted, at all of which, and at the Pythian games particularly, a considerable impetus was given to the cause of music. It is stated by Lucian that at one of these games a young flute-player, named Harmonides, who appeared there for the first time, began a solo with so violent a blast that he breathed his lnst breath into the instrument and died on the spot. Of the Greek lyrists, Alcman, Stersichorus, Alcmus. Sappho, Simonides, Ibycus, Bacchylides, Anacreon, Callistratus, Arion, and Pindar are the most

176 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

celebratad. They extended over a period of over two hundred years, and enriched with their compositions three out of the four dialects of Greece.

Several eminent musicians flourished in Greece during the interval between the time of Homer and that of Sappho (B. C. 600) ; and among these are Thaletes of Crete (879 B. C.), an excellent singer and flute-player ; Archilochus (700 B. C.), the inventor of lyric poetry, and of that kind of composition, which, now called the " the recitative accompanied", was afterwards adopted by the dithyrambic and tragic poets; Olympus, the Phrygian, (697 B. C.), who is said to have been descended from the first Olympus, and whose attainments are highly spoken of by Plato, Aristotle, and Plutarch ; Terpander (650 B. C.), who invented the notation, who is considered one of the earliest writers of the Scholia, or convivial songs of the Greeks, and who is said to have been the first Greek musician to use 7 strings on the lyre ; Tyrtæus, who was contemporary to Terpander, and whose songs were very popular ; and Mimnermus of Smyrna, who flourished at the beginning of the 6th century before the Christian era.

From the time of Pindar (522 to 400 B. C.) to the conquest of Greece by the Romans may be reckoned the elassic age of that country. It was during this age that the following celebrities lived and wrote :- Æschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Aristoxenus, Euclid, Theocritus, Callimachus, &e., &c. It was during this era that the drama was invented and its combination with music contributed to the progress of both. All the tragedies were set to music. The poets themselves were musicians. They adapted airs to their own pieces, which they recited to the lyre. The Greek drama consisted

EUROPE-GREECE. 177

of soliloquy, dialogue and choruses. The first two were declaimed to a kind of recitative, while the last were sung in the time of Æschylus by 50 persons, the number being subsequently reduced by law to 15. The leader of the chorus was called Coryphœus. Each of the principal odes or choruses was divided into (1) Strophe, which was sung by the chorus moving to the right, (2) Antistrophe, while moving to the left, and (3) Epode, after these two evolutions were performed, the choristers standing still. Among the musicians of this era were Timotheus, Phrynis, Antigenidas, Philoxenus, Arion, Dorion, Ismenias, Telephanes, and Lamia (a female flutist). Of the eminent musical theorists of ancient Greece, Lasus, a native of Hermione (a city of Peloponnesus), was one of the earliest (B. C. 548.) Another celebrated theorist was Pythagoras, the Samian philosopher, who died about 497 B. C., at the age of 71. He considered numbers as the principles of every thing, and was the first who applied them to the theory of music. He appears to have been the first who attempted to give a theory of sounds: he supposed the air to be the vehicle of sounds; and its agitation, produced and accompained by a similar agita- tion of the sounding body, to be the cause of it. He was the first of the Greeks who entertained the notion of the music of the spheres : he taught that the seven planets, and the sphere of fixed stars, united in harmonious concert, and he apportioned different tones to each planet, according to their distance from the earth. He invented the harmonical canon, or monochord, of a single string, furnished with moveable bridges and contrived for the measuring and adjusting the ratios of musical intervals by accurate divisions. It is stated that on his death-bed he recommended this instrument as the musical investigator,-the criterion of truth. He is said to have added the eighth string to the lyre, and according

12 $

178 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

to some, to have devised the musical notation of the Greeks, and to have introduced a diatonic order of intervals, consisting of two disjunct tetrachords. Aris- toxenus (B. C. 394), who learned philosophy and music under Aristotle, wrote several treatises on the latter subject. Euclid treated of music as well as of mathematics.

Of musical instruments, the Flute appears to have been in high favor in ancient Greece. The Lacedemonians had a song which said that "a good performer on the flute would make a man brave every danger, and face even iron itself." They played an air called Adonion on the Flutes called Tibiæ Embateric (Flutes to march to), when on the point of attacking an enemy. Immense prices were sometimes given for Flutes. It is said that Ismenias (the celebrated Theban musician) gave three talents, (or 581,5s) for one at Corinth, and that Theodorus, a flute maker of Athens, made considerable money by selling this instrument. The Lyre also was held in so high an estimation that it was said in derision that Greece was governed by the Lyre, as Egypt was called the sountry of Sistrums. There were several varieties of the Lyre, viz., the Phorminx, Cithara, Chelys, Testudo, &c. Quintilian remarks that " among the stringed instruments, you will find the Lyre of a character analogous to masculine, from the great depth, or gravity and roughness of its tones ; the Sambuka of a feminine character, weak and delicate, and, from its great acuteness, and the smallness ofits strings, tending to dissolve and enervate. Of the intermediate instruments, the Polypthongum partakes most of the feminine ; but the Cithara differs not much from the masculine character of the Lyre." Other in- struments were in use in Greece, cuch as the Nabla,

EUROPE-GREECE. 179

the Barbiton, the Trigonon, the Magadis, and others The first three were stringed instruments, and it is doubtful whether the Magadis was a stringed or a wind instrument. A Greek vase deposited in the Mnnieh Museum has depicted on it the representation of Poly- hymma with a harp. This valuable relic dates from the time of Alexander the Great. The instrument is re- presented as having thirteen strings which are being touched by Polyhymnia with both hands, the right hand being used for the treble and the left for the bass. The Sambuka of the Greeks (which is believed to have been identical with the Sabeka of the Chaldæan people) is described by some writers as of a triangular shape, and mounted with four short strings; according to others, it was boat-shaped. Drieberg believes it to have been a kind of guitar. Pythagoras, the Zacynthian, invented a curious instrument called the Tripodian Lyre. It re- sembled in shape the Delphic Tripod; the three legs supported a vase, which served as a sound-board, and the strings were placed between the legs ; thus forming, in fact, three Lyres which were tuned to the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian modes, and played with such dexterity (by striking the strings with the fingers of the right hand, using the pleetrum in the left, and turning the instrument rennd with hig foot), that those who did not sce bim supposed that three persons were performing. Athenæus rays that after the death of Pytha- goras, no other instrument of the kind was ever con- atructed. The harpers received large sums for giving performances. It is stated that one Amœbæus received one talent, or e193, 154, for a single performance at the thentre. Besides the Flute, the Greeks had other wind instruments, viz., the Syrinx, the double-pipe, and latterly the trumpet, bagpipe (Askaulos), and wind-organ. The trumpet was not in use in the Trojan war, the first

182 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

tions, Melopœia, and Rhythm. Sounds meant the elements of music ; Intervals, the difference between sounds, the least of which was the Enharmonic diesis or fourth of a tone ; Mutations signified the changes in genus, mode, time, or air; Melopœia, the art of composition, and, in a strict sense, included Inter- vals, Mutations, and Rhythm, or the measurement of time, which was very different from the modern rhythm, being, with the ancients, prescribed by the long and short syllables of the poetry, and had no other variety than that allowed by its metrical laws. Several authorities on music agree ,in remarking that the Greeks possessed the knowledge of harmony, or counterpoint, though not exactly in the modern acceptation of the term. Before Terpander invented his system of notation, the Grecian melodies, like those of the Egyptians and He- brews, were handed down traditionally from generation to generation. Terpander's method consisted in using the alphabets to denote musical sounds. There are only four specimens of ancient Greek music in their supposed original notation that have come down to the present age. Three of them are hymns addressed to Calliope, Apollo, and Nemesis, which were found among the papers of the Archbishop- Usher. The fourth was found in a monastery, near Messina, by Kircher. It con- sists of the first eight verses of the first Pythic ode of Pindar, set to musical characters corresponding to those attributed by Alypius to the Lydian mode.

EUROPE-GREECE. 183

MODERN PERIOD.

As in the classical times, rhapsodists abound in modern Greece, some of whom are blind," who go from village to village and from fair to fair, singing songs to the accompaniment of a stringed instrument. The songs embrace a variety of subjects,-historical, nuptial, domestic, topical and others. The funeral song, called Myriologia, is of very high antiquity. Homer describes the whole family of Priam as mourning over the corpse of Hector ; and the custom has come down to the modern Greeks. The Myriologues are sung by women only, and are always extempore. These elegiac songs are sung to music which, in its general character, closely resembles the Gregorian chant ; but they have this peculiarity that while other songs generally end in a low note these terminate in a high one. The character of Greek songs is exceedingly simple, and the music seems more nearly allied to plaintive chants than to the music of other European nations. The air is fre- quently com prised in a single verse, usually in two, but never in more. It is often lengthened by the arbitrary introduction of words between the verses, in the shape of burden. M. Fauriel states that he heard many songs sung to Italian airs, long since forgotten in Italy. The music of modern Greece does not bear much resemblance to that of ancient Greece. At a dinner given at the Mansion House, London, in October, 1824, four young Greek gentlemen, who were among the guests, were asked by the Lord Mayor to entertain the party with their national music. The melodies they sang on the occasion were founded on the modern Diatonic scale and

184 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

did not partake of the character of their ancient music. This shows that the Chromatie and Enharmonic systems that prevailed in the country in the olden times have now been lost. Dodwell describes the music of the modern Greeks as being in general "harsh and offensive to the ear," while other authorities speak of it in glowing cerms. The only foreign tune they have any relish for is, according to Dodwell, the " Malbrouke," which was introduced into Constantinople by the Franks, and is sung in many of the Greek towns. As they did in Homer's time, the Greeks frequentlv dance as they sing. The Romaika and Syrto of the modern Greeks and Albanians are generally supposed to have been derived from the Pyrrhic dance. Rochlitz relates that on one occasion he played on the piamo a Greek dance-tune to a young Greek who was visiting Leipzig. To this Rochlitz played an accompani- ment very commonly used in piano-forte music. Having listened for some time, the young Greek recognized the melody of his country, and on its being repeated grew enthusiastic over it, but he could not reconcile himself to the accompaniment. The player then tried whether a substitution of detatched chords, struck arpeggio, would prove more agreeable. This appeared somewhat more to the taste of his hearer, though not altogether to his satisfaction, as he remarked :- "It is so, and is not so." The Church music of the modern Greeks is des- cribed as very monotonous and as being soporofic in its tendency. The invention of the characters of the musical notation of the Greek Church is generally attributed to St. John of Damaseus, while Fetis holds that this nota- tion belonged to ancient Egypt, the characters resembling the demotic or popular characters of that country. The Greeks have now made considerable improvements in the art of teaching music. The system is now so simplified that it may be taught in two years,

EUROPE-GREECE. 185

whereas formerly it could not be mastered, it is stated, in less than thirty years, owing to the large number of arbitrary charasters used in the notation, to which each professor gave his own interpretation. Among the instruments used in modern Greece are the Cavonto and Bouzouki which are of the Tamboura class and played with a quill, the Lyra (the Kemangeh of the Turks, played with a bow), the Floyera (shepherd's pipe), and varieties of the flute and clarionet. The following "Farewell of a dying chieftain" is a specimen of the songs of modern Greece :-

The sun was sinking in the west, When Demos thus his sons address'd :- "My sons, your evening meal provide, Theo come and seat ye at my side Thou, Lamprakis, hope of my race, There ! take my arms and fill my place. My sons, my much loved sabres take, Cut boughs a verdant couch to make ; And when upon it I am laid, Go, call the priest my soul to aid .- Full fifty years my land I served, Nor ever from my dnty swerved .- Prepare my tomb, and make it large ; Place me in act the foe to chaige; And in it leave a passage free, Where spring's sweet bird may visit me, And nightingales, whose notes may bring The tidings of returning spring."

186 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

TURKEY.

HOUGH Mahomedans form the ruling race of this country, they represent about a fourth of the popu- lation, the remainder consisting of Romans, Greeks, Slavonians, Armenians, and Jews. There is, therefore, no national music of this country, in the usual accepta- tion of the term ; but each nation inhabiting it practices its own. Dr. Frankl visited on a Sabbath in Constanti- nople the Jewish Synagogue Bene Hamikra, belonging to the Karaites. He describes what he saw and heard as follows :- "A handsome boy, about twelve years of age, in a green caftan, with a red fez and yellow slippers, walked up to the elevated table covered with a beautiful carpet, which was brought into the middle of the .Syna- gogue. He fell down on his knees, and, like a Mussalman at prayers, touched the pavement with his forehead, and then stood up and sang with a beautiful clear voice a song of praise to God; the congregation sang the con- cluding verse as a chorus. The boy sang a similar song between the customary bending of the knees and the head after the thora, a book of parchment (there are no rolls among the Karaites), had been read." The Zikrs of the dervishes (referred to in the previous pages of this book) have been frequently described by travellers in Turkey, Egypt, and other Eastern countries. Mr. E. D. Clark, who witnessed a performance in a mosque at Tophane, a suburb of Constantinople, gives as follows

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a circumstantial account of it, in his " Travels . in Various Countries of Europe, Asia, and Africa", London, 1810 :-

" As we entered the mosque we observed twelve or fourteen dervishes walking slowly round, before & Superior, in a small space surrounded with rails, beneath the dome of the building. Several spectators were station- ed on the outside of the railing ; and being, as usual, ordered to take off our shoes, we joined the party. In a gallery over the entrance were stationed two or three performers on the Tambourine and Turkish pipes. Pre- sently the dervishes, crossing their arms over their breasts, and with each of their hands grasping their shoulders, began obeisance to the Superior, who stood with his back against the wall, facing the door of the mosque. Then each in succession, as he passed the Superior, having finished his bow, began to turn round, first slowly, but afterwards with such velocity that his long garments, flying out in the rotatory motion, the whole party appear- ed spinning like so many umbrellas upon their handles. As they began, their hands were disengaged from their shoulders, and raised gradually above their heads. At length, as the velocity of the whirl increased, they were all seen with their arms extended horizontally, and their eyes closed, turning with inconceivable rapidity." (During this exhibition, the music consisted of a chorus of voices accompanied by pipes and drums. One of the dervishes, dressed in a green pelisse, walked in the middle of the circle formed by the dancers, and regulated the ceremony with the utmost watchfulness and care. This lasted about fifteen minutes). "Suddenly, on a signal given by the director of the dance, unobserved by the spectators, the dervishes all stopped at the same instant, like the wheels of a machine, and, what is more extraordinary, all

188 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

in one circle, with their faces invariably towards the centre, crossing their arms o n their breasts, and grasping their shoulders as before, bowing together with the utmost regularity at the same instant, almost to the ground. We regarded them with astonishment,-not one of them being in the slightest degree out of breath, heated, or having countenance at all changed. After this they began to walk as at first, each following the other within the railing and passing the Superior as before. As soon as their obeisance had been made they began to turn again. This second exhibition lasted as long as the first, and was similarly concluded. They then began to turn for the third time; and as the dance lengthened, the music grew louder and more animating. Perspiration became evident on the features of the dervishes; the extended garments of some among them began to droop ; and little accidents oceurred, such as their striking against each other. They nevertheless persevered, until large drops of sweat falling from their bodies upon the floor, such a degree of friction was thereby occasioned that the noise of their feet rubbing the floor was heard by the spectators. Upon this the third and last signal was made for them to halt, and the dance was ended. This extra- ordinary performance is considered miraculous by the Turks. By their law, every species of dancing is pro- hibited, and yet, in such veneration is this ceremony held, that an attempt to abolish it would excite insurrection among the people." A colleetion of some of the tunes sung in connection with these dances was made by a gentleman at one time attached to the Austrian Legation in Constantinople, who had frequent opportunities of witnessing these performances, and being himself of a musical turn of mind, took great care to render the music as correctly as pcssible in notation. -

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The following are the principal stringed instruments in use among the Turks :- (1) The Kanoon, the favorite among the ladies of the upper classes. The instrument is mounted with 72 strings of gut, in sets of 3, pro- ducing 24 distinct tones. It is played with a plectrum of tortoise shell, or silver. (2) The Santir, strung with 72 strings in sets of 4, and played with two wooden ham- mers. (3) Varieties of the Tamboura, of which the largest in shape is called Tunbour Kebyr Tourky-these are mounted with wire strings, furnished mostly with frets of gut, and played with a plectrum. (4) The Kemangeh, a violin mounted with three strings of gut and wire. (5) The Fellahee, a rude instrument strung with strings of coarse gut. The body is of wood cut into the shape of an octagon. The wind instruments consist of the Ghaida (Bagpipe), the Zourna (Oboe), and varieties of the Nay (Flute). The Gele-masha, or Bell-tongs, a kind of cymbals, comes under the class of instruments of percussion. The drums include the Darabukkeh, the Dervish drum (which is made of brass), and the Daira (which is a tambourine of an octagonal shape and decorated on the sides with looking glass).

Up to the time of the Greek revolation, the ablest musicians of Turkey were Greeks of Constantinople and Smyrns. The favorite singer of the Sultan Mahmud was a Greek named Chiveli-Oglou Zorgaki. Many of the popular songs of modern Turkey are of Greek composi- tion. The favorite songs of Turkey relate either to love or war. The love songs are invariably accompanied by the Tamboura Bouzourk. Instrumental music within doors is exclusively performed by female slaves whose value increases according to their musical attainments. A special group of percussion and wind instruments are used for the military or Janissary music of the Turks ;

190 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and among these are the " Mohammad's standard,"-the national instrument of the Turks, which consists of a brass frame with numerous bells, carried on a long per- pendicular pole, the point of which is surmounted by the crescent and streamers of horse-hair ; an elongated roll- drum, a big drum, a triangle, metal clappers, piccolos, oboes, horns, and trumpets. The dancing dervishes of Constantinople are well known for their skill in playing upon the Nay which accompanies the Zikr. Fétis re- lates that they were once banished from Constantinople because they had introduced music into Moslem wor- ship; but they were subsequently restored by the Sultan, on their explaining that the Koran contained no in- junctions against the use of song or of the flute in con- nection with prayer or exercises of religion.

Guiseppe Donizetti, a brother of the celebrated composer Gaetano Donizetti, was director of the Sultan's band in Constantinople, where he died in 1856. He was the composer of the Turkish " March of Mahmud II."

Some account is given below of the music of Roumania and Servia which form Tributary States of Turkey.

ROUMANIA.

The music of Wallachia (a Sub-division of Roumania) is marked by a predilection for the superfluous second. The Hora is a characteristic dance of the Wallachians and the modulation of its tune is of a peculiar kind. The instruments usually employed in a Wallachian band are three or four violins, a Par dean pipe, and a kind of guitar, or rather lute, called Kobsa. The effect of cmbellishments given to their melodies is described as

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charming. The Wallachian lullaby is noted for its simplicity. The words for one of these songs run as follows :- Nan-i pan-i pui-u mam-i. The Tambouritza is a modern instrument used in Roumania. The body and: handle are made of three different kinds of wood. The instrument is mounted with four wire strings. SERVIA, Unlike the tunes of European nations which generally end in the tonic, those of the Servians fre- quently conclude with the interval of the second. One of the national dances of the Servians is called Kolo, and in these melodies a preference is given to the minor seventh. The famous Servian march and song, " Rise, Servians, rise to arms !" is said to exercise the same fascinating power upon the Servians as the Marseillaise upon the French, and the Rakotzy march upon the Hungarians. The drinking songs of Servia are set to music of the gravity and solemnity of devotional songs. When a Servian enlertains his friends at his table, he lifts his glass, pronounces a couplet or two in honor of his guests, and proceeds to sing what may be called a Drinking Hymn, in which the whole party joins. The music seems to be comparatively modern since it does not exhibit much of the peculiarities of construction that characterise the old melodies. The following are the words of one of the Drinking songs :- Worthy friends, my welcome guests ! Worthy friends, my welcome guests ! Heav'n be thank'd that we are met Hero in social fellowship !

192 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

AUSTRIA,

nOHE Austrian national hymn "Gott erhalte [Franz] den Kaiser" is a composition by Joseph Haydn which was suggested to him by the effect which " God save the King" had on public and solemn occasions in England where he had been on a visit. This hymn was for the first time performed at the celebration of the birth-day of the Emperor Franz on the 12th February, 1797, at the theatre in Vienna. The poetry was by L. Leopold Haschka. Subsequently, in the reign of the Emperor Ferdinand, other words were substituted, written by Baron Zedlitz, The air is said to be thoroughly German in its character.

The Streich Zither is an instrument of modern Austria. It is strung with four wire strings. It is placed horizontally upon a table and played with a bow.

HUNGARY.

The Hungarians who, like the Russians, the Poles, the Bohemians, &c., originated from Seythia, settled in Europe about the ninth century, bringing with them the in truments which they used in their native country, and which consisted almost exclusively of wind instruments It appears that in 1192 of the Christian era, a person was sent to Paris to learn French music ; but it was not till the reign of Corvinus, who was proclaimed King of Hrngary at the age of 15, in 1458, and reigned till 1400,

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that any improvement was effected in the music of the .

country. During this rule, vocal musie attained to so much excellence that the Pope's nuncio, who visited Buda in 1483, said in a letter to His Holiness that " the singers of this prince's chapel are the best of all those I have ever heard." Though musie was studied and its in- terests were promoted under his successors, Ladislaus VI and Lewis II, it did not come up to the standard maintained by Corvinus in regard to the grandeur of musical establishments and in the number of bands kept. The Magyars form nearly one-half of the population of Hungary ; their music may, therefore, justly be taken as the national music of Hungary. It partakes largely of the character of the people-being sad and plaintive. The original music of the Magyars has been to some extent affected by the gipsies by whom it is even now chiefly cultivated in Hungary. The repeated introduc- tion of the superfluous second contributes much to the plaintive and impressive effect of the Hungarian songs. The catch occurs most usually in the middle of a bar, and specially towards the end of a section Modula- tions from a major key into a minor key frequently occur in the music of the Hungarians, and of some Slavonic nations. The patriotic songs of the Hungarians often produced a surprising effect. It is related that at a repast given by Attila, the Enckesius, or director of the music, had a seat on the right hand of the throne; and after the service two men sang verses in honor of Attila's victories. A portion of the audience shed tears, while the rest waxed furious and expressed a wish to he led io battle. Two stanzas of these songs have been preserved in their original language and also in Latin. The following translation of them appeared in Rees's Cyclo- pædia :- 3 Y

194 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIO.

Let us ever remember those ancient domains, Which our ancestors left, when they flow To a climate more mild, from the Soythian plains, Where dread mountains of snow are in view.

To Hungary they hast'nd, with God for their guide, And chose TransyIvania for home ; Be their force and their courage for ever their pride, * But, like them, let us ne'er again roam

The Rakotzy march, which is the most widely known of all Hungarian tunes, fairly represents the characteristics of Hungarian music. There are, how- ever, some older compositions extant, bearing the name of Rákotzy, and dating froin the beginning of the eighteenth century, when the Transylvanian prince Franz Rakotzy unsuccessfully. op posed the power of Austria. The prohibition by the Austrian Government of the performance of the Rakotzy march . on public occasions, and the confiscation of the printed copies in the music shops, seem to have added a stimulus to the preservation of the cherished tune in the hearts of the people. " When I hear the Rakotzy," a Hungarian gentleman was once heard to exelaim, "I feel as if I must at once go to war to conquer the world. My fingers convulsively twitch to seize a pistol, a sword, a bludgeon, or whatever weapon may be at hand,-I must clutch it and march forward ! " The present Austro- Hungarian Government (that of Francis Joseph) have given a great impetus to the cause of music by holding under their patronage an International Musical and' Theatrical Exhibition, in Vienna, in the year 1892. The famous composer Franz Liszt was born at Raidings in Hungary, October 22, 1811, and died July 31, 1886. The well known violinist Remenyi, born in 1830, is also a native of Hungary.

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BOHEMIA.

The natural capacity fcr harmony of the country people in Bohemia is considerably nourished in the village schools, where the children are often taught to sing together two-part songs. The practice thus begun in early life enables them to unite their voices very effective- ly in performing their favorite national airs when they come of age. Two old dances of the country people have been published in which bars of different measure occur in a distinetly symmetrical order. A large variety of dances prevails in Bohemia. DALMATIA. The traveller J. G. Kohl describes the singing of the Morlacchi in Dalmatia as consisting entirely of "chains of shakes."

GALICIA.

The Jews in Galicia adapt their sacred chants, at banquets, to secular words. When passing at midnight througb the streets of Stanislawow, a small town in Galicia, Kohl was surprised to hear from a wine-house a chorus of male voices, which appeared to him exactly like the usual chanting of the Psalms of David in the services of the Synagogue. On entering the wine-house, he found a company. of Jews who were drinking and singing. TYROL. Several European nations are known to cultivate eatempore performances. The Italians, for example, have their Improvisatori; the Welsh their Pennillion singing; and the Southern Germans their Schnodahupferln. These last are short epigrammatic stanzas which the peasants of Tyrol, Styria, and other neighbouring

196 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

countries adapt to one or other of their favourite dan tunes in & time. Sometimes they introduce unmeaning syllables;into their popular poetry chiefly for the sake of the music.

STYRIA

Kohl speaks very highly of the Landler dance of the Styrians, which he describes as the most elegant and charming of all similar performances that he witnessed in the European countries. The sentimental and grace- ful attitudes of the Styrians in their Landler are exactly in keeping with the emotions expressed in the music of this dance. These dances, like the Fandango of the Spaniards, the Csardas of the Magyars, and the Mazurka of the Poles, are especially noted for the picturesque spectacle which the dancers in their national costume present in the performance.

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RUSSIA.

HE Slavonians, the ancestors of the modern Russians, were noted for their passionate fondness for music. Even when within.sight of their enemies, they indulged themselves in singing and merry-making. It is related that in the year 592, when they were attacked by & Greek General, they were so engrossed by their amuse. ments, as to be defeated before they could attempt a defence. There are many Russian couplets still current in which the gods of the Danube and of paga nism are celebrated. Russian music is more usually vocal than instrumental. Their songs are simple recita- tions, ancient or modern, on the subjects of love and nature, and sometimes based on tales of chivalry. On Sundays and holidays, very good vocal music is heard in their churches, which is sung by singers expressly taught, and mostly by the people in the Ukraine, who are of a very musical disposition. Rochlitz remarks that the songs of the lowest classes of the Russians are usually confined to the compass of a fifth. He had the opportunity of hearing many of the songs through the serfs (servants) of the Russian merchants who annually visited the Leipzig fair. He found that the tonic and the dominant were by far the most prevalent intervals ; the intermediate notes of the diatonic minor scale being generally skipped through. There are many Russian tunes which commence in, major, and continue in that key until towards the end, when they modulate into thie minor key in which they close. It is rather singular that

198 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the music of the Russians,-a people said to be of a remarkably cheerful disposition,-should be charac- terised by so much melancholy and plaintiveness as are evidenced by the features of some of the airs from the Ukraine, where the character of the national music has been preserved more intact than in the environs of St. Petersburg. A German musician gives an account of the part-singing of a band' of fifteen Russian soldiers. Two of them sang soprano ; while another began with a solo somewhat of the nature of the recitative. The voices of these men were very powerful, and the enthnsiasm of the singers seemed always to increase during the performance, which some- times extended over six hours without any intermission. Sometimes the singers formed a double line; each man grasped the hands of his opposite neighbour, and having placed one of their officers upon their arms, they tossed him into the air with much ease and regularity in time with the singing. Some of the melodies sung were accompanied by the chorus with a few chords, the staccato-notes being rendered very short, and the accentuation being very precise. A number of German songs, translated into the Lettish language, were intro- duced amongst the pearants in Courland, where, after a certain period of time, the pieces underwent a remark- able change :- what were originally in the major were now sung partly in the minor key, a rude kind of accom- paniment being superadded.

The principal national instrument of the Russians is the Cow-horn, which is a kind of cornet, from one to four feet long, made of wood, or the bark of trees. The Balalaika is a very ancient instrument in common use amongst the Russians, and is said to have been derived originally from the East. The body is an oblong semi-

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circle, about a span in length, with a neck or finger- board. It has only two strings, one of them giving a monotonous bass and the other playing the air. A larger number of strings may be found in other varieties of the instrument. The Gudok is a violin mounted with three strings, and is supposed by Fetis to be the proto- type of all European stringed instruments of the violin kind. The Rilek is an ordinary kind of Lyre. The Gussli was originally a five stringed instrument ot the harp kind played with the fingers, and popular with the Russian peasantry. At present its wire strings embrace from two to three octaves. It is one of the old national instruments of the Russiams. The Torban is an instru- ment of modern Ru sia mounted with 30 strings of gut and wire (14 from side, 12 from handle, and 4 from projection above handle). The body is oval and of a rich reddish wood. Varieties of the Tamboura and Tar may be found in parts of the country. The Dutka is made with two parallel reed pipes, each with three holes, differing in their notes up to an octave, so that it appears as if two persons were performing.

A peculiar kind ot music, called the hunting, or horn- music, was first introduced into Russia about the middle of the eighteenth century. At the suggestion of Marshal Kirilowitsch, M. Maresch, then director of music at the Russian Court, undertook to bring it to perfection. He formed at first a system of three semi-tone octaves, by means of hunting horns of different sizes ; each of which performed only one note. The system was afterwerds extended to four octaves, with the interval of a fourth more, with all the semi-tones comprised in that compass; and, finally, the sounds of the three upper octaves were doubled by the addition of thirty-seven other horns. The Emperor and Empress first heard this music at the

200 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

castle of Ismailor near Moscow, in 1757, on the occasion of a great hunt given by the Marshall. By improved drilling, the performers were subsequently enabled to perform an entire opera. Guiseppe Sarti was appointed by the Empress Catherine to the office of chapel-masier in St. Petersburg. He made his debut by giving a sacred concert, composed of the music for Good Friday, with some Psalms in the Russian language. The band which rendered this music consisted of 66 singers and 100 Russian horns, in addition to the usual number of wind and stringed instruments. In a Te Deum, which was performed after the taking of Ocksakow, Sarti made use of the firing of cannon, of different calibres, placed in the court-yard of the castle, by way of bass in certain parts of the performance. In 1768, Bortniansky was one of the court-singers under Empress Catherino. She sent him to Italy where, under Galuppi, he made extra- ordinary progress in music. The capital has now its musical clubs. Private concerts are numerous ; and sacred music is performed in the chapels in an effoctive style. Plain song was introduced into Rassia by some chorus singers sent by the Patriarch of Constantinople to the Grand Duke Vladimir. The Russians have now adapted the rhythm ef Italian music which received considerable improvement at the hands of Bortniansky, and another composer named Bérézoosky. Madame Catalini is said to have preforred the compositions in church music of the former to any other with which she was acquainted. The celebrated Opera-singer of Russia, Dapja Nichailowna Leonowu, died in Murch 1896.

A curious account of the nutial ceromony of a rich Jew in the province of Podolia is related in a musical journal of Leipzig. The band consisted of four Hebrews plaring on two violins, a dulcimer, and a violoncello.

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They commenced the performance with a soft and senti- mental adagio, and gradually went on to louder and more passionate music, the object being to touch the heart of the bridegroom so as to make him cry before the whole company, for, in accordance with an old custom, he should exhibit signs of repentance for his former sins, before he could be allowed to enter into the matrimonial world. As soon as the musicians, with the verbal assistance of his relations, had succeeded in making him shed tears, the whole company formed a procession to escort the happy pair to the wedding ceremony.

The following "Song of a Russian Peasant girl" appeared in Talvi's " Historical View of the Languages and Literature of the Slavic Nations," New York, 1850 :- Nightingale, O nightingale, Nightingale so full of song, Tell me, tell me, where thou fliost, Where to sing now in the night P Will auother maiden hear thee Like to mne, poor me, all night Sleepless, restless, comfortless Ever full of tears her eyes ? Fly, O fly, dear nightingaly, Over hundred countries flyl, Over the blue sea so far ; Spy the distaut countries through, Town and village, hill and dell. Whether thou find'st any one Who so sad is, as am 1. O, T bore a necklace once, All of pearls like morning dew ; And I bore a finger-ring, With a precious stone thereon ; And I bore deep in my heart Love, a love so warm and true. When the sad, sad autumn came, Were the pearls no longer clear ; And in winter burst my ring, On my finger, of itself ! Al ! and when the spring came on, Had forgotten me my love.

Z

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The Russian hymn dates from the year 1830, when the Emperor Nicholas ordered it to be "performed in coneerts and representations at the theatres. Its com- poser is Colonel Alexis Lwoff, who was born in Revel, Esthonia, in 1799. The tune appears to have been suggested by the Sicilian Mariner s' Hymn, and possesses little of the characteristics of the popular music of Russia.

POLAND.

Poland was formerly a part of an independent kingdom. After undergoing many changes in its government it has now been absolutely incorporated with the Russian Empire. It is now called the Vistula Province. The Poles have a national melody peculiar to their own country. What is called a Polonese, or Polacca, in the rest of Europe, is always in triple time, and is like the English hornpipe in that measure, except that the conclusion is on the second note of the bar, instead of the first. The.Mazurka, the well-known dance of the Poles, has seldom any definite conclusion. The celebrated musician Francois Frederic Chopin (1809-1849) was born in Zela Zowa Wola, a village six miles from Warsaw, in Poland.

FINLAND.

The Finns preserved for a long time a specimen of the Oriental harp. They called it Kantele, or Harpu, end it was the instrument which, according to their my- thological accounts, the Finnish god Wainamoinen (or Vainamoinen) invented, and played, like Orpheus, with such irresistible effect that men and beasts became alike enchanted ; trees did not venture to move their Lranches ; the brook retarded its course, and the wind

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its haste ; and even the " mocking echo".approached stealthily and listened with the utmost attention to the heavenly sounds. Traditions referring to the wonder- ful effect of his performances are still extant in the national poetry of the Finns. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, there existed in Esthonia, (a Government of Russia), wandering minstrels who accompanied their old songs and improvisations on the Kantele. The last popular minstrel, much respected and everywhere welcomed as the "old singer," died in 1812, at an advanced age, and with him the Oriental harp of the Finns appears to have become extinct. Another national instrument of the Finns, called the Kantele, is still often found in Finland and sometimes in the hands of the Lapps in Lapland, who belong to the Finnish or Ugrian races. It consist of a wooden box over which five strings of metal are stretched. The strings are played with the fingers and cannot be shortened in playing, as those of the guitar or violin, the instrument having, like the Dulcimer, no finger-board. This instru- ment bears no resemblance to the Kantele of old. It is considered highly probable that the five strings were originally tuned according to the five intervals of the pentatonic scale. They are now tuned thus,-G, A, B Flat, C, and D. The intervals from which the Finnish sorgs are chiefly constructed are exactly the same; indeed, in many of the airs the compass does not extend above the dominant. The old Runo songs of the Finns extend only from the tonic to the fifth. Simple tunes are most in use in Finland ; sometimes the Runos are composed in & and measures.

The following " Song of a Finnish Maiden" appear- ed in Dr. E. D. Clarke's "Travels in Various Countries," London, 1810 :-

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If my well-known should come, My often-seen should appear ; I would snatch a kiss from his mouth, If it were tainted with wolf's blood ; I would seize and press his hand, If a serpent were at the end of it. If the wind had a mind, If the breeze had a tongue To bear and bring back the vows Which two lovers exchange: All dainties would I disregard, Even the vicar's savoury meat ; Rather than forsake the friend of my heart, The wild game of my summer's hunting, The darling of my winter's taming. LAPLAND. Lapland belongs partly to Russia and partly to Norway and Sweden. The Kantele of modern Finland is also in use in Lapland. The singing of the nomad Lapps is described as a " fearful yell." When singing, they strain their lungs so as to cause a spasmodic con- vulsion of the chest, which, Dr. Clarke says, produces a noise like the braying of an ass. Their songs consist of five or six words repeated over and over. One that Dr. Clarke heard ran as follows :- Let us drive the wolves ! Let ns drive the wolves? See they run ! The wolves run ! Joseph Acerbi, in his " Travels through Sweden, Finland, and Lapland," London, 1802, publishes another song of this description :- Accursed wolf ! far hence away ! Make in these woods no longer stay : Fly hence! and seek earth's utmost bounds, Or perish by the buuter's wounds ! Acerbi remarks it would be no wonder that if the wolf be within Learing when these songs are sung, he should be frightened away by the hideousness of the acise which characterised the singing.

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SCANDINAVIA.

NORWAY.

N his "Narrative of a Journey through Norway> Sweden, and Denmark," Derwent Conway says-"In Norway, generally speaking, musical talent is at a lower ebb than Thave found it in any other mountainous country. There are few facilities in any part of Norway -none in the interior-for the encouragement of knowledge in instrumental music; and the climate scarcely admits of great vocal excellence ; and although many of the airs possess considerable beauty, and a certain kind of wild attractiveness, yet they are, in general, so indifferently executed, that I should incline to attribute by far the greater portion of the enthusiasm, or feeling excited by the songs, to the poetry." The Lure is a wind instrument of the Scandinavians, con- sisting of picces of wood fixed tightly together. In Norwegian dances there frequently occurs an additional bar, which, as it disturbs the rhythmical symmetry, must evidently have suggested itself chiefly for the sake of the conclusion. Melodies in the minor key occur in some of the popular dance-tunes of the Norwegians which gives them a plaintive character. In others, a great deal of sprightliness is observed, as for instance, in the Hall- ing, which derives its name from the district Hallingdal, its original home. It is said to exercise a powerful charm on all those who are acquainted with these lively

206 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

tunes. " You feel yourself," observes a traveller in Norway, "as it were, raiced from the foor, and wish, like the practised Halling dancer, to touch the rafters of the ceiling with your toes. The dancer jumps up as light as a feather, turns round in the air, and descends again standing on one leg ; on the floor he curves, also resting on one heel, whilst his jacket describes a cirele round him like a bell ; them he makes a jump to the opposite side of the room, and goes on as before." In his " Travels through Sweden, Norway, and Finmark," London, 1823, De Capell Brooke relates that he heard the watchmen at Trondhjem (or Drontheim), a fortified sea-port of Norway, sing, as each hour elapsed during the night, a different kind of exhortation to prayer, of which the following is the translation of a specimen :- Ho, the watchman, ho ! The clock has struck ten, Praised be God our Lord! Now is it time To go to bed, The housewife and her maid, The master as well as his lad. The wind is south-east. Hallelujah ! praised be God our Lord.

SWEDEN.

Among the Swedish highlanders, the shepherdesses blow a kind of trumpet, made of birch bark, and called a Mir. It measures sometimes four yards in length, has a strong but musical sound, and, in calm weather, can be heard at a great distance. It is generally used to frigh- ten away wild beasts. In Sweden, music is held in great esteem, as one of the most polite accomplishments, especially, among the ladies. Professors of musie are held in high repute; and their calling is considered so

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honorable that persons of the highest rank are solicitous of their company and acquaintance. There was, 60 years ago, an opera at Stockholm, but the pieces performed were of French or Italian, or of some other origin. In 1772, a Royal Academy of Music was founded at Stockholm by Gustavus III. Some of the popular tunes of the Swedes resemble tunes of other nations. The Swedish song "En gang i bredd med mig," for instance, is something like an English Christmas Carol. Another ballad of the Swedes, called " Sven i rosengard," is somewhat a modi- fication of an old Scotch ballad. This tune also prevails among the Finns, under the name of " Welisurmaaja," and may have been received by them from the Swedes, who for several centuries, had dominion in Finland. The Swedes have a dance called " Polska," and another called " Neckens Polska," the Necks of the Scandina- vians being water-sprites, who are musically disposed and believed by the peasantry to be fallen angels hoping some day for forgiveness. One of the Necks was heard near Hornbogabro, in West Gothland, singing to a sweet melody, "I know, I know, I know that my Redeemer liveth," and another was said to have wept bitterly when some boys once said to him, " what good is it for you to be sitting here and playing, for you will never enjoy eternal happiness." One of the sacred dances prevailing in the country is the solemn bridal dance with which the Frotestant clergyman in the rural districts of Sweden (as well as in some parts of Finland where Swedish customs have been preserved from former times) opens the ball immediately after the wedding-dinner. This custom, however, has greatly fallen out of use.

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DENMARK.

OHE national songs of the Danes bear a close resem- blance with the old English ballads,both as regard the nature of the poetry and the airs to which they are sung,-both being of Teutonic origin. Dr. Crotch, in his " Specimen of Various Styles of Music," has pointed out a Danish tune, the begirning of which is the same as that of the Welsh song "Of noble race was Shenkin." The tune of "Ar hyd i wos," one of the most popular songs of Wales, is also current in Denmark, especially among the peasants in Jutland. It is believed that Jutland was in the olden times inhabited by the same race as is found in Wales. But it is not definitely known whether the tune originated in Denmark or Wales. The Danish ballad "Svend i Rosensgaard," like that of the Swedes, seems to have had its origin in an old Scotch ballad which com- menced-"Quhy dois zour brand sae drop wi' bluid !" Again, the old Danish tune "Kong Regners Vise" claims, as far as its rhythmical construction is concerned, a rela- tionship with the English " God save the King." The patriotic song of the Danes, " Kong Christian stod ved hoien mast," commemorates in its first verse the bravery of Christian IV, their favorite king, and in the subsequent verses those Danish heroes who, like that king, distinguished themselves in naval battles. The poetry is by Ewald, and the music by a German composer, Johann Hartmann, who in 1768 settled in Copenhagen where he died in 1791. The song being in- troduced into an Operetta called Fiskerne (The Fisher-

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men) written by the same composer, was. received with enthusiasm, and soon became popular all over Denmark. The piece shows some-similarity with " Rule Britannia." There are many instances on record regarding the re- semblance of Danish music to that of the Anglo-Saxons. King Alfred (849-901) is known to have assumed the guise of a harper, passed into the Danish camp, and entertained his enemies with his music, which he could not have done, without arousing any suspicion, if his per- formances had differed from those of the Danes. When Alfred had defeated the Danes, he permitted them to settle in Northumberland and incorporated them with his subjects. In Mr. Halliwell's " Dissertation on Popular Rhymes and Nurser y Tales", the identity of several English and Scottish children's ditties has been pointed out. The Reel is a Danish as well as a Scottish national dance. It was formerly popular in England too, and its name (from the Anglo-Saxon Hreol, or Reol) points rather to Denmark or Northern Germany as its original home, than to Scotland. Several of these dances, still extant in some districts of Denmark, beår n construction a strong resemblance to the old popular dances of Great Britain.

AA

210 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

HOLLAND.

EWIS Guicciardini, who was contemporary with Palestrina and died before him in 1589, states that in his time, it was the practice in the Netherlands, and had been a custom there of long standing, to supply Europe with musicians.

In some of the principal towns in the Netherlands, music is cultivated with much perseverance and success, though not to the same extent as it was before the seven- teenth century. Amsterdam possesses a Harmonic Society, a Dutch Opera, and a French Opera, where the best compositions are produced. At Rotterdam, eccle- siastical music, during the first quarter of the present century, was at a low web. In the Protestant churches, the singing was then entirely in unison. The concerts given there are reported as respectable and well attend- ed. The kingdom has nowadays made satisfactory . progress in the cultivation of the Science and Art.

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BELGIUM.

PNDER the Counts of Flanders, Belgium was in- dependent and flourishing. It was afterwards added to the domains of the House of Burgundy, and in 1477 to those of Austria. It was overrun by the revolution- ary armies of France in 1792, and in 1795 it was annexed to that country. At the peace in 1814, it was united with Holland into the kingdom of the Netherlands ; but in 1880 it separated itself and elected as its king Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, whose son, Leopold II, is the present king. At one time Belgium produced a race of eunnent artists in music, painting, and archi- tecture, who formed what was called the " Flemish School." In the fifteenth century, music made great progress in this country, and it met with considerable encouragement at the court of the Duke of Burgundy. In the latter part of the fifteenth, and the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Flemish musicians were to be found in every court of Italy. The most celebrated Flemish musicians of the period were, Gilles Binchois, Caron, Regis, Dufay, and Brasart, who preceeded John of Okenheim, the master of Jasquin Des Pres, one of the most celebrated contrupuntists of his day; an who, even anterior to Palestrina, invented many in- genious modulations of harmony. Philip Verdelot, whose works all bear date previous to 1550, is mention- ed as one of the best composers of the beginning of the

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sixteenth century: Nic. Gombert, Clement von Papa, Cyprian Rose, Orlando di Lasso, Hobrecht, the master of Erasmus, Philip de Monte, Jacob de Kerl, Cornelius Caris, and Josquin Barton, were among the other Flemish musicians of the period.

" At Antwerp", says Dr. Crotch, " no temporal business interferes to stop the daily performance of that class of music which, in our Protestant country, is eagerly sought after by amateurs in the various holcs and corners of our metropolis which furnish Catholic chapels-places in which the imagination can but ill con- ceive the pompous celebration of the Mass as it takes place in the vast churches of the continent, where music, painting, architecture, blending together, form, like colors when combined, another material, and produce in the mind poetry."

His Majesty, the present King of Belguim, is a great patron of the polite arts and encourages the study of music in a liberal manner. The Royal Con- servatoire of Music in Brussels contains a splendid assortment of musical instruments collected from rarious countries, and affords the student considerable facilities for the cultivation of the subject. Francois Anguste Gevaert, the Director of the Conserratoirc, was born July 81st, 1828. He received the Order of Leopold, for his cantata ' De Nationale Verjaerdag' composod in honor of the 25th anniversary of King Leopold's reign. Ho is a musician of a very high order .. Chevalier Vietor Charles Mahillon, the Honorary Curator of the Museum of the Conservatoire, was born in Brussels, March 10, 1841. He is the author of important works on accous- tics and musical instruments. He has contributed sev eral articles on wind instruments in the ninth edition

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of the Encyclopadia Britannica. He has caused to be reproduced many rare instruments among which are the Roman Lituus and Buccina. His services to the Inventions Exhibition of 1885 have been very highly appreciated.

214 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

GERMANY.

QHE national music of the Germans (who form a branch of the Teutons, or Goths) has been preserved by the wandering minstrels from the time of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), who was born in 742 and died 814. It was about 1066 when Magister Franco, who was a scholar of Leige, first developed the principles of modern rhythm and invented the time table. The minnesingers (corresponding with the minstrels of England and the troubadors of France) were the earliest poets of Germany. They used the vernaculars of the country, their songs being written in the High German or Suabian dialect, and the Nether German or Upper Saxon. The subjects were principally love and war. In the reign of Louis Le Debonnaire, son of Charlemagne, their com- positions had become so very popular in the convents, that this monarch had to issue an edict to the German nuns with a view to check their passion for erotic songs In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the minstrels were very liberally patronized in Germany, and parti- cularly during the reign of Frederic Barbarossa. In the fourteenth century, the Church regained its power over the people in consequence of which poetry and music received a sad shock. In the fifteenth century, how- ever, music made much progress both in Germany and the low countries. It was in the sixteenth century that Pierre de la Rue, a celebrated contrupuntist, resided in

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Germany ; that Casper Krumbhorn, who was born at Lignitz in 1542 and had become totally blind at the age of three years from the effects of small-pox, made pro- ficiency on the flute, violin, and harpsichord; and that the famous composers Reincke, Maurice, and Landgrave of Hesse Cassel, flourished. The principal theorists of the period were Martinus Agricola (of Magdeburg) and John Kepler (of Wiel). It was about this time that the organ was built and generally adopted in the German churches. This instrument was improved by Bernhard, in 1480, by the invention of the pedal. The Reformation in Germany did not cause much change in the solemn musical services of the church. Luther (1483-1546) is said to have been passionately fond of music, and, in conjuction with his friend Melancthon, to have framed a ritual. Several hymns composed by Luther are still in existence. Calvin (1509-1564) introduced, in lieu of the impressive chorus and the simple plain-song, the metrical psalmody, which is now in general use in the reformed churches of the continent. Charles V (1500-1558) was an excellent musician and had a regular band which played during dinner and at other periods ; and it is generally understood that vocal concerts had their first rise in Flanders, about the middle of the sixteenth century, when this sovereign held his court in Brussels. The compositions chiefly sung were of the madrigal species, and were for three or more voices. German music show- ed a falling off during the thirty years' war, when the empire was traversed by five several armies in different directions. The Emperor Leopold, who ascended the throne in 1657, revived the art, and introduced Italian music into Germany. The Italian opera was established in Germany in 1660 by Santinelli, an Italian nobleman, whom Leopold appointed as his chapel-master. The opera Gli Amori di Orfeo ed Euridici, which Santinelli

216 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

composed in honour of the marriage of his royal patron, is said to have been superior to any then existing, and was thought so much of in Vienna, that an Italian opera was established there, which has been supported ever since. The first German opera was performed at Ham- burgh, in 1678. It was called Orontes, and the music was by Thiel, the chapel-master of that city. Keyser, who was born at Leipsig in 1678, is, however, generally con- sidered as the founder of the lyric theatre in Germany, by his operas of Basilius and La Pastorale d'Ismene, per- formed in 1692. He composed 118 musical piecos for the stage, which served as models for Handel (1685- 1759) and his successors inthe German school. It is related that the performers, specially at Hamburgh, were all tradesmen or handicrafts. Matheson, Handel, Cousson, and telemann were all composers for the Hamburgh theatre. Their compositions being of a sober, solemn, and majestic cast, they did not become popular among the masses. Hence the introduction of lighter compositions based on Italian models, by J. T. Agricola, Graun, Hasse, and others. The eighteenth century gave birth to some of the most celebrated composers that Germany had ever produced ; among these were (Huck, (1714-1787), the family of the Bachs, Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven. Francis Joseph Haydn was born in March, 1732, and died on the 26th of May, 1810. He was a distinguished composer of secular and ecclesiastical music. His oratorios, specially The Seasons and The Creation, are deservedly popular among all who can appre- ciate eminence in musical efforts. His symphonies are the highest pattern of instrumental music. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on the 27th of January, 1756. It is said that before he was six years old he was capable of playing difficult com-

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positions; and that when little more than eight, he wrote his Sinfonia in England whilst his father was ill and confined to the house. Mozart is dis- tinguished as much for his performances as for his com- positione for the church and the stage. His principal operatic productions are Idomeneo, La Clemenza di Tito, Le Nozze di Figaro, Giovanm, and Der Zauberflote. He died in December, 1792. Ludwig Von Beethoven was born in 1770. He did honor to his masters, Neefe, Hadyn, and Albrechtsberger, by his voluminous and remarkable compositions in instrumental music. For some years before his death, Beethoven was afflicted with an incur- able deafness, which infrmity, however, produced no effect upon his talents. He died on the 26th of March. 1827, in Vienna. Next in eminence to Beethoven was Carl Maria von Weber, who was born, 1787. His principal operatic compositions are Oberon, Euryanthe, and the celebrated Der Freischuts. The enthusiasm with which the last-mentioned piece was received in England (where it was brought out in 1825) caused Kemble to engage Weber as director and composer for the Covent Garden Theatre. Weber died in England in the following year. Among the later German composers were F. P. Schubert, the only great composer native to Vienna (January 31, 1797-19th November, 1828) ; Mayer (the composer of the popular opera Medea), who was born 1799, and died 1862 ; Gyrowatz, who finished an opera called the Blind Harper in January, 1829, he being then in his 75th year ; Schumann (1810-1856) ; Ludwig Sphor (1784-1859), the composer of the operas Faustus and Jessonda ; Mendels- sohn, who was born in 1809, and died in 1847; Giacomo Meyerbeer (1794-1864), the composer of Il Crociato in Eyitto; and Wilhelm Richard Wagner (January 22, 1818- February 18, 1883) Besides composers, Germany has produced a number of instrumental and vocal performers

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218 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

whose merits have raised them to the very first rank in their profession ; and among them may be named Wil- helmine Shroder-Devrient, a highly-gifted dramatic singer, also called the " Queen of Tears," who was born at Hamburgh, December, 1804, and died January 21st, 1860. The greatest scientific musician of the latest times was Professor Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Helmholtz. He was born at Potsdam, August 31, 1821 He began by teaching Medicine, Physiology, and Natural Philosophy. He was the author of the " Treatise on the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music," (1863), and was noted for his valuable inventions and discoveries in relation to the art.

The Laute (Lute), Pfeife (pipe), the horn, and Harfe (harp) are among the musical instruments of Germany. The guitar has hardly been known in this country for. more than a century and & half. The inhabitants of some mountainous districts' ad, however, from time im- memorial, a somewhat simi ar instrument called Zither. There is another German instrument called Hackbret, or Cimbal, which is a kind of Duicimer. It consists of a trapeziform or square box, about 4 feet and 18 inches broad, which contains the sounding board, at the right and left of which are the iron screws for tuning. The compass embraces about three octaves. The strings are of wire, and two or three of them are in unison for each note. The instrument is played with two little sticks having small oval knobs at each end. One side of the knob is covered with soft leather or felt and is used in piano passages. The Clavi- cimbel, (called in French Claveer t and in Italian Cembalo,) was a kind of spinet, n w out of use. Some of J. S. Bach's concertos are tten " a due cembali." Among the stringed instrumencs of the 18th century

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are mentioned the Taschengerge (Pochette), and the Nagel- geige (Nail-Violin), which is a circular frame of wood in which are set 66 iron pins, and played with a bow. The Fagott is an old wind instrument of the Bassoon kind.

Several national songs of the Germans have under- gone changes in tune and time in their passage through different districts. For instance, "Feinsliebchen" is sung in one way in Hanover, and in the manner universally adopted in Germany, in another way in the province of Silesia in Prussia, and in a third way in Bavaria. The drinking song " Rheinweinlied" was sung in 1776 in a manner different from the one it is sung now. And so is the " Prince Eugenius." This song, which is very popular even in the present time, contains a relation of the military exploits of Prince Eugene against the Turks before Belgrade (1717), and is said to have been made- both as regard music and words-by a common soldier who served under him. Some of the national airs end with the interval of the third instead of the tonic. Sometimes the bar of an air is repeated in'order to give greater effect to the words, or to render a certain favorite motive more prominent. The huntsman's song " In sein Horn" is a case in point. The well-known "Dessaur Marsch" is of Italian origin. After Prince Leopold had stormed Turin (1706), the conquered Italians met him with this march to do him hamage. The melody so pleased the German soldiers that therr trumpeters soon began to blow it upon their instruments. When it had been transmitted by them to Germany, the people soon germanised its Italian flourishes. Handel's Pastorale in the " Messiah" owes its origin to a song of the Italian Pifferari (Calabrian peasants), who, according to an ancient custom, appeared in Rome every year about

220 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Christmas to perform their pastoral melodies before the shrines of the Holy Virgin. Mendelssohn is in- debted for the theme of the admirable Scherzo in his Symphony in A minor to a popular Scottish melody. In the vicinity of Minden, and in some other districts of Westphalia, remains have been found of an old German ballad which, in the opinion of Jacob Grimm, was pro- bably made at the time of Charlemagne. It is rather remarkable that the tune to which it is sung is in the minor key, as this key is rarely met with now in the national songs of Germany. Many of the old German Church hymns were compiled from hunting-songs, love- ditties, and similar secular poems. Some of the tunes also were adopted and the words changed so as to give them a spiritual signification. For example, the ardent pursuer of the stag and roe in one of the hunting-songs has been transformed into a zealous Christian following after Faith and Charity, and the lover in a love-ditty com- plaining that he must depart and wander from the town where his sweetheart abides, is converted into a man exclaiming " O world, I mnst leave thee." These verbal alterations were made mostly at the time of the Reforma- tion. But subsequently entirely new hymns were in most cases written to the old tunes.

In his " Airs of the Rhine," Mr. Edward Taylor observes :- "The peculiarity which strikes an English- man in Germany is the general sensibility to vocal har- mony. If he hears a party of country girls singing in a vineyard, or a company of conscripts going to drill, he is sure to hear them sing in parts." Mr. Planche, in his " Descent of the Danube," also notices the skill with which the Bavarians sing in parts. The peasants in Bavaria have a dance which they call " Der Zwiefache," or " Gerade und Ungerade" (Even or Uneven). The

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tempo is taken very fasv, and the tune is repeated at least half a dozon times. In the part-singing which prevails among the German country people, the singers, in some cases, accompany the melody with the tonic, the dominant, and with a series of thirds. Even a three- part harmony may sometimes be heard in the vocal performances of the peasants in Hanover and in some other districts of North Germany, generaliy during harvest-time, when, in the evening, the field labourers are returning home from their work singing in chorus. In the German villages and small towns may be heard every hour during the night until four o'clock in the morning the blowing of the watchman's horn, or the springing of his rattle, followed by a song, containing some religious or moral sentiment in keeping with the hour of the night. The song is so curious in its concep- tion that no apology is needed for reproducing the following translation of a specimen from William Howitt's " Rural and Domestic Life of Germany," London, 1842 :-

1. Hear, my masters, what I tell, Ten has struck now by the bell ! Ten are the Commandments given By the Lord our God from Heaven. Human watch no good can yield ns ; God will watch us, God will shield us : May He through His heavenly might, Give us all a happy night !

2. Hear, my masters, what I tell, It has strnck eleven by the bell ! Eleven were the Apostles sound, Who did teach the whole world round. Human watch no good, &c.

3. Hear, my masters, what I tell, Twelve has struck now by the bell ! Twelve did follow Jesus' name,- Suffered with him all his shame. Human watch no good, &c.

222 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIO.

4. Hear, my masters, what I tell, One has struok now by the bell ! One is God, and one alone, Who doos hear us when we groan. Human watch no good, &c.

5. Hear, my masters, 'what I tell, Two has struck now by the bell ! Two paths before our'steps divide, Man beware, and well decido ! Human watch no good, &c.

Hear, my masters, what I tell, Three has struck now by the bell ! Threefold is what's hallowed most, The Father, Son, and Holy Ghost. Human watch no good, &o.

7 Hear, my masters, wbat I tell, Four has struck now by the bell 1 Four times our lands we plough and dress Thy heart, O man, till'st thou that less ? Human watch no good can yield us ; God will watch us, God will shield us ; May He through His heavenly might, Givo us all a happy night !

The English hymn " God Save the King" has been adopted in several German courts. In Prussia it is alled. " Heil Dir im Siegerkranz." It was first sung there in 1796 at the Berlin National Theatre.

The famous national air " Holde Nacht" had, in the years 1813 and 1814, a considerable influence upen he Prussian soldiers. It is said that many who sang it were plunged into profound melancholy ; so that Blu- cher and Gneisenau found it necessary to forbid its being sung. The effect has been ascribed partly to the music, and partly to the words and to the recollections asso- ciated with the song.

The cultivation of musio is probably more general in Germany than in any other part of the world. Even

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in charity schools this art is taught; and it is stated that no schoolmaster is allowed to exercise his pro- fession, unless he is able to teach the elements of music and some instruments. Under such circumstances there can be little wonder that Germany has produced so many eminent composers and practical performers, whose name and achievements have not only been appreciated at home, but honored and perpetuated also in England and other foreign countries. Handel had a statue erected to him in the Vauxhall Gardens, in the reign of George II, of England; and even now the Handel Festival is held there periodically and with due eclat.

224 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

SWITZERLAND.

ONHE Swiss are said to love music as much as they love their mountains and their liberty. The com- poser Spohr, while sojourning among the peasants in Switzerland, observed that the people sang, as a rule, the interval of the third slightly higher, that of the fourth still higher, and that of the minor seventh considerably lower than in the diatonic scale; whence he concludes that this intonation is the most natural to the human ear when it has not been accustomed from infancy to the tempered tonal system.

The Alphorn is the national instrument of the Swiss. It is made of fir and is a hollow tube, four or five feet long, of a moderate size, bent at its thickest and lowest extremity, and terminating with a basin similar to that of a trumpet to which instrument its compass may be compared. Professor Wysz, in his preface to a collection of Swiss national airs, observes, that " the compass of the Alphorn is nearly the same as that of a trumpet; as on that instrument, and on the horn, the upper F is not an exact F, neither is it an exact F- sharp ; for the former it is too sharp, for the latter tco flat." The Professor point d out to a Swiss herds- man that it would be an improvement if by some con- trivance, the instrument could be made to produce a proper F-Natural. He was told in reply that the pre- sent interval was preferred because it had a more pleas- ing and soothing effect than F-Natural. The Alphorn

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is first mentioned by Conrad Gessner, in his Account of Mount Pilate which was published in 1555. The instru- ment is now getting out of use. Mr. S. W. Stevenson states in his " Tour in France, Savoy, Northern Italy, Switzerland, &c," that it is played upon in all the moun- tainous districts of Switzerland, and serves to summon the shepherds and cow-keepers to their employments, and to call the cattle themselves to pasture in the morn- ing and to re-enter their stables in the evening."

The Swiss music is characterised by a soothing sweetness and a wild simplicity ; and the varied and rapid transitions from one note to another, from the tones below the break of the voice to those above, and from above to below, (which the Swiss express by the term yodlen), are said to produce a very pleasing effect. It is difficult to acquire the art of making these changes perfectly, unless one practices it from early youth ; it is a wild inter- change of guttural sounds with those of the falsetto; and is introduced in the part-songs of tho Swiss and Tyrolese peasantry and substituted for an instrumental accompaniment. Dr. John Forbes, in his work called " A Month in Switzerland," London, 1849, states that in the town of Stein there is in nightiy use a chant to which an in- teresting history is attached. Sometime in the four- teenth century, when there were frequent contests be- tween the towns and the feudal lords of the country, a treacherous plot was concocted to deliver Stein into the hands of the enemy. The night of attack came, and it was arranged that the enemies would be admitted by the traitors at two o'clock in the morning, the watch- word agreed upon between the parties being " Noch a Wyl" (Noch eine Weile-Yet a while). A shoe-maker

cc

226 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

who happened to overhear the whispered signal gave the alarm, frustrated the nefarious plan, and saved the town. Ever since, the nightwatch of Stein, when he calls the hour of two, must chant out the old words "Noch a Wyle ! Noch a Wyle !"

The celebrated national air of the Swiss, the Ranz des Vaches (which literally means, the march or proces- sion of the cows) is either sung or played on the Alphorn. It has often been described, and possibly it may have happened, that the Swiss soldiers in foreign regiments have been forbidden, under heavy penalty, to sing or even to whistle this air, because it affected them to tears, induced them to desert, or made them home-sick and unfit for service. Mr. Stevenson, who heard it sung in 1828, thus describes it :- " Its commencement is slow and heavy ; but the burden is in a quicker movement, and a more lively strain. The melody is ordinary enough, and the words uninteresting ; yet the character being that " of unmeasured simplicity and mournful wildness, its effect is by no means destitute of influence, even over a stranger's feelings." According to Professor Wysz, it ought to be heard at a certain distance, in order to modify the rudeness of sounds that proceed from a powerful breast and are uttered with energetic force. "It requires to be sung," adds the Professor, " with the whole heart and soul, by a shepherd, who is calling together his scattered flock, or descending gaily with his load from the mountains. Ignorant of all the rules of art, and guided by his fancy alone, he utters such sounds as produce the most harmonious effects in the distance, and are attended with an indescribable charm,"

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ITALY.

ANCIENT PERIOD.

CCORDING to Strabo (B. C. 54-A. C. 24 ?), the public music of the Romans, specially that used in sacrifices, was derived from . Etruria; and Dionysius Halicarnassus says that the Etruscans obtained their musical Knowledge from Argos, though it is more likely that it came from the Eastern countries. The earliest mention of Roman music is made in connection with the triumph of Romulus over the Cæninenses (B. C. 749). Numa, who began his reign about 715 B. C., in dividing the people into tribes according to their different ocoupations, gave musicians the first rank ns they were employed in affairs of religion. It was in the reign ot this Emperor that mention is made of the Salii, who were dancera and singers of hymns in praise of the war-god. Servius Tullius, who began to reign in 578 B. C., formed the people into classes or centuries, and he ordered that two centuries should consist of "trumpeters, blowers of the horn, &e., and of such as, without any other instruments, sounded the charge." By the laws of the ten tables, which were enacted 450 B. C., the number of flute-players to be used at funerals war limited to ten. The drama was first introduced into Rome in 364 B. C., on the occasion of a plague. To appease the incensed deities who were supposed to have sent the visitation upon the city, the games called

226 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

who happened to overhear the whispered signal gave the alarm, frustrated the nefarious plan, and saved the town. Ever since, the nightwatch of Stein, when he calls the hour of two, must chant out the old words "Noch a Wyle ! Noch a Wyle!"

The celebrated national air of the Swiss, the Ranz des Vaches (which literally means, the march or proces- sion of the cows) is either sung or played on the Alphorn. It has often been described, and possibly it may have happened, that the Swiss soldiers in foreign regiments have been forbidden, under heavy penalty, to sing or even to whistle this air, because it affected them to tears, induced them to desert, or made them home-sick and unfit for service. Mr. Stevenson, who heard it sung in 1828, thus describes it :- " Its commencement is slow and heavy; but the burden is in a quicker movement, and a more lively strain. The melody is ordinary enough, and the words uninteresting ; yet the character being that" of unmeasured simplicity and mournful wildness, its effeet is by no means destitute of influence, even over a stranger's feelings." According to Professor Wysz, it ought to be heard at a certain distance, in order to modify the rudeness of sounds that proceed from a powerful breast and are uttered with energetic force. "It requires to be sung," adds the Professor, " with the whole heart and soul, by a shepherd, who is calling together his scattered flock, or descending gaily with his load from the mountains. Ignorant of all the rules of art, and guided by his fancy alone, he utters such sounds as produce the most harmonious effects in the distance, and are attended with an indescribable charm,"

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ITALY.

ANCIENT PERIOD.

CCORDING to Strabo (B. C. 54-A. C. 24 ?), the public music of the Romans, specially that used in sacrifices, was derived from . Etruria; and Dionysius Halicarnassus says that the Etruscans obtained their musical knowledge from Argos, though it is more likely that it came from the Eastern countries. The earliest mention of Roman music is made in connection with the triumph of Romulus over the Caninenses (B. C. 749). Numa, who began his reign about 715 B. C., in dividing the people into tribes according to their different occupations, gave musicians the first rank as they were employed in affairs of religion. It was in the reign ot this Emperor that mention is made of the Salii, who were dancers and singers of hymns in praise of the war-god. Servius Tullius, who began to reign in 578 B. C., formed the people into-classes or centuries, and he ordered that two centuries should consist of "trumpeters, blowers of the horn, &e., and of such as, without any other instruments, sounded the charge." By the laws of the ten tables, which were enacted 450 B. C., the number of flute-players to be used at funerals war limited to ten. The drama was first introduced into Rome in 364 B. C., on the occasion of a plague. To appease the incensed deities who were supposed to have sent the visitation upon the city, the games called

230 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

vation of the voice and accompanying action. The following are the principal divisions of the art as given in his work which is the most complete of all on ancient music :-

General. Sounds. Nabural. Arithmetical. Intervals. Contem- System. plative. Genera. Harmonic. Rhythmic. Tones. Artificial. Mutations. Metric. Melopœia. MUSIC. Melopœia. Active Usual. Rhythmopœia. or Erudi- Poetry.

tive. Enuncia- Organic. Odic. tive. Hypercritic.

By contemplative music was meant that part of the science which defined the principles, and enquired into the causes of the effects produced ; i. e., the theory ; while active music, which applied those principles already developed, denoted the practical part. Quintilianus dis- tinguished the three genera, the Diatonic, the Chromatic, and the Enharmonic, each of which comprised a number of notes, represented by different marks, varying with the various modes, and in the formation of which no ana- logy was attended to .. As regards rhythm and metre, music was entirely subservient, in these respects, to poetry ; and composition was almost entirely confined to vocal pieces.

MODERN PERIOD.

The cultivation of music declined after the death of Nero, and the art took shelter with the early Christians. In the first ages of the church, music formed an im-

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portant item of divine worship, and it is supposed that it was the solemn music of the Temple, derived from the ancient Jews, and communicated, with the psalms, to the Christians, by the first teachers of the religion. During the reign of the Emperor Constantius, son of Con- stantine the Great, the antiphonal singing was adopted in the Christian churches. St. Ambrose, who presided over the see of Milan (from 374 to 398), in the reign of Theodosius, instituted in his Cathedral a peculiar kind of singing called Cantus Ambrosianus. He is said to have used four authentic or principal modes, i. e., the Dorian, from D to d ; the Phrygian, from E to e : the Æolian, from F to f ; and the Mixolydian, from G to g. These modes were also distinguished by the Greek numerical terms, Protos (first) ; Deuteros (second); Tritos (third); and Tetartos (fourth) St. Ambrose is credited by some authorities with the authorship of the Te Deum, one of the most ancient specimens of ecclesiastical music yet extant. The style of sacred chanting established by St. Ambrose was succeeded by a more gay and florid one which went by the name of Canto Figuranto, which was supplanted by the Canto Fermo (or the Plain chant), in- troduced by Pope St. Gregory (who was born about 550). He substituted the Roman letters. in place of the Greek notes and added four modes (called plagal, or relative, or collateral) to those adopted by St. Ambrose. It is said that Pope Vitalian introduced the organ into the Romish church about 670 A. C. About this time, the Gregorian chant or plain-song began to be organised for voices, in the manner which was afterwards called discant, and which, in the infancy of counterpoint, implied a double chant, or melody. This mode of sing- ing was, at first, practised only with the organ, but it was soon after adopted for vocal performances only ; and from two voices extended to three, four, &e, and tne

232 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

terms triple, quadruple, motet, quintet, guartet, began to be introduced"and applied to musical compositions. Danc- ing appears to have formed a part of the religious ceremonies of the early Christians. Father Menestrier remarks that the word choir was originally derived from a Greek term which meant a dance, or a company of dancers. Subsequent to St. Gregory, many change were effected in the notation of the chants. Points and accents, and various marks were adopted to denote the elevation or depression of the voice. In the tenth century, lines were used (8 or 9 in number) ; between which the syllables of the psalm or hymn were written. Their place on these lines was denoted by an alphabeti- cal letter placed at the beginning of each ; capitals for the grave sounds, and small letters for the acute. Sometimes the notes were written over the words, and connected with the latter by ligatures. Gerbert Scholasticus, who was elected Pope (Sylvester II) in 999, and who died 1003, is said to have brought the organ to perfection by means of blowing it with warm water, and to have paved the way for the discoveries of Guido Aretinus, a native of Arezzo (in Tuscany), where he was born in 990. Guido converted the Greek tetrachords into hexachords, i. e., a diatonic ascent from the key note to its sixth, and to these six sounds he applied the syllables, ut, re, me, fa, sol,la, the initial syllables of a hymn written by Paulus Draconus, in 770. for the festival of St. John. This is what is called solmization. Guido simplified notation, by reducing the number of letters used to denote sounds, from fifteen to seven, and instead of placing them at different heights above each other, he wrote them at the commencement of the line, using a point where they were to be repeated. Iu course of time the letters were discontinued

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and the points only retained. He was the first that used the intervals between the lines to denote degrees; placing the points in those intervals, as well as in the lines themselves. The lines were of different colors. The stave of five lines (or of four for church music) was simplified, if not invented, by him. He settled the use and distinction of clefs. Some author- ities ascribe to him the invention of counterpoint (the term being derived from contrapunctum, or point against point : the notes in each stave being placed in opposition to each other).

The improvements effected by Guido were introduced into the monastery of the Benedictines at Arezzo, as also in Rome, and other parts of Italy, but after his death (about 1050), music advanced by slow degrees in the country. For several years the art was confined to the church and to bands of wandering minstrels. Dante (1265-1821) mentions one Castelli as a musician in his Divina Commedia. Scochetto, a friend and contem- porary of Dante, set some of his poetry to music. Dante speaks of two different species of song, which prevailed in his time ; viz., the Canzone, signifying a song composed on grave and tragic subjects, and Cuntinela, a comic or buffo composition. He also speaks of the Madrigal, or Madriale, which term was originally applied to hymns addressed to the Virgin. It would appear from the accounts given by Boccacio (1313-1375) that in the fourteenth century the Laudi spirituali were per- formed at Florence in 1310 by the Philharmomc Society of that city. The instruments chiefly in use at this period were the viol and the lute. In the fifteenth century a famous organist, named Antonio, lived at Florence. The Neapolitan school of music was founded by John Tinctor of Brabant between 1450 and 1490.

Dס

234 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The church compositions of this period were chiefly the produetions of foreigners. Gafurius, otherwise called Franchinus, who was born about 1451 at Lodi (in Italy), published works on the theory of music in which he speaks only of five characters of time, viz., the maxima, the long, the breve, the semi-breve, and the minim. In the early part of the sixteenth century, the crotchet, quaver, and semi-quaver were used in the compositions. The Fugues came to be in use at this period, but no trace is found of the inventor or the place of invention of this kind of composition. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina was born at Palestrina in the campagna of Rome in 1528 or 1529. He died in 1594. On account of the magnificence of his church compositions, he was called the " creator of modern church music." At this time various classes of secular music were brought into use by eminent masters of the different schools. The most ancient secular music, in parts, is to be found in Naples, and consists of the rustic and street tunes of that place, which go by the names of Arie, Canzonette, .Villote, and Fillanella alla Napolitana. Among the many theoretical musicians of the century might be named Zorlino (1540-1589), who was a practical composer, too, of great celebrivy. Concert music and oratorios were first introduced into Italy during this century. The latter probably were derived from the Mysteries and Moralities of the Middle Ages.

Though the application of music to the secular drama was attempted in Italy in previous centuries, it was upon the close *of the sixteenth century that an opera in the modern form, in which the recitative was adopted on the lines of the ancient Greek declamation, was brought out. Dafne, which is the name of the piece, was written by Rinuccini (the best poet of the age),

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between 1594 and 1597, and represented in the latter year, in the palace of Count Giacomo Corsi who took an active part in putting the opera on the stage. The music was composed by Giocomo Peri, the most cele- brated musician of the period. The performers were the author and his friends ; a harpsichord, a viol da gamba, a harp, and a lute, formed the accompaniment ; and the recitative (there was no attempt at air) was merely a kind of measured intonation. Rinuccini afterwards wrote the Euridici and Ariadne. The former was the first piece of the kind performed before the public, its representation taking place at the theatre, Florence, in 1600, on the occasion ofthe marriage of Henry IV of France with Mary de Medicis. The lyric drama made its appearance in the seventeenth century first at Florence, next in Rome, and then at Venice, where the Orfeo of Claude Monteverde was performed in 1667. Giacomo Carissimi (who was born in 1604, or according to some in 1582, and who died in 1674) improved the recitative in the form in which it is now presented. He greatly improved the lyrical drama and introduced the viols and bass viols into the service of the church. Dome- nicho Mazzochi, one of the Roman school, about 1638, improved the composition of madrigals, and invented the characters of crescendo, diminuendo, piano, forte, and the enharmonic sharp. Gregorio Allegri (1580-1652) was the composer of the famous Miserere, which was held in so much esteem that it was forbidden to be copied, under pain of ex-communication. Mozart, however, succeeded in noting it down when the choir were performing it. It has since been printed in England, under the supervi- sion of Dr. Burney who is said to have obtained a copy of it though Santarelli the singer. Alessandro Stradella (1645-1681 ?) improved the oratorio, and was a great performer on the violin. It is related of him that two

236 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC

bravos, who were sent to Rome by a Venetian nobleman to assassinate him, were so charmed by his singing (at St. John Lateran), that they abandond their purpose, and allowed him to escape. Alessandro Scarlatti (1659-1725), a pupil of Carissimi, vastly improved the opera. He made the overture (which had previously been a meagre obligato symphony) a species of musical prologue, or programme of the action, and perfected the obligato, or accompanied recitative, and introduced the da capo, or ritornel of the symphonies, into recitatives of strong passion. Corelli (1653-1713) was the founder of the Roman or the ancient school of violinists, and was the first composer who brouglt the violin into repute. Nicolo Amati (the last of the celebrated family), who was born on September 3, 1596, and died August 12, 1684, together with his pupil, Antonio Stradivari (born 1649 or 1650 and died December 1737), were the well- known violin-makers of Cremona of this period. Can- tatas first came into fashion in Italy about 1618. The invention of this kind of composition is attributed by Sir John Hawkins to Barbara Strozzi, a Venetian lady, who, in 1653, published vocal compositions under this title. Among the eminent musicians who flourished in Italy in the eighteenth century were the following :- Logroscino, a celebrated composer of the oper buffa ; Galuppi, or Il Buranello, as he is commonly called, (1708-1805), one of the finest composers of the comic opera; Niccola Piccini (1728-1800), the composer of over 300 operas and one of the first to introduce into oneras concerted pieces and finales ; Giovanni Battista Bononcini (1670 ?- 1752), famous for his competition with Handel; Sebastiano Nazolini (1768-1799), a dramatic composer ; Giovanni Battista (commonly called Padre) Martini (April 25, 1706-1784), the most celebrated scientific musician; and Guiseppe Tartini (April 12,

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1692, February 16, 1770), the composer of " Il Trillo de Diavolo," or " the Devil's Sonata." Metastasio, " the last poet of Italy," who was born in Rome, January 3, 1698, and who died, April 12, 1782, was a player on the harpsichord and a singer. He was considered as the originator of a real improvement in the musical drama. His cantatas afforded ample themes for the exercise of the talents of a great many musicians of the century. Vocal music was carried to a very high pitch of perfec- tion at this period. The greatest musician of Italy of the nineteenth century was Gioachio Antonio Rossini. He was born on February 29, 1792, and died on November 13, 1868. He was the composer of a large number of successful operas, and his attainments and execution are the theme of admiration of almost all musicians of the present age. Among the other distinguished musicians of the ninteenth century were Nicholas Zingarelli, a Neapolitan, born April 4, 1752, and died 1837; Salva- tore Cherubini, a Florentine, born September 14, 1760, and died May 15, 1842 ; Gaetano Donizetti, (November 29, 1797-1848); Nicolo Paganini, the most famous of violin virtuosos (February 18, 1784, May 27, 1840) ; Antonio Tamburini, an eminent lyric artist, bari-tone singer, born March 28, 1800, died November 9, 1876 ; and Guiseppe Verdi, born October 19, 1813. At the present day, there are musical academies in almost all the important cities of Italy, and the country maintains the reputation which it has, for so many centuries past, achieved in musical excellence. The Italian Opera, all over the civi- lised world, is the resort of people who love and can appreciate the higher forms of music, and is considered the repository of the time-enduring productions of the master-composers whose name and fame will last so long as music will continue to be regarded as the most ennobling of all the polite arts.

238 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The calascione is an instrument formerly held in high favor by the peasantry in Southern Italy, the two catgut strings of which extending over a long neck with frets, are played with a plectrum. The instrument somewhat resembles the Assyrian Tamboura. It has latterly fallen out of use. The bag pipe goes by the name of Zampogna among the Italian peasants. Varie- ties of the Mandoline, Lyre, and Harp are in nse in Italy. The Terzina is strung like the modern guitar, but tuned a third higher. The Guitar Battente (chitarrah Battente) is mounted with five pairs of wire strings. The modern variety of this instrument is used by the peasants of Apulia.

The Tarantella is a South Italian dance which derives its name from Taranto, in the old province of Apulia. The music is in & time, played at con- tinually increasing speed, with irregular alterna- tions of minor and major. It is generally danced by a man and a woman, but sometimes with two women alone who often play Castanets and a Tambourine. It was formerly sung, but this is seldom the case now. This dance has obtained a fictitious interest from the idea that by performing it one can get cured of a kind of insanity which is attributed to the effects of the bitg of the Lycosa Tarantula, the largest of European spiders. A certain disease (something like hysteria) known as Tarantism prevailed in South Italy in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries, and it was believed that it con'd be cured only by means of the continued exercise of dancing the Tarantella. It is doubtful, however, if the real cause of the malady could be the bite of the spider, as recent experiments have shown that it is no more poisonous than the sting of the wasp. The different forms which the disease assumed were cured by means of

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different airs, to which the Tarantists (patients) were made to dance, until they dropped down . with sheer exhaustion. Most of the songs, both words and music, which were used to cure Tarantism, no longer exist. Kircher, who has preserved a few specimens, says that the Tarantellas of his day were rustic extemporisations, and these bear no resemblance to the tripping melodies of the modern dance. Auber and Mendelssohn have made use of the Tarantella in some of their compositions. Several musicians have composed allegros in the form and character of this dance, among which may be mentioned the last movement of Weber's sonata in E minor.

240 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

SICILY.

ICILY claims the honor of producing one of the eminent musicians of the nineteenth century. Vincenzo Bellini was born at Catania, the capital of Sicily, November 3, 1802. He was contemporaneous with other celebrated composers of Italy; among them, Donizetti and Mercadante. He died Sep- tember 23, 1835.

The music of Sicily is mostly that of Italy. The Sicilian Mariners' Hymn is a favorite air of the Gon. doliers in Venice, who sing it in solemn chorus, it is said, especially on the morning of St. Mary's Day.

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SARDINIA.

HE national instrument of the people of, Sardinia, called the Lionedda, is a kind of double pipe, which bears a greater resemablance to instruments of this kind used among the Eastern nations of old than to any now found in other European countries. The fact of this country having been at one time colonized, as Corsica was, by the Phonicians may account for the presence of this instrument in Sardinia.

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242 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

SPAIN

HE Saracens invaded Spain in the beginning of the eighth century, and were subdued about three hundred years later by the Moors. It was not until the beginning of the seventeenth century (under the reign of Philip III) that the Arabs were entirely expelled from Spain, which, with the exception of some small districts in the north-west, had been for several centuries under their rule. The Arabs remained in Spain for a suffi- ciently long period to exercise a sensible influence over the music of the country; and nowhere more strongly than in the province of Andalucia, where the character of Arabian music has been preserved intact. The Spanish popular melodies derived from the Arabs are generally founded upon a series of intervals partaking of the character of the Phrygian and Mixolydian modes of the ancient church music. The church music of Spain, however, did not appear to have been so much influenced by Arabic music. The Jews had come over to Spain with the Moors, and the oriental character of their music bore a close affinity to that of the Arabic music. Even in the Synagogical hymns of the Sephardic Jews, who were expelled from Spain at the end of the fifteenth century, distint traces of Moorish music are still preserved The church music of Spain is based on the Italian model. In 1068, under Alexander II, the Gregorian chant was introduced into Arragon and Cata- lonia. The people, however, evinced a liking for the Gothic service, which had become amalgamated with the

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Arabian melodies, and obtained a footing in the early Christian churches of the country. But Gregory VII succeeded in abolishing it and establishing the Rom an form in its stead.

The Spanish ballads have becom, known all over the civilized globe. They are called by the natives Canciones, Romanzes, and Coplas. The oldest of them are termed Las Coplas de la Zarabanda, and are chiefly vulgar songs of an amorous, satirical, or humorous character. These are supposed to be as old as the twelfth century. Alphonso, king of Castile, who reigned from 1252 tc 1284, endowed a professorship of music in the University of Salamanca, and was himself a poet and a musician. The Decidores, or Trobadores, of Spain fourished in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Francis Salinas, Christopher Morales, and Tomaso Ludovico da Vittorio (the last two being attached to che Pope's chapel), were among the celebrated musicians of the sixteenth century. In the seventeenth century, the melodrama was intro- duced into Spain by Lopez de Bueda, in whose time the performers sung, behind the scenes, the old airs called Romanres, without any. accompaniment. The musical dramas seem to have appeared in Spain during the reign of Charles II '1661-1700). On the occasion of His Majesty's marriage with Maria Anna of Newbourg, dramas were represented with Lully's music .- the first being Armida. Soon after. Italian music and singers were imported from Muan and Naples; and subsequent- ly, Italian operas were estabhshed in some of the shief cities. Among the composers of the present century might be named Doyague (of Salamanca), Nielfa (of Madrid), Sur, Aquado, and Ochoa (also professors on the guitar), anu Carnicer (the only Spaniard who devoted his talents to theatrical romposition). There are several

244 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

kinds of the musical drama of the Spanish nation. The Saynette is an interlude opening and interspersed with music. The Zarzuelas are lyrical dramas, some- thing like the comic operas of France. The Tonadilla, originally & simple and popular song, combining the characters of the Saynette and Zarsuela, now frequently represents an entire action, embracing a whole scene, or sometimes, a whole act.

The guitar, of which there are several varieties in- cluding the Mandora, is the most celebrated of the instru- ments used in Spain. It is to the accompaniment of this instrument that the young man serenades his mistress, and the laborer, on return home from the day's work, exercises his voice. The Bandurria is a kind of half guitar and a truly national instrument of Spain. It is played with a plectrum of tortoise-shell, called in Spanish " Pua." The Spaniards are singers from nature. They possess an accurate ear, and their songs are charac- terised by simplicity and feeling, partaking more of intellect and fancy and of romantic and refined senti- ment, than of bacchanalian or comic expression. They are very fond of introducing embellishments into their melodies, particularly in descending the diatonio scale, not only in their instrumental performances, but evea in their songs. The Bolero, Fandango, and Seywidilla, all varieties of the Spanish dance, are executed to the muaio of the guitar and the rhythmic sounds of the caetanets. Spohr, Weber, Gluck, and Mozart have made use of these dances in some of their operatic compositions. The Spanish watch-man's call is musical, and the following are the words of one of them as heard at Seville :-- " Ave Maria purissima ! las diez anda. Sereno!" It is related in the " Travels of H. R. H. Prince Adalbert of Prussia," London, 1849, that in Cadiz, sometimes the students,

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during their holidays, walk through the streets enter- taining the people with music and dances :- "after which, like common street-singers, they go round among the crowd of gaping spectators to beg the money which is to pay for their education."

246 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

PORTUGAL.

HE masic. of Portugal is derived from the same source and partakes of the same character as that of Spain. The Portuguese have in their possession many songs of antiqvity and excellence, some of them being the compositions of their kings Dionysius and Peter I, who died, respectively, in 1325 and 1367. The Laudums and the Modinhas (i. e., little tunes) are the national airs of the country. The latter differ from the popular melodies of other nations by the peculiar features in their modulation. These airs are described as being singularly simple and beautiful and expressive of some erotic, pathetic, or melancholy sentiment. They are often sung to the accompaniment of the guitar. Among the Portuguese composers of the present century are DaCosta, Franchi, and Schiopetta. Jaos Domingo Bomtempo, a celebrated musician and composer of Portugal, was born 1775. As instructor of the Royal family he was made Knight of the Order of Christ, and chief director of the court band. He established a Philharmonic Society in Lisbon about 1822. He died August 13, 1842. Tne music as practised in private society at the present day is more that of Italy than that of Portugal.

The following four varieties of the guitar are used in parts of the country ; viz., Machete de Braga (with 4 gut strings) ; Machete Rajao (made of Spanish mahogny and having 5 gut strings); Viola de Arame (made of Madeira cedar and having & pairs of wire strings) ; and Viola Franceza

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(or Spanish guitar having 3 strings of wire and 3 of gut). These four instruments form a perfect quartet corre- sponding to first and second violins, Viola, and Cello. The Guitarra has 12 wire strings strung in pairs. The Castan- holas are castanets made of very old Til wood (Laurus Foeteus). The Pandeiro is a tambourine having a wooden frame in which are inserted copper jingles, among which, in some specimens, are found several old Portu- guese coins.

248 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

FRANCE.

HE French cultivated music at a very early period. Many of their early songs were written in Latin, Numerous instruments were employed on festive occa- sions, and the victories of their kings were c elebrated in triumphal songs. The Chansons are of great antiquity and partly resemble the Teutonic ballads in their charac- ter, but have more of sprightliness about them. The organ is generally believed to have been first introduced into France in 757, when a specimen was was presented to Pepin (father of Charlemagne) by the Emperor Gonstantine VI. The introduction of the Gregorian chant shortly followed. In Charlemagne's time, musical missionaries were sent from Rome to instruct the French in the service of the church. At this period secular music was largely popularized by the wandering minstrels and mimes. Their songs rormed the principal part of the history of France and celebrat- ed the heroic actions of her kings. The military songs of this time were long preserved, and one of them, in praise of Roland, the Orlando inamorato a furioso, was sung as late as the battle of Poictiers (1356), by the French warriors. Several musicians flourished in the country from the time of Charlemagne to that of Guido, among whom were Rabanus, Hayman, Remi, Odo, and Hubald. Both Remi and Hubald wrote treatises on music, and some of Odo's compositions are still preserved in the Romish church. The Troubadours appeared in Pro- vence in the twelfth century. They were the founders of modern versification, and the poets of love and gallantry

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Wherever they travelled, they diffused a taste for poetry, music, and the fine arts generally. They sang their own songs to the melody of their own harps, and when they were not able to do so, minstrels, who accompanied them, recited the lays. Such minstrels were generally called Jongleurs, and were divided into Violars, or performers on the vielle and viol; Juglars, or flute-players; and Musars, or players on other instru- ments. The Provencal language and poetry were at their height of splendour about 1162. In the thirteenth century, after the time of Philip Augustus, songs in the French language became common. According to Dr. Burney, the notes then in use were square and written on four lines only, in the C clef, without any of the marks for time. It was not till towards the end of the reign of St. Louis or Louis IX (1215-1270) that the fifth line was added to the stave. The harp was the favorite instrument of this period. It was accompanied by the viol which, previous to the sixteenth century, was furnished with frets. It was subsequently reduced to four strings. The vielle mentioned above was not played with the bow, but its tones were produced by the fric- tion of a wheel. This is said to be the same instrument as the old English Rote, and modern Hurdy-gurdy. Ac- cording to Rousseau, the use of the vielle dates from the eleventh century. ' In addition to the harp, viol, and vielle, the follow- ing instruments were used towards the close of the fourteenth century *:- Flutes, Hautboys, Bassoons, Trum- pets, Kettle-drums, Cymbals, Tambourines, Hand-bells, Guitars, Bagpipes, Rebecs, and Regals, or portable

• Among the other ancient instruments of France are the Archilute (having 14 wire strings), the Pochette, (or dancing master's violin, so called because it was often carried in the pocket), and the viole d' Amour (having 3 strings of gut and 2 of silk covered with wire). The Tumbour and Tambourin a Cordes are instruments characteristic of Provence. The Flute Palissy is a small flageolet of china.

FF

250 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

organs. In 1360, Guillaume Machault wrote a number of Virelais, ballads, and Rondeaux, chiefly in old French which he set for one and four voices. Prior to this time, music of more than two parts could not be found. The most ancient contrapuntist of the French school was Antonie Brumel, who flourished 1480-1520. Owing to the internecine wars which prevailed in the sixteenth eentury, music did not make much progress in France. To this century, however, belongs Clement Jaunequin, who made descriptive music his speciality. He composed La Bataille to commemorate the battle of Marignan (fought between the French and the Swiss in 1515), in which he gave imitations of the noise and din of war. He also wrote pieces in which he imitated the notes of birds, and the cries of the chase. These were the first rude attempts at musical imitation. It was in this cen- tury that Antony de Baif, private secretary to Charles IX., instituted the Academy of Music (1583). About the year 1580, the violin was introduced into France by Baltazarini (or Baltagerine), an Italian musician, and the best violinist of his day. He is said to have been also the first to introduce the Italian dances into Paris, and thus to have been the founder of the ballet, and, through the ballet, of tne opera. About the close of this century, Leveral theorists interested themselves in the question of the number of syllables used in solmization as left by Guido, some being for increasing that number and others for reducing it. It was ultimately decided that . the syllable si should be adopted for the seventh of the key of C. To Le Maire, a singing-master of Paris, be- longs the credit of adapting this new syllable to the sound it is meant to express. The reigns of Henry IV. and Louis XIII. did little for music. It was during the reign of Louis XIV. that Jean Baptiste Lully (or Lulli), a Florentine musician, introduced Italian music into

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France. He was born in 1633. He was the first violi- nist of his time, and effected great improvements in the lyrical drama and instrumental branch of music in France. While conducting a Te Deum (January 8, 1687) in honor of the King's recovery from a serious illness, he accidentally struck his foot with his baton; an absccss followed, in consequence of which he died on the 22nd March of that year. In 1669 the poet Perrin, and the musician Cambert, brought out the first French opera entitled Pomona at the Hotel de Nevers, and in 1677 in the Tennis Court at the Hotel de Guenegaud. This was the first French opera ever publicly performed in Paris. In 1672, Lully had obtained a Royal patent for the establish- ment of the Academie de Musigue. His style was sup- planted by Jean Phillippe Rameau who was born at Dijon, September 25, 1683. He was a composer as well as a theorist of eminence. In his great work Demonstra- tion du Principe de l' Harmonie (which was published in 1750), he attempted to show that the whole system of harmony depends on one single and clear principle, via., the fundamental bass. It is stated by his admirers that he was the first to discover and make known to others the mutual dependance between melody and harmony. The Iphigenie en Aulide of Racine (1639-1699) was the first opera which Gluck composed for the French Theatre. At first the French musicians did not take kindly to the adaptation of a French work to foreign music, but, under the patronage of Marie Antoinette (who was his pupil in Germany), he succeeded in obtaining for this production as well as the subsequent ones an enthusiastic reception. The French were now in raptures with Gluck whom they began to consider as the only musician in Europe who knew how to express the real language of the passions. But a schism took place on Piccini's appearance in 1776. The young men were all for Piccini, and the old for Gluck;

252 UNIVERSAL HISTOL. OF MUSIC.

and it is related that at one time the contest was conducted with so much zeal, that no door was opened to a stranger without the question being put to him, " Are you a Piccinist, or a Gluckist ?" The dispute was eventually settled by dividing the palm between the two One of the distinguished musicians of France of the nineteenth century was Daniel-Francois-Espirit Auber, who was born January 29, 1784, and died May 13, 1871. His master-piece is " La Muette de Portici," or " Masa- niello " as it is commonly called after its hero, in which the form and character of the Tarantella have been faith- fully exhibited. Another brilliant musician of the century was Charles Francois Gouncd, born June 17, 1818, and died October, 1893. His first opera was " Sapho," but his name and fame were firmly established by his "Faust " which was produced at the Theatre Lyrique March 19, 1859. The lyric element predominated in his musical compositions. The most distinguished musical writer of the century was Guilaume Andre Villoteau, born September 6, 1759, and died April 27, 1839. Though a Belgian by birth, the name of Fetis cannot be omitted in an account of France where he reeeived his musical education. Francois Joseph Fetis was born March 25, 1784, at Mons, and died March 25, 1871, at Brussels. He was the most iearned, laborious, and prolific musical litterateur of his time. He early learned to play the violin, piano, and organ, and com- pleted his studies at the Paris conservatoire. In 1821 he became professor of counterpoint and fugue at the Paris ccnservatoire, and librarian of that institution in 1827 His fame rests not so much upon his compositions, as upon his writings on the theory, history, and literature of music. His works are all written in the French language. Charles Ambrose Thomas, the doyen of French com- posers, died February 12, 1896.

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The French were celebrated for their Chansons which excelled, according to Rousseau, " not more in the turn and melody of their airs, than in the poignancy, grace, and delicacy of the words." The Chanson (from the Latin cantio, cantionem) is a little poem of which the stanzas or symmetrical divisions are called "couplets." As a rule, each couplet concludes with a repetition of one or two lines constituting the " refrain." All the modern songs are divided into four classes,-the Chanson historique ; the Chanson metier ; the Chanson d'amour; and the Chanson bachique. Formerly, it was the custom with the French to sing these Chansons at table. About the middle of the reign of Louis XV. (when a taste for Italian music prevailed in France), Duni, Philidor, and Monsigny composed comic operas, after the opera buffa of Italy, whose popular airs passed from the theatre to the table and replaced the Chansons. The date and origin of the celebrated song Marlborough, or, as the French call it, " Chanson de Malbrouk," are not certain. It is said that the melody was brought to France by the Crusaders from the East ; but the more generally received opinion is that the Arabs originally adopted it from the French. The tune would probably have died out in France, had not Madame Poitrini used it as lallaby for the infant Dauphin in 1781. Marie Antoinette took a fancy to her baby's cradle song, and sang it herself, and it was soon spread over the whole country. Shortly after it became a favorite air for couplet in French Vaudevilles. The national hymn (if it may be so called), Partant pour lu Syrie, is said to have been composed by Hortense, the mother of Napoleon III., with the help of her music master, the well-known Lesueur (January 15, 1763,-October 6, 1837). The ' Marseil- laise' is a popular French hymn, the words and music of which are the compositions of Claude Joseph Rouget de

254 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

l'Isle (born May 10, 1760, and died June 27, "1836). He was a Captain of Engineers quartered at Strasburg when the volunteers of the Bas Rhin received orders to join Luckner's army. A regret having been expressed by the Mayor of Strasburg that the young soldiers had no patriotic song to sing as they marched out, Rouget de l'Isle returned to his lodgings, and in a fit of enthu- siasm composed, during the night of April 24th, 1792, the words and music of the song which has immortalised his name. It was originally called " chant de guerre pour l'armee du Rhin," then "chanson" or " chant des Marseillais," and finally " La Marseillaise." It has been held in certain quarters that the words only of this song were composed by Rouget de l'Isle, and that one Holtz- mann composed its music. It has been held in certain others that the tune belongs to an old German national song. But in a pamphlet published in Paris in 1865 by the nephew of Rouget de FIsle, the claims of Rouget have ' been satisfactorily established by ducumentary evidence. The Marseillaise had such an effect in rousing the en- thusiasm of the French soldiers that Kotzebue is reported to have exclaimed to the composer, "Monster ! barbarian! How many thousands of my brethren hast those slain !" It is also related that, while the German poet Klop- stock met Rouget de l'Isle in Hamburg, he addressed the composer with the words, "Sir, your hymn has mowed down 50,000 valiant Germans!"

The Gavotte is a French dance, the name of which is sad to be derived from the Gavots, or people of the pays de gap in Dauphine. It is in common time, of moderate- ly quick movement, and in two parts, each of which is, as usual with older dauces, repeated. Ballet dancing dates from the foundation of the Academie Royale de Musique, or soon afterwards. In 1671, when the first French

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opera "Pomona " was produced, "Psyche, " a so-called tragedie-ballet by Moliere was brought out. Ballets, however, in the mixed style, were known much earlier. Louis XIV. took such a delight in ballets that he frequently appeared as a ballet- dancer, or rather as a figurant, himself. It is, indeed, recorded of him that in connection with "Les Amants magnifiques" (which he brought out jointly with Moliere), he played the part of author, ballet-master, dancer, mimic, singer, and instrumental performer. His Majesty was a player on the guitar, an instrument which he had studied under Franceso Corbetta. The music of Louis XIV.'s ballets was for the most part written by Lully who also comrosed the songs and symphonies for the dance- interludes of Moliere's comedies.

Music is not now cultivated in the provinces to the same extent as in the metropolitan cities. The conser- vatoire of music and the opera in Paris are great attrac- tions. The music of modern France has partaken some- what of the character of that of Germany and Italy, dis- tinguished representatives of which are patronized and held in great favour in the capital.

256 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ENGLAND.

nNHE Britons, who were the aboriginal inhabitants of England, are known to have been passionately fond of music, vocal and instrumental, and their bards, who united in one person the characters of poet, and musician, were held in the highest regard. The bards played chiefly on the harp. After their conversion to Christianity, the Britons adopted the rites and ceremonies and, with them, the music of the Gallican church, as it existed prior to the introduction of the Gregorian chant. When the Saxons drove them into the fastnesses of the Welsh mountains, they took away with them their ancient Celtic music. In such honor was the harp held in Wales that a slave was not permitted to play upon it. The ancient laws of Hywel Dda mention three kinds of harps, viz .. the harp of the king, the harp of a Pencerdd (or master of music), and the harp of a nobleman. A professor of this instrument enjoyed rent-free lands, and had his person held sacred. In the battle between the Welsh. and the Saxons whieh took place on the Rhuddlan Marsh, Flintshire, Caradoc, King of Nerth Wales, and the leader of the Welsh, was defeated and slain. It is said that Caradoc's bard composed the plaintive melody " Morva Rhuddlan " (the plain of Rhuddlan), immediate- ly after the battle (A. D. 795). Tradition says that the ancient melody " Davydd y garrig Wen " (David of the white roek) was composed, on his death-bed, by a bard of this name, who desired that it should be played at his funeral. Another pathetie and ancient song of the Welsh is "Torriad y Dydd " (the dawn of day). The Welsh are particularly rich in pastoral music which is

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said to be graceful, melodious, and unaffected. It is chiefly written for the voice, the subject generally being Love and the beauties of Nature. Of dance music, the Jig appears to have been the most favorite with the Welsh. The Penillion singing is peculiar to the Welsh, and is believed to have dated from the Druids who im- parted their learning orally, through the medium of Penillion. The word Penill is derived from Pen, a head; and because these stanzas flowed xtempore trom, and were treasured in the head, without being committed to paper, they were called Penillion. Many of the Welsh have their memories stored with hundreds of them ; some of which they have always ready in answer to almost any subject that can be proposed; or, like the Im- provisatore of the Italians, they sing extempore verses ; and a person conversant in this art readily produces a Penill apposite to the last that was sung. The singers continue to take up their Penill alternately with the harp without intermission, never repeating the same stanza (for that would forfeit the honor of being held first in the contest), and whichever metre the first singer starts with must be strictly adhered to by those who follow. From a Welsh maruscript, copied in the time of Charles I., it would appear that Gryffudd ab Cynam, Kig of North Wales, held a congress in the eleventh century for the purpose of reforming the order of the Welsh bards. The most important of the reforms effected was the separa- tion of the professions of bard and minstrel, or, in other words, of poetry and music. The next was the revision of the rules for the composition and performance of music. The manuscript referred to embodies some of the most ancient pieces of music of the Britons which are supposed to have been handed down from the bards of oid. The whole of the music is written for the Crwth (a favorite instrument of the Welsh, having a square 17 8 GG

258 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MOSIC.

form, and a finger-board, and played with a bow), in a system of notation by the letters of the alphabet, with merely one line to divide bass and treble. The system of notation in the manuscript resembles that of Gregory in the sixth century, ard may have been intro- duced into Britain when he sent Augustine to reform the abuses which had crept into the services of the western churches. Several Welsh airs have found their way into the compositions of musicians, indigenous or foreign, of a later day.

The Saxons brought their bards and their music with them to England. The character of their national airs, as well as of all the other Teutonic nations, is strongly contrasted with that of the Celts. The Saxons at that time were heathens. They were converted to Christianity by missionaries, sent over in 596 by Pope Gregory by whom the Gregorian service was introduced. Musical establishments were founded in connection with monas- Leries. The Venerable Bede, an English monk and ecele- siastical historian, who is supposed to have lived between 672 and 735 A. C., was a noted musician. Alfred the Great touched the harp with the hand of an artiste. He founded a musical professorship at Oxford. St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, who lived 925-988, was a great musician. He furnished several churches with organs, and encouraged the study and practice of music. The monks of the time were musicians themselves, and it is to them that the suppres- sion of the romantic and erotic songs of the Saxons is ascribed.

The Norman conquest, which took place in the eleventh centrry, did not interfere much with the pro- gress of music in England. The army of William (the Conqueror) was accompanied by minstrels, one of whom,

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by name Taillefer, s said to have advanced before the troops, singing the song of Roland, and, having rushed into the tnickest of the fight, lost his life. After the Norman conquest, the professors of music_became known by the general designation of minstrels. and by the specihic ones or rnymers, singers, straytegers, joculators or jugglerss vesrours (or relators of heroie actions), buffoons, and poets. Richard I. (Ceur de Lion), (b. 1157-d. 1199) was not only the patron of poetry and music, but was himselt a skilful player on the lyre. His imprisonment on nis return trom Palestine and the manner of the dis- covery of his prison by his minstrel Blondel are facts known to all students of English History For a long period the minstrels were ravored by the nobilitv and the fair sex and protected by royalty. it is stated by certain authorities that the degree of Doctor of Music was instituted by Henry II. (b. 1133-d. 1189). Others state, however, that the degree was not granted to graduates in any science in England till the reign of John, about 1207. Walter Odington, a monk of Eves- ham, who fourished in the thirteenth century, mn the reign of Henry III., wrote a treatise on music from which it may be gathered taat tne notes were expressed by the first seven letters of tle alphabet-great, small, and double; that solmization was practised according to Guidn's msthod; that longs and breves were in common. use in the chanting, or plain-song ; and that five lines were used for the staves. He treated of the Cantus Men- auralibus, being the earliest writer on the subject of measured music, (except Franco of Cologne). and is seid to have been the first to suggest a shorter note than the semi-breve. fn the time of unaucer (1828-1400) music was cousidered a general accomplishment. His " Squire" is describeu as always singing and playing on the flure; his monks, nuns. and friars are all vocalists; and he

260 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

mentions, among other instruments in use, the fiddle (Saxon for the French vielle), psaltery, harp, lute, citern (like a lute, played with a plectrun of quill), rote (half- fiddle, half lyre), and the organ. The most ancient English song met with, with the music, is one written and composed upon the battle of Agincourt in 1415. While practical musie formed the diversion of the laity, the knowledge of the theory was confined almost exclu- sively to the clergy. It is not known for certain when the present system of musical notation was introduced into England. Thomas de Walsyngham, who flourished about 1400, mentions five characters as used in his day, viz., the large, the tong, the breve, the semi-breve, and the minim. He makes mention also of the crotchet as having been lately introduced, but thinks it an unneces" sary subdivision of time. Musical characters were for the first time printed in England about 1495, but these had reference to church music only. Subsequent to this time, eight characters were used in secular compositions, viz., large, long, breve; semi-brene, minim, semi-minim, chroma, and semi-chroma. These proceeded in regular gradations, the large being equal to two longs, four breves, eight semi-breves, &c. Any note wriiten in red ink diminished its value by a fourt part ; thus, a red semi-brene meant three, and not four semi-minims .- From these notes (which had their corresponding rests), the present system appears to have been derived. Terges was among the musicians of Henry VI. (b. 1421-d. 1471). Cornyshe who,. according to Dr. Burney, was the first who had the courage to use the chord of the sharp reventh of a key, with a false fifth, was in Henry VII.'s chapel. Fayrfax, who was admitted to the degree of Doctor of Music at Cambridge in 1511, was a composer for the church. Music was well patronised by Henry VII. (b. 1456-d. 1509) and Henry VIII. (b. 1491

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-d. 1547). The latter is said to have composed many pieces, secular and ecclesiastical, and to have possessed a good knowlege of counterpoint. A change took piece in the church music of England at the era of the Reformation. The Reformers took from the choral service the hymns to the Virgin, and those to the saints, but retained the Te Deum, the Sanctus, the Gloria in Excelsis, the Gloria Patri, Magnificat, and Nunc Dimittis. The Psalms of David were rendered into English and adapted to the ancient Gregorian chant. The antiphonal, or alternate manner of chanting, was also retained. The Romish ritual came into force during the reign of Mary (b. 1516-d. 1558). Upon the acces- sion of Elizabeth (b.1533-d. 1603), the Protestants, who had, during the persecution, been driven to the Conti- nent, brought with them a predilection for congrega- tional or metrical singing, which prevailed there. Among the founders of the present cathedral music of England were Doctor Tye, Marbeck, and Tallis. Among the vocal compositions of the Elizabethan period were the madrigal, the canon and the catch, or round, the canzone, the canzonet, the villanella (the lightest and least artificial kind of air known in music), the ballet, and the Freemen's songs, which were chiefly satirical or bacchanalian in their character. The principal instru- mental compositions were the fantazia, for viols ; the pavan, a grave and majestic dance; the passamezzo (meaning a step and a half); the galliard (a merry dance); the courant (from courir to run) ; the hornpipe (called after an obsolete instrument) ; and the Scotch jig. The lute and the virginal were the principal in- struments for the drawing-room. The violin was not much known in the country ; but viols of various sizes, mounted with six strings, and fretted like the guitar, began to be used in drawing-room concerts. It is said

262 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

that when Elizabeth dined she was regaled "with twelve trumpets and two kettle-drums, which, together with fifes, cornets, and side-drums, made the hall ring for half an hour together." The church music of the period was particularly: grand. On one occasion, when the French Ambassador accompanied Elizabeth to a service at Canterbury cathedral, he is said to have exclaimed, "O God! I think no prince in all Europe ever heard the like ; no, not our Holy Father, the Pope himself ! " The most eminent musician who flourished in the reign of Elizabeth was Dr. Bull, some of whose compositions find a place in the volume known as Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book. John Bull was born in 1563, was made a Doctor of Music in 1592, and died in March, 1628. In the Music School of Oxford is preserved a portrait of his round the frame of which is written the following homely distich :- " The buil by torce in field doth raigne : But Bull by skill good will doth gayne." Music seems to have accompanied the drama in England at a very early period. It was used in the Mysteries and Moralities, in the Pageants, and in the Masques. In Gorboduc, the first regular tragedy extant, which was written in 1561, the following directions appear concerning the music :- "Order for dumb show before each act. First, the music of violins to play .- Second act, the music of cornets. Third act, the musie of flates. Fourth act, the music of hautboys: Fifth act, drums and flutes." In many of the old plays, songs are sung. The dramas of Shakespeare (1564-1616) abound in songs or in allusions made to music. The Masques, which were so much in vogue in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. (b. 1516-d. 1625), preceded the musical drama. Ben Jonson (1574-1637), Beaumont (1586-1616), Fletcher (1576-1625), Sir William Davenant (1605-

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1668), and Milton (1608-1674), wrote a number of Mas- ques. The incidental songs in these Masques, with the overtures, and act-tunes in the plays, included the whole of the theatrical music in the reign of James I. and in that his son. The rebellion in the reign of Charles I. (b. 1600- assasinated 1649) put a stop to the progress of music. In 1643, the performance of cathedral music was pro- hibited, and the theatres were soon after closed. The restoration of the monarch was followed by the restora- tion of music. Charles II. (b. 1630- d. 1685), whose musical taste had been formed in France, caused a different and lighter style of music to be introduced into the church. In this reign, the violin came into general use in England. John Banister (1630-1679) was the first noted violinist of the day, and the first who estab- lished anything like public concerts in England. Another musician of distinction of the period was Mathew Lock, the celebrated composer of the music in Macbeth. He died in 1677. But the most distinguished composer of the seventeenth century was Henry Purcell who was born in 1658. His compositions for the church, chamber, and the theatre are numerous, and are spoken of in the highest terms of praise. He died in 1695. A tablet erected to his memory bore the following inserip- tion, said to have been written by Dryden :- "Here lyes Henry Purcell, Esq. ; who left this life, and is gone to. that blessed place where only his harmony can be ex- ceeded." It was Purcell who converted the Masques into the shape of the Opera and created a taste for this kind of music. The first Italian opera, which was called Alma- hide and performed throughout by Italian singers, was represented in England in 1710. Towards the close of that year, Handel arrived in England, and composed

264 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and produced the piece Rinaldo from Tasso's " Jeru- salem." In 1722, the Royal Academy of Music was established and a fund raised to establish permanently the italian opera. Handel was engaged as composer. Bononcini, who was invited from Bologna, was also engaged as composer. They differed, and the dissen- sions continued till the departure of the latter in 1727. Glrek's music was first introduced into England in 1746, when his opera of La Caducta de Gigante was performed. The comic operas were represented here in 1748 by a company of buffa singers. In the piece Orione, in 1763, clarionets were first introduced into the orchestra. In 1773, Miss Cecilia Davies, the first Englishwoman who was considered worthy of being the prima donna at the principal Italian theatres, appeared in Lucio Vero. On the 18th June, 1789, the Opera House was destroyed by fire, and the new Opera House was opened on the 26th January, 1798, under the management of Mr. Taylor. Mozart's music was first introduced into England in 1806, in which year Angelina Catalini (1779-1849) was engaged as prima donna. In 1817, Rossini's music became known in the country. In 1824 Madame Rossini, wife of the composer, made her debut at the Opera House in Zelmira. In 1825, Giovanni Battista Velluti (1781-1861) first appeared in London at a private concert. On the 23rd of July of that year, he introduced Meyerbeer's opera Il Crociato in Egitto, for the first time into England. On the 19th April 1828, Countess Rossi Henriette Sontag (1805-1854) appeared for the first time in England and continued to be the rage for some years. Of the modern artistes of foreign countries who have secured de served popularity in England, the sisters Patti and Nilsson are worthy of prominent notice. Adelina Pauti (born February 19, 1843) made her debut in

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England May 14, 1861, at the Royal Italian Opera as Amina, with wonderful success, and from that time became famous. She married Henri Marquis de Caux, Equerry to Napoleon III., July 29, 1868. Her elder sister, Carlota Patti, born in 1840. appeared for the first time in England, April 16, 1863, at a concert at Covent Garden Theatre. On September 3, 1875, she married Ernst de Munck of Weimar, a violoncellist of note. Christine Nilsson, a Swedish lady, born in 1843, first appeared in England, June 8, 1867. Jenny Lind, another Swedish singer of note, who ap- peared in London in 1847, was born in 1820 and died in 1887 c

The first indigenous Opera of England, the Beggar's Opera, was written by John Gay in 1727, and brought out at Lincoln's Inn Fields Theatre, January 29, 1728. The music for it was arranged by John Christopher Pepusch, Mus. Doc., (1667-1752), and consisted of the loveliest English and Scottish melodies that could be collected either from the inexhaustible treasury of national song, or the most popular ballad-music of the day. The success of this venture was unprecedented and resulted in the sequel of this piece being made ready for performance in 1729, though not presented to the public until 1777, when it was played, for the first time, under the name of Polly. In 1733, Thomas Augustine Arne, Mus. Doc., (1710-1778), produced a piece called "Tom Thumb, the opera of operas," in which his little brother, Master Arne, sang the part of the hero with great success. A large number of what are called "Ballad " operas were written on the model of the Beggar's Opera, and produced from time to time. Among the eminent musicians of England who devoted their

HH

266 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

talents to the composition of the English opera were Charles Dibdin (1745-1814); John Braham (17741856); Sir Henry Rowley Bishop (1786-1855); Michael Kelly (of" Ireland, 1764-1826) ; Michael William Balfe (also of Treland, 1808-1870) ; and Sir William Bennett, Mus. Doc., (1816-1875) Among the celebrated operatic composers of the present day are Sir Julius Benedict, a foreign musician who has settled in England, born November 27, 1804; George Alexander Macfarren, Mus. Doc., born March'2, 1813, Principal of the Royal Academy of Music; and Sir Arthur Sullivan. born May 13, 1842, and knighted by the Queen on May 15, 1883.

LI It would be invidious to particularise the distin- guished musicians who flourished in the latter part of the eighteenth or the beginning of the present century, and enriched the musical literature of the world by the results of their learned researches. Among these, however, may be mentioned Dr. Burney, Sir John Hawkins, Dr. Crotch, Mr .. Nathan, and Sir Gore Ouseley. Charles Burney was born April 7, 1726, and made Doctor of Music by the University of Oxford, June 23, 1769 His famous work, the "General History of Music," the first volume of which appeared in 1776, is the result of extensive travels in the Continent of Europe. Most of the musical articles that appeared in Rees' Cyclopædia were the contributions of Dr. Burney. He died on April 12, 1814. John Hawkins was born March 30, 1719. In 1776 he gave to the world the work on which his fame rests-his " General history of the science and practice of music," on which he had been engaged for 16 years, and the first volume of which appeared in 1776, about the same time when Dr. Burney's first volume was brought out. Contem- porary judgment was divided on the merits of the two

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productions, and party feeling was so strong at one time as to give rise to the following lines :- "Sir John Hawkins! Burn his history ! How d'ye like hin. ? Burn his history ! Burney's history pleases me !" Hawkins died from the effects of paralysis on May 14, 1789. William Crotch, Mus. Doc., was born July 5, 1775. It is said that while yet a child, scarcely five years old, he gave a public performance on the organ. At the age of 14, he composed an oratorio, "The Capti- vity of Judah," which was performed at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, June 4, 1789. He is the author of " Specimens of various styles of Music, referred to in a course of Lectures on Music read at Oxford and London." He died while seated at dinner, December 29, 1847. Isaac Nathan was born of Hebrew parents in 1792. His "Essay on the History and Theory of Music" is an important production. Latterly he emigrated to Sydney, where he was accidentally killed, being run over by a tramway car, June 15, 1864. The Rev. Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley, Bart., an eminent orientalist and a practical and theore- tical musician of great renown, was born August 12th, 1825, and died April 6, 1889 ._ Though a Hanoverian by birth, Carl Engel spent a great portion of his life in England, and wrote his works in English, and on that account it would perhaps not be deemed inappropriate if his name were mentioned in connection with those of the eminent musicians of this country. He was born July 6, 1818. The first fruits of his archæological studies were shown in the publication of " The Music of the Most Ancient Nations" in 1864, which was followed by " An Introduction to the Study of National Music," in 1866. He died in England, November 17, 1882. His favourite Harpsichord, Clavichord, and Lute are no in

266 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

talents to the composition of the English opera were Charles Dibdin (1745-1814); John Braham (1774-1856); Sir Henry Rowley Bishop (1786-1855); Michael Kelly (of Ireland, 1764-1826) ; Michael William Balfe (also of Ireland, 1808-1870) ; and Sir William Bennett, Mus. Doc., (1816-1875) Among the celebrated operatic composers of the present day are Sir Julius Benedict, a foreign musician who has settled in England, born November 27, 1804; George Alexander Macfarren, Mus. Doc., born March 2, 1813, Principal of the Royal Academy of Music; and Sir Arthur Sullivan. born May 13, 1842, and knighted by the Queen on May 15, 1883.

It would be invidious to particularise the distin- ר.

guished musicians who flourished in the latter part of the eighteenth or the beginning of the present century, and enriched the musical literature of the world by the results of their learned researches. Among these, however, may be mentioned Dr. Burney, Sir John Hawkins, Dr. Crotch, Mr. Nathan, and Sir Gore Ouseley. Charles Burney was born April 7, 1726, and made Doctor of Music by the University of Oxford, June 23, 1769 His famous work, the "General History of Music," the first volume of which appeared in 1776. is the result of extensive travels in the Continent of Europe. Most of the musical articles that appeared in Rees' Cyclopædia were the contributions of Dr. Burney. He died on April 12, 1814. John Hawkins was born March 30, 1719. In 1776 he gave to the world the work on which his fame rests-his " General history of the science and practice of music," on which he had been engaged for 16 years, and the first volume of which appeared in 1776, about the same time when Dr. Burney's first volume was brought out. Contem- porary judgment was divided on the merits of the two

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productions, and party feeling was so strong at one time as to give rise to the following lines :- "Sir John Hawkins! Barn his history ! How d'ye like hin. ? Burn his history ! Burney's history pleases me !" Hawkins died frona the effects of paralysis on May 14, 1789. William Crotch, Mus. Doc., was born July 5, 1775. It is said that while yet a child, scarcely five years old, he gave a public performance on the organ. At the age of 14, he co mposed an oratorio, " The Capti- vity of Judah," which was performed at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, June 4, 1789. He is the author of "Specimens of various styles of Music, referred to in a course of Lectures on Music read at Oxford and London." He died while seated at dinner, December 29, 1847. Isaac Nathan was born of Hebrew parents in 1792. His "Essay on the History and Theory of Music" is an important production. Latterly he emigrated to Sydney, where he was accidentally killed, being run over by a tramway car, June 15, 1864. The Rev. Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley, Bart., an eminent orientalist and a practical and theore- tical musician of great renown, was born August 12th, 1825, and died April 6, 1889 .. Though a Hanoverian by birth, Carl Engel spent a great portion of his life in England, and wrote his works in English, and on that account it would perhaps not be deemed inappropriate if his name were mentioned in connection with those of the eminent musicians of this country. He was born July 6, 1818. The first fruits of his archæological studies were shown in the publication of " The Music of the Mont Ancient Nations" in 1864, which was followed by " An Introduction to the Study of National Music," in 1866. He died in England, November 17, 1882. His favourite Harpsichord, Clavichord, and Lute are now in

268 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the possession of Mr. Herbert Bowman, and Mr. A. J. Hipkins. Alexander John Ellis, F. R. S., who was born in 1814, and died lately, devoted much of his talents towar ds the scientific aspects of music, and in enquiries into the history of musical pitch. Her Majesty the Queen, and Their Royal Highnesses the Prince, and Princess of Wales, are noted for their substantial encouragement of music and their unstinted patronage of musical talent irrespective of the natiena- lity of the persons representing it. His Royal High- ness the Duke of Edinburgh is a practical musician himself, being a skilful player on the violin. Among the prominent musicians of the present day are William George Cusins, born October 14, 1833, and appointed Master of Music to the Queen in 1870; Sir Michael Costa, belonging to a Spanish family, born in 1810, and made in 1871 " Director of the Music, composer and conductor " at Her Majesty's Opera ; Dr. John Hullah, born June 27, 1812, and the author of " History of Modern Music;" John Sims Reeves, born October 21, 1822, one of the greatest vocalists of the day ; Sir John Stainer, born June 6, 1840, eminent composer and player; and Sir George Grove, D. C. L., Director of the Royal College of Music, London, and author of a comprehensive "Dictionary of Music and Musicians." As already mentioned, the Royal Academy of Music was established in 1722. In April 19, 1738, the Royal Society of Musicians of Great Britain was founded, with which the Royal Society of Female Musicians (establish- ed in 1839) has been amalgamated sinee 1866. The Academy of Ancient Music which was formed about 1710 continued its work up to 1792. The Musical Anti- quarian Society, "for the publication of scarce and valuable works by the early English composers, " which

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was opened in 1840. closed its labors after seven years' useful existence. The Musical Association was founded in 1874. The National Training School for Music, the idea of which emanated from the late Prince Consort, but which was not founded till 1873, has for. its chair- man. H R. H. the Duke of Edinburgh. The Handel Festival was organised in 1857, and has since been periodically held. The Sacred Harmonic Society was established in 1832. Its library has now become the largest collection of music and musical literature ever gathered by a musical body in England. The Society also possesses some interesting portraits, statuary, and autograph letters. The Society, of British Musicians was, fonnded in 1834, with the object of advancing indigenous talent in composition and performance. The Musical Artists' Society was founded in 1874,- " to encourage living musicians by giving performances of their cor- positions." The Madrigal Society, founded in 1741, enjoys the distinction of being the oldest musical asso- ciation in Europe. The Philharmonie Society wa8 founded in 1813 for the encouragement of orchestral and instrumental music. The Wandering Minstrels, an amateur orchestral Society, was started in 1860. The first " smoking concerts " in London were instituted by this Society. Musical journalism began in Eugland in 1818 with the Quarterly Musical Magazine and Rewiow, which existed for a period of 10 years only. The Harmonicon began in 1823, and also existed for a pericd of ten years. Of the present periodicals, the Musical World was started in 1836 ; the Musical Times on June 1, 1844; the Musical Standard, on August 2, 1862; the Monthly Musical Record, in 1871 ; the London and Provincial Music Trades Review, in November, 1877 ; the Lute, in 1883 ; the Quarterly

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Musical Keview in February, 1885 : the Musical Society, in March 1886; and the British Bandsman and Urchestral Times, in September 1887 The music of " Rule, Britannia !"-the noble "ode .in honor of Great Britain," which, according to Southey, "will be the political hymn of this country as long as she maintains her political power," was composed by Dr. Arne for his Masque of Alfred, and first performed at Cliefden House, Maidenhead, August 1, 1740. Uhetden was then the residence of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the occasion was to commemorate the accession of George I., and the birth-day of Princess Augusta. The Masque was afterwards altered by Arne into an Opera, and it was so performed at Drury Lane Theatre, on March 20, 1745, for the benent of Mrs. Arne. The score of "Rule, Britannia !" was printed by Arne at the end of "The Judgment of Paris, " which had been produced also at Clicfden, in 1740. The air was adopted by Jacobites as well as Hanoverians. Beethoven composed Sve variations (in D) upon the air, and other composers have done the like. The words of the song have been ascribed to Thomson (1700-1748). The first performance of the "National Anthem" of England is stated to have been at a dinner in 1740 to celebrate the taking of Portobello by Admiral Vernon (November 20, 1739), when it is said to have been sung by Henry Carey (1696-1743) as his own composition, both words and music. In 1745 it became publicly known by being sung at the theatres as "a loyal song or Anthem," during the Scottish Rebellion. The Pretender was proclaimed at Edinburgh, September 16, and the first appearance of "God Save the King" was at Drury Lane, September 28. For a month or so it was much sung at both Covent Garden and Drury Lane. Dr. Burney harmonised it for the former,

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P and Dr. Arne for the latter. There are several funes in existence older than the "National Anthem", which are said to have furnished the music of it. Among those are a Scotch Carol, "Remember, O thou man," 1611; a ballad, " Franklin is fled away" (first printed in 1669) ; and a piece in a collection of lessons on the Harpsichord or Spinet, composed by Purcell, 1696. The tune of the Anthem was a great favorite with Beethoven and Weber, both of whom have introduced it in some of their com- positions. In 1882, a movement, headed by the Revd. Frederick K. Harford (Minor Canon, Westminster), Sir Henry Rawlinson, Sir George Birdwood, and several other notabilities, was set on foot in England with a view to popularize a revised version of the hymn, throughout the East, by means of translating it in 15 languages, the version being meant to be sent "as a friendly offering from Her Majesty's subjects in Great Britain to Her Majesty's subjects in Hindusthan." The hymn was, accordingly, translated into Sanskrit by Professor Max Muller, into Persian by Mirza Mahammud Bakir Khan, and into Bengali by the writer of the present work. These trans- lations have been accepted and adopted by the "National Anthem for India " Committee, at whose further request, the writer of the present work has set the revised version to twelve varieties of Indian melody. This version has been arranged by the Revd. Mr. Harford, for the use of churches, with an additional stanza composed by him "acknowledging the Almighty's Protection in the Past and Present." The following is the full text of the revised version :- God save our C. ucions Queen; Long live our Nol'e Queen ; God save the Queen. Send Her Victorious, Happy and Glorious ; Long to reign over us; God save the Queen.

272 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

II.

[For Her Majesty's Armies in times of Peace or War.]

O Lord our God! arise; Scatter Her enemies, And make them fall. Bless Thou the brave that fight- . Sworn to defend Her Right, Bending we own Thy Might, God save us all.

[Or this against Sedition.]

O Lord, our God !- arise; Scatter Her enemies, And make them fall. Break Thou Rebellion's wings; Smite when dark Treason springs, Almighty King of Kings, Ruler of all.

[ Or this in time of Pestilence.]

O Lord, our God! arise; Help, while destruction flies Swift o'er us all ! Stay Thine afficting Hand : Heal Thou our stricken land, Father! in grief wo stand, On Thee we call.

II or III.

Thy choicest gifts in store, Still on Victoria pour- Health, Peace, and Fame. Young faces year by year Rising Her heart to cheer, Glad voices, far and near, Blessing Her Name.

EUROPE-ENGLAND. 273

III or IV .*

Saved from aach traitor's arm, -- Thou Lord, Her Shield from harm Ever hast been. Angels around Her way Watch, while by night and day Millions with fervour pray,- "God save the Queen."

This is the additional stanza.

18 5

274 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

SCOTLAND. 1

nPHERE -is a belief that the earliest Scottish music was constructed on a series of sounds which has been styled Pentatonic, not, however, pec uliar to Scot- land, for tunes of a similar character have been found so wide apart as China and the West Coast of Africa. Many are of opinion that the style was brought here by its earliest known inhabitants-the little dark men of the Iberian race. Others attribute its in- troduction to the Celts, whose love of music is generally admitted, and whose origin as well as language may also be traced to the East. In his "Historical Essay on Scottish song," Joseph Ritson (a celebrated English antiquarian and critic who wrote towards the close of the eighteenth century) treats of the poetry of the songs, beginning with mere rhymes on the subject of the death of Alexander III. (1285), the seige of Berwick (1296), Bannockburn (1314), aud so on to the times of James I (b. 1393-d. 1437), whose thorough English education resulted in his being both a poet and a musician. James I. composed several anthems, introduced the organ into the cathedral and abbeys, and estahlished a full choir of singers in the church service. Accounts are on record as to what value was placed on the services of musicians who, at various times, visited the courts of James III. (b. 1443-d. 1488) who " delighted more in singing and playing on instruments than he lid in the defence of the borders," and James IV. (b. 1472-d. 1513). James V. (b. 1512-d. 1542) is believed to have written two songs

EUROPE-SCOTLAND. 275

on the subject of certain adventures whish befel him while wandering through the country in disguise ; these are " The gaberlunzie man," and "The beggar's meal- pokes " (mealbags). Of the reign of Mary (b. 1542- d. 1587), there are two curious works into which & number of songs are embodied ; the first "The Com- playnte of Scotland " (1549) gives some ballads and part- songs ; the second "The Gude and Godly Ballates" (ballads) (1578) furnishes a collection of metrical versions of psalms, hymns, and what have been describ- ed as "sacred parodies of secular songs." The music of the church in Scotland before the Reformation was identical with that of Rome. Among the musicians of the pre-Reformation period were Andrew Blackhall, David Peblis, and Sir John Futhy. It was in 1629 that Charles I. granted an annual pension of £2,000 to the musicians of the Chapel Royal in Stirling, and made preparations for the celebration of religious service according to the forms of the church of England, and it was in his reign that the first certain glimpse of early Scottish folk music was obtained. Two manuscripts of this reign have lately been discovered, called the Straloch and Skene MSS. The first was written by Robert Gordon of Straloch, Aberdeenshire, in 1627-29, and presented to Dr. Burney in 1781, butits present whereabouts are not known. The second was formed by or for John Skene of Hallyards, Midlothian, and includes the ancient original melody of "The flowers of the forest." In the collection of airs, made by the Revd. Patrick McDonald and his brother between 1760 and 1780, are & numbar of beautiful airs. The specimens given in it of the most ancient music show the kind of recitative to which old poems were chanted, and among these are, "Ossian's soliloquy on the death of all his contemporary heroes." The old melodies are said to wan der about without any

276 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

attempt at rhythm, or making one part answer to another. In contrast to these are the Liuneags, short snatches of melody, sung by the women not only at their diversions, but also during almost their every day work. The men too have iorrums or songs for rowing, to which they keep time with their oars. The word jorram (pronounced yirram) means not only a boat-song, but also a lament. It acquired this double meaning from the jorram being often chanted in the boats that carried the remains of chiefs and nobles over the Western Seas to Iona. The Gaels or Highlanders occupy themselves chiefly with the sentiment and expression of the music, and with this view they dwell upon the long and pathetic notes, while they slur over the inferior and connecting notes. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) and Robert Burns (1759-1796) wrote several songs which have attained great popularity in the country.

The bagpipe appears to have come into general favour in Scotland at the close of the fifteenth century. But it is an instrument, in one or other of its forms, of very great antiquity. It was called by the Romang Tibia utricularis. It appears on a coin of Nero, who is said to have been himcelf a performer upon it. It is mentioned by Procopius as the instfument of war of the Roman infantry. In Louis XIV.'s time the bagpipe formed one of the instruments included in the band of the " Grande Ecurie" and was played at court concerts. The essential characteristics of this instrument have al- ways been, first, a combination of fixed notes or "drones," with a melody or " chaunter; " secondly, the presence of a wind-chest or bag. Although it has no doubt been re- invented in various times and places, it seems to be con- nected with the Celtic race. The presence of this instru- ment in some form or other has been noticed in the

EUROPE-SCOTLAND. 277

oriental countries. At the present time there are four principal forms of the instrument used in Scotland,-the Highland, the Lowland, the Irish, and the Northum- brian. The Highland pipe is blown from the chest, the others from bellows. The music of the bagpipe exercises a great influence over the Scotch people. The following instances of this are mentioned by " An Amateur " in his " Preceptor for the Highland Bagpipe,"" Edinburgh, 1818 :--

" At the battle of Quebec, in 1760, while the British troops were retreating in great disorder, the General complained to a field officer, in Fraser's regiment of the bad behaviour of his corps. ' Sir,' said the officer with some warmth, ' You did very wrong in forbidding the pipers to play this morning : nothing encourages the Highlanders so much in the day of battle ; and even now they would be of some use.' Let them blow like the devil, then,' replied the General, ' if it will bring back the men.' The pipers were then ordered to play a favorite martial air ; and the Highlanders, the moment they heard the music, returned and formed with alacrity in the rear." "When the brave 92nd Highlanders took the French by surprise in the late Peninsular war, the pipers very appropriately struck up 'Hey Johnny Cope, are ye wauking yet,' which completely intimidated the enemy, while it inspired our gallant heroes with fresh courage to the charge which, as usual, was crowned with the fruits of victory." The Jew's-harp (which is possibly a corruption of Jaw's-harp) is much used in the Highlands, under the name of Tromp. This simple instrument consists of an elastic steel tongue, rivetted at one end to a frame of brass or iron, similar in form to certain pocket cork- screws, of which the screw turns up on a hinge. The free

278 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

end of the tongue is bent outwards, at a right angle, so as to allow the fing er to strike it when the instrument is placed to the mouth, and firmly supported by the pressure of the frame against the teeth.

The Pibroch (Gaelic Piobaireachd, a pipe tune) is a series of variations for the bagpipe, founded on a theme called the urlar. The Pibrochs are the highest form of bagpipe music, and are often very difficult to execute properly. The variations, generally three or four in number, increase in difficulty and speed, until the composition concludes with a creanluidh, or quick movement. Like all bagpipe music, pibrochs are not written in any proper scale, and it is impossible to note them down correctly for any other instrument, owing to the peculiarly imperfect tuning of the bagpipe. Pibrochs are generally of a warlike character, including marches and dirges; they often bear the names of various historical and legendary events.

The dance music of Scotland consists mainly of Reels and Strathspeys. A number of foreign dances have been introduced, but these are confined to the upper classes. The peasantry keep to their national dances, which have since become fashionable in the highest circles, alike in England and Scotland. The Revd. Patrick Macdonald says that the St. Kildeans, being great lovers of music, met together at the close of the fishing season and sung and danced to the Jew's-harp, their only musical instrument. Some of the notes of the Reel seem to be imitations of the cries of the sea-fowl which visit the outer Hebrides as certain seasons of the year. At one time the music of these Reels and Strathspeys over all Scotland was played by the bagpipe, but at a later period Neil Gow (1727-1807) and his sons did much in

EUROPE-SCOTLAND. 279

promoting the use of the violin in playing the dance music. The violin has at the present day' been super- seded to a great extent by the piano. The nature of the Scotch dances tends to induce the players and dancers to accelerate the speed as the dancing proceeds : this tendency has been graphically described by Burns in his "Tam O' Shanter." The word Strathspeys is derived from the strath or valley of the Speys, in the north of Scotland, where it appears to have been first danced. The music of the Reel is composed of a series of pas- sages of equal quavers, while the Strathspeys consists of dotted notes and semi-quavers. The latter frequently precede the long note, and this peculiarity has received the name of the Scottish "Snap." The use of the piano in Scotland is said to have interfered with the old style of singing songs in their original and native simplicity. A Scottish song properly rendered is now to be heard only in the rural districts. Among the public musicians of Scotland of the present century may be named John Wilson (1801-1849) and John Templeton (born July 30, 1802), who was "tenor " to Maria Malibran (the dis- tinguished French songstress), from 1833 till her death in 1836. Several eminent foreign composers arranged and wrote accompaniments to many Scottish airs, but their efforts are not known to have been very successful in keeping up the character of the original melodies.

In 1881 the Scottish Musical Society was started by an influential Committee. Its object is to promote music in Scotland by maintaining professional orches- tras, conferring scholarships, organising concerts, and aiding poor musicians and their families. General John Reid, who died in 1807, left funds for endowing a chair of music in the University of Edinburgh and founding a concert to be given annually on his birth-day, Februsry

280 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

13th, in which a march and a minuet of his composition were to be included " to show the taste for music about the middle of the last century, and to keep his name in remembrance." The Professorship was founded in 1839. The Edinburgh University Society of Music was started in 1867, and has for its object the encouragement and promotion, among, the students, of the practical study of choral music. H. R. H. the Duke of Edinburgh is the Patron of this Society. The Euing Library in Glasgow and the Library belonging to the chair of music in the University of Edinburgh contain a large collection of valuable compositions. The latter possesses among other rarities an autograph Ms. of the great B minor Prelude and Fugue for organ by Sebastian Bach. Sir Herbert Stanley Oakeley, Kt., Mus. Doc., born at Ealing, July 22, 1830, was elected Professor of Music in the University of Edinburgh in 1865, and knighted in 1876.

EUROPE-IRELAND. 281

IRELAND.

NTIQUARIAN researches have established.the fact that Ireland was in early times the seat of Christianised learning and a remarkable artistic civiliza- tion. The harp-playing in this country has been favor- ably commented on in the writings of Brompton, Giraldus Cambrensis, and John of Salisbury. The latter considered the skill of the Irish in instrumental music to be superior beyond comparison to that of any nation he had seen. Fuller remarked that in the Crusade conducted by Godfrey of Boulogne, all the con- cert of Christendom would have made no music, if the Irish harp had been wanting. Fordun (thirteenth century), Clynn (fourteenth century), Polidore Virgil and Major (fifteenth century), Vincenzo Galilei, Bacon, Spenser, Stanihurst, and Camden (sixteenth century) speak with equal warmth. Chappell, in his "Popular Music of the Olden Time," reproduces three Irish airs from Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book : these are (1) " The Ho-hoane" (Ochone), (2) an " Irish Dumpe," and (3) "Callino Casturame." To the last-mentioned air, there is a reference in Shakespeare's Henry V. (Act 4, scene 4), where Pisvol addresses a French soldier thus :- " Quality ! Calen O custure me !". This is evidently an attempt to spell as pronounced the Irish phrase, "Colleen, oge astore!"- young girl, my treasure! The earliest published col- lections of Irish music are by Burke Thumoth (1720);

282 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

by Neill of Christ Church Yard, Dublin, a few years later ; and by the son of Carolan in 1747. This music was for the flute or violin.

The harp, which, in the earlier times, was a high favorite with the Irish nation, bore a great resemblance to the Oriental harp, and is said to have been derived from it. In describing some ancient representations of Irish musical instruments, Michael Conran, in his "National Music of Ireland," Dublin, 1846, mentions a harp which forms an ornamental compartment of a sculptured cross near the antique church of Ullard, in the county of Kilkenny, which, from the style of its architecture, and workmanship, -is supposed to have been erected prior to 830. "In this ornament", says he, " the figure is represented as playing upon a harp which rests on his knee; and it cannot fail to be regarded with interest, as being the first specimen of a harp without a fore pillar that has been hitherto discovered out of Egypt." The Irish harp was mounted with many strings of brass or some other metal. The specimen preserved in the Trinity College, Dublin, has 30 strings ; that of Robin Adair (an Irish chieftain), preserved at Hallybrooke in county Wicklow, has 37 strings ; and the Dallway Harp (1621) has 52 strings. The instrument was held in so much favor that it appeared on the coinage of Henry VIII., and had also been appended to some State papers, 1567. Among the famous harpers of the 16th and 17th centuries were Rory Dall O'Cahan; Gerald O'Daly (the composer) of Aileen-a-Roon); Denis Hempson (who, in 1745, when 50 years old, went to Scotland and played before Charles Edward) ; and and James Duncan, who having adopted the profession of a harper in order to obtain funds to carry on a law- suit in defence of his patrimony, was successful, and

EUROPE-IRELAND. 283

died in 1800, in the enjoyment of a handsome compe- tence. Among the attempts that have 'been made to arrest the decay of the Irish Harp School may be cited the " Contentions of Bards " held at Bvuree (county of Limerick), 1730-50; a meeting of harpers at Granard, (county of Longford), in 1781 ; and the assemblage of harpers at Belfast, 1792, when the promoters engaged Edward Bunting (1773-1842) to write down the music as performed. From this arose Bunting's famous collec- tion of Irish music, the first volume of which appeared in 1796, the second in 1809, and the third and last in 1840. Ten perforiers from different parts of Ireland attended the meeting of 1792, and t'ieir instruments, tuning, and use of musical terms agreed in a remark- able manner. The harpers of old played with their nails, and not with the fleshy tip of the fingers. The harp is now almost extinct, it haring been, to a great extent, superseded by the violin and the flute. The ancient bagpipe of Ireland, like that of Scotland, was an instrument of shrill and warlike tone, by which the natives were aminated as other people are by trumpets. The Irish bagpipe is distinguished from the Scottish one by being blown with bellows instead of the mouth ; on account of this as well as from the delicacy of its reeds, the tone is softer. The scale is said to be more accurate than the Scotch. The following are among the ancient wind instruments of Ireland :- (1) The Ben-Buabhill (pronounced Ben-Buffal), a real horn, generally that of a wild ox, or buffalo ; (2) the Buinne, a metal trumpet; (3) the Corn, a large curved tube ; (4) the Stoc and (5) the Sturgan, (varieties of the trumpet ) ; (6) the Musical Branch, adorned with numerous bells, something like the " Jingling Johnny," once used in the British army. There were single bells called Clothra. The Tympan was not a drum, as was erroneously supposed,

234 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

but a stringed instrument played with a bow. The players on the horn and trumpet were assigned regular places in the famous barquetting hall of Tara.

Among the dances of Ireland are (1) the Planaty, or Pleraca, 6-8 time, with strains of unequal number of bars; (2) The Jig, of which there are 4 varieties, viz., the Single Jig, the Double Jig, the Hop-Jig, and the Moneen, or Green-sod Jig; (3) The Reel ; (4) The Horn- pipe; (5) Set dances chiefly by one dancer; and (6) the Country dance. In his "Irish Sketch-Book," London, 1857, Thackeray thus describes a performanee of the Jig that he witnessed in Ireland :- "Round each set of dancers the people formed a ring in which the figurantes and coryphees went through their operations. The toes went in and the toes went out ; then there came certain mystic figures of hands across, and so forth. I never saw less grace or seemingly less enjoyment, no, not even in a quadrille. The people, however, took a great interest, and it was 'Well done, Tim,' ' Step out, Miss Brady !' and so forth during the dance."

Every domestic occupation in Ireland had its specific music : thus, the milking the cows, spinning, and plough- ing had each its tune. The certan was some sort of chirping sound by female singers; the dordfiansa, a warlike song accompanied by the clashing of spears after the Greek manner. The cronan was softly sung by a chorus, while the principal voice sustained the solo. Thomas Moore (1779 -- 1852), the celebrated lyric poet, ccmposer, and singer, of Ireland, has furnished the words for several of the vocal compositions of his country. His "Lalla Rookh " was made into an opera by C. E. Horn (1786-1849), and produced in Dublin in or about 1820. The resemblance between some Irish and Scottish airs has led some authorities to suppose that the former were

EUROPE-IRELAND. 285

derived from the latter. According to a writer in a Dublin periodical, The Examiner, August, 1816, the Irish melodies " are formed of 4 strains of equal length : the first soft, pathetic, and subdued; the second, ascend- ing in the scale, becomes more bold, energetic, and impassioned; the third, a repetition of the second, is some- times a little varied and more florid, and leads, generally, by a graceful or melancholy passage, to the fourth, which is always a repetition of the first." Gramachree in Moore's lines "The Harp that once through Tara's hall" is cited as an illustration, as also the marching tune, " Byrne of Ballymanus." Of late years, brass and reed bands have become popular in Ireland, and play through the streets of the towns. Choral classes are not popular throughout the country : they meet with little favor among the peasantry of the South and West. Oratorios are fairly supported by the middle class in the Northern town of Belfast. Much of the ancient music of Ireland is supposed to have perished with the popula- tion during the terrible famine of 1847, which was followed by fever and emigration on a large scale that laid whole districts waste. The advent of foreign musicians and the introduction by them of the music of other countries soon after the Hanoverian succession was settled, had the effect of leading the nobility and the gentry to adopt English models, and, to a great extent, of putting the Irish melodies out of fashion.

Among the distinguished musicians of Ireland who flourished in the 18th century was John Clegg, who was born in 1714. He appears to have been a pupil of Dubourg at Dublin, and afterwards of Bononcini. He was a celebrated violinist of his time and-a composer for his instrument. In 1742, owing probably to excessive practice, he became insane and was confined in Bedlam

286 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Hospital, where, as Dr. Burney states, "it was"long a fashionable, though inhuman amusement to visit him there, among other luratics, in hopes of being enter- tained by his fiddle or his folly." As regards the musi- cians of the present century, Catharine Hayes, the celebrated soprano, was born in Ireland in 1825 or 1826. On her departure for abroad Thackeray wished her farewell in his Irish Sketch-Book. She made a profes- sional. tour of Europe, America, India, Australia, and Polynesia and returned home with a fortune in 1857. She died August 11, 1861. Michael Kelly, another dis- tinguished musician of Ireland, was born in Dublin about 1764. In 1789 he made his first appearance as a com- poser by the production of the music to two pieces called "False Appearances" and " Fashionable Friends," and from that date till 1820 furnished the music for 62 dramatic pieces, besides writing a large number of English, Italian, and French single songs, &c. On September 5, 1811, at Dublin, he made his last appear- ance on the stage. He died October 9, 1826.

The Royal Irish Academy of Music, has, among its collections, the library of the long defunut " Antient concerts." The Library of Christ Church Cathedral contains valuable MS. copies of anthems and services by Purcell, Child, and others, which are said to differ greatly from those printed in England during the last fifty years.

EUROPE-ICELAND. 287

ICELAND.

@HERE are some works extant on the poetry and melodies of Iceland, these works being chiefly in the languages of the Continent of Europe. The Rev. Fre- derick Metcalfe, who travelled in Iceland, has in his " Oxonian in Ireland," London, 1861, written down a lullaby which he heard sung by the women in that country. It is said to be very old, and is addressed to an infant which has lost its mother. The Inllaby runs thus in its modernised form :-

Take me, bear me, shining moon, Bear me up to the skies; Mother mine, she's sitting there Carding wool so fine.

288 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

AMERICA. GENERAL REMARKS.

HE aboriginal inhabitants of America have been generally considered as a department of human family widely distinct from the people of the Old World. The peculiar position of the Continent, and the fact that it was so long unknown, are among the circumstances which have contributed to produce this impression. Some historians and ethnologists are of opinion that the American Indians originally migrated to America from Asia. In his "Researches concerning the Institutions and Monuments of the Ancient Inhabitants of America", (translated by H. M. Williams, London, 1814), Alexander von Humboldt thus remarks :- "A long struggle between two religious sects-the Brahmans and Buddhists -terminated by the emigration of the Chamans to Thibet, Mongolia, China, and Japan. If tribes of the Tartar race have passed over to the North-West coast of America, and thence to the South and the East, towards the banks of the Gila and those of the Missouri, as etymological researches seem to indicate, we should be less surprised at finding among the semi-barbarous nations of the new continent idols and monuments of architecture, a hieroglyphical writing, an exact know- ledge of the duration of the year, aud traditions respect- ing the first state of the world, recalling to our minds the sciences, the arts, and the religious opinions of the Asiatic nations." Referring to the languages of some of the American nations, Humboldt says that the idioms "have resemblances of internal mechanism similar to those which are found in the Sanskrit, the Persian, the

AMERICA-GENERAL REMARES. 289

Greek, and the German languages." It would appear from several authorities, that the Americans at one time were possessed of various civilised arts and acquirements. Latterly, they have fallen off from their elevated position. They are now not all hunters ; there are many fishing tribes among them. Some are nomadic, while others cultivate the earth, and live in settled habitations; and of these a part were agri- culturists before the arrival of the Europeans. As regards the music of these nations, there are undisput- able proofs tbat the pentatonic arrangement of intervals was observed by the Mexicans and Peruvian Indians, long before the discovery of the New World. Musical instruments have been found in tombs, dating from the time of the Aztecs, and of the Peruvians under the Incas, which emit no other than the pentatonic intervals. Among these instruments, which have becn deposited in museums of antiquities, are Pandean pipes made of reed, in which each note must have been purposely chosen to attain this end. As has already been said in the earlier portion of this work, the North American Indians sometimes employ signs written upon birch bark to assist them in remembering their songs : examples of these are given in George Catlin's "Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians," London, 1841, and in " Kitchi- Gami; wanderings round Lake Superior," by J. G. Kohl, London 1860. America was discovered by Columbus in 1492, and the Spaniards were the first with whom the aboriginal tribes came in contact. Other nations followed, and like the Spaniards, introduced the musie cf their mother countries into their respective settle- ments. Thus the Spaniards have introduced into Mexico and other parts of America their Bolero amd similar songs and dances of their original home, and the

RE

290 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Portuguese, the Modinha, (their characteristie national 'song), into. Brazil. The Indians in several parts of America still retain, with their ancient customs, the music of their own inherited from their ancestors. This music is generally in the same state of rude simpli- city in which the earliest discoverers found it, and, with one or two exceptions, it is this musie only that will be shortly noticed in the following pages.

AMERICA-NORTH AMERICA. 291

NORTH AMERICA.

PEAKING of the North American Indians, Dr. Schoolcraft observes that " there is no feast and no religious ceremony among them, which is not attended with dancing and songs," and these are invariably accompanied by the drum and the rattle. The most striking feature of the Indian songs is the prominence of the rhythmic element. The dance is practised both in religious ceremonies and secular amusements. The prophet or the medicine man is an important figure in matters musical. He is not only the repository of the sacred songs and chants, but also of the traditions and general lore of the tribes, and he is generally the composer of songs and leader of the dance and ceremonies. "The songs of the Indian", observe Mary E. Brown and William Adams brown. in their admirably got up joint production, " Musical instruments and their homes," New York, 1888, " are the natural expression of his feelings. Every event. in life is celebrated with its appropriate songs. The medicine man sings, or rather chants, as he performs his mysterious rites; the chief incites his followers to battle with a song ; the warriors sing as they rush into the fray ; the hunters console themselves by singing for ill success in the chase ; the mother sings as she rocks her infant to sleep; the youth expresses the depth of his affection by a song."

292 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

GREENLAND.

Greenland, otherwise called the Danish America, was first discovered by a Norwegian in 981, and soon after colonised from Iceland. Davis re-discovered the region in 1587, and in the seventeenth century, the Danes re-established a communication with -the lost Colony. The natives, or Esquimaux (literally, " eaters of raw fish"), are employed, chiefly in fishing and seal- hunting. In his " Journal of a Second Voyage for the Discovery of a North-West Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific," published in London in 1824, Captain W. E. Parry deseribes a song of the Esquimaux, which was repeatedly heard by him and carefully noted down. This song is founded upon the diatonic scale, with the introduction of a chromatic interval twice in the last two bars. He remarks that " the termination, which is abrupt and fanciful, is usually accompanied by a peculiar motion of the head, and an expression of archness in the countenance which caunot be described by words." The Esquimaux celebrate annually the return of the sun in dances and songs like the follow- ing :-

The welceme San returns again. Amna ajah, ajah, ah-hu! And brings us weather fine and fair, Amna ajah, ajah, ah-hu !

This festival takes place at the hyemal solstice is December, and the words, " Amna ajah, ajah, ah-hu," are sung in chorus by all the people who take part ir the ceremony as a response to the first and third stanza, which are sung solo by the conductor who accompanies himself upon a kind of tambourine called the "Keeloun." The tune of this song seems to be a general favorite with the Esquimaux. The Keeloun is formed of a very

AMERICA-NORTH AMERICA. 293

thin deer skin, or the envelope of the whale's liver, stretched over one side of a wooden hoop, to which a handle is attached, and upon which the instrument is struck and not upon the membrane. The dances of the Esquimaux are noted for their simplicity, the dancer having the option of inventing his own steps. There is a dance in which a number of women stand in a ring, with their hands under the front flaps of their jackets, and sing, with half closed eyes, the favorite " Amna ajah" song. The dancers are represented by one man, who stands in the middle of the ring, moves about his head and arms, utters sharp yells from time to time, and occasionally flings his leg as high as he can. There is a special dance in vogue among the women which consists in kneeling on the ground and leaping to their feet as fast as is possible. The following touching " Lamentation of a Greenlander on the death of his son" appeared in the " History of Greenland," by David Crantz, London, 1767 :-

Woe is me, that I see thy wonted seat, but see it empty !

Vain are thy mother's toils of love to dry thy garments.

Lo ! my joy is gone into darkness; it is crept into the caverns of the mountains.

Once, when the even came, I went out and was glad:

I stretched out my eager eye, and waited thy return.

Behold, thou camest ! Thou camest manfully rowing on, vying with young and old.

Never didst thou return brought its never-failing load of seals or sea-fowl. empty from the sea; thy kajak

Thy mother, she kindled the fire and boiled ; she boiled what thy hand acquired. Thy mother, she spread thy booty before many invited guests, and I took my portion among them.

294 UNIVERSAI. HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Thou espiedst the shallop's scarlet streamer from far, and joyfully shoutedst: " Behold, Lars * cometh !" Thou skippedst over the strand with haste, and thy hand took hold of the gunnel of the shallop. Then were they seals produced, and thy mother separated the blubber; for this thou receivedst shirts of linen and iron barbs for thy spears and arrows. Bat now, alas, 'tis over ! when I think on thee, my bowels are moved within me. O, could I weep like others ! for then might I alleviate my pain. What shall I wish for more on earth ? Death is now become the most desirable thing. But then, who shall provide for my wife, and the rest of my tender children ! I will still live a little while; but my joy shall consis henceforth in denying myself all that is desirable to man.

• The factor.

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THE UNITED STATES.

A great part of what are now called the " United States" belonged to Britain till the year 1775, when the colonists rebelled against the Government, and finally succeeded in throwing off the British yoke. Their independence was acknowledged in 1783, when the first Congress assembled in Philadelphia. In 1789, the con- stitution was adopted and Washington was elected President. Literary institutions are numerous and the Republic can boast of not a few distinguished names in science and letters. Music is muck cultivated in this country both publicly and in private families. The Philharmonic Society of New York, founded April, 1842, has for its object the cultivation and performance of instrumental music. Its first concert was given at the Apollo Rooms, December 7, 1842. The Chinese Rooms, Niblo's Garden, Irving Hall, and the Academy of Music, have been successively used for the concerts and public rehearsals. The Philharmonic Society, Brooklyn, New York, which was incorporated in 1857, has for its object the "advancement of music in the city of Brooklyn, by procuring the public performance of the best works in this department of art." Under the auspices of this Society, important works have been produced for the first time in America, including several by native com- posers. Philadelphia is remarkable among the cities of the United States for its musical life. No less than 65 Musical Societies exist within its precincts. The Musical Fund Society, which is the oldest of all, was established February, 1820. Among the other institu- tions are the Beethoven Society organised in 1869; the Orpheus Club (a choral society for men's voices), orga- nised August, 1872 ; and the Cecilian Society, organised May 25, 1875. The University of Pennsylvania, located

296 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

in Philadelphia, has established a faculty of music and confers musical degrees :. Among the other musical or- ganizations of the United States may be specified the Col- lege of Music (established 1872) attached to the Boston University, Massachusetts ; the Peabody Institute, Balti- more, Maryland, founded by George Peabody in 1857; and the College of Music, Cincinnati, Ohio, which was incorporated in 1878. A feature peculiar to the United States is the " Normal Musical Institutes," held in the summer, at some sea-side or mountain watering-place, by leading professors, with the object of giving higher lessons to would-be teachers. Another feature is the holding of a meeting of teachers from all parts of the Union, once a year, also in the summer. The meeting, the place of which is previously fixed, is called " The National Music Teachers' Association," and hereat matters of interest to the profession are discussed and lectures delivered. Out of this has started, since 1884, the American College of Musicians, the objeet of which is to examine candidates for employment as teachers, and to grant graded certificates of ability. The principle of what is known as the American organ was first dis- covered about 1835 by a workman in the factory of M. Alexandre, the most celebrated harmonium-maker of Paris. M. Alexandre constructed a few inst-uments on this plan, but as they wanted in expressive power, he soon gave up the plan. The workman subsequently went to America carrying his invention with him. The instruments first made in America were known as "Melodeons " or " Melodiums," and the American organ under its present name, and with various im- provements suggested by experience, was first introduced by Messrs. Mason and Hamlin of Boston, about 1860. Since then it has become a general favorite, both in America and Europe.

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The work called "Slave Songs of the United States," published in New York in 1871, contains a very large collection of the words and tunes of Negro songs. Prior to their emancipation in 1865, the Negroes danced or sung to traditional tunes, some of which were held to have come from Africa, their original home. Most of their present tunes show traces of Catholic or Methodist teachings. The Negroes pay a great deal o attention to rhythm. A Jig is invariably accompanied with bones (played like castanets), or tambourines, and when neither is available, with the alternate slapping of their hands together and on their knees. The Banjo is also an instrument in use among them. They sing while engaged in loading or unloading ships, or in pumping a fire-engine, or in any other work where they have to move in company. One of them gives a line or two, while the rest form the chorus by singing the refrain. Sometimes, when the words are not remembered, impro- visation is resorted to. The Negro Minstrel show, a specimen of which is known as the "Christy's Minstrels," had its origin in "Jim Crow,"-the name both of the song and of the Negro whose performance of it was so much admired in Louisville, Kentucky, in 1830

ALASKA .*

The drum and the rattle are the native instruments of the Indians of Alaska (along the north coast of which the Eskimos live). The size of the former varies greatly, from 3 feet to 7 inches in diameter, as would appear from collections of specimens contained in the American Museum of Natural History. The stick of the

• Alaska is not situated within the geographical limits of the United States. The country is treated of here, because it belongs to the TTuited States.

LL

298 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

former is made of a thin piece of wood bent back at the end so as to form a loop, and decorated with eagle's feathers. The use of the rattle dates from a very remote period. It is said that in days of yore an old man and his nephew lived in the Nans River country. Being provoked by the conduct of the latter, who was an idle and worthiess fellow, the former put an axe iuto his hand and sent him to the forest to eut down a tree for fire-wood. In the centre of a large tree which the. nephew felled and commenced to split up, he found a rattle, waist cloth, and other dancing gear. These he took with him to his uncle who put them into use at once, and from these all others were copied by visitors. This is all that is known in the country regarding the origin and use of the rattle. The variety of this instrument, used by the chiefs in their dances, is generally in the form of a crow,the under-half carved to represent an owl, and on the back a dead man with protruding tongue, and other figures such as the frog, land otter, kingfisher, &c. The rattle is also an important artiele in the funetions of the Shamun, the Alaskan prophet or medicine man. It is used both in his exhibition dances and in the Creatment of the sick. The. Shaman's rattle, which is usually ornumented with the skin of the ermine, is sometimes carved to represent the crow, or the oyster-catcher, and on the outside the land otter, mountain-goat, mink, devil-fish, and the witches and spirits. Some of these rattles represent kush-tar-kar, or " spirit of the drowned", a creature half-way between man and otter, who cannot sing, but only whistle, and is suppomed to be constantly playing tricks on mortals. In the colleetion of the late Mr. John Crossby Brown of New York, there is a curious rattle from Rasbonisky, which consists of a long stick ornamented with feathers, to which is attached, by u

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cord of sinews, a small wooden box filled with pebbles. In this collection is also to be found a rude stringed instrument from Yac-a-tat. The body of this is made of thin pieces of wood, neatly fastened together, and painted or stained with a variety of rude figures in red and blue. It is mounted with two strings. Although this specimen was obtained from a tribe of Indians who come rarely in contact with white people, it is surmised that it is only a rude imitation of some instrument of the violin kind which the tribe might have come across by some chance or other. In addition to the drum and the rattle which the Shaman uses in his ceremonies, there are a number of wooden stieks which are distri- buted to various members of his family, and are beaten by them upon the floor of the house where he is to practise, as a sort of accompaniment to the drum and the chant which he sings.

DAKOTA.

The musical instruments of the Sioux, the natives of Dakota, are the drum, rattle, tapper, whistle, flute, and flageolet. The drums are of three kinds, viz., (1) the war drum, which consists of a frame of wood with a single head of skin. (which is moistened in order to secure the required sound), is usually painted black, and is beaten with a stick similar to that used by the Shamans of Alaska, (2) the conjuror's or medicine man's drum, which has its two heads profusely smeared with vermillion, is never moistened, and is beaten with a wooden stick with a head of hollow rawhide; and (3) the common or lay man's drum, which is usnally not much decorated, and is considered very sedative in its effects The rattle of the Sioux is made of all sorts of materials, such as wood, bits of copper and tin, bells, pieces of horn, elk tusks, deer toes, bones, quills, turtle

300 UNIVERSAL BISTORY OF MUSIC.

shells, and even the rattles of the rattle snake. The bracelet rattle which consists of a piece of rawhide, to which are attached bits of tin and bone, is used in orchestra playing. The conjuror's rattle is made by the conjuror himself with mysterious cere- monies, and each is prepared for the occasion it is required, having somewhere about it the image or images of the special spirit who is supposed to preside over the ceremony at which it is to be used. The " tapper" plays an important part in the orchestral performances of the Dakotas. It is a smooth, hard rod about 12 or 18 inches in length, held lightly with the fingers of the right hand, and tapped briskly upon some sonorous object such as the blade of a tomahawk or a buffalo rib. The whistle of the Sioux is made of a hollow bone, or quill, or a wooden cylinder, and is used sometimes singly, and sometimes in pairs or three, but never exceeding the last number. The war-whistle, which is used exclusively by the chiefs, is made of a piece of bone and yields two distinct tones, according as it is blown through one end or the other. The He ha- kha-zo-zo, or the long flute or Moose-Call, is one of the peculiar wind instruments of the Sioux. The instru- ment is 3 to 4 feet loLg and its compass an octave, the scale being produced by the force of the breath. The notes of this flute are supposed to resemble " the whist- ling tones of the love-sick elk." The Cho-tonka, or the love flute, which is made generally of a single piece of wood and furnished with six finger-holes, is a kind of flageolet without a reed, and produces upon it melodies' which are said to resemble in character many Scotch and Irish airs. This flute is indispensable to the Dakotas for the purpose of courting their lady-loves, The scalp dance and the dog dance are two of the chief terpsichorean exercises of the Sioux. The

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former is performed in the night by the light of their torches, just before going to bed. When a victo- rious party return from war, bringing home with them the scalps of their enemies, a number of young women are selected to stand in the centre of a cirele, holding up these scalps, while the warriors dance, or rather jump, round them, brandishing their weapons and giving forth a frantic yell. This dance is performed for fifteen nights in succession, and is supposed to be propitiatory of the spirits of the slain. The dog dance is & very repulsive performance. In this, the hearts and livers of two or more slain dogs are cut intc strips, and, in a raw state, hung as high as a man's head, upon two crotches. The dancers then proclaim their own exploits, and at the same time proceed two at a time to the stake and bite off a piece of the hearts or livers and swallow it. Care is taken that the step is not lost nor the harmony of their voices interrupted, during the devouring process. The meaning of the dance is that none can join. in it who cannot boast that he has killed his foe and swallowed a piece of his heart.

ARIZONA.

The Apaches of Arizona bave drums, rattles, and wind instruments similar in character to those of the Sioux. Mr. J. Crossby Brown collected a small flute con- sisting of a reed with four finger-holes. The specimen, however, is an extremely rare oue. The Apaches also have a small violin which is mounted with a single string made of a number.of borse-hairs. The bow is furnisned with a coarse string of horse hair. The Pueblos of Arizona possess rattles of different kinds as their princi- pal instruments. The common variety of the rattle is a gourd filled with small stones. Another variety is made of the shell of a turtle to which are attached, by strips of

302 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

rawhide, bits of bone, horn, &c. It is fastened above the knee of the dancer by a cord of rawhide, and makes a sound in time with the movements of his body.

NEW MEXICO. The Moquis of New Mexico use several varieties of the gourd rattle. One of their rattles is represented by a notched stick, which is played by moving a wand of willow across the notches. This is used to keep time in their dances. The people of New Mexico have a sheep bell, which is a rude bell made out of the horn of the sheep of the Rocky Mountains which tra- verse the country. The clapper consists of a small stone fastened to the end of a strip of rawhide. Dr. Schoolcraft makes mention of a curious dance of the Moquis of New Mexico in which twenty men and as many women, dressed in a fantastic fashion, took part. The gourd rattle kept time with the performance. The dancers " furnished their own music, and a most strange sound it was, resembling very much the noise, on a large scale, of a swarm of blue-bottle flies in an empty hogshead. Each one was rolling out aw aw aw, in a deep bass tone ; and the sound coming through a hollow visor produced the effect described." BRITISH AMERICA.

CANADA. Canada was discovered in 1497 by John and Sebas- tian Cabot. It was taken possession of by the French in 1525. In 1608, Quebec, the first settlement, was founded; and for many years the French were engaged in conflicts with the aboriginal tribes of Indians. In 1759, Quebec was taken by the British under General Wolfe, and in 1763, the whole territory of Canada was ceded to the British by the treaty of Paris. Lieutenant Back

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who accompanied Captain Franklin in his expedition for exploring the country from Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Copper Mine river, collected a number of airs as he heard them sung by the " Voageurs" or Canadian boatmen ; and these airs, with symphonies and accompaniments, but without the words, were pub- lished by Edward Knight in 1823. Lieutenant Back says : " They were gathered in a three years' intercourse with the Canadians ; by whom they are sung, as they paddle down the rivers, sotto voce, and in a subdued tone, as they near the Rapids, but with a burst of exultation, when the peril is over." They are pretty and melodious, but cannot be accepted as genuine specimens of Indian national melodies as they are a composite of European music and the simple notes of the natives. The Vau- devilles of France and the ballads of England seem to have entered largely into the composition of these airs.

BRITISH COLUMBIA. The Haida Indians of British Columbia use dance- rattles almost similar to those in use among the Thlinkets of Alaska. They have also a number of wooden pipes and other wind instruments, varying in length and shape. Besides these, the Haidas possess also a small instrument with two tubes on the syrinx principle, and a well-constructed flute with four finger- holes. The Emmons collection is said to contain a very curious instrument, in which the wind, instead of being furnished by the breath of the performer, is supplied by the action of a small bellows of wood and skin

VANCOUVER ISLAND

The Ahts of Vancouver Island are remarkable for the accuracy of their ear. They are able to reproduce exactly both the notes and the expression of European

304 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

songs, after they have heard them for a few times. At their dances, the spectators sing, and beat time on their wooden dishes and bearskin drumns. In some cases the dancers join in the song. The performances of the sorcerers among the Ahts are also accompanied by the beating of bearskin drums and are characterised by a frightful howling.

MEXICO.

Mexico, which was wrested from the natives by the Spaniards under Cortez in 1521, continued in the posses- sion of Spain till 1821, when it became an independent federal republic. In 1864, Maxmilian, son of Archduke Charles of Austria, was elected Emperor of Mexico. By Imperial decree, 1865, all Negroes on Mexican soil were made free, subject to surveillance for five yenrs. In June 1867, Mexico ceased to be an empire by the abdi- cation of Maxmilian, who was taken prisoner by the republican forces and shot by sentence of a military tribunal, and again became a federal repnblic. The capital of the country, Mexico, has soveral theatres and an academy of arts.

The Aztecas were supposed to have entered Mexico about 640 after the Christian era. There are records in existence showing the advancement which the Aztecas made-in the pursuits of the arts and sciences. It is said that the natives of Mexico erected stupendous edifices which rivalled those of Egypt; that they had calendars carrying back the notion of time and marking the different passages of their history ; and that they bad historical paintings of which the traditional ex- planation was repeated orally by the Mexicans to some of their conquerors, and Spanish and Italian ecclesiastics. The little flageolets and whistles of the ancient

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American Indians, of which many have been found in tombs, especially in Mexico and in Central America, are of pottery formed to represent animals, and bear, in many other respects, a close resemblance to the Babylonian pipe. Carl Engel gives the scale of one of these flageolets with four finger-holes, which seems to be one of the pentatonic order, the notes represent- ed being A, B, C Sharp, E and F sharp. He also mentions a long wooden trumpet in present nse in Mexico called Acocotle, or Clarin, which derives its desig- nation from the dry stalk of a plant (known among the Indians by the name of Acocotl) of which the tube is made. The peculiarity of the instrument lies in the fact that the performer does not blow into it, but inhales the air through it; in other words, he produces the sound by sucking the mouth-piece. There is a kind of rattle in use in Mexico which is represented by a notched stick and played by passing a thin wand of wood over the notches. Among the instruments introduced into the country by the European invaders and in present use are the Guitar (strung with ten strings of gut) ; the Bandolon (strung with 6 sets of 3 wire strings and played with a small plectrum); and the Harp (mount- ed with 82 gut and 5 wire strings and having its head carved, as in some specimens, to represent a serpent) With regard to the form and character of the musical instruments of the early Mexicans, Mr. Rowbotham ìn his "History of Music," 1885, makes the fol- lowing observations :- " They made- their whistles in the shape of birds, frogs, men's heads; their teponaztls, even the ordinary ones, were covered with carvings, but the teponaztlis used in war-the war drams, as we should call them-were cut in the figure of a man crouching on his knees; his back was the drum, and he had eyes of bone and beautifully

806 UNTVERSAL HISTORT OF MUBIO.

braided hair, ear-rings, necklacos, and boat-ehaped shoes on his feet, all carred in a mnlberry-colored wood, and highly burnished. And while othe nations huve been content to make their tamboutines of a round frame covered with a piece of skin, the Mexicans made theirs in the form of a snake biting a tortoise's head. The snake was Coiled up in three coils on the tortoise's back, and the arch of its neck served as a bandle, and the belly of the tortoise served as the tambourine, being made of a fat slice of tortoise shell (the rest of the tortoise was of wood) and struck by the right hand, while the instrument itself was held by the left. And here was a peculiar thing about these snakes and tortoise tambourinés: there were holes in the tortoise's back which served as stops, and were covered by the fingers. So delicate an ear had the Mexicans for all tho ahades of percussional sounds, that they could appreciate the variation caused by the stopping and unstopping of a hole in the body of a tambourine no Ligger than the hole of an ordinary flute-stop. And they had rattles in the shape of a snake crushing a toad in its coils ; and things very much like the Chinese egg-instruments, that were really flageolets with two mouth-pieces, thut could play a bass and a treble at the same time; and pipem and ratties combined in the form of three hmnan heads, supporting a pedestal-the pedestal was the pipe_and the heads, which were filled with stones, were the rattles." NORFOLK SOUND.

Captain Dixon, in his " Voyage Rennd the World," London, 1789, states that the Indinns of Norfolk Sound, North-Western America, have a great varicty of tanes, but the method of performing them in nniveraally the same. He-thus deacribes their musicul performunces :-

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"The Chief (who always conducts the vocal concert) puts on a large coat, made of the elk skin tanned, round the lower part of whicn is one or sometimes two rows of dried berries, or the beaks of birds, which make a rattling noise whenever he moves. In his hand he has a rattle, or more commonly a contrivance to answer the same end, which is of a circular form, about nine inches in diameter, and made of three small sticks bent round at different distances from each other. Great numbers of bird's beaks and dried berries are tied to this curious instrument, which is shaken by the chief with great glee, and in his opinion makes no small addi- tion to the concert. Their songs generally consist of several stanzas, to each of which is added a chorus. The beginning of each stanza is given out by the chief alone, after which both men and women join and sing in . octaves, beating time regularly with their hands or paddles. Meanwhile the chief shakes his rattles and makes a thousand ridiculous gesticulations, singing at intervals in different notes from the rest ; and this mirth generally continves near half-an-hour without inter- mission." Captain Dixon has transcribed one of these songs in which the chief sings out the words " Al-la coosch" followed by. an interminable series of the syllable " hob" " hoh" "hoh," and the women and the men sing the words " Haigh al-la coosch al-la coosch al-la" "beig-ha haigh haigh haigh"-followed by zepetitions of the latter phrases. PORT DES FRANCAIS. La Perouse, author of " Voyage de La Perouse autour de monde," relates, with reference to the people of Port des Francais (who belong to the same nation as the people of' Norfolk Sound), that he frequently heard them singing. When the chief of a tribe came to visit

308 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

him on board the ship, he usually approached singing and crossing his arms as a sign of friendship. Having come on board with his followers, they used to perform some pantomime relating to a combat, a surprise, or a death. The song which preceded this pantomimic dance is descrived as pleasantly melodious, and to some extent, it was also possessed of harmony. Some of the women sang the melody an octave higher than the men, except in the two bars where it descends rather low : here they would frequently pause. Some of the women sang an f accompaniment exactly a third above the melody.

NOOTKA SOUND. The various hordes who inhabit Nootka Sound and the lower tracts of the Columbia River are ineluded in the southern tribes termed Nootka Columbians. They differ from the northern tribes in being fatter and more muscular, in having their cheek-bones more promi- nent, and in their complexion having more of the copper hue. The practice of flattening the head (the operation being performed on the heads of new-born infants) is universal among the Nootka Columbians. These people are distinguished from the native Americans in general on account of their remarkable fondness for mnsic. Captain Cook speaks highly of the skill which they dis- play in the composition of their songs. "Their masio," he observes, "is not of that confined sort found among many rude nations ; for the variations are very numerons and expressive, and the cadence and melody powerfully southing."

LAKE SUPERIOR.

The Ojibbeways, otherwise called Chippeways, who are now situated around Lake Superior, extending north-west towards Lake Winnipeg, and west to

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Red River, are reckoned a tribe of the northern branch of the great Algonquin-Lenape family. The following two specimens of their songs appeared in Kohl's "Kitchi- Gami" :-

SONG OF AN OJIBBEWAY INDIAN GIRL.

Dear friend, worthy friend, look up, look up ! Our Ninimoshin * has promised that in three months he will be here again. The time has nearly expired, and the end is quickly approaching. To-morrow, perhaps, we shall see his'red canoe in the white foam of the cataracts; To-morrow, perhaps, see him sitting in his red canoe our sunburnt friend ! SONG OF AN OJIBBEWAY INDIAN YOUTH. [This song was made by a-young Indian warrior, to console his three sisters who were mourning for him at home.]

Weep not, ye three sisters, for your brother ! For your brother is a brave ! Weep not, ye three sisters, for your brother ! For your brother is a man ! Weep not, ye three sisters, for your brother ! For he is returning as a victor .! · Cousin, or friend.

910 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

THE WEST INDIES.

CUBA.

UBA, which is the largest of the West India Islands, was discovered by Columbus in his first voyage in 1493. In 1511, the first settlement was made by the Spaniards, and soon after the aboriginal inhabitants were almost wholly extirpated. The Negroes of Cuba have the rattles and drums as their principal instruments. There are several varieties of the former in use. The Cacha, a kind of Maraca (or rattle), is made of Castilla cane, with hard seeds resembling marbles inside. It is used by the Creoles as an accompaniment to the Guitar. The Maruga is a tin rattle, with shot inside. The Guiro is & long thin gourd, with notches cut on the back, along which a thin stick is scraped. The Guiro is sometimes made of tin. The Tohona is a rude drum made of a wooden keg, and having its two heads covered with hide.

JAMAICA. Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, colonized by the Spaniards in 1510, and taken by the English in 1655. In 1807, the slave trade was abolished, and on the abolition of slavery in the British possessions in 1833, a very large sum was paid by the Government as compensation to the slave-owners. The following little song refers to a harrowing incident which took place, shortly before the abolition of slavery in Jamaica, on an estate called " Spring Garden," " the owner of

A MERICA-WEST INDIES. 811

which," says Mr. Mathew Gregory Lewis, in his " Journal of a Residence among the Negroes in the West Indies," London, 1845, "is quoted as the cruelest proprietor that ever disgraced Jamaica." The incident is described by Mr. Lewis as follows :- " It was his constant practice, whenever a sick Negro was pronounc- ed incurable, to order the poor wretch to be carried to a solitary vale upon his estate, called the Gulley, where he was thrown down and abandoned to his fate which fate was generally to be half devoured by the John-crows before death had put an end to his sufferings. By this proceeding the avaricious owner avoided the expense of maintaining the slave during his last illness ; and in order that he might be as little a loser as possible, he always enjoined the Negro bearers of the dying man to strip him naked before leaving the Gulley, and not to forget to bring back his frock and the board on which he had been carried down. One poor creature, while in the act of being removed, screamed out most piteously that he was not dead yet, and implored not to be left to perish in the Gulley in a' manner so horrible. His cries had no effect upon his master, but operated so forcibly on the less marble hearts of his fellow slaves, that in the night some of them removed him back to the Negro village privately, and nursed him there with sc much care that he recovered, and left the estate un- questioned and undiscovered. Unluckily, one day the master was passing through Kingston, when, on turning the corner of a street suddenly, he found himself face to face with the Negro whom he had supposed long ago to have been picked to the bones in the Gulley. He immediately seized him, claimed him as his slave, and ordered his attendants to convey him to his house ; but the fellow's cry attracted a crowd round them before he could be dragged away : he related his melancholy

$12 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

story, and the singular manner in which he had re- covered his life and liberty ; and the public indignation was so forcibly excited by the shocking tale, that Mr. B .... was glad to save himself from being torn to pieces, by a precipitate retreat from Kingston, and never ventured to advanced his claim to the Negro a second time."

SONG OF THE NEGRO SLAVES IN JAMAICA.

Take him to the Gulley! Take him. to the Gulley ! But bringee back the frock and board. " O ! massa, massa ! me no deadee yet ! " Take him to the Gulley ! Take him to the Gulley ! Carry him along! .

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CENTRAL AMERICA.

ONHE musical instruments of the aboriginal tribes of Central America consist chiefly of drums, rattles, whistles, and flutes. The Indians of the South-eastern Costa Rica use a rattle which is represented by a gourd filled with pebbles. The handle is made of a small bone and is held in place by a cord of sinews. The Marimba (which has been already described as an instrument peculiar to Africa) is in great favor with the Negroes of Guatemala, who are said to have introduced its use from Africa. It has, in some of the specimens, twenty-two wooden keys, beneath which are placed hollow pieces of wood for the purposes of resonance. It is played with rubber-tipped hammers, and sometimes three persons play on one instrument at the same time.

314 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OP MUSIC.

SOUTH AMERICA.

s in the other parts of the New World, the principal instruments in use in South America are drums, rattles, flutes, whistles, trumpets, and Pandean pipes. The Botuto, which is a sacred trumpet made of wood, now diminishing in number, is used by a number of tribes in the vicinity of Orinoco, and held in great veneration. It is said that one must be of pure morals and have lived single before he couid be initiated into the mysteries of the Botuto. The Ture is in general use among several Indian tribes on the river Amazon who employ it chiefly in war. It is like an Oboe or a Clario- net and produces a harsh and loud sound. It may be mentioned here in passing that the Aryans of India had & war trumpet which was called Turi. The fact that many of the South America tribes use the conch as a trumpet is an additional confirmation of the supposition that America was in the olden days colonized by the people of India.

AMERICA-SOUTH AMERICA. 15

GUIANA. Guiana was discovered in 1504. The Dutch formed the first settlement in 1558, on the Pomeroon ; the British in 1590, near Berbice and Surinam. In 1667, the British settlements were given up to the Dutch, but again re-occupied by the English ; and in 1814 the settlements between the Corentyn and Marony rivers were restored to the Dutch. In the Journal of the Ethnological Society of London, Vol I, Sir.R. Schom- burgk says, with reference to a song, which consisted only of three notes, that the Macusi-one of the Indian tribes of Guiana-" amuse themselves for hours singing this monotonous song, the words of which, hai-a, hai-a, have no further signification.". Refer ring to the Pehi, a rattle of the Indians of Guiana, mentioned under the heading of " The Savage Nations" in the present work, the missionaries say that the natives " would not dare to shake it except on special occasions. They would rattle it all night.over a person who was ill, and at the same time sing their wild songs." The maquarri dance is the most curious of all the Guianan dances. It is called after the maquarri, or whip, which forms its principal element. The object of the dance is giving and receiviag cuts with the whip, and though the hurt given in the contest is sometimes severe, the utmost `good humour prevails during the performance. One of the dances of the Arawaks is described as rather picturesque in its character. Twelve young men arrange themselves in parallel rows, but instead of carrying maquatri whips, they bear slender rods, the ends of which they strike against the ground, keeping time with the measure, while they dance back- ward and forward. These rods are tipped with small gourds having stones inside. From time to time the women run up to the dancers, seize their arms, and

816 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

dance with them, but when the men clash the rattling ornaments of beetle's wing cases with which their wrists and legs are decorated, the women give up their hold, and fly back to their companions like so many frighten- ed deer. One of the dances of the Warau tribes consists of steps, accompanied with stamping, while the dancers throw their right arms over their right-hand neighbour's shoulders, ond their left arms round their left-hand neighbour's waist, swaying their bodies to and fro. Sometimes the women would insert themselves between the men and join in the performance. This dance is intended to represent the antics of a herd of kairounies, or bush hogs, and the chant, which is sung in unison, is a succession of mocking or jeering expressions. Mr. H. Bernau collected from Guiana a rather elegantly formed rattle. The small hollow gourd which forms part of this rattle is suspended from a series of three hoops which are strung with beetle wings. The slightest movement of the string by which the instru- ment is held sets all the wings clattering against each other, and the noise produced thereby is described as wonderful in its effect. The natives of Guiana make flutes of the bamboo, and sometimes of the leg bone of the jaguar. A modert specimen of a Pandear pipe collected from Guiana is described as consisting of fourteen reed pipes, arranged in sets of two, and varying in length from 4 feet 2 inches to 5 feet 10 inches. These are set in a hollowed and rounded piece .of wood, one end of which is furnished with a hole for the breath. The hands of the performer rest -against the sides of this, while the fingers cover a series of small holes in the pipes, just above the wooden handle. The instru- ment is held and played like the Chinese Cheng, and is almost identical in form to the Phan which is met with in he northern part of Siam and in the Laos state.

AMERICA-SOUTH AMERICA. 317

COLOMBIA. One of the representative instruments of the United States of Colombia is the Tambeau which is a drum made by the Indians near Carthagena, the capital of Bolivia. The body is made of a single piece of cork wood, hollowed and covered with a head of skin which is kept in place by a rope made of the bark of the samue. tree. As in the case of the Mridanga of India, a number of wooden wedges are inserted bet ween the rope and the body of the drum, and by pushing these up or down the tension of the skin may be increased or decreased The El Pito is a rude fife also made by the Indians near Carthagena. . A rattle bor is in use in the remote valleys of the Andes. This consists of a round wooden box, in the interior of which a number of wooden pins are crossed at right angles in such a way as to obstruct the free motion of the seed with which the box is filled. This rattle is used to accompany singing and dancing.

PERU. Among the Peruvian nations, the dominant race were the Quichuas, or Incas, distinguished by their language, which is the Quichuan. Peru was conquered from the dynasty of the Incas by the troops of Pizarro in 1582, from which time it remained one of the most important possessions of Spain, until its independence in 1821. When it was first visited by the Spaniards, Peru was, with the exception of Mexico, the most civilized country in the New World. It is stated that the old Incas calculated with accuracy the duration of the solar year ; had acquired the art of sculpture ; re- corded the events of history by symbols and by quipus, or knotted cords ; worked the precious metals ; had a code of laws ; practised oratory, poetry ard music pand

318 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

had a regularly organised Government. Like the Rajputs of India, the royal dynasty of the Incas were the offspring of the Sun, which was considered the visible representative of Pachacamac, the invisible God, and to which they erected temples where service was performed by consecrated virgins. The nearest relative of the reigring Incas was the high-priest. A copper bell was discovered in one of the tombs of the ancient Peruvians, and is now preserved in the Museum of Antiquities in Lima (the capital city of Peru). This bell bears a resemblance to the little hand-bell called Drilbu which is used by the Buddhist priests of Ladak in their religious, services. The ancient Peruvians had a kind of syrinx called Huayra-puhura. Several instru- ments of this kind, made either of reed or of stone, have been discovered in the ancient tombs. There is a speci- men in the British Museum, which consists of a double row of reed-pipes, of which one is open below, and the other closed. The music of the ancient Inca Peruvians, as also of the Aztecs in Mexico, was founded on the pentatonic scale. In specimens of the old Peruvian songs, called Haravi, no indications of the use of this scale are traceable; and the reason given for this is that these specimens are tainted by the influence which Spanish music exercised over them. CHILI.

Chili was invaded and taken possession of by the Spaniards after the conquest of Peru, and a settlement formed at Santiago in 1541. The colonists threw off the yoke of Spain 1818, when the country became an in- dependent Republic. The aborigines (Araucanians) inhabit almost exclusively the country south of the Biobio River. The Araucanians form a branch of the Andian family of South America. They are a celebrat-

AMERICA-SOUTE AMERICA. 319

ed war-like race who defended long the mountains of Chili against the Spaniards. The following "Extempore Song of Araucanian Indian Women, engaged in grinding corn," appeared in " The Araucanians : or, Notes of a Tour among the Indian Tribes of Southern Chili ;" by E. R. Smith, London, 1855 :--

We are grinding wheat for the strangen Who has come from a long way off. May the flour be white to his eye, And pleasant to his taste : For he has brought us beads ; He has given us bells to deck our hair. The watchmen in the town of Valparaiso carry a loud and shrill whistle, the sounds of which are varied as occasion requires, and by it a Police force can be collected in a few moments. When they cry the hour, which, it is said, they do in a pleasing manner, they all sing the same tune, but the piteh is ranged accord- ing to the scope of the voice. The words sung are- "Viva Chili ! Viva Chili ! Lasdiez anda, y serena !" In the morning a prayer is added-" Ave Maria purissima, las cinco y media." The music is the same as that of the night-song, a few notes being added for the addi- tional words.

BRAZIL.

Brazil was discovered by the Portuguese in the year 1500, and begun to be colonized by them in 1531. In 1808, John VI. of Portugal took up his residence in Brazil ; and in 1815 constituted it a kingdom. In 1822 it declared itself an independent state, and the Govern- ment was vested in hereditary Emperor (sprung from the Royal family of Portugal), a senate elected for life by the Emperor, and a representative chamber chosen by the people. In 1891, a disturbance took place,

320 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

resulting in Dom Pedro, the last Emperor, abdicating the throne, and in Brazil being declared a republic. The Eastern Guarani are the Tupi, or native inhabi- tants of Brazil. The general language of Brazil is called Tupi from the name of the first Indians who were converted to Christianity. The aboriginal in- babitants are said to employ barmony in their sengs. In his " Narrative of the United States Expedition," Captain Wilkes says of the Negro slaves in Rio de Janeiro (the capital city of Brazil) :"The coffee- carriers go along in large gangs of twenty or thirty, singing. One half take the air, with one or two keeping ap & kind of hum on the Common Chord, and the re minder finish the bar", the " bar" here being evidently meant for a musical phrase or sentence. Dr. von Spix and Dr. von Martius (Munich, 1823), have published a number of songs and dance tunes of the Indian tribes in Brazil. Some of these melodies conclude with a chord to be sung in full chorus. The Maraca of the Brazilian Indians has already bee mentioned under the heading of "The Savage Nations ;" when shaken it produces a loud and hollow sound.

BOLIVIA.

Bolivia, under the name of Upper Peru, was former- ly a part of the Spanish Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayies. It acquired its independence in 1825, and the present name was assumed in honor of Bolivar, the great cham picn of South American independence, who, in 1826, drew up its first constitution. The Indians form ahout one eighth of the population of Bolivia, and these are principally the Moxos and the Chiquitos. The former were, before the conquest, fishermen, hunters, and culti- mators of the land. The chase was only used by them as & recreation, but fishing was a necessary employment,

AMERICA-SOUTH AMERICA. 321

while agriculture procured them provisions and the materials necessary for a favorite liqnor which, as among the Chiquitians, was made in a common hunse where strangers were received and where, on certain days the inhabitants met to drink, sing, and dance. The Jesuits who founded missions in the provinces of the Moxos and Chiquitos, have been partly successful in uniting all the tribes under a unform langnage (Chiquito), which is said to be sweet and melodious and presents no harsh sounds or redundance of ccnmnnants. Alcide d'Orbigny, in his "Voyage dans l'Ameriqu.e Meridionale," has published an acccunt of the music of several Indian tribes in Bolivia, with tunes. The me'o- dies collected by him show unmistakeable traces of harmony. There is no reason to suppose that the I usical taste of the Chiquitos, as represented in these songs, has been to any great extent modified by that of . the European inhabitants of Bolivia.

00

322 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

OCEANIA.

SOHE people of Oceania are divided into three groups- the Malayan, Pelagian Negroes (often called the Papuans), and the Alforas. The Malayan stock is, again, subdivided into three branches-(1) Indo- Malayans, comprehending the Malays proper of Malacca, and the islanders of the Indian Archipelago, as the inhabitants of Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Philippines ; (2) Polynesians, comprehending the Tonga Islanders, the New Zealanders, the Tahitians, and the Hawaii ; and (3) the Madecasses, or the people of Madagascar (very recently made a French colony).

OCEANIA-MALAYSIA. 323

MALAYSIA.

GNHE Malays inhabit the southern portion of the Penin- -sula of Malacca, possess a considerable part of the Island of Sumatra, and have formed settlements in most parts of the Indo-Chinese Seas. They are the Phoni- cians of the Eastern Seas They are people of one dialect, and nearly of the same manners and cultivation. Mr. John Crawfurd thus describes the dances of the Malays in his " History of the Indian Archipelago" :- "All orders executed in the presence of a Javanese monarch on public occasions are accompanied by a dance. When a message is io be conveyed to the royal ear, the messenger advances with a solemn dance, and retreals in the same way. The ambassadors from one nativo prince in Java to another follow the same course when coming into and retiring from the presence of the sovereign to whom they are deputed. When the persons whose business iv is to let-the tiger loose from his cage into the hollev square of spearmen, have performed their duty, and received the royal nod to retire, an cocasion, one would think, when dancing might be spared, they do so in a slow dance and solemn strut, with some risk of being devourel by the tiger in the midst of their performance. Prerious to the introduction of the Mahomedan religion, it appears to havo been the custom of all oriental islandars, for the men of rank, at their publie festivities, when heated with wine, to dance. Upon such occasions. the exhibi-

824 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

tion appears to have been a kind of war dance. The dancer drew his kris, and went through all the evolutions of a mock fight: At present the practice is most common among the Juvanese, with every chief of whom dancing, far from being con sidered scandalous. as among the people of Western India, is held to be necessary accomplishment." Mr. Crawfurd remarks that among the Malays " whutever be the occasion in which dancing is exhibited, it is always grave, stately, and slow, never gay nor animated. As in all Asiatic dancing, it is not the legs but the body, and specially the arms, down to the very fingers, that are employed." The descendants of the Portuguese sottlers in Malacca, who are a mixed race of Portuguese and aborigines, are described as great musicians. At the close of the day the married men are said to sit in the verandahs, playing on the violin some melancholy dirge for the amusument of their wives and families who are gathered round them. The influence of Spanish musie is reported by travellers to have made itself felt in the musical perfermanees of the people in the Philippine Islands, and othor places where the Spuniards at auy time established a footing. The following is a specimon of a Malay song, which has a misanthropio ring in it :- .

Tho painfal fooling of my love wili onty reane When the wioked of the world The knaves, the thieves, and the liars, The soandalouy and those who stea!, And the banditti, are all held in oontempt ; When the robbors and planderers are all destrurvd. And cock-fghters are in deapair ; When gunblers are cast out, Then, purhaps, the sadnenw of my heart may cease Then may I be rostorod to pesce and happiness.

OCEANIA-MALAISIA. 325

JAVA.

It is stated that the Hindus, at an early period, settled in the Island of Java, and held sway over it until 1478, when it was conquered by the Arabs, and since when its possession has been chiefly Mahomedan. Java contains the ruins of several considerable cities and temples showing unmistakeable traces of Hindu civiliza- tion, the principal being Mojopahit and Boro-Budor. The prevailing religion of Java is Mahomedanism with an admixture of Buddhism. The Javanese are of the Malay family and speak three dialects of the Malay language. They have an ancient sacred language which contains a number of Sanskrit words. They have also a national literature, and translations from the Arabic and Sanskrit. The Portuguese formed a settlement on the Island in 1511, and the Dutch in 1575. The British held it from 1811 to 1816. It is now under the Govern- ment of the Netherlands, and forms the principal of the Dutch East India islands.

Some Javanese tunes are given in Sir Stamford Raffle's " History of Java," from which it would appear that the Javanese people make extensive use of the pentatonic scale. The melodies published in Mr. John Crawfurd's "History of the Indian Archipelago" are cchstructed on a similar scale. In this book is found a letter from Dr. Crotch in which it is mentioned that the Javanese instruments brought to England by Sir Stam- ford Raffles " are all in the same kind of scale as that produced by the black keys of the pianoforte." This statement is borne out by authorities who had an opportunity, of inspecting the instruments in the British Museum. They state that the instruments are tuned in the pentatonic scale which is, l. fact, the order of

826 UNIVERJAL HISTORY OF MLSIC.

intervals represented by the black keys on the piano- forte. Of the wind instruments of the Javanese, the rudest and earliest is the Angklung, which is confined to the mountaineers. The Suling and Serdum are flutes or ffes used by the Malay tribes, and played alone. Ofthe stringed instruments, the principle ones are the Chalem- pung (mounted with from 10 to 15 wires) ; the Trawangsa (the same sort of lute which among the Malays goes under the name of Kachapi) ; and the Rabab (which is borrowed from the Persians, but is mounted with two strings and played with a bow). The Javanese have drums of a large variety including thone borrowed from the Arabs and Europeans. The Gong (or Gung, as the word is correetly written in all the dinlects of the Archipelago) is another instrument used in many of its varieties in Java. A series of gonga, arranged in & double row upon a wooden frame, go under the name of Kromo and Bonang. The Gumbany, or ataceado, presents a large variety and is extensively used through- out the Archipelago. The wooden ataccado is called Gambang Kayu. A modification of the metallie vurioty is known by the name of Gander. The simplest and most ancient band (called Gamalan in the Javanere language) is styled the Manggang. . The Gamalan Kodok Ngorek means the band resemhling the "croaking of frogs." The Salendro, Miring, and Pelag are baf.da specially used to accompany the different kinds of dramatic exhibitions. The Gamalan Choro Hak in the band according to the fashion of the neighbouring Island of Bali. The Sakaten is the bund playod only before the monarch, and on religious and other solemn festivals. The Srunen is the martial musio of the country. The dance of Java has ulready been described under the general heading of " Malaysin."

OCEANIA-MALAYSIA. 327

"Bandi Lori" and " Surung Dayung" are known to be two of the most popular airs of Java. The following translation of a Javanose soug is taken from Raffle's " History of Java", Vol. I, London, 1817 :-

My handsome girl ! in bringing a parchase from the market, When you have paid the price, cast not your eyes behind, But move quickly Lest men may seize upon you.

BORNEO.

Borneo (native name Bulo-Kalamantin) was dis- covered by the Portuguese in 1521. The most impor- tant event in the recent history of the Island is the enterprise of the late Sir James Brooke, who first visited Borneo in 1839, and took an active part in the suppres- sion of piracy, the administration of justice, and in the promotion of arts and commerce. The population of Borneo consists of Malays, about one-fourth ; Dyaks, two-thirds ; and the remainder Chinese and Europeans. The sword dance of the Dyaks is accompanied by the music of the gongs and tom-toms, which instruments they have borrowed from the Malays. These gongs, like the Javanese, are thick with a broad rim and very different from the Chinese instruments of the same class. Like the Malays, the Dyaks use the gongs and tom-toms in war and also as signals at night. Sometimes the sword dance is performed with the shield as well as the sword. In connection with these dances, sometimes a chief would step forward with a whip, somewhat like a cat-o'- nine-tails, while another would produce a human head, and both begin to chase each other. The chief with

328 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the head would then stop, and with one foot in the air begin te pirouette slowly, swinging the head to and fro, while the chief with the whip would lash vigorously at the spectators and laugh derisively at each cut. When these performers retired to refresh themselves, their place would be taken by four or five others carrying rhinoceros horn-bills. Then suddenly a number ef gongs would be beaten and over the mass of human beings would arise swords, heads, rhinoceros horn-bills and whips in profusion, the Dyaks being, for the time, almost mad with excitement, but maintaining the strictest discipline and decorum.

OCEANIA-AUSTRALASIA. 329

AUSTRALASIA.

AUSTRALIA.

HE Portuguese, in the year 1540, were the earliest European discoverers of Australia, though little was known of it until Dampier, Wallis, and Cook explored its coasts. The name of New Holland, given by the Dutch to the north-west coasts, which were first dis- covered by them, and subsequently extended to the whole of the mainland, has now been superceded by the term Australia. The aborigines are a race distinct from the Pelagian tribes of any class, and come exclu- sively under the designation of Alforian. The dialects are numerous and are not understood by tribes even near each other. Many of the tribes go naked, prac- tising cannibalism and having scarcely any. notion of a Deity or of social arts or order. The British settle- ment of New South Wales was made in 1788. In. his " Musical curiosities," London 1811, Mr. Edward Jones says, with reference to a song of the natives of New South Wales, that its air " was written down from the singing of Benelong and Yamroweny, the two chiefs who were brought to England, some years ago, from Botany Bay by Governor Phillips. The subject of their song is in praise of their lovers ; and when they sang, t seemed indispensable to them to have two sticks, one in each hand, to beat time with the tune; one end of the left-hand stick rested on the ground, while the other in the right hand was used to beat against it, .

according to the time of the notes." Captain Wilkes states that the natives of New South Wales usually

PP

330 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

finish their songs, especially those to which they dance, " with a loud whoo or screech an octave above the key- note." With regard to the vorroborie or Palti, which they dance, around a large fire, in numpers of about twenty, all painted with broad white lines almost allover the body, he says :- "The skeletons, as I may term them, for they truly resemble them, suddenly seem to. vanish and reappear. This disappearance is eflected by merely turning round, for the figures are painted only in front, and their dusky forms are lost by mingling with the dark background. The trees, illuminated by the fire, were brought out with some of the figures in bold relief, while others were indistinct and ghost-like. All con- curred to give an air of wildness to the strange scene." The Kangaroo dance is performed by the men only, while the women are singing and beating time by striking two pieces of wood together. The dancers imitate the grunting of the kangaroo, whereby they furnish a kind of bass to the singing of the women. In the Frog-dance, the performers, who paint themselves in a grotesque fashion, as they do in all their dances, take their wirris (club) in their hands, beat them together, and then squat down and jump after each other in cireles, imita- ting the movements of the frog. In the Emu-dance, the gestures consist of the imitation of emu hunting, the man who represents the bird imitating its voice. The Canoe dance obtains in some parts of Australia. The men and women, who take part in this dance, paint their bodies with white and red ochre, and are each furnished with a stick which stands for the paddle. They commence dancing by placing themselves in two lines, but with the stick across their backs and held by the arms, while they make steps with their feet alter- nately to the tune of the accompanying song. At a given signal, they all bring the sticks to the front, and

OCEANIA-AUSTRALASIA. 331

hold them as they do paddles, swaying themselves in regular time as if they were engaged in paddling in one of their light canoes. Auother dance, called the Peduku, is a great favorite with the Moorundi natives. This consists in stamping simultaneously with the left foot, and shaking the fingers of the extended arms. In this both men and women join, the former standing in a line and the latter being collected in' group and beating time together. There is a rather curious dance with which the performance of the evening is often concluded. The performers sit cross-legged round their fire, beating time with their spears and wirris. Suddenly they all stretch out their arms as if pointing to some distant object, rolling their eyes fearfully as they do so, and finish by leaping on their feet with a simultaneous yell that echoes for miles through the forest. The Parnkalla tribes have a curious dance in which both men and women take part. The men all sit down, while a women takes her place in the centre. One of the men then dances up to her, from side to side, and swaying his arms in harmony with his move- ments. The woman commences to jump as her partner approaches, and then they dance back again, making room for a fresh couple. On account of its being usually held on clear moonlight evenings, this dance has been supposed by some to be a religious cere- mony. Sometimes, however, it is performed during the day-time. The Kuri dance, which is in vogue among the natives of the Adelaide district, seems to have one point in common with the cotillon of Europe, vis., that it can be varied, shortened, or lengthened, according to the fancy of the players ; so that one witnessing this dance performed six or seven times will never see the movements repeated in the same order. The "Corroborie," or as it is also called the " Palti"

332 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

which has been described above, is the commonest dance of the Australians. Once in a year, the natives of some of the districte in the interior have a very grand dance styled the " Cobongo Corroborie," or great mystery dance. An account of this dance appeared in the Illustrated London News of October 3, 1863. The time selected for this dance is every twelfth moon, and during her, declination. At the appointed time, i. e., when the moon rises-the fact being announced by one of the old " wammaroogo," (medicine men)-the women beat the fire-sticks together, keeping time to a peculiar monotonous air, and repeating the words, the burden of which when translated may be

" The Kangaroo is swift, but swifter is Ngoyulloman ;

The snake is cunning, but more cunning is Ngoyullo- man," &c.,

each woman using the name of her husband or favorite in the tribe. The men spring to their feet with a piercing shriek, and brandishing their spears, boomerangs, uc., begin their dance, finging themselves into all sorts of attitudes, howling, laughing, grinning, and singing ; and this they continue till compelled to desist by sneer exhaustion. This is called the mystery dance, because, previous to commencing it, their medicine men light a fire round which they walk and into which, while muttering sentences, they throw portions of old charms which they have worn round their necks for the past twelve months. The mystery " Corroborie" combines several of the peculiar move- ments which are to be found in the various dances of the Australians.

OCEANIA-AUSTRALASIA. 338

NEW HEBRIDES The New Hebrides are peopled by a race having a greneral resemblance to the New Caledonians who have their hair crisp and much curled. Captain Cook, in des- cribing the customs of the natives of Tanna Island, one of the New Hebrides, says that at day break he heard a noise in the woods, on the east side of the Jaarbour, which appeared to him not unlike.the singing of psalms. He was told that similar sounds had been heard every morning at the same time. He was further told that at the east point of the harbour was something sacred to religion, as people who had attempted to go towards it were prerented by the natives. NEW ZEALAND. The territory was discovered in 1642 by Tasman, who examined the western coast, and by Cook on the east side in 1769 The country was first formally taken possession of as a British colony in 1840. In 1853 a free constitution was proclaimed, and is now in force. The aborigines, who are said to be derived from the Polynesian stock, are rapidly on the decline. It is rather curious that drums, while they resound in all the islants of the Pacific, should be utterly unknown to the New Zealander. The only really musical instrument which he possesses is a sort of fife made out of haman bone, generally the thigh-bone of a slain enemy. There are, besides the fife, two noise-making instruments in use in the country, which might be called the war bell and the war trumpet. The former goes by the narce of Pahu, and consists of & block of hard wood with a deep groove in the centre, which is slowly and regularly struck with a stick made of heavy wood. The Pahu is never sounded by day, the object being to tell the people inside the village that the sentinel is awake, and to

334 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

tell any approaching enemy that it would be useless for him to attempt an attack by surprise. The Putara- putara, by which name the war trumpet is called, is hollowed out of a piece of hard wood. It is used only on occasions of alarm. A smaller trumpet is used in times of war, in some places. The body of this instru- ment is always made of a large shell, generally that of a triton, and the mode of blowing it differs according to the locality. Regar g the general character of the songs of the New Zealanders, Dr. Van Dieffenbacn, in his " Travels in New Zealand," writes as follows :- Some songs are lyric, and are sung to a low, plaintive, aniform, but not at all disagreeable tune. .... E'Waiata is a song of a joyful nature ; E'Haka one accompanied by gestures of mimicry ; E'Karakia is a prayer or incantation used on certain occasions. In saying this prayer there is no modulation of the voice, but syllables are lengthened and shortened, and it produces the same fect as reading the Talmud in synagogues. Most of ese songs live in the memory of all, but with numervus variations . .. To adapt words to a certain tune, and thns to commemorate passing event, is common in New Zealand." The New Zealand s, or, as they are also called, the Maories are said to possess a remarkably fine ear for distinguishing quarter-tones. Mr. James A. Davis thinks that the succession of intervals employed by them closely re- sembles the Enharmonic genus of the ancient (Freeks, which consisted of a succession of a quarter-one, another quarter-tone, and a major third. He Las noted down two of their airs, the "Whakarongo," and "He Walata Aroha" or "Bride's Complaint," showing the intervals used. George Forster, in his "Voyage Round the World," London 1777, has published a New Zealand tune in two-part harmony. "Of this tune," he says, "they

OCEANIA-AUSTRALASIA. 335

continue to sing the first two bars till the words of their song are at an end, and then they close with the last. Sometimes they also sing an under-part which is the third lower, except the last two notes, which are unisons." Mr. Forster has also published a dirge from New Zealand which relates wo the death of a chief whose name was Tupaya. The words are "Aghee, matte awhay Tupaya!" (Departed, dead, alas ! Tupaya! ). Forster who frequently heard this dirge sung remarks: "There is an extreme simplicity in the words, though they seem to be metrically arranged in such a manner as to express the feeling of the mourners by their slow movement." In his "Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders," London, 1840, Mr. J. S. Polack says that the Maories are so very fond of singing that they will often spend the whole night in its gratification. They prosecute all laborious work, such as hauling heavy logs of wood or canoes overland, with the aid of the song. Mr. Edward Shortland has pablished some of these chants, in his "Traditions and Superstitions of the New Zealanders," London, 1856. The following is a specimen taken from it :-

Solo .-- Pull, Tainui, pull the Araws, Te laauch them on the ocean. Sure'y glanced the bolt of Thunder, falling hitherward, On my sacred day. The Kiwi cries.

Chorus .- Kiwi. Solo .- The Moho cries. Chorus .- Moho. Solo .- The Tieke cries. Chorus .- Tieke. Solo .- A belly only, Chorus .- Fork it out, fork it out ! Solo .- Keep in the path. Chorus .- Fork it ont ! Solo .- 'Tis the second year to-day.

886 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

Chorus .- Cheerily, men ! Solo .- 'Tis the man-catcher. Chorus. -Cheerily, mon ! Solo .- Give this way, and carr it. Chorus .- Cheerily, men ! Solo .- But whither carry it P ( horus .- Cheerily, men! Solo .- Ah ! to the root. Chorus .- Root of Tu. Solo .- O wind. Choras .- Pull away ! Solo .- Pull onwards the root. Jhorus .- Root of Tu.

The Solo part is sung by the leader, and the chorus by the laborers who respond, and haul the bont at the same instant all togethor. The Kiwi. Moho, and Ticke are names of birds.

The Maories have a tradition that their ancestor, a chief named Turi, having first landed in the country with his men, built a pah or fortress and cultivated the soil ; und the chant which they sung, "to encourage themselves and to keep time as they dug," was, acoording to the tradition. as follows :-

Break up our goddess mother, Break up the ancient goddess oarth ; We speuk of you, oh, earth ! bat do not yon dinturh The plants we have brought hither frota Hswaiki the

It was Mani who soraped the eurth in heaps round tuble ;

the sides in Koratan.

According to Maori tradition, the ancestors of the present race came, about 500 years ago, from a listant ialand named Hawaiki, lying in a northorly or north- easterly direction from New Zealand.

In describing the dances of the New Zealanders Mr. Polack says :"But few songs and choruses are chanted unaccompanied by action ; thus, in describing a

OCEANIA-AUSTRALASIA. 387

voyage, the cantator represents with his body the uneasy motion of the waves ; and if the horrors of war are the theme, the several passages in it are represented with fidelity, and the arm is bared to indicate the closing scere of cannibalism, the actor pretending to gnaw the limb with marks of the most intense gratification."

Before engaging in war, the Maoris feel bound to join in the war-dance which is described as being guided by strict discipline and characterised by a wonderful precision. When they assemble for the dance, they excite their naturally passionate disposition to the haghest pitch by contorting their faces and thrusting out their tongues as an act of defiance, interspersing these gestures with shouts, yells, and challenges to the enemy. The dance itself begins with stamping the feet in perfect time with each other. The vigor of the stamp keeps increasing, when suddenly, with a yell, the whole body of men leap side-ways into the air, as if actuated by one spint, and, as they touch the ground, eome down on it with a mighty stamp that makes the earth tremble. Even when war is not impending, the magic influence of the dance affects the performers as strongly as if they were close to a pah or fort of the enemy, ready for battle, and they become so furiously excited that they are quite dangerous until they have had time to cool.

The following "Complaint of a Maori Girl" appeared in Shortland's work cited before :-

My regret is not To be expressed ! Like a spring, The tears Gush from my eyes.

838 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

I wonder whatever Te Kainku * is doing ; He who deserted me. Now I climb apon The ridge of mount Parahaki: From whence is clear the view Of the Island Tuhua. I see with regret The lofty Taumo, + Where dwella Tangiternrn. $ Let,me hang in my ear The shark's tooth. How fine, how pretty I'll look I4 Bat see, whose ship is that Tanking in the distanco P Is it yours P O Hu ! $ You husband of Pohiwa. Sailing away On the tide to Europe .* O Toru ! pray givo mo Some of your fino things ; For beautifnl aro Tho clothes of the nea-god. I| Enough of this. I must return to my rags, And to my nothing-at-all.

The following " Lament of the Maori Chiefs on the Death of the Prince Consort" was sent from New Zealand to Her Majosty the Queen Victoria, with an address of sympathy and condolence, signed by twenty Maori Chiefs. The piece appeared in The Times, Novem- ber 15, 1862 :-

Great is the pain which preys on me for the lnas of my beloved. Ah, you will now bo buried imong the other de. parted kings !

Name of her lover. + The name of s high hill at Tuhus, where there is a village. The name of the Chief of Tubun. $ Hu, or Poh.wa, a Maori womnn, was the wife of a Xuropesn : and baviug plenty of fine clothes, whe was the admirstioo of ber coustry. women. || Tipun, tie sea-god : a fabulons moostor, suppoged to ishabil tho ucesu or the lakes. It is bore used for the whits man.

OCEANIA-AUSTRALASIA. 339

They will leave you with the other departed heroes of the land; With the dead of the tribes of the multitude of Ti Mani. Go fearless then, O Pango, my belovea, in the path of death ; for no evil slanders can cam follow you Oh my very heart ! Thou didst shelter me from the sorrows and ills of life.

Oh my pet bird, whose sweet voice wekcomed my glad guests ! Oh my noble pet bird, caught in the forests of Rapanra !

Let, then, the body of my beloved be covered with royal purple robes ; Let it be covered with all rare robes ! The great Rewa, my beloved, shall himself bind these round thee.

And my ear-ring of precions jasper shall be hung in thy ear.

For, oh ! my most precions jewel, thou art now lost to me.

Yes, thou, the pillar that didst support my palace, hast been borne to the skies.

Ob, my belovedl you used to stand in the very prow

deeds. of the warcanoo, inciting all others to noble

Yes, in thy life-time, thon wast great.

And now thou hast departed to the place where even all the mighty must at last go.

Where, oh physicians, was the power of your remedies P W nat, oh priests, availed your prayers ?

For I have lost my love ; no more can he revisit this world.

340 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUBIC.

NEW CALEDONIA. New Caledonia was discovered by Captain Cook in 1774. It was taken possession of by the French, with its dependency, the Isle of Pines, as a French colony, September 20, 1858. The population are of the Papuan Negro race. The natives make a sort of mask, very ingeniously cut out of wood, having the mouth opened and the eyes closed. The wearer looks, not through the eyes, but through some apertures made in the upper part of the mask. Mr. J G. Wood, author of "The Uncivilized Races of Men", conjectures that this mask, which is said to be used in war with a view to enable the combatants to disguise them- selves from their enemies, is nothing more than an ornament employed in the native dances. It is the "momo" described by recent travellers. When com- plete, the " momo" is decorated with plumes of feathers,, long tufts of hair, and a thick, coarse network, which does duty for a beard, and descends as far as the knees ot the woarer.

NEW GUINEA. New Guinea or Papua is inbabited partly by Malays, and partly by a Negro race, termed ths Papuan Nogro, and some such as the Mafors, who have Caucasisn 4m- nities. The Papuana ure fond of ainging aad dancing, aad are said to be in the habit of composing extemporo sunph, Their musical instruments consist chiefly of the cylin- drical drum, a trumpet made of a triton shell, and s sort of Pandean pipe, composed of six or seven reeds of different lengths firmly lashed together. There is alao a wind instrument, which is nothing more than a bamboo tube some two feet in length. The cylindrical drum is called " Baiatu," and is made of palm wood, About two feet in length and four inches in diametre.

OCEANIA-AUSTRA.ASIA. 341

One end is covered with lizard-skin, and along the side there run longitudinal slits. Mr. J. Crossby Brown of New York collected a drum, called Arpa, from the Gulf of Papua, New Guinea. This instrument is shaped in imitation of the head and jaws of the crocodile, is two and a half feet long, and is held by a wocden handle in the contre. The head is covered with snake skin. To the accompaniment of these instruments the Papuans perform their dances. One of these dances consists of advancing and retreating together by sudden jerks, and chanting a song, the cadence rising and falling accord- ing to the action. In the war dance, the performer holds in one hand a large wooden shield, and in the other a portion of the snout of the sword-fish. Placing him- self in a crouching attitude, with one hand covered by the shield, and holding his weapon .(the snout) in a posi- tion to strike, he advances rapidly in a succession of short bounds, striking the inner side of his shield with his left knee at each jerk, causing the large cowries hung round his waist and ankles to rattle violently. At the same time, he loudly chants r. song of defiance. The rest of the pantomine is expressive of attack and defence, and exultation after victory. There is another dance which is performed by a number of people, each carrying a blazing torch in his hand. At one time they extend raridly into line, at another close, dividing into two parties, advancing and retreating, crossing and recross- ing, and mixing up with each other.

342 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

POLYNESIA.

AANY of the Polynesian Islands seem to have been raised from the ocean by the labors of the coral insect ; others show traces of volcanic origin. In 1767, Wallis, and subsequently Cook, explored and described the leading islands. Soon after this, Christian mission- aries began to settle in the region and proselytize the natives. The earliest missionaries found among the aborigines an institution which has been called the Areoi Society, the members of which consisted of strol- ling players who travelled from one island to another and gave public exhibitions of their music and dances .. -These representations are said to have partaken some- what of the histrionic character. Publie events were alluded to, and the priests and others fearlessly ridiculed in these performances. Originally, the Areoi constituted & religions sect considering itself as the special favorite of the god Oro, and the public pastimes were devotional exercises.

MARQUESAS ISLANDS.

Four of these Islands were discovered by Mendana in 1596, the others by Captain Cook in 1774. The natives of Nukahiva (the principal island of the Marquesas Archipelago) are said to distinctly intone quarter-tones in their vocal performances. Councillor Tilesius who visited them at the beginning of the present century heard them sing a song-with the rythmical accompaniment of drums and clapping of hands. The performance was, in fact, & kind of dramatic representation of their exploits,

OCEANIA-POLYNESIA. 843

and referred to the strife they had with the inhabitants of the neighbouring island of St. Christina. It com- menced with the return of the warriors from battle. It was night. One of the savages saw in the distance a fire rising and asked where it was. The chorus answered that it was upon Tauhuata Montanioh (St. Christina) with their enemies who were roasting their slain brethren. This incited them to revenge, and the subsęqueut part of the song contained detailed accounts of the preparation for a feast upon some unhappy captive taken in battle, the horridness of which was relieved by expressions indicating the sympathetic cries of the victim's parents or sisters. It should be noted here that this representa- tion took place at a period when cannibalism was in vogue in the Islands. Tilesius adds that the performance of that song, in a slow movement, by several hundred savage warriors with their wives and children, singing in unison and octaves, dancing around a large fire, or lying on the ground and gnawing human bones, almost drove him to desperation, and made him feel as if he heard his own funeral dirge. In every village there is a sort of amphitheatre or Pahooa, as it is called, where dancing and other amusements are conducted. For this purpose the Marquesans select a covered and level spot, surrounded on all sides with rising banks. The middle of the amphitheatre is carefully smoothed and covered with mats, and the rising banks serve as seats for the spectators. When a dance is to be performed, the mats are laid afresh, and a large amount of food is prepared. The spectators take the food with them and, seated on the banks, remain there throughout the greater part of the day The dances consist chiefly of jumping without moving from the same spot. Various ornaments are used by the dancers, the most curious of which are the finger-rings, which are made of plaited fibre, acorned

344 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

with the long tail-feathers of the tropic bird. When women dance, they are not allowed to wear clothing of any kind, and this for a curious reason. None dance except" those whose husbands or brothers have been killed in war or iaken prisoners, and the absence.of clothing indicates mourning on their part, and vengeance on that of the spectators.

. THE SOCIETY İSLANDS. The natives of the Society Islands, including Tahiti or Otaheite, are, according to Cook, of the largest size of Europeans. The men are tall, strong, well-limbed, and finely shaped. The women of the superior rank are also in general above the middle stature. Their complexion is a kind of olive, or brunette. In features and color they resemble the people of the Marquesas Island. Most of them have been converted to Christianity and taught the arts of civilized life. Since 1843, the Society Islands have been under the protection of France. Mr. Georger Forster who wituessed a dance of the natives of one of the Society Islands has described it in his " Voyage Round the World," London, 1717, In this dance, three men performed a sort of pantomime, which represented travellers asleep and thieves skilfully making away with their goods, round which the former had placed them- selves. The Tahitans are fond of singing, and are possessed of good voices and accurate ears. Some of them have become apt pupils in European music. As a rule, they prefer singing the air, the elaborate movements of concerted music being not to their taste. Their native mode of singing is of a monotonous character, nasal in tone, and marked by frequent transitions from the highest to the lowest notes. The subjects of their national song are chiefly love and war. Patriotic songs

OCEANIA-POLYNESIA. 345

and pieces in praise of their national scenery and fertile soil are sometimes sung. The women are the principal singers. The singing and dancing are accompanied by the drum which is gently tapped with the fingers. The Tahitans hold the Jews' harp in high favor. The chief native instrumont that is capable of producing different notes is a sort of flageolet or " hoe " which emits a low, deep tone, something like the " drone" of the bagpipe. Surrounding the mouth-piece (which is split longitudi- nally) is a ring of soft wood, and by driving this forward or backward, the performer can tune his instrument with some nicety, the former movement produeing a sharp, and the latter a graver tone. The " hoe" is generally used as an accompanimeht to the dances. In both singing and dancing the Tahitans keep admirable time. FIJI ISLANDS. The Fiji, sometimes called the Viti Islands, were discovered by Tasman in 1643, and formed into a British colony in 1875. The inhabitants are called Kai Viti (or people of Viti) by themselves. The root kai means " to eat," or " to live," and it seems Fiji is the corruption of the name Viti in the Tonga language. The Fijians are possessed of greater nhysical and mental energy than any of the fair Polynesians. They have a mythological history and tradition of their own, differing from those of the Tongans, Samoans, and Tabitians. The musical instruments of the Fijians consist of drums (wooden cylinders), trumpets (conch shells blown through a hole in the side), and pipes, of which last there are two kinds, viz., a kind of Pandean pipe, and the flute. The flute is played by placing the aperture close to one nostril and breathing through it, while the other is stopped with the thumb of the left hand. It is called

346 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the Mbita ni Tangi. It is made of bamboo, ornamented with charred lines, and has five holes in front at con- siderable mtervals, and one on each side opposite the middle hole. The nose-flute is found in several of the neighbouring islands, and its use is said to have been introduced there from India. Mr. Rowbotham believes that the flute was first played through the nose. The reason for this practice may be found in the fact that in India a man of a higher caste cannot touch with his lips any thing which may have been similarly touched by one of a lower caste, and the practice of blowing with the nose obviates the difficulty. Music and dancing are extensively cultivated by the Fijians, and are always used at the celebration of a marriage. Any one who has learnt a new dance can make a good deal by teaching it. The dances, in which sometimes several hundred men are engaged, while the musicians number 20 or 30, are care- fully got up, and partake more of the character of military movements than that of any thing else. Sometimes, with a view to enliven the performance, a professional buffoon is introduced, who goes through a number of grotesque movements and secures the applause of the spectators.

The national airs ot the Fijians are constructed of an extraordinarily small number of intervals. Captain Wilkes has published a melody which contains all the diatonic intervals in the compass of a fifth. The trans- lation of the words of the song is as follows :-.

I was sleeping in the Tambu-tangane; A red cock crowed near the house, I woke up suddenly and cried ; I was going to get some Kundravi flowers For a wreath in the harmonious dance.

OCEANIA-POLYNESIA. 847

Here is another song of the Fiji Islanders :-

In Rewa a fine southerly wind was blowing; The wind was blowing from the point of Rewa, And it shakes down the flowers of the Sinu tree, So that the women may make garlands String the Sinu and cover it with Lemba flowers; When put together I will hang it on my neck ; But the queen begs it and I take it off, -- Queen ! take our garland of Lemba; I throw it on the little couch. Take ye the garland that I have been making, That the ladies may make a great noise in coming. Let us go to the thungiawa. * The mother of Thangi-lemba was vexed; Why did yeu give away our dance P The basket of dance-fees is empty, Fhis world is a world of trouble; They will not succeed in learning to dance, The sun goes down too soon in Muthuata.

SANDWICH ISLANDS.

When Cook discovered the group, each island had a separate ruler; but after wards the whole of the islands were consolidated under one government, and idolatory was abolished. Missionaries commenced their labors in 1820, and the natives are now almost all Christians. A treaty of friendship, navigation, and commerce between Her Majesty the Queen of England. and the King of the Sandwich. Islands was signed at Honolulu (the capital of the group), July 10, 1861. Hawaii or-Owyhee is the largest and southern-most of the Sandwich Islands. Through an uuhappy misunder- standing with the natives of Hawaii, Captain Cook was murdered in Kutakokooa Bay, on the west coast, February 14, 1779. The Sandwich Islanders are a branch of the Polynesian stock, standing next to the Tahitians, to whose language theirs is closely allied. While em- ployed in the preparation of their favorite drink, called

• A house.

348 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ava or kava, the Sandwich Islanders invariably sang sacred hymns. When Captain Cook was received by the natives, one of their priests approached him singing a chant to which his companion s made regular responses. This song was more one of adoration than of welcome- The priest having approached the Captain with gestures of high reverence, throw over Cook's shoulders a piece of red cloth, and then, stepping back a few paces, made him an offering of a small pig. Captain Cook observes that the ceremonies performed with regard to him were very nearly those usually practised by the priests before their idols. Mr. William Ellis, who resided for nearly eight years in the Society and Sand wich Islands, deseribes the Vivo, or the variety of the nose-flute which is in use in the latter place. "The sound," observes he, " was soft and not unpleasant, though the notes were few ; it was generally played in a plaintive strain, though frequently used as an accompaniment to their pehes, or songs." He gives the foliowing account of the conch-trumpets that are found among the Sandwich Islanders: " The largest shells were usually selectel for this purpose, and were sometimes above a foot in length, and seven or eight inches in diameter at the mouth. In order to facilitate the blowing of this trumpet, they made a perforation about an inch in diameter, near the apex of the shell. Into this they inserted a bamboo cane about three feet in length, which was secured by binding it to the shell with fine braid; the aperture was rendered air-tight by cementing the outsides of it with a resinous gum from the bread-fruit tree. These shells were blown when a procession walked to the temple, or their warriors marched to battle, at the inauguration of the king, during the worship of the temple, or when a tabu or restriction was imposed in the name of the gocs."

OCEANIA-POLYNESIA. 349

The music of the Hawaiians is described as weird and sentimental. They sing from the full chest and exercise the whole gaunt of their voice. Kalakua I., the last King of Hawaii, was an enlightened monarch and & liberal patron of music. His Majesty kept in his establishment a large number of singers, musicians, and dancers, who regaled the guests with songs and music at dinner time. Serenades are often given to high class people. Herr Bandmann, the dramatic player, gives in his "Tour" an account of a native dance called hulakui which was perrormed in his presence by His Majesty's dancers, at the conclusion of a banquet in which King Kalakua I. was present :- "It was formerly danced by men and women in their natural state; but now they cover their bodies, from the loins to their ankles, with a sort of petty coat made of long weeds. The dancers go through a most varied programme, in which there are very wonderful contortions of the body and gymnastic feats; while the singers describing the performance act somewhat after the manner of a Greek chorus. There is certainly a great amount of agility necessary toits execution, and the wild humor of the dance is fully understood and appreciated by those who are famniliar with the native language and history." Hawaii Ponos is the name of the Hawaiian national anthem which was struck up by the royal band whenever His Majesty the King appeared in public, and alao on cerexnonial occasions.

SAMOAN OR NAVIGATOR'S ISLANDS. It is said that the Samoan or Navigator's Islands were first seen in 1722 by Admiral Roggewein and that they are the group named by him Isles of Baumann, after the captain of the ship. The discovery, however, is. commonly attributed to Bougainville, the frst navigator,

350 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

who accurately described them. "Their m ost remarkable characteristic," says he, " is their skill in navigation. Their canoes are better constructed than those of any other Oceanic tribe, and seem to fly over the water with great rapidity." From this circumstance, he called the group the Navigator's Islands, which name has since been retained on the maps. The Samoan Islanders bear, in their features and stature, a resemblance to the Polynesian tribes, and likewise to the Malayan race. Their mythology, which is very nearly the same as that of the Tongans and other Oceanic tribes of the Polynesian race, contains the same legends of Tangaloa, the god who fished up the islands from the depths of the sea. The Missionaries began their operations in the Samoan Archipelago in 1830, and when Captain Wilkes visited the islands with the United States Exploring Expedition (1838-42), some 15,000 natives are said to have been converted to Christianity A gentleman, attached to the Expedition, wrote down three songs, two being boat-songs and the third a dance song, of the Samoans. Captain Wilkes translated the first song as follows :-

Cook tells you pull away; I will do so, and so must you.

The Captain adds that the natives had some know- ledge of Cook derived from their communication with the Friendly Islands. Captain Wilkes further mentions hat in their pleasure trips, called Malanga, taken from town to town, the Samoans were frequently to be met with singing their boat-songs. The words of the dance song "are comprised in short sentences, each of which finishes suddenly with a staccato note and a violent gesture." The following song of the Samoan Islanders appeared in the Narrative of the Expedition mentioned before :-

OCEANIA-POLYNESIA. 351

The Papalangi has come to Samoa; The Papalangi has come to Vaiusu. Let us all go down to the spring. The Papalangi is fond of the siva .* Where is the pig ? Where is the fattened fow1 ? The Papalangi cannot join in the siva. Kindle up a light blaze! Where are the virgins ? I am going to get some cocoa-nuts. Look at this Samoan, how finely he dances! 'The marriage dance of the Samoans differs some- what from the dances which are usually .seen among the Polynesians. On the day of marriage, the bride is taken to an open space in the centre of the village, accompanied by the two duennas who have had charge of her, and who chant her praises and extol her virtues before the public assembly. The object of this assembly is to prove whether the girl is worthy to be the wife of a chief. If the verdict be against her (which is rarely the case), all the male members of her family, including her father and brothers, rush on her with their clubs and kill her on the spot, to wipe out the disgrace she has brought on her house. Should the verdict be in her favor, she is presented to the people as the chief's wife. After she has been led away to the house, a grand dance takes place. The spectators being seated in a circle and keeping up a monotonous chant, the men first enter the circle led by a young chief, who then goes through a number and variety of steps, his movements being imitated by his followers. After the men have danced and retired, a number of girls enter and- go through a number of similar evolutions, and afterwards both men and women dance together.

TONGA OR FRIENDLY ISLANDS. The Tonga Islands were discovered in 1643 by Tasman, and subsequently visited by Cook, who, on account of the disposition of the natives, gave them the * A dance.

852 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

collective name of "Friendly Islands." The Tongans are a tribe of people nearly resembling the New Zealanders, especially as regards their language. They are divided into several distinct hereditary castes, to whom different offices are assigned by fixed institutions.

Among the musical instruments used by the inhabi- tants is the Syrinx. One of these was brought by Captain Fourneaux from Tongataboo, (formerly called the Isle of Amsterdam), and described in Vol. 65 of the "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society." Out of two others, deposited in the British Museum, one consisted of nine and the other of ten pipes. The arrange- ment in the succession of the notes on these instruments is supposed to have been suggested by the notes of some birds. Mr. William Mariner, who, according to Stafford's " History of Music" (1830), was in 1805 mnade captive by, and lived for several years among, the natives of the Tonga Islands, mentions several kinds of their songs, some of which, he says, are of the character of the recitative, specially those according to the Neuha mode-Neuha being the name of one of the Navigator's Islands. Mr. George Forster heard the natives of the Tonga Islands on some oc asions singing in harmony. A gentleman, connected with the United States Exploring Expedition, wrote down an air with the bass and harmouy as he heard it sung by the inhabitants of Tongataboo, when they were advancing in a boat with their chief. This musie, it is said, bore a great resemblance to that of the Samoan group, and it was the custom in both to sing it while at work. It is rather remarkable that harmony should have been known to people who had never had foreign music taught them, as the missionaries, who were among them, did not sing, and declared that "they were rot able to distinguish ' Old Hundred' from " God

OCEANIA-POLYNESIA. 353

Save the King', if the same words were adopted to both." 4

The following song appeared in " An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands, compiled from the com- munications of 'W. Mariner," by John Martin, London, 1817. This song, Mariner observes, "is very often sung by the Tonga Islanders, or, to speak perhaps more correctly, is given in a sort of recitative by either sex, and the Tonga language has neither rhymes, nor regular measure, although some of their songs have both". Whilst we were talking of Vavaoo tooa Lico, the women said te us: Let us repair to the back of the island to contemplate the setting sun ;- There let us listen to the warbling of the birds and the cooing of the wood-pigeon. We will gather flowers from the butying-place of Matawto, and partake of |refreshments prepared for us at Lico O'ne. We will then bathe in the sea, and rinse ourselves in the Vaoo A'ca.

We will anoint our skins in the sun with sweet- scented oil and will plait in wreaths the flowers gathered at Matawto. And now, as we stand motionless on the eminence over Anoo Manoo, the whistling of the wind among the branches of the lofty toa shall fill us with a pleasing melancholy. Or, our minds shall be seized with astonishment as we behold the roaring surf below, endeavouring but in vain to tear away the firm rocks. O ! how much happier shall we be thus employed, ihan when engaged in troublesome and inspid affairs of life! Now, as night comes on, we must return to the Mooa. But bark! hear you not the sound of the mats ?- They are practising a bo-oola" to be performed to- night in the marly at Tanea. * A kind of dance performed by toroh-light.

88

354 UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC

Let us also go there. How will that scene of rejoicing .call to onr minds the many festivals held there before Vavaoo was torn to pieces by war! Alas! how destructive is war! Behold! how it has rendered the land productive of weeds, and opened untimely graves for departed heroes ! Our chiefs can now no longer enjoy the sweet pleasure of wandering alone by moonlight in search of their mistresses. But let us banish sorrow from our hearts, since we are at war we must think and act like the natives of Fejee, who first tanght us this destructive art. Let us, therefore, enjoy the present time, for to- morrow, perhaps, or the next day, we may die. We will dress uurselves with the chi coola, and put bands of white tappa round our waists. We will plait thick wreaths of jiale for our heads, and prepare strings of hooni for our necks, that their - whiteness may show off the colour of our skins. Mark how the uucultivated spectators are profuse of their applanse! But now the dance is over. Det us remain here to- night, and feast and be cheerful; and to-morrow we will depart for the Mooa. How troublesome are the young men, begging for our wreaths of flowers, while they say in their flattery: "See how charming these young girls look coming from Licoo!, How beautiful are their skins, diffusing around a fragrance like the flowery precipice of Mataloco" Let ns also visit Licoo -We will depart to-morrow.

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

A FEW FACTS CONCERNING HINDU MUSIC. THE THREE GRAMAS.

IN page 8 of this book, it has been stated that there are three gramas in Hindu music, viz., the Sa grama, the Ga grama, and the Ma grama. The reason why the three notes Sa, Ga, and Ma, and no others, have been selected to represent the three gramas is that it is the scales of these three notes which between them furnish, to use the language of the Pianoforte, the seven " white" keys and che five " black" keys of the diapason. Thus :

When Sa (C) is made the key-note, the seven " white" keys are obtained, viz., Sa (C),* Ri (D), Ga (E), Ma (F), Pa (G), Dha (A), Ni (B). When Ga (E) is made the key-note, four of the "black" keys are obtained, viz., Ma (F) Sharp, Dha (A) Flat, Ri (D) Flat, Ga (E) Flat, which respectively represent the D, E, A, and B of that scale. When Ma (F) is made the key-note, the' fifth " blaok" key is obtained, viz., Ni (B) Flat, which represents the F of that scale.

It should be noted, however, that the above represent the popular version of the fanctions of the three gramas. For what constitutes the three gramas, strictly according to the system of Hindu music, as laid down in the Sanskrit treatises of old, the curious may be referred to the " Musical Scales of the Hindus", and " Six Principal Ragas of the Hindus", by the author of the present work. It must not be supposed that the intervals of the Hindn scale are exactly the same as thrse of the European scale. They correspond very nearly to each other.

C, E, and F form the twelve keys.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

The twelve keys are C, D Flat D E Flat, E, F, F Sharp, G, A Flat, A, B Flat, B, (O, D Flat, D, E Flat, E F) The table given below shows at a glance how the notes ii

.

O as key.note UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

D A B (c).

. .

E as key-note A .

.

F as key.note G D F A B (C)

APPENDIX. iii

THE SIX RAGAS.

THE number of original Ragas (melody-types) was fixed at six, probably because the first six notes of the heptachord, respectively, stand as their Vadi (the note which, by the frequency of its application and by the length of its duration, shows to the best advantage the character and peculiarity of a Rága). Thus :

The Raga Nata Narayana has C for its Vúdí. Megha 11 D Sri E Panchama F Bhniravi G Vasanta' A

. The faot of the seventh note, B, being kept out of count is partly corroborative of the remark generally made that the pontatonic scale was in common use in Asia at a very early period .. " Childreo," says Carl Engel, " in their first attempts to repeat the diatonic scale after it has been sung to them are apt to omit the fourth and seventh." The seventh note, it is true, occurs in all the six original Ragas, but it is not used in a very prominent manner. Another fact to be noted in this connedtion is that, out of the innumerable Raginls that have been evolved from the original six Rúgas, there aro few, if any, that have the seventh for thoir Vúdi.

THE EIGHT RASAS,

THE number of Rasas (affections of the mind), as em- ployed in music, is eight, namely, (1) Sringára (love), (2) Hásya (mirth), (3) Karuna (tenderness), (4) Raudra (anger), (5) Vira (heroism), (6) Bhayáuaka (terror), (7) Vibhatsa (disgust), and (8) Adbhuta (surprise). Each of these affections has a Rigint or a number of Raginis capable of giviug it expresnion, the arrangements of their intervals and timo-durations being so made as to produce in the hearer the

IV UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

effect desired. The first of the Rasas is also called Adi, (which means primary), as this is the lowest and the first passion of all sentient beings. In poetical compositions, a ninth Rasa is admitted, namely, Sánti, or quiescence, which is the highest development of human feeling, leading man to the con- templation of, or pleasurable communion with, the deity. In music, however, this Rasa is merged in that of tenderness.

THE SEAT OF MUSIC IN THE HUMAN BODY.

FOR mystical, astrological, or chiromantic purposes, the human body has been divided into six chakras (depressions, rings, or circles). These are (1) Muladhara, the part about the pubis, above that (2) Svadhisthana, or umbilical region, and above that (3) Manipura, or pit of the stomach or epigastrium ; (4) Avahata, the root of the nose ; (5) Visuddhi, the hollow between the frontal sinuses ; and (6) Ajná, the fontenelle.or union of the coronal and sagittal sutures. Various faculties or divinities are supposed to be present at these circles.

Visuddhi is the abode of Sarasvati, the goddess of music. From the sixteen folded petals of which the Visuddhi consists, the following are respectively produced ;- (1) Pranava (the mystic syllable Om), (2) Udgitha, (a portion of the Sama Veda), (3) Humphat (mystioal syllable used in incantations), (4) Vaushat Vashat, (5) Svadhá, and (6) Svaha, (exclamations used in offering oblations to the- deity or r anes), (7) Namas (the term used in connection with the name of a deity to signify veneration), (8) Amrita (ambrosia), the seve : musical notes, namely, (9) Sharja, (10) Rishabha, (11) Gandhara, (12) Madhyama, (13) Panchama, (14) Dhaivata, and (15) Nishada, * and (16) Bisha (poison).

When the vital spirit of a man resides in the first, eighth, eleventh, or twelfth fold of the Anahata circle, that man becomes qualified to cultivate his musical faculties. When

Pa, Lha, and Ni. * Ordinarily called after their respective initials, Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma,

APPENDIX.

the vital spirit resides on the fourth, sixth, or the tenth fold of the same circle, his musical faculties are destroyed. When the vital spirit resides in any of the folds of the Visnddhi circle beginning with the eighth and ending with the fifteenth, the musical efforts of the man are crowned with snccess ; when it resides in the sixteenth fold, they meet with failure. The presence of the vital spirit in the tenth or eleventh fold of the Lalana circle (which has its seat in the forehead) is favorable to the cultivation of music, while its presence in the first, fourth, or fifth fold of the same circle is unfavorable. When the vital spirit resides in the Sudhadhara circle (which is located in the Brahma randhra"), and regales itself by bathing in the ambrosia trickling froma it, the man becomes proficient in musical knowledge. The presence of the vital spirit in circles other than those, and the particular folds of them, that are favorable to the, development of musical powers, has the effect of rendering the man altogether indifferent to the cultivation of the musical art.

THE ORIGIN OF SOUND.

WHENEVER the vital spirit wishes to speak or utter & sound, it sets the mind in motion. The mind, in its turn, moves the audarya fire which pervades the body and which, on being so moved, sends up the vital air, which, in its up- ward course, strikes against the navel, the heart, the throat, the head, and the mouth, and produces sound. These fire organs produce, respectively, the very minute, the minute, the developed, the undeveloped, and the artificial sound. The very minnte sound is audible only to Yogis contemplating Brahma. The minute sound also is not audible to the generality of men ; it may sometimes, but rarely, be heard by closing one's ears. When the vital air, stirred by the fire, enters into the twenty two arteries that are arranged

• The aperture in the crown of the head through which the soul is said to.escape on its leaving the body.

vi UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

tortuously and attached to the Sushumna, * they produce twenty two different sounds, each higher than the last in pitoh. These sounds are each Mnown by the name of Sruti, and these twenty two Srutis generate the seven musical notes.

MURCHCHHANA.

THE ascengion and descension of the notes of the hepta- chord in succession is called Murchchhana. As there are seven notes in each grama, there are in all 21 Murchchhanas in the three gramas. No notice of the Murchchhanas of the Gándhára gráma will be taken here, as the use of that grama is confined to the celestial regions. The 14 Murch- chhanas belonging to the other two gramas only will be dealt with, Though it is possible for Murchchh inas to begin with any note of any of the three heptachords in use in Hindu Music, namely, the Mandra (lower), the Madhya (middle), and the Tára (higher), the practice is to commence the first Murch- chhana of the Sharja grama from the sa of the middle, and that of the Madhyama grama from the ma of the same heptachord. The 14 Murchchhanas are formed thus :-

Sharja Grama.

Ist Murchchhana ... sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, 2nd do ... ni, sa, ri. ga, ma, pa, dha, 3rd do. ... dha, .ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, po, 4th do. ... pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, 5th do. ... ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, 6th do. ... ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, 7th do. ... ri, ga, ma, pa. dha, ni, sa.

• One of the three canals (the other two being named Ird and Pingala) which, according to the anatomy of the Yoga Sohool of Phi.o- sophy, un from thr os-coccygis to the head, and are the chief passages of breath and air.

APPENDIX. vii

Madhyama Grama.

1st Murchchhana ... ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga,

2nd do. ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, 3rd do ... ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, 4th do. ... sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, 5th do. ... ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, 6th do, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa,

7th do. ... pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma. . Each of the above 14 Murchchhanas is classed under four heads, viz., (1) Suddha (pure), (2) Kakali Sahita (with" Kakali), (3) Antara Sahita (with Antara), and (4) Kakalyan- tara Sahita (with Kakali and Antara). There are. there. fore, 56 kinds of Murchchhanas in the two gramas, 14 x 4 giving-that number. When ni takes the first and the second Srutis of sa and becomes thus a note of 4 Sratis, it is termed Kakali ni; when ga takes the first and the second Srutis of ma and becomes thus a note of 4 Srutis, it is called Antara ga.

The Murchchhanas of the sa and ma gramas, respectively, take their serial numbers from the position of sa and ma in the Murchchhanas. Thus the Murchchhana sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni is called the first Murchchhana of the sa grama, because sa is the first note in that Murchchhana; the Murchchhana ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, is called the second Murchchhana of the same grama, because sa is the second note ; and so on to the seventh. In the ma grama, the first Murchchhana is ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, because ma is the first note of that Murchchhana ; the second is, ga, ma, pa,, dha, ni, sa, ri, because ma is the second note; and so on to the seventh. Each of the 56 Murchchhanas mentioned before is divided into 7 kinds, from the fact of their beginning with the first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, or seventh note of- the

TT

viii UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

serial and ending in & succession of seven. Thus (to take the Sudha sa grama); The first ... sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni,

The second ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa,"

The third ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ...

The fourth ... ma, pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga,

The fifth pa, dha, ni, sa, ri, ga, ma,

The sixth dha, mi, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa,

The seventh ... ni, sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha. The total number of Murchchhanas is, therefore, (56 x 7) or 392. SUDDHA TANA. WHEN the Sudiha Murchchhanas are comprised respec- tively of six notes (sharava) and five notes (aurava), they go so longer by the name of Murchchhanas, but are called Suddha Tanas. In the sa grama, each of the seven Murch- chhanas becomes sharava, by being, one at a time, deprived of the notes, sa, ri, pa, and ni. Consequently, there are, in the total seven Murchchhanas seven withont sa, seven without ri, seven without pa, and seven without ni, or a total ex- clusion of 28 notes. In the ma grama, each of the seven Murchchhanas becomes sharava, by being, one at a time, deprived of the notes, sa, ri, and ga. Consequently, there are, in the total seven Murchchhanas, seven without. sa, seven without ri, and seven withont ga, or a total exclusion of 21 notes. The total number of sharava tanas in the two gramas is therefore (28+21) or 49 In the sa grama, the Murchchhanas become aurava, by each of them being deprived, one at a time, of the pair of notes, sa and pa, ga and ni, and ri and pa. The number of aurava tanas thus becomes 21. In the ma grama, the Murchchhanas become * In this and the two preceding tables, the notes with a dot below them represent the lower, and those with a dot above them, the higher heptachord All others belong to the middle heptachord.

APPENDIX. ix

aurava, each of them being deprived, one at a time, of the pair of notes, ri and dha, and ga and ni. The number of aurava tanas thus becomes 14, The total number of aurava tanas is, therefore, (21 +14) or 35.

KUTA TANA.

WHEN the Murchchhanas, whether they are complete (Purn :) or not, are rendered without reference to their order of succession, they are called Kuta Tanas. Each complete Murchchhana rendered with and without .eference to its order of succession becomes 5,040 in variety, for l x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7=5,040. The 56 Murchchhanas, therefore, give 2,82,240 complete Kuta Tanas. The incomplete (Apurna) Kuta Tanas are described below :-

If from the Purna Kuta Tana, the last note of the series is taken out, one after the other, there will be sir varieties of Kuta Tanas, namely, the six-noted, the five-noted, the four-noted, the three-noted, the two-noted, and the one- noted kind. The permutation of the six-noted vari ety is 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 × 5x6=720; that of the five-noted one is 1x 2 x 3x4x5 =120; that of the four-noted one, 1x 2x 3 x 4 = 24; that of the three-noted one, 1 x 2 x3=6; that of the two-noted one, 1x 2=2; and that of the one-noted one, 1. These varieties are respectively named, Sharava, Auruva, Svarantara, Samika, Gathika and Archika. When the Sharara Kuta Tanz includes in its range the notes ni and gu, it is divided into four classes, viz., Suddha, Kakali Sahita, Antara Sahita and Kakalyantara Sahita. The absence of m bringe it under the classes Saddha, and Antara Sahita, and the absence of g brings it under those of Suddha and Kakali Sahita.

From the tablo of the 14 Murchchhanas given before, it would be seen that there are in either grama a succession beginning with sa and one beginning with ma As niis excluded in the shararr succession oeginning with sa, that succession is subdivided into Suddha and Antara Fahita

X UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

and as ga is excluded in the sharava succession beginning with ma, that succession is subdivided into Suddha and Kakali Sahita. There being thus a multiplication of the four kinds by two, the total comes to 8. The two successions beginning with sa and the two beginning with ma being thus disposed of, each of the remaining 10 Murchchhanas, having ni and ga in its range, is subdivided into 4 varieties, namely, Suddha, Kakali Sahita, Antara Sahita, and Kakalyantara Sahita; or a total of 40 is arrived at. 8 and 40 make 48 ; and as it has already been shown that the number of sharava (six-noted) permutations is 720 in each case, the total number of sharava Kuta Tanas is (720 x 48) or 34,560. The aurava Kuta Tana is arrived at by depriving each of the 14 Murchchhanas that compose the two gramas by its last two notes. Each of the two series beginning with ga, of the two beginning with dha; and of the two beginning with ni, having both ni and ga in it, it is classed as Suddha, Kakali Sahita, Antara Sahita, and Kakalyantara Sahita. The varieties, therefore, come to (6 x 4) or 24. The remain- ing eight Murchchhanas being without either ni or ga, they are each classed as either Suddha and Antara Sahita, or Suddha and Kakali Sahita, as the case may be. The varieties, therefore, come to (8 x 2) or 16. The total cf the two varieties is 24 + 16 or 40; and as the number of the aurava (five-noted) permutations has already been shown to be 120, the total number of aurara Kuta Tanas is 120 x 40 or 4,800 When the last three notes are eliminated from each of the 14 Murchchhanas, the two series beginning with ni, which have both ni and ga in them, are each divided into four (namely, Suddha, Kakali Sahita, Antara Sahita. and Kaka- lyantara Sahita). 4 x 2=8. The remaining twelve series being without either ni or ga, they are each divided into two (i.e., either Suddha and Antara Sabita, or Suddha and Kakali Sahita.) These twelve series make up the number (12 > 2) or 24. The total of the two varieties is 8 + 24 or 32. This mul- tipliod by the number of the four-noted permutations (which

APPENDIX. xi

has been shown to be 24), gives a product of 768 which is the number of the four-noted Kuta Tanas. .

When the last four notes are eliminated from each of the Murchchhanas, the two series beginning with ma admit of no subdivision as there is no ni or ga in either of them. They stand, therefore, at 2. The remaining 12 series admitting either ga or ni, they are each subdivided into two, and produce a totalof (12 x 2) or 24, which added to the. 2, mentioned above, make up a grand total of 26. This being multiplied by the number of the three-uoted permutations (6), gives a product of 156 which is the number of the three-noted Kuta Tanas. Whe the last five notes are eliminated from each of the 14 Murchchhanas, the two series beginning with ri, the two beginning with ga, the two with dha, and the two with ni, being each subdivided into two (owing to the fact of its including ni or ga in its succession) give a total of 16. The remaining six admitting of no variety, (there being no ni or ga in them), they stand at 6. The total of the two is (16 + 6) or 22, which multiplied by 2 (the number of two-noted per- mutations), gives a product of 44 which is the number of the two-noted Kuta Tanas. There being no variety possible in the Ekasvara or one- noted Kuta Tanas, their number is 14, ie., the same at the number of Murchchhanas in the two gramas. The number of nett Kuta Tanas, as arrived at by exclnd- ing one set of the two that are common to both the sa and ma gramas, is shown as under. It will be observed from a glance at the two tablas referred to, that the Ist Murchchhana of the sa grama ic the same as the 4th Murchchhana of the ma grama. The differ- ence lies only in the value of pa, which, in the case of the former, consists of four Srutis, and in that of the latter, of three. It follows, therefore, that the Murchchhanas of the two, down to ma next preceding the pa, are the same. Now as the group of the first four notes preceding the pa incru des

xii UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

ga, it is divided into two classes (Suddha and Antara Sahita), and as the number of the four-noted permutations is 24, the number of redundant four-noted Kyta Tanas is (24 x 2) or 48. The group of the first three notes contains ga m it ; hence it is divided into two (Suddha and Antara Sahita). The number of the three-noted permutations being 6, the number of redundant three-noted Kuta Tanas is (6 x 2) or 12. There being no ni or ga in the group of the first two notes, it is classed as Soddha only. The number of the two-noted permutations being 2, the number of redundant two-noted Kuta Tanas is (2 x 1) or 2. A single note can give only one variety. The total number of redund mnt Kuta Tanas beginning with sa, is, therefore, 48 + 12 + 2 + 1 or 63. A reference to the two tables will further show that the 2nd Murchchhana of the sa grama is the same as the 5th Murchchhana of the ma grama, the difference beginning with pa and continuing in the succeeding notes. The Kuta Tanas of the five notes from ni to ma, are, therefore, the same in both the gramas. As the group beginning with ni and ending in ma, has ga and ni in it, it is divided into 4 (Suddha, Antara Sahita, Kakali Sahita, and Kakalyantara Sahita). As the number of five-noted permutations is 120, the total number of redundant five-noted Kuta Tanas is 120 x 4 or 480. The group of four notes beginning with ni and end- ing in ga, including both ni and ga, it is divided into 4 classes. The namber of redundant four-noted Kuta Tanas is, therefore, 24 x 4 or 96. The group of three notes (ni to ri) including ni only, it is divided into two (Suddha and Kakali Sahita). The number of redundant three-noted Kuta Tanas 1s, therefore, 6 x 2 or 12. The group of two notes (mi and sa) including ni only, it is also divided into two. Hence, the number of redundant two- noted Kuta Tanas is 2 x 2 or 4. A single note can give only one variety. The total number of redundant Ruta Tunas beyinning with ni is, therefore, 480+96 +12+4+1, or 593. The two tables will also show that the 3rd Murchchhana of the sa grama is the same as the 6th Murchchhana of the ma grama. The difference begins, as has been explained, with the

APPENDIX. xiii

note pa, and continues in those succeeding. The Kuta Tana of the six notes (dha to ma) is, therefore, the same in both the gramas. As the greup (dha to ma) includes both ga and ni, it is divided into 4 classes, and as the number of the six-noted permutations is 720, the redundant six-noted Kuta Tanas number 720 x 4 or 2,880. The group of five notes (dha to ga) includes both ni and ga, and is, therefore, also divided into 4 classes aad as the nnmber of five-noted permutations is 120, the number of redundant five-noted Kuta Tanas is 120 x 4 or 480. The group of four notes (dha to ri) including only ni, it is divided into 2 classes; and as the number of four-noted permutations is 24, the number of redundant four-noted Kuta Tanas is 24 x 2 or 48. The group of three notes (dha to sa) also includese ni, and is, therefore, divided into 2 classes (Suddha and Kakali Sahita). The number of three-noted permutations being 6, the number of redundant three-noted Kuta Tanas is 6 x 2 or 12. The group of two notes (dha and ni) also including ni, it is also divided into 2 classes, and two being the number of two-noted permutations, the number of redundant tw :- noted Kuta Tanas is 2 x 2 or 4. The single uote dha gives only one variety. The sum of 2,880 + 480 + 48+12+4 +1 is 3,425, which represents the number of redundant Kuta Tanas beginning with dha .. Grand total of the redundant Kuta Tanas leginning with sa, ni, and dha : 63 + 593+ 3,425=4,081. It. has been shown above that the number of the Purna suddha tana is 392, that of the sharava suddha tana is 48, that of the aurava suddha tana is 40, that of the svarantara suddha tana, 32, that of the samika suddha tana, 26, that of the gathika suddha tana, 22, and that of the archika suddha tana, 14. This last has, however, to be diminished by 3 on account of the redundant tanas of the 3 groups beginning with sa, ni, and dha. Hence the total of the suddha tanas is 392+ 48 +40 + 32 + 26 + 22 + 11, or 571.

The total of Kuta Tanas is Purna 2,82,240 + sharava 34,560 + aurava 4,800 + svarantara 768 + samika 150 + gathika 44 + archika 14, or 3,22,582.

xiv UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The sum of redundant Kuta Tanas and suddha Tanas is 4,081 + 571 or.4,652. Dedncting this sum from the total of Kuta Tanas, the remainder is (3,22,582-4,652) or 3,17,930, which is the number of nett. Kuta Tanas .*

MUSIC AS A MEANS TO SALVATION.

THE intelligent man can by utilizing the body in specified ways secure happiness and salvation. The worship of Saguna Brahmat leads to the enjoyment of the pleasures of the earth and the celestial regions ; that of Nirguna Brahma, t to final beatitude. The worship of the latter entails perfect concentration of the mind which is difficult of attainment by average humanity. Hence, the sages seek salvation by adopting the method ,of worship called Anaha a Nada § Upasana. But as even this proves impracticable to the ordinary man, he tries the Ahata Nada Upasana || method, which possesses the quality of giving pleasure to mankind. As music comes within the purview of Ahata Nada, the utilizing of the art of music for the purpose of the worship of the deity by man is held to bring him salvation.

THE END.

• It should be mentioned hers that the acconnts given under this and the two preceding headings have been summarised from Sanskrit treatises on Music, simply with the object of showing the numeroug variations of the notes that were used in Indian musio of the anoient period.The theories have little application in the musio as it is praotised in the modern days, excent in Southern India, where the rules given in the above are observed to a certain extent. + The Supreme Being endowed with all qualities. The Supreme Being devoid of all qualities. § Ato called Akasz Sumbhava Nada, i.e., the Nada (sound) produced in the Akas, (the ethereal element which pervades the universe). It is evident that there is in the Akdsa an aptitude to produce Náda, as well as a capacity in the ear to receive it. There is a saying in Sanskrit -" Nada Brabma," which means Pound is the Supreme Being. | Ahata Nada is the sound prodnoed by the concussion of two bodiea.

ADDENDA.

ADDENDA.

DANCING. IN page 2 of this publication occars the following sentence :- " Time plays an important part in music, and like music itself is born in nature." The art of dancing has its foundation also in naturc. It might be said that the grace- ful movements of the tarkey and the peacock have furnished mankind with the idea of dancing The various styles of dance mentioned in the Sanskrit works have been described in the treatise, called Nrityankura, brought out by the writer of the present publication. THE THREE GRAMAS. Ir has been stated in page 8, notes, of the work, that " the idea of these gramas seems to be connected with that of the three primitive vowels, a (), i (#/, and u (3), from which, according to philologists, all the various vowel sounds in the Aryan languages have been developed." To illustrate ; and y make wा; e and g make ई; g and g make ; भ and ह make ए; भ and ए make ऐ प्र and उ make शी ; and म and भी make . The vowels known as and are evidently produced by the combination of vowels and consonants. Thus, Tand make Hand make and make and and make . None of the consonants can be produced without the aid of vowels ; thus and make o ; E and WT make aT, and so on .* In short, no letters of the alphabet could * According to the Falapa Grammar, व्यञन्ननमस्वरं पर वर्णँ नयेत् i e, the consonant withont the vowel sound unites with the pext letter, as the consonants have no power of exrressing tlemerlves with- out the belp of vowels. The vowel does not onite with the next letter as it can express itself: खरः खयं राजते हि।

II UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

be formed without the vowels, of which, as it has been shown, , E, and 3 are the primitive ones. In the same way, none of the twelve notes of the diapason could be formed without the help of the three gramas, sa, ga, and ma, with which the three vowels are, respectively, compared .*

THE SEVEN NOTES. THE seven notes, according to Hindu music, are designat- ed Sharja, Rishava, Gandhara, Madhyama, Panchama, Dhaivata, and Nishada, corresponding very nearly to the notes C, D, E, F, G, A, and B of the Enropean scale. Sharja means Shat jayante yasmal or that from which the six are derived. Sharja is the principal note and the originator of the six notes which follow.

Rishava is so called because the Rig Veda is said to have been chanted to its key.

Gandhara is so named because the use of the Gandhara grama is confined to the regions of the Gandharvas (celestial musicians). Madbyama means the middle. It stands between C, D, and E on the one hand, and G, A, and B, on the other. Panchama means the fifth. It stands the fifth in serial number beginning with C. Dhaivata means that note wuich stands unaffected when any of the preceding notes is made the key-note. When C, D, E, F, and G, stand, respeetively, as the key- note, the Dhaivata (A) stands as A, G, F, E, and D, respectively, in relation to it, without moving from its own position.

• The principle onderiying the three gramas is olserved in the arrangement of the frets of the instroment setar. The diatonic pcale is represeuted by the Sa grama, the chromatie scale is represented by the 2a prams, the frets repretenting the notea F, G, A, B, O, and D reapeotively making D flir, E fat, F, G, A flat, and B flat, of that scale. The Ragini Bhairavi which is made up of these notes can thus be played npon the setar withont necessitating the moving up of the frets. when ga is made the key-note. The fret|B fat makes the F ot the scale frrmed by mikig ma the bry-note, and the frot F sharp the B of the soale which is sometimcs, formed by making.G the key-note.

ADDENDA. III

Nishada means the note with which the scale terminates, that is, the one beyond which there is no note bnt the first of the next tetrachord into which it glides. THE EIGHT RASAS. THE order in which some of the Sanskrit writers have efumerated the Rasas chimes in with the theory of evolution. Sringara (love) is, as has been already said, a feeling common to all sentient beings, and lies at the root of the law of procreation. Even such small specimens of animated nature as flies are governed by this sentiment. The next in order is Vira (heroism), which is observed in the next higher stages of created beings, such as mice and snakes which are known to fight with each other. The third in the gradation is Karuna (tenderness). This feeling is non-existent in the lower creations, such as fish, frogs, mice, snakes &c., which are known to eat up their spawns or young ones. The sentiment called Raudra (anger), which comes next, is found in the next higher grades of living beings, such as dogs, hons, tigers, &c., in whom the power of exhibiting anger is manifest. Then comes Hasya (mirth, as expressed by laughter). This is a sentiment confined to the highest creation, man. The feeling of terror (Bhayanaka), which follows, is that of man in a state of barbarism, in which any thing grand or awe-inspiring in nature or art becomes to him an object of terror. The next sentiment in gradation is Bibhatsa (disgust), which is the feeling of man when he has made strides in the path of civilization. Aborigines and and cannibals are known to exhibit no disgust in eating raw fesh or putrid matter. The sentiment of Adbhuta (surprise), which follows, is realized by man only when he has reached the summits of civilization. For instance, when a large piece of diarsond will elicit no surprise from a barbarian who has no idea of its rarity and value, it will cause surprise in one who has had experience of precious stones and has the power of being impressed with the beauty and singularity of the specimen. Santi (quiescence) is, as has been already observed, the highest development of human feeling and its

IV UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

exclusion from the domain of music is due, perhaps, to the fact that it is not capable of being reflected by the art.

MUSIC AND ASTRONOMY.

WHEN the sun enters the signs of the zodiac, Vrisha (Taurus) and Mithuna (Gemini), the summer season is opened. When he enters the signs of Karkata (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), therainy season comes on. When he enters the Kanya (Virgo) and Tula (Libra), the autumn is introduced. When he enters the Vrischika (Scorpio) and Dhanu (Sagittarius), the dewy season is ushered in. When he enters the Makara (Capricornas) and Kumbha (Aquarius), the season goes by the name of winter; and when he enters the Mina (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries), the spring makes its advent. It will be seen that the contiguity of certain signs of the zodiac to the sun or their distance from him determines the six seasons. In tbe same way, the present writer ventures to think, the contiguity or distance of the fundamental note (C) of the heptachord, with reference to the other notes, bas produced the six original Ragas. The key-note C might be compared with the sun, it being fixed like him, and it having the six other notes, like the planets, placed at different intervals of space with reference to its position. C keeping to its own positien has taken a prominent part in the forma- tion of the Raga Natanarayana, (vide page iii, Appendix). When a note has approached C at the distance represented by the position of D, it has formed the Raga Megha. In a similar way, notes approaching C at the distance representec by the positions of E, F, G, and A, respectively, have respectively, produced the RagasSri, Panchama, Bhairava (not Bhairari as has been misprinted on page iii, Appendix), aud Vasanta. The order of succession in hich the Ragas have' been produced, as given above, does not tally with that given in the Sanskrit works on music, which put Sri first, Vasanta second, Bhairava third, Panchama fourth, Megha fifth, and Natararayana sixth. This order of classification might be accounted for in the

ADDENDA.

following way. The first, Sri, which consists of one semi- tone and two quurter-tones, represents the earliest efforts of the human voice at intonation. In the infancy of the art, the human voice was not capable of taking the intervals of full notes. Hence the use of smaller intervals. The next Raga, Vasanta, does away with the use of quarter-tones and deals with two semi-tones, and by ignoring the note G shows the hexatonic scale. The third, Bhairava, consists of three semi-tones (D flat, A flat, and B flat) and also in troduces an occasional use of E rendered slightly flat to differentiate the Raga from Ramakeli which it resembles very closely in form and construction. The fourth, Panchama, deals with only one semi-tone, namely, D flat. The fifth Megha. makes use of only one semi-tone (B flat), and is practically a specimen of the pentatonic scale, as it does away with the uotes A and E, the latter being used only in the descending scale immediately following F and preceding D, and not as an independent note of any sensibly long duration. The last Natanarayana. shows the formation of the diatonic soale, as it consists of the seveu full notes of the heptachord and excludes lesser intervals. It is worthy of note that while, according to Hindu Astronomy, or, rather, Physical Geography, the year com- mences with the Hemanta (dewy season), which introduces the five other seasons in succession, the Ragas, according to the musical system of the Hindus, begin with Sri, which is sung also in the dewy season, commencing with the month of Agrahayana (signifying agra, first, and hayang, year). Sri is another name for Lakshmi (Ceres-goddess of corn and tillage), and thia is the harvest season. Vasanta, as its name indicates, is sung in the spring. Panchama is sung in the summer. This Raga is said to be the substitute or another name for Dipaka, which means a burning lamp, and is associated with heat. Megha (which is the Sanskrit for clouds) is sung in the rainy season. Bhairava is sung in the antumn, and Natanarayana in the winter. The former is ropresented as Mahadeva, who and whose consort Durga come

VI UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC,

in for special worship in the autamn. The latter is associated with the sentiment of heroism, the Raga being described as a warrior, and the winter is generally considered the conve- nient season for engaging in war. There are the twelve months and the six seasons. So there are the 12 notes (7 full and 5 half notes), and the six Ragas.

MUSIC AND ASTROLOGY

EXCLUDING Rahu and Ketu (the ascending and descend- ing nodes): there are seven principal planets, namely. Ravi (Sun), Soma (Moon), Mangala (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Vrihaspati (Jupiter), Sukra (Venus), and Sani (Saturn), corresponding with the seven notes, Sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni. The following are the colorrs attributed to the seven planets by writers on Astronomy and according to the Tantras, as also to the seven notes by the Sanskrit authorities on Music.

Astronomy. Tantras. Musical works

(1) Ravi Blood red with deep blue Blood red Black (sa) (2) Soma Yellow White Tawny (ri) (3) Mangala Orange Blood red Golden (ga) (4) Budha Grass green Yallow White (ma) (5) Vrihaspati Yellow Yellow Yellow (pa) (6) Sukra Deep blue White Purple (dha)

(7) Sani Black Black Green (ni) The resemblance is striking in some cases.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF CASTES,

(1) Ravi Kshatriya Sa-Brahmana

(2) Soma Vaisya Ri-Kshatriya

(3) Mangala Kshatriya Ga-Vaisya

(4) Budha Sudra Ma-Brahmana

(5) Vrihaspati Brahmana Pa-Brahmana (6) Sukra Brahmana Dha-Kshatriya (7) Sani Antyaja Ni-Vaisya

ADDENDA VII

The sinilarity in the case of No. 5 is marked, though it is not so in the other items. No (7) Sani is called Antyaja, i. e., as belonging to a low caste to tonch whom is pollution. This is much the same case with No. (7) Ni, which is, in many Ragas, not touched exoept in combination with, or with a view to introduce, the next note, C .* It has been aptly compared with Anusvara (see page 8, notes), which, as the re- presentative of a sound, has no existence except in conjunction with a vowel or a consonaut.t The note Ni is called Napunsaka, that is, of the neuter gender, perhaps because it does not possess the power of forming or developing a Raga. It has already been stated that the note took no part in the forma- tion of the six original Ragas. MUSIC AND MEDICINE. THE power of music in soothing the afflioted heart and mind is acknowledged in both the East and the West. Its power of charming ferocious beasts and venomous reptiles is also referred to by writers of both ancient and modern times. Some accounts have been given, in the body of this book, of the healing powers of music so far as some of the savage nations are concerned. Ancient writers as well as medical authorities have dilated upon the power which music has of curing some of the ailments of humanity. The writer of the present work believes that a hospital was, a few years ago, established iu London, with a view'to cure certain liseases by means of music. It would be useful to enquire whet the results have been of those interesting experiments. The musical note has for one of its names the Sanskrit word Dhatu, which is the medical term for the constituents of

From the meditations of the Nine planets it would appear that Sani is the son of Ravi. This accords with the musioal idea that Ni is intimately conneoted with Su. The seven notes are respeotively under the control of the following deities: Auni, Brahma, Sarasvati, Mahadeva, Lakshmi, Ganess, and Surya (Ravi). + अनुसर्य्यते संलीनं शव्दाते दति अनुसार। (Kalapa). The Anusvara glides into or is absorbed with the letter to which it is attached. This is exactly the characteristic of Nishad (Ni) which means the termination of the scale and the glidins of the note into the next following Sa. .

VIII UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

the body (which, as has been mentioned on page 9, notes, of this book, arealso seren in number). As without the seven Dhatus, the body cannot be formed, so without the seven notes, the Ragas cannot be formed. Music is the union of Dhatu (note) and Matra (unit of measure). According to the Sanskrit medical works, the Matra may be determined by the winking of the eye or the beating of the pulse. € MUSIC AND POETRY. MENTION has been made, on page 4 of this work, of the fact that " music and poatry have been combined from time immemorial." " Pure composition," says Mr. Nathan, "unites m.usic and poetry in indissoluble bonds ; and so intimate is their connection, so equal their.value, so indispensable the strictness of their union, that the rules of sense and propriety render them the echo of each other." Sentiment and metre are the groundwork of both musical and poetical composi- tions. The pirt which sentiment plays in music has already . been mentioned. The object of metre is not only to diversify the time-movement but also to clothe the composi- tion in such a garb as would best fit in with the feeling which the composition seeks to embody. A composition dealing with a solemn and serious subject cannot be put to a sprightly metre ; similarly a light theme cannot be put to a sombre metre. The variety of metres used in Hindu music has given the names of the various talas to which the compositions are set .* The writer of the present work has attempted to add to the diversity of the time-measures of Hinuu music by making use of about 40 among the chhandahs (metres) that are recognized in Sanskrit Prosody, such as the Totaka, Vasantatilaka, Sragdhara, Sarddula Vikririta, &c. A reference to his work, Yantra Kshetra Dipika, will show that not only a large number of metres ranging between the simplest and the most complex have been reproduced therein * Mana and Yati, corresponding recognixed in both musio and poetry. with accent and paure, are The Sanakrit metre is divided into four parts. So is the measure (Tala) of Bindu music-Sama, Vishama Atita, and Anagata.

ADDENDA. IX

from the Sanskrit works on Prosody, but also that several of them have been utilized, by way of illustration, with a view to show how they could be made to add grace and beauty to the airs to which they might be tacked on.

MUSIC AND GRAMMAR. THE rules of counterpoint have their counterpart in Grammar. Thus, according to the Kalapa, समान: सवर्षे दोर्थी भवति परसलीप: 1. Lettere of the same class join each other, the latter being merged in the former, whese shape is elongated. For ex- ample, खद भन्स becomes पदान्स In Music, too, notes of the same denomination and caste (ami) make chords. Thus C of the middle octave and C of tbe higher octave make chords, they being of the same denomination and caste (namely, Brahmana). In striking the chord, the sound of the higher C will appear to merge in that of the middle C. भ वर्ण इ वर्णे ए। The Vowel unites with the vowel r and produces ; i. e., the first unites with the third. Similarly. C and E make a chord. उ वर्णे भो। The union of and produces s i. e., the first unites witk the fourth ( being the fourth of the series of principal vowels, ध्र, मा, इ, ड, ए मो Similarly, C and F make a cbord. न व्यखने खरा: सन्ेया:। There is no conjunction when & consonant follows & vowel, as देवी and r remains देवीन्टह्य In the same way, there can br no chord between mere words (which are here compared with au) and notes (which are here com- pared with स्वर बर्ण). द वर्गो यमसवर्णे न च परोलोप्य:। * The Anusvara may be corsidered a vowel sound wheu athzed to a vowel, and & consonant sound when affixed to a consonant.

VV

X UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

When the vowel is followed by a different vowel, the former is converted into , but the latter does not merge in it. Thus रवि and परादि becomes रब्यादि Similar- ly, when E (corresponding with the third vowel ) makes a chord with, say, G, (which is of a different value and caste). the sound of G does not merge its individuality in E. The aphorism of Kalap पनतिक्रमयन् बिन्नषयेत meang that, when necessary, letters joined to each other can be separated, keeping in view the rules of gender. In music, however, letters rendered long by the union of vowels, or otherwise united, can be pronounced each by itself, without reference to the rules of gender. As Bharat says : पौनवतं नदेशौये गोते दोषोऽभिजायतै। पौघोच्चारय वर्णानां तथाचेव प्रसारणे॥ लिङ्गान्यत्वे बिसन्धोच संयुक्ताकरमोक्षपे। परिवर्त्तेऽचरायाव्व इस दौघव्यतिक्रमे॥ It is a recognized rule in grammar that the fetter preceding a compound letter becomes one of a long sound. Thus the letter is sounded long in the word Tar This length is rendered preceptible by the mode of pronunciation. Similarly, in the chord made of E and G, the value of the Srutis preceding.E is increased, and this increase is perceived by the ear only. दुराद्वाने गाने रोदने च पुतास्ते लोकतः सिद्दाः । The plural measure (wa) is used in calling out from a distance, in songs, and in crying. According to the view of Trilochana Das, the commentator of Kalapa, the use of the a it extensively made in Drama, &c., and Dramas come under the purview of music, naving regard to the definition of the word सङ्गीत :- सङ्गोतं द्विविभ्ं प्रोतां दृश्यं श्राव्य च सूरिभि:। which means : the sages have divided music into two classes ; ocular and auricular. Dancing and dramatic re- presentations fall un der the class of ocular music.

ADDENDA. XI

According to an aphorism of Kalapa, the rules governing the pronouns cease to have effect when the pronouns are preceded by the word qfa (which means excess) Thus, the pronoun faraa when declined in the first person of the dative case, becomes विश्वस्म; but when the word अति precedes, the word becomes fasalu; w.e., the inflexion proper to a pronoun becomes inoperative. So, in rendering a Raga, the use of a note with Srutis in excess of those which are proper for the expression of that Raga vitiates its character. Thus, in the Raga Bhairava, D flat is used ; but if, by an excessive use of Srutis, the full note D is used, the character of that Raga is lost. The essentials of words are धातु (roots), प्रत्यय (affixes) and fararfar (inflexions). The essentials of Ragas are notes (Dhatu), the affiring of other notes with reference to its position, and their declension, so to speak, with reference to time and other ingredients. There is such a thing as faura (irregularity or ex- ception) in music as there is in grammar. For instance, the Ragini Sindhu is constructed on a scale which has E flat for ore of its notes. But sometimes E natural is used and yet the character of the Ragini is not destroyed. The following is the substarce of the definitions which Panini gives of the three groups of the heptachord which are accepted and recognized in Hindu music :- If the musical sounds combined with letters which are pronounced from the palate and other organs of speeca are pronounced from the upper parts of such organs, such sounds are called by the name of Udatta. If they are prononnced from the lower parts of such organs, they are designated Anudatta ; and if they are pronounced in a combined manner, t. e., the first half in the Udatta and the second half in the Anudattu method, they come under the class of Svarit or Samahara. In pronouncing the Udatta (acute) notes, the singer feels wearied in body, and the cavity of his throat becomes a

XII UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

little contracted. The notes too show a degree of harshness. In pronouncing the Anudattt (grave) notes, the singer feels a kind of mildness and coolness about his body, and the cavity of his throat becomes a little dilated. In the following aphorism, the Kalapa sanctions the adoption of whatever may have come down by usage :- लोकोपचंरात् ग्रहण सिद्िः। This is exactly the view of the musical authorities, as the following couplet shows :- यस्मिन देशे यथाशिष्टर्गीतं विश्वस्तथाचर त्। that is : whatever course the eminent adopts in singing in his country, that course the wise man should follow in that country. This sets at rest all disputes between musicians of different countries regarding the principles and practice of music.

MUSIC AND LOGIC.

In the Bhasha Parichchheda, or the introductory portion of the Nyaya Philosophy, occars the following stanza :-

शब्दो ध्वनिच्व वर्णस मृदङ्गादिभव ध्वनिः। करठसंयोगादिजन्या वर्णास्त कादयोमताः।।

which means that wa (sound) is divided into two classes, safa: and a The sound produced by the Mridanga and other musical instruments is called tafa: and that pro- duced from the throat, &c., such as a &c., is called qu : Tne

next stanza :-

सव्बः शब्दो नभोव्टा्तिः श्रोत्ोत्ृपस्रस्तु ग्ह्यते। बोचितरङ्गन्यायैन तदुत्पत्तिस्तु कौर्त्तिता:। means that sound has its abode in N: (ether) and reaches the cavity of the ear through it, unless and until it is obstruct- ed. Ag a steue flung into the pond makes a circle in the water which widens and widens still it disappears on being

ADDENDA XIII

obstructed by the brink of the pond; so, the sound on being produced makes circles in the air, till it is caught by the ear or dissolves into space. कदम्वकोरकन्यायादुत्पत्ति कस्यचिन्मते। This means : According to some, the origin of sound is comparable with the fibres that surround the Kadamba flower (Nauclea Kadamba). When the whole circumference of the flower is occupied by the fibres and no space, left for more, then the Kadamba flower is formed. Similarly, when there is no more space for the sound to travel, it becomes audible.

THE SRUTIS.

IN his notes on the Sisupala Badha, the well-known Sanskrit poem of Bharavi, Mallinatha, the prince of com- mentators, defines the Sruti as follows :-- स्रुतिर्नाम खवरारभाकावयवः शब्द विशेष:॥ The sound which lies at the beginning of notes and forms its body, as it were, is called Sruti. In the 10th stanza of the lst canto of the above-named poem occur the following : रपाद्विराघट्टनया नमखतः

This refers to the sounding of the wires of the Mahati Vina of Narada through the action of, air, and shows that the principle of the Æolian harp was known in olden India. MUSIC AND RHETORIC. ANY piece of writing in which some Rasa or other prevails is called Kavya. Kavya is of two kinds-Prose and Poetry. So is Musict-Anibaddha and Nibaddha.t Ani-

• गवपद्यमयं काव्यं। + गद्य पद्य प्रमेदेन िविध: कथितो बुधे:॥ पनिबदं भबेदीतं वर्णादि नियमं विना। निबइस भबेद्गीतं तालमान रसाचित।

XIV TNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

baddha is that which is sung without the aid of words, but with given notos, the movement being made according to the pleasure of the singer. This form of singing goes by the name of Alapti or Alapa. Nibaddha is that which is sung with words, and with strict reference to the laws of measure. Anibaddha is thus comparable with Prose, and Nibaddha with Poetry. The latter is of 59 varieties. Both Kavya and music are divided into Sravya (audible) and Drisya (visible). Under the' heading of the latter come dancing and dramatic representations. The sage Bharata is said to be the father of the Sanskrit drama, in the theory and practice of which he used to teach the celestial musicians and players. Lakshmi-Svayamvara is the name of the first drama of his which is said to have been played at the celestial Court of Indra. Bharat Samhita and Bharat Sutra are the names of two of his principal works on the drama. The subdivisions of Kavya. are the same as those of music, namely, Bhashanga (pertaining to language). Kriyanga (pertaining to performances), and Bhavanga (per- taining to ideas or sentiments), these three being, respectively, represented by singing, instrumentation, and dancing.

According to Sanskrit Alankara (literally, ornament) or Rhetoric, the Padya or poetical Kavya is divided into three classes ; namely, (1) Mahckavya (such as Raghuvansa, and Kumara Sambhava), (2) Khanda Kavya (such as Megha Duta and Ritu Samhara), and Kosha Kavya (such as Sringara Sataka). These have their counter- parts in music, in Druvaka or Dhrupada, Lahacharika or Kheyal, and Jhumari or Tuppa. The Gadya or prose Kavya is illustrated in Kadamvari, Dasakumara Charita, &c., corresponding with the Alapa in music. There is another kind of Kavya called Champn, which is partly in poetry and partly in prose. This corresponds with the Kathakata, Panchali, Tarja, and other forms of sacred, popular, or pastoral music. In the composition of both Kavya and vocal rusic, the same four styles are adopted, namely Lati,

ADDENDA. XV

Panchali, Vaidarvi, and Gauri, these deriving their names probably from four different countries. The Alankara in Kavya is mainly divided into three classes; namely, Savdalankara (figure of words), Arthalan- kara (figure of meaning), and Savdarthalankara (combination or the above two). Musical Alankara is divided into four main classes ; namely, (1) Sthayi (repetition cf the same notes), (2) Arohi (ascending of the notes), (3) Avarohi (descending of the notes), and (4) Sanchari (which is the mixture of the above three). The following are the seven subdivisions of Sthayi :- NAMES. ILLUSTRATIONS.

(1) Prasannadi-Sa, sa, sa.,

(2) Prasannanta-Sa, sa, sa.

(3) Prasannadyanta-Sa, sa, sa.

(4) Prasannamadhya-Sa, sa, sa. (5) Kramarochita- Eka-kala Do .- Sa, ri, sa, Dvi-kala Do .- Sa, ga, ma, sa. Tri-kala Do. Sa, pa, dha, ni, sa. (6) Prastara-

Eka-kala Do .- Sa, ri, sa.

Dvi-kala Do .- Sa, ga, ma, sa.

Tri-kala Do .- Sa, pa, dha, ni, sa. (7) Prasad-

Eka-kala Do .- Sa, ri, sa.

Dvi-kala Do .- Sa, ga, ma, sa.

Tri-kala Do .- Sa, pa, dha, ni, sa, The current system of notation is here given. From what is stated in Sangita Ratnakara in this connection, it would appear that a notation system was recognized at the time of its composition. It is mentioned there that the Mandra (lower) heptacbord was to be indicated by a dot on the notes, and the Tara(higher) by & perpendicular line on them ; those belonging to the Madhya (middie) heptachord not being indicated by any signs.

XVI UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MUSIC.

The following are the twelve subdivisions of Arohi :- (1) Vistirna-Sa (long), ri (long), &c., &c. (2) Nishkarsha-Sa sa (short), ri ri (short), &c. &c. Gutravarn I-Sa si sa (short,) ri ri ri (short), &c. Sa sa sa sa (shont), ri ri ri ri (short), &c. (3) Vindu-3 sa (long) ri, 3 ga (long) ma, 3 pa (long) dha 3 ni (long). (4) Abhyuchchaya-Sa, ga, pa, ni. (5) Hasita-Sa ri ri ga ga ga ma ma ma ma pa pa pa pa pa dha dha dha dha dha dha ni ni ni ni ni ni ni. (6) Prenkshita-Sa ri, ri ga, ga ma, ma pa, pa dha, dha ni. (7) Akshipta-Sa ga, ga pa. pa ni. (8) Sandhiprachchhadana-Sa ri ga, ga ma pa, pa dha ni. (9) Udgita-Sa sa sa ri ga, ma ma ma pa dha. (10) Udvahita-Sa ri ri ri ga, ma pa pa pa dha. (11) Trivarna-Sa ri ga ga ga, ma pa dha dha dha. (12) Yoni-Sa sa sa, ri ri ri, ga ga ga, ma ma ma, pa pa pa, dha dha dha, ni ni ni. The Avarohi has twelve subdivisions, which are the Arohi subdivisions put in the descending scale. The following are the twenty-five subdivision of San- chari- (1) Mandradi-Sa ga ri, dha ma ga, ga pa ma, ma dha pa, pa ni dha. (2) Mandra madhya-Ga sa ri, ma ri ga, pa ga ma, dha ma pa, ni pa dha. (3) Mandranta-Ga ri sa, ma ga ri, pa ma ga, dha pa ma, ni dha pa. (4) Prastara-Sa ga, ri ma, ga pa, ma dha, pa nl. (5) Prasada-Sa ri sa, ri gari, ga ma ga, ma pa ma, pa dha pa, dha ni dha. (6) Vyavritya-Sa ga ri ma sa, ri ma ga pa ri, ga pa ma d ha ga, ma dha pa ni ma. (7) Skhalita-Sa ga ri ma ma ri ga sa, ri ma ga pa pa ga ma ri, ga pa ma dha dha ma pa ga, ma dha pa ni ni pa dha ma. (8) Parivartta-Sa ga ma, ri ma pa, ga pa dha, ma dha ni.

ADDENDA. XVII

(9) Akshapa-Sa ri ga, ri ga ma, ga ma pa, ma pa dha, pa dha ni.

(10) Vinda-Sa sa sa ri sa, riri ri ga ri, ga ga ga ma ga, ma ma ma pa ma, pa pa pa dha pa, dha dha dha ni dha.

(11) Vahita-Sa ri ga ri, rı ga ma ga, ga ma pa ma, ma pa dha pa, pa dha ni dha. J

(12) Urmmi-Sa ma ma ma sa ma, ripa pa pa ri pa, ga dha dha dha ga dha, ma ni ni ni ma ni.

(13) Sama-Sa ri ga ma ma ga ri sa, ri ga ma pa pa ma ga ri, ga ma pa dha dha pa ma ga, ma pa dha ni ni dha pa ma.

(14) Prenksha-Sa ri ri sa, ri ga ga ri, ga ma ma ga, ma pa pa mà, pa dha dha pa, dha ni ni dha.

(15) Nishkujita-Sa ri sa ga sa, ri ga ri ma ri, ga ma ga pa ga, ma pa ma dha ma, pa dha pa ni pa.

(16) Svena-Sa pa, ri dba, ga ni, ma sa.

(17) Krama-Sari sa ri ga sari ga ma, ri ga ri ga ma ri ga ma pa, ga ma ga ma pa ga ma pa dba, ma pa ma pa dha ma pa dha ni.

(18) Udyhatita-Sa ri pa ma ga ri, ri ga dha pa ma ga, ga ma ni dha pa ma.

(19) Ranjita-Sa ga ri sa ga ri sa, ri ma ga ri ma ga ri, ga pa ma ga pa ma ga, ma dha pa ma dha pa ma, pa ni dha pa ni dha pa.

(20) Sannivritta pravrittaka-Sr ma ga ri, ri dha pa ma ga, ga ni dha ra . ..

WW

XVIII UNIVERSIL HISTORY OF MESIC.

((21) Venu-Sa sa ri maga, ri ri ga pa ma, ga ga ma dha pa, e ma ma pa ni dha.

(22) Lulita Svara-Sa ri ma ri sa, ri ga pa ga ri, ga ma dha. ma ga, ma pa mi:pa ma.

(23) Hunkara-Sa ri sa, sa ri ga ri sa, sa ri ga ma ga ri sa, sa ri ga ma pa ma ga ri sa, sa ri ga ma pa dha pa ma ga ri sa, sa ri ga ma pa dha ni dha pa

ma ga ri sa.

(24) Hradamana-Sa ga ri sa, ri ma ga ri, ga pa ma ga, ma dha pa ma, pa ni dha pa.

(25) Acalokita-Sa ga ma ma ri sa, ri ma pa pa ga ri, ga pa dha dha ma ga, ma dha ni ni pa ma.

The following seven additional varieties are mentioned by the musical authorities :-

(1) Tara Mandra Prasanna-Sa, ri, ga, ma,-pa, dha, ni, sa, sa.

(2) Mandratara Prasanna-Sa, sa, ni, dha, pa, ma, ga, ri, sa.

(3) Avarttaka-Sa sa ri ri sa sa ri sa, ri ri ga ga ri ri ga ri, ga ga ma ma gaga ma ga, ma ma pa pa ma ma pa ma, pa pa dha dha pa pa dha pa, dha dha ni ni dha dha ni dha.

(4) Sampradana-Sa sa ri ri sa sa, ri ri ga ga ri ri, ga ga ma ma ga ga. ma ma pa pa ma ma pa pa dha dba pa pa, dha dha ni ni dha dha.

(5) Bidhuta-Sa ga sa ga, ri ma ri ma, ga pa ga pa, ma dha ma dha, pa ni pa ni.

ADDENL XIX

(6) Upalola-Sa ri sa ri ga ri ga ri, ri ga ri ga ma ga ma ga, ga ma ga ma pa ma pa ma, ma pa ma pa dha pa dha pa, pa dha pa dha ni dha ni dha.

Ullasita -Sa sa ga sa ga, ri ri ma ri ma, ga ga pa.ga pa, ma ma dha ma dha, pa pa ni pa ni.

THE SEASONS.

THE three principal seasons are Winter, Summer, and the Rainy. These are represented by the three Ragas-Sri, Panchama, and Megha, which also represent the evening, morning, and noon-time, and are characterised by the pre- dominance of the notes E, F, aud D, respectively. The characteristic of the group of the " evening" Ragas is that ithey ascend from C and D or D flat to E .; that of the group of the " morning" Ragas is that they ascend from C and D or D flat to F; and that of the group of the "noon-time" Ragas is that they ascend from C or I to F These three Ragas might be said lo represent the primitive forms of the three principal scales, namely, the pentatonic, the bexatonic, and the diatonic. Sri might in a minner be considered the prototype of the pentatouic scale (the primitive scale of the ancient naticns), for it may be rendered without the use of F sharp and B. Panchama might also in a manner be taken as the originator of the hexatonic scale, as it introduces the use of F and can be rendered without B. Megha might also in a manner be considered as the nearest approach to the diatonic scale, introducing B flat (i. e., B in an incomplete state), and being capable of being rendered with a skilful use of A and E in the descending scale. The evolution of the six Ragas of which a theory is given in the preceding pages might be considered as the result of development made in after times.

XX UNIVERSAL HISTORY OF MOSIC.

CONCLUSION.

IT w.lhate been ob erved from what has been dealt with, thongh so meagrely, in the preceding pages that the Science and Art of music stand in intimate relation with otherSciences and Arts, such as Painting, Astronomy, Astrology, Medicine, Poetry, Prosody, Rhetori . Logic, Grammar, Geography, Mathematics, &c., and t at in dealing with the subject, the Aryans nave displayed a wonderful insight into almost all the departments of human knowledge. Verily, they have demonstrated the truth of the saying that music 18 Harmony.

( The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Studies Vol. XXVII ) THE MYTHOLOGY OF

THE ARYAN NATIONS

By

Sir George W. Cox

This most important work of its kind tries to exhibit clearly and with fulness the general characteristics of Aryan Mytho- logy, as a system which has grown up from words and phrases denoting not one or two objects only, as the Sun and Moon, but all the phenomena of the sensible world, as they impressed themselves on the minds of primitive men. The author, in his illuminating and erudite study has tried to strengthen in every way the foundations of the science of Comparative Mythology and to lay bare more and more clearly the origin and growth of the vast body of Aryan tradition and belief. After going through the work the reader will be convinced of the essential umity underlying all these mythologies and find that the mighty mass of popular tradition in every Aryan land has been shaped by words and phrases describing all the varied and complex phenomena of day and night, of summer and winter, of earth and heaven, of Gods and Demons and so on. He believes that the magnificient and mighty mythological fabric of these scattered and long separated children of one primitive Aryan family, is founded on common ground. Such an important work had been out-of-print for the last -many decades. We have now reprinted it from its Revised * Edition of 1882, by photo-offset process which ensures the correctness of the Text. Price Rs. 30-00