1. Voice of The Void Aesthetics of The Buddhist Mandala on The Basis of The Doctrine of Vak in Trika Saivism Sung Min Kim D.K. Book World

Voice of the Void

Aesthetics of the Buddhist Maṇḍala

on the basis of the Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

SUNG MIN KIM

The research undertaken here about Buddhist mandalas is basically designed under the philosophical question how the visible dimensions of forms are related to their invisible contents.

The textual sources in reference to Buddhist mandalas teach that the essence of mandalas is śūnya (void) and their forms are the reflective images (pratibimba) of śūnya.

This volume investigates how the colourful form of Buddhist mandalas represents the prime concept of śūnya, and what makes these mandalas visually powerful, leaving the impression of “spiritual enhancement” in the heart of people who do not even know about the Buddhist doctrines.

The mandalas permanently represented in the monastic complexes of Tabo and Alchi in the Western Himalayas have been focused in order to examine a prominent role of visual dimensions of mandalas.

In order to comprehend mandalas in the context of Buddhist philosophy, the texts of the Yoga-Tantra class have been looked up.

Especially, the references to the tantric visualization-practice throw light on the internal experiences with mandalas.

Considering the fact that the Buddhist mandalas have been developed as a method of Mantrayāna, being always combined with mantras and mudrās, this volume presents the concept of vā k (word, subtle sound, voice) as a key to explain how the ultimate state of śūnya and perceptible forms of mandalas are related to each other.

The doctrine of vā k developed in the tradition of Trika Śaivism in Kashmir provides us with a systematic way to explain the non-dualism between all phenomena objects and the Supreme Divine.

The doctrine of four levels of vā k is examined in the book for the purpose of interpreting the aesthetic phenomena and structuring the different levels of meanings of mandalas from the aesthetic perspective.

On the basis of the vā k theory, the external forms of mandalas have been explored and their visual principles have been technically analysed, in attempt to answer the question: how do the colourful forms of Buddhist mandalas resemble the formless śūnya?

Dr. Sung Min Kim, born in Seoul, Republic of Korea, is an artist and scholar on Indian arts.

Having completed her Bachelor of Fine Arts in Seoul in 1995, she studied the history of arts in New Delhi and accomplished her doctoral research in the School of Arts & Aesthetics, Jawaharlal Nehru University in New Delhi in 2009.

She worked on the theme of comparative aesthetics of Kashmir Śaivism and Mahāyāna Buddhism, one of the least studied areas of Indian aesthetics.

Living at present in Vienna, she combines the practice of painting and the philosophical research on arts.

ISBN 13: 978-81-246-0756-5

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Voice of the Void

Aesthetics of the Buddhist Maṇḍala

on the basis of

the Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

Sung Min Kim

DK

PRINTWORLD

Cataloging in Publication Data — DK

[Courtesy: D.K. Agencies (P) Ltd. [email protected]]

Kim, Sung Min, 1971-

Voice of the void : aesthetics of the Buddhist mandala on the basis of the doctrine of vāk in Trika Śaivism / Sung Min Kim.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index.

ISBN 13: 9788124607565

1. Mandala (Buddhism) 2. Mandala in art. 3. Buddhist art—

India — Tabo. 4. Buddhist art — India — Alchi Gompa. 5. Śūnyatā

6. Buddhist philosophy. 7. Kashmir Śaivism. 8. Tabo (Monastery :

Tabo, India). 9. Alchi Monastery (Alchi Gompa, India). I. Title.

DDC 294.3437 23

© Author

First published in India, 2015

ISBN 13: 978-81-246-0756-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, except brief quotations, in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior written permission of the copyright holder, indicated above, and the publishers.

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Contents

Prologue — Lokesh Chandra

xi

Foreword — Bettina Bäumer

xix

Preface

xxiii

Abbreviations

xxvii

List of Plates

xxix

List of Tables

xxxiii

List of Illustrations

xxxv

Introduction

1

The Question of the Relationship Between Forms and the Formless

2

Buddhist Maṇdalas in the Context of the Religious Practice

3

Buddhist Maṇḍalas as Works of Art ?

6

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala

from Tabo and Alchi in the Western Himalayas

9

Doctrine of Vāk

11

Primary Sources of the Research

16

I. Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Maṇḍalas

25

I. 1 Maṇḍala Space

25

I. 2 Maṇḍala Deities

46

I 2.1 Vajradhātu Maṇḍala

46

Reading Maṇḍala Deities on the Basis of the Sarvatathāgatattvasaṃgraha

48

What Do the Maṇḍala Deities Symbolize?

51

I 2.2 Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala

73

I .3 Colour

78

II. Multiple Layers of Form Implied in the Discourses on Maṇḍalas

83

II. 1 Maṇḍalas in Association with the Notion of Trikāya and Triguhya

83

vi

II. 2 Multiple Layers of Form in Maṇḍalas

90

II.2.1 Three Levels of Maṇḍalas: Svabhāva, Samādhi and Pratibimba

90

II.2.2 Maṇḍalas of Kāya, Vāk and Citta in the Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Tantra

94

II. 3 Practice of Visualization

96

II.3.1 Process of Visualization

96

II.3.2 Concepts Extracted from the Visualization Practice

100

The Syllable and the Bodily Form of Deity

100

A Compound: Maṇḍalas, Mantras and Mudrās

102

II. 4 Non-dualism of Form and the Formless in the Practice and Theory of Buddhist Maṇḍalas

105

II.4.1 Non-dualism of Multiple Forms and Śūnya

105

II.4.2 Transformation of Śūnya into Perceptible Maṇḍalas

108

Bimba (Image) – Pratibimba (Counter-image)

109

III. Vāk in Tantric Buddhist Practices

111

III. 1 Buddhist Practice of Syllables

113

A Phoneme

114

Vāk Cakra

116

III. 2 The Highest Divinity Conceived in the Nature of Sound

117

Dharmadhātu

117

Sarvatathāgata

117

Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara-Mañjuśrī

121

III. 3 Association of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā with Vāk

124

III.3.1 The Concept of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā

130

III.3.2 Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in the Mantrayāna

132

Is the Queen of Vidyā in the Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Tantra Identical to the Goddess Prajñāparamitā?

133

The Queen of Vidyā: Vāk

134

The Representation of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in Alchi and the Textual Descriptions of the Trikā Goddess Parā

137

IV. The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

141

IV. 1 Four Levels of Vāk

142

IV.1.1 Vaikharī vak

147

Vaikharī is Not Mere a Language, but is rather a Śakti in its Essence

147

Vaikharī vāk is the Direct Cause of the Objective World

149

CONTENTS

I vii

Vaikharī on the plane of Aparāśakti (Power of Differentiation) and Kriyāśakti (Power of Action)

150

IV.1.2 Madhyamā vāk

151

Madhyamā vāk has the form of Dhvani (resonance) beyond Prāṇa (vital breath), and is supported by Antaḥkaraṇa (the internal organ of intelligence)

151

Objectivity is Covered by Subjectivity

152

Madhyamā vāk is on the Plane of Icchāśakti, Jñānaśakti and Kriyāśakti

155

IV.1.3 Paśyantī vāk

155

The Intense and Synthetic Awareness of the Undivided Whole

155

Forms of Objects are Resorbed in the Stage of Paśyantī vāk

158

The Gross Paśyantī is Nāda (resonance)

160

Is Paśyantī vāk Comparable to Bindu?

163

167

IV.1.4 Parāvāk

167

Parāvāk is in the Plane of Parāśakti, that is, Anuttara

169

Parāvāk is the Pratyavamarśa (reflective awareness), the Essential Nature of Citi

170

Parāvāk Permeates the other Three Levels of Vāk

IV.2 Vāk in Mantra Practice

173

IV.2.1 Mantra and Parāvāk

173

IV.2.2 OM Uccāra

177

Higher Levels of OM Uccāra and Śūnya

179

V. The Doctrine of Vāk as a Theoretical Basis for Understanding the Aesthetics of Maṇḍalas

182

V.1 Parāvāk and Śūnya

182

V.1.1 References to Śūnya in Trika Philosophy

182

V.1.2 Parāvāk and the Vijñānavādins’ Absolute Śūnya in Mahāyāna Buddhism

186

Parāvāk and Dharmakāya/Dharmadhātu

189

Parāvāk and Ālayavijñāna

191

Parāvāk and Tathāgatagarbha

195

V.2 The Non-dualism of Creation and Concealment within the Doctrine of Vāk

199

V.3 Sanctification of Maṇḍalas on the Basis of the Doctrine of Vāk

201

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Voice of the Void

V.4 Gross, Subtle and Transcendental Forms of Vāk

204

V.4.1 Description of the Three Forms of Vāk in the Tantrāloka

204

V.4.2 Significance of the Exposition of the Sthūla-Paśyantī

and the Sthūla-Madhyamā

206

V.5 Transformation of Form in the Doctrine of Vāk

207

Stage of Vaikharī vāk

207

Stage of Madhyamā vāk

208

Identification: Transformation from Vaikharī vāk to Madhyamā vāk

208

Stage of Paśyantī vāk

210

Stage of Parā vāk

212

Notes

214

VI. Establishing the Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala

on the Basis of the Doctrine of Vāk

216

VI.1 Redefinition of Maṇḍalas from the Perspective of the Vāk Theory

216

What Comprises the Maṇḍala

216

Vācaka Aspect

216

Vācya Aspect

217

Problem of Vācya and Vācaka in Maṇḍalas

218

VI.2 Maṇḍalas of Alchi Interpreted as the Gross Paśyantī

220

VI.2.1 Nature of Paśyantī vāk

220

VI.2.2 Speculation on Sthūla-Paśyantī

221

VI.2.3 Maṇḍalas and Nāda

224

VI.3 Visual Elements of Gross Paśyantī in the Maṇḍalas of Alchi

226

VI.3.1 Relationship of an Observer to the Large-scaled Maṇḍala

227

VI.3.2 Geometric Layout

232

Circular Format

232

Geometric Divisions

236

Principle of Order: The Proportion and the Act of Measurement

244

Nature of Madhyamā vāk

245

VI.3.3 Geometric Basis of Figures

246

Positioning Divine Figures on the Networks of Energy

246

Delineation of Divine Images

250

Geometric Abstraction of the Body

250

Contents

I ix

Geometric Principles in the Creative Process

257

VI.3.4 Skillful Execution of the Distinct Parts

258

The Corporeality of the Body

258

Ornaments Revealing the Nature of the Divine

259

VI.3.5 Five Primary Colours and Their Tones

266

VI.3.6 The Fusion of the Distinct and the Indistinct

269

VII. Aesthetic Power of the Maṇḍalas of Alchi

272

VII.1 Immersion into the Paśyantī vāk

272

VII.2 Aesthetic Viewing of Maṇḍalas

274

VII.2.1 Pratyakṣa

275

VII. 2.2 Parāvāk and Pratyakṣa

276

Conclusion

283

Bibliography

286

Index

303

Prologue

This presentation of Dr. Sung Min Kim seeks to work out the innermost substance of Being in the unfathomed inner steppes of the mind in the transfinite forms irradiating the substantive deeps. It reveals a mind wrapped in gold of the raptures of the creative consciousness, true to her name Kim which means gold. One of major Sūtras in East Asia, is Suvarṇabhāsottama-sūtra or the Golden Light Sūtra 金光明經金광명경. It represents the resplendence of the rising sun like brāhma muhūrtta (glorious moments of meditation) enshrined in the Gāyatrī hymn. In absolute silence of time the vessels of the spirit have been common awaking in the Vedic and Buddhist traditions. Both the Golden Light Sūtra and the Gāyatrī likewise seek the cosmic, the transcendent in the cadence of the golden light of the dawning day. Dr. Kim’s perception of maṇḍala in the ambience of the fourfold vāk of the Upaniṣads and Trika Śaivism flows from her noble phylogeny of two millennia. From these precious seeds of time grows the bodhi tree of interpretation of Dr. Kim: the scintillating ripples of śraddhā and sādhana (faith and contemplation).

The Kims are descendants of the Princess of Ayodhyā. She arrived in Korea in CE 48 at Kimhae aboard a ship, heeding a call from Heaven. Rocks and ruins around Kimhae are proud heirs of this legacy. She became the queen of King Kim Suro and they founded the first powerful state in Korea, which continued till its end by Shilla in CE 532. In gratitude to the sea that allowed safe passage to the queen to his shores, the king built the Haeunsa “Temple of Sea Grace” that stands to this day on top of Mount Punsong. The simple subtlety of this queen incarnates in the heart of Dr. Kim so that she can dive deep into her Indic mind to make vivid the inherent but unobserved paths of the phylogeny of maṇḍalas. Dr. Kim captures the profound light of the metaplane of maṇḍalas of Vairocana or the Transcendent (Vai) Sun (rocana) who casts His sheen of eternity in our invoking minds. Dr. Kim’s native Land of Morning Calm has been blessed with astounding pensive images of the Maitreya trinity. It is but spontaneous for her to realize, visualize and conceptualize the subtle vibrations of maṇḍalas of Tabo and Alchi, which were masterminded by painters and sculptors from Kashmir.

The monasteries of Tabo and Alchi are in the direct tradition of Rin.chen.bzań.po

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Voice of the Void

(CE 958–1055) who came to Kashmir to study the Sanskrit language. In the first period he spent seven years in Kashmir, in the second he was at Vikramaśilā and in the third period he was again in Kashmir to arrange the materials collected and to finish the translations undertaken with his first masters. Parahitabhādra of Kashmir worked at Tholing.¹ Rin.chen.bzain.po had an image of his father made in Kashmir² by the famous artist Bhitaka. He returned to his country with thirty-two Kashmiri artists³. The work he began was continued with fervour by his disciples. Kashmir was one of the places where Buddhist masters prospered the most. Naropa, the great teacher of Marpa, too was from Kashmir. Somanātha, one of the greatest interpreters of Kālacakra, was a Kashmiri. To Kṣemendra’s inexhaustible genius we owe Avadāna-kalpalatā. The tantric systems introduced by Rin.chen.bzain.po were designated as the Kashmiri system.⁴ The “Great Paṇḍita of Kashmir” Śākyaśrī (Khache.paṇ.chen) was closely associated with the translation and graphic representation of Avadāna-kalpalatā. He carried it with him to Tibet in CE 1204 and presented it to Sa.skya Paṇḍita. It was translated into Tibetan in CE 1272 and enlivened the walls of the monasteries of Rgya, Snar.thań and Jo.nań to inculcate the pāramitā perfections as a preparation to Supreme Bodhi. These Buddhist masters must have studied the works of Abhinavagupta whose literary activity flourished in CE 990–1020 as the most celebrated author on aesthetics and Kashmir Śaivism. The masters must have been influenced by his Trika philosophy as enunciated in his Tantrāloka and other works. Dr. Kim’s ingenious exegesis of maṇḍalas as an expression of the fourfold vāk is evident in the confluence of the spiritual ambience of the concerned centuries and their intellectual space as well as in the artistic representations detailed by her on page 13.

Within the Buddhist tradition, maṇḍalas have been interpreted in different ways. In terms of architectonics a maṇḍala is a plan of the sanctum of a specific deity. The square parts are a two-dimensional diagram of a sanctum dedicated to a central deity and its olympian assembly. It has four gates in the four cardinal directions. The inner portion of the diagram has square structures which are the walls, pillars and other architectural elements of the sanctum. The round parts are psychic elements. Its innermost psychic chore is constituted by the eight-petalled lotus of the heart of the devotee wherein resides the main deity with his prominent acolytes. The other psychic elements are also round, like the outermost circle of fire (jvālāvalī) to burn the sins of

¹ Tucci 1988 (1932):64

² Ibid.: 66

³ Ibid.: 67

⁴ Ibid.: 39

the mediatator. Vajrāvalī (circle of vajras) represents the solidity of the adamantine plane wherein the Vajrayāna practitioner has become a vajra-being, a vajra-sattva, one empowered to undertake Vajrayāna practices and rituals. The circle of lotuses (padmāvalī) is the purity of heart with which the devotee approaches the sanctum. Thus the psychic components of the circles of fire, vajras and lotuses in a maṇḍala are round, while the solid material components of the architectonic temple are square. A maṇḍala is thus a square and a circle, the squared material space and the circularity of psychospheres.

Representation as Trikāya

Sarva-tathāgata-tattva-samgraha (STTS) has been illustrated by Śubhākarasiṃha (CE 637-735) in Gobu-shingan (GS). According to GS, Vairocana is represented in trikāya as: sambhogakāya with his consort Vajradhātvīśvarī, dharmakāya the absolute denoted by addorsed vajras, and nirmāṇakāya as a monk (not distinguished from Śākyamuni). All are represented in separate maṇdalas in the four sections of STTS. The central deity of Vairocana is illustrated below from GS in the three kāya's:

Vairocana as sambhogakāya crowned and decked with crowne ornaments

Vajradhātvīśvarī alias Vajrinī as the consort of Vairocana in sambhogakāya

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Voice of the Void

Vairocana as dharmakāya symbolized by two vajras placed cross-wise at his back

Vairocana as nirmānakāya represented as a monk

The flames of their spiritual vibrations are different in the four epiphanies. Mantras of each epiphany are different, naturally so. STTS views mandalas primarily as the trikāya system, but its colophons of the four sections are viewed as four Samayas.

Samaya is one of the three main ways of awakening kundalinī in the Tantra to accomplish the highest state of enlightenment. The three ways are: Kaula, Miśra and Samaya. They explain the methods of awakening the primal force to lead to the abode of Śiva. The highest of all schools is Samaya. It is purely yogic without any external rituals. Yogins who follow this path illuminate all the cakras to the abode of Śiva which is the crown of the head (sahasrāra). This yoga of consubstantiation (sam-aya)

was the highest expression of Śaivism.5 Samaya is the foundation of STTS, the root

Tantra of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala. STTS is divided into four sections representing

four Samayas: abhisamaya (section 1), vajra-samaya (section 2), dharma-samaya

(section 3) and karma-samaya (section 4). Each Samaya is symbolized by maṇḍalas

of four epiphanies of Vairocana: Vajradhātu Vairocana (section 1), Trilokavijaya

Vairocana (section 2), Sakala-jagad-vinaya Vairocana (section 3) and Sarvārthasiddhi

Vairocana (section 4).

In Saiva Siddhānta “the three paths of salvation are those of service (caryā), worship

(kriyā) and meditation (yoga) all of which should be animated by the love of God (i.e.

Śiva)”.6 All these ways receive divine knowledge (pratijñāna) from Śiva, by which is

realized perfect union (Samaya) with Śiva. The terms kriyā, caryā and yoga relate to

the three paths of realization, as is clear from the Śaiva tradition. To convert them into

a classification system of the Tantras is a later development (Kim, p. 17), due to some

misunderstanding. Śrīśaila was one of the five main religious centres (mathas) of the

Śaivas, as well as a core centre of Tantric Buddhism as Śrīparvata7. Among the three

outstanding texts of the Krama tradition of Kashmir is Mahānayaprakāśa which

reminds the Nayasūtra, one of the fundamental texts of Vajrayāna. Thus, there was

constant interflow of ideas between Śaivism and Tantric Buddhism in Kashmir as

well as in the south (at Śrīśailam and Kāñcī alias Oḍḍiyāna).

The subtle observation of Dr. Kim on sarva in the title of Sarva-tathāgata-tattva-

saṃgraha is “a qualitative indication of ‘Supreme’, rather than a denotation of ‘all’.

Indeed sarva suggests the meaning of ‘absolute’” (p. 119). She has rightly suggested

that Sarva, Śarva and Śiva are synonyms. Again, the equation Sarvatathāgata-

Vairocana Tathāgata derives from the Śaiva tradition.

The vanquishment of Māra (māra-vijaya) by Siddhārtha before attaining bodhi to

become the Buddha too is a reflection of Śiva destroying Kāma (the god of erotic

love) with the fire from his third eye when Kāma attempts to disturb his ascetic trance.

Kāma becomes Anañga (disembodied form) so that creation goes on. Vimalaprabhā

commentary on the Kālacakra says that Māra is the conscience which attaches us to

life, to passion. He is the king of love and life. The word Māra is the non-sigmatic

variant of Smara (the God of Love). Aśvaghoṣa says so clearly in Buddhacarita 13.2:8

5 Personal communication of Swami Ram in 1984.

6 Mariasusai Dhavamony, in The Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. Mircea Eliade, 1987: 13.12.

7 Lokesh Chandra, Cultural Horizons of India, 1993: 3.154-57.

8 E.H. Johnston, Buddhacarita or Acts of the Buddha, Part II, 1936: 188.

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Voice of the Void

yam kāmadevaṃ pravadanti loke

citrāyudhaṃ puṣpa-śaraṃ tathaiva |

kāma-pracār-ādhipatiṃ tam eva

mokṣa-dviṣaṃ māram udāharanti ||2||

Siddhārtha was born when his mother Mahāmāyā was between forty and fifty, though she and her sister were married early in their youth to King Śuddhodana. The bodhisattva entered her right side in the form of a white elephant. The elephant seems to represent Gaṇapati to whom Mahāmāyā must have prayed to beget a son for long years and finally she dreamt being blessed by Gaṇapati (son of Lord Śiva). Śaivism may have been the original dharma of the Śuddhodana family.

We have dealt with three ways of looking at the configuration of maṇdalas in (i) architectonic terms, (ii) the trikāya paradigm, and (iii) as four Samayas. There is a fourth mode of representation on the physical plane (kāya), verbal plane (vāk) and the plane of mind (citta). They are graphically represented as follows: kāya, as an anthropomorphic icon, termed Mahābhūta Maṇḍala; vāk, as a bījākṣara (hieronym), termed Dharma Maṇḍala; and citta, as a symbol, termed Samaya Maṇḍala.

There is a fourth kind of Karma Maṇḍala for ritual performances, in which the deities are images made of metals for rites.9

Abhayākaragupta distinguishes bhāvya-maṇḍala for meditation from lekhya-maṇḍala, which is a graphic representation. He details the iconographic depiction of deities in Niṣpanna-yogāvalī as lekhya-maṇḍala, while bhāvya-maṇḍalas are detailed in Vajrāvalī as symbolic forms (cihna). For example, Vairocana in Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is represented in the meditational maṇḍala as a five-pronged vajra (pañca-sūcika-vajra).10 A line drawing of the maṇḍala of Abhisambodhi-Vairocana from Japan, based on MVT, is shown at the end of the book as the folded figure. This maṇḍala is popularly termed as Garbhadhātu Maṇḍala in Japan. The symbolic forms of Samaya Maṇḍala are illustrated by Ishida Hisatoyo in his Mandara-no kenkyū (vol. 2, pp. 32-54). It begins with the samaya symbols of Mahāvairocana and Ratnasambhava (p. xxxv).

9 See other interpretations of these four kinds of maṇḍalas in Lokesh Chandra and Nirmala Sharma, Twin Maṇḍalas of Vairocana in Japanese Iconography, 2012, pp. 39-40.

10 Masahide Mori, Vajrāvalī of Abhayākaragupta, Tring, 2009: 1, 269.

PROLOGUE

I xvii

3 Ratnasambhava 2 Mahāvairocana 1 stūpa

The substantialism of the Jo.nañ.pa School contains an echo of the Śaiva schools of Kashmir.11 The teacher of the founder of this school was a pandita from Kashmir.12 The increasing stress on mahāsukha in the Rñiñ.ma.pa School is influenced by ānanda (bliss) which is "one of three inherent properties of the real in Śaivite philosophy".13 The philosophical ideas and symbols around the Bon mountain (Bon.ri) of Kailāsa are a "middle way between Rdzogs.chen and Śaivism".14 Monk Bsod.nams.rgyal.mtshan of the Bkah.rgyud.pa praises the human body as a means of salvation, "a motif that often recurs in the Śaivite schools".15 When Bon began to be organized systematically it came under Śaiva influences which flourished in the bordering regions of western Tibet.16

11 Giuseppe Tucci, The Religions of Tibet, 1980: 69.

12 Ibid.: 259.

13 Ibid.: 81.

14 Ibid.: 219.

15 Ibid.: 265 n. 32.

16 Ibid.: 271.

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Voice of the Void

Tibetan religious schools were constantly being suffused with Śaiva elements under new technical terms. The detailed analysis of the four aspects of vā k as parā ,

paśyantī , madhyamā and vaikharī is a remarkable insight into the ascent into spiritual serenity and supernal vision, where the highest divine is conceived in the nature of

sound and in its transience. Dr. Kim revives the archetypal flow of the moving eternity of vā k from the depths of the Brahmayāna of the Upaniṣads to deepen the sublime

vision of mandalas. The pearls of wisdom that resonate from the antarjyoti of Dr. Kim are precious seeds to grow into bodhi trees to realize the rapture of being in the

scintillating ripples of vā k. In the words of Kōbō Daishi's Hizō hōyaku (The Precious Key to the Esoteric Treasury): “The deeper a person penetrates, the profounder the

mind becomes, each stage being a stepping stone towards the higher one”.17 The work of Dr. Kim is a journey that leads us to the ever higher, ever sublime, in the meticulous

precision of analytical comparison of textual and artistic data.

Lokesh Chandra

17 Yoshito S. Hakeda, Kūkai: Major Works, 1972: 217.

Foreword

When I visited the Alchi monastery for the first time, upon entering the Dukhang Hall, I experienced in a flash what this book describes in great detail. I was enveloped by the maṇḍala, so as to enter it and become a part of it, I was drawn into the centre from the periphery, in a process moving from the many forms to the emptiness from which they all spring forth. Once drawn within, the natural effect was to close my eyes, to contemplate in the inner vision (pratibhā) what the outer form had just so powerfully manifested. I stayed there for a long time, and when I opened my eyes again, I found a clarity and a confirmation. I was within the maṇḍala, and the maṇḍala was within me. All this arose prior to any analysis of the religious content or the details of the forms.

In a second flash, the idea came to me that the perfection and harmony of these forms had an exact correspondence in the perfection of the thought of a contemporary of the creation of these paintings: Abhinavagupta, the greatest Kashmiri mystic, philosopher, aesthetician of the first millennium. This correspondence fascinated me, because in both cases, the paintings of these maṇḍalas and the great tantric synthesis of Abhinavagupta's work (such as the Tantrāloka), their structural consistency and harmony, and the perfection of the detailed execution and expression were perfectly balanced. Neither does the structure overwhelm the beauty of all the parts, nor do the beautiful forms interfere with the overall conception. Part and whole are integrated. They represent in their respective media what the tantric dictum says: sarvāṁ sarvātmakam — “everything is related to the whole”, “every part reflects/contains the totality” (and other translations).

These two flashes of insight (pratibhā) were spontaneous, not prepared by any detailed study or analysis. But I found them wonderfully confirmed in the study of Sung Min Kim.

The author has requested me to write a foreword to her wonderful book, although I am not a Buddhist scholar or art historian. My qualification lies perhaps in the two areas which the present study embraces. One, the analysis of the principles of Indian art, which I have studied in the Śilpaśāstras, and especially in an extraordinary text

which the author also rightly quoted: Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad. There the geometric structure of any work of art (be it sculpture, painting, architecture) is given its full symbolic value, a value of which the traditional artists were deeply aware. The importance of the line, the point (bindu), the circle, etc. and their cosmic significance is hinted at in that text, thus making the sacred art a "mesocosm" between the microcosm of the body and the macrocosm. The same basic principles are relevant to Hindu and Buddhist art.

The second area is that of the Trika and Pratyabhijñā, commonly called (non-dualist) Kashmir Śaivism, with its great tantric exegesis. I was always convinced that the philosophy underlying the aesthetic concepts and principles of Abhinavagupta apply not only to poetics and dramaturgy, but to visual arts as well.1

Sung Min Kim has made a great contribution to overcoming the dichotomy between the visual and the spoken or written word, between form and language. Form is another kind of language, with its "grammar", "syntax" and poetry. That these are not vague ideas of correspondences but rather can be precisely related is the content of the present book.

The author has based her analysis of the mandalas of Tabo and Alchi, the great monasteries of Spiti and Ladakh, on the pervasive theory of Vāk and its four stages - parā, paśyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī - and she has done it so convincingly. It is in the framework of this philosophy of language, as originated from Bhartrhari, contained in the Āgamas, and fully developed by Abhinavagupta, that the analysis of the relationship between the Form and the Formless, the differentiated and the undifferentiated can be meaningfully placed.

The present study effectively combines what is required for the understanding of such complex sacred art as Buddhist mandalas: a knowledge of the texts (Sanskrit and Tibetan), the philosophy and the religious-spiritual background, aesthetic principles and artistic execution. Being an artist herself, trained in Indian art history and aesthetics, Sung Min Kim fulfils these core disciplinary requirements. Therefore her interpretation is based on aesthetic perceptivity and a deep understanding of the relationship between form and meaning. But more than that, the important contribution of her work is the bringing together of two traditions, Buddhism and Śaivism, and

1 Cf. my articles: "From Stone to God", in R. Nagaswamy (ed.), Foundations of Indian Art, Chennai: Tamil Arts Academy 2002, pp. 28-37; "Light and Reflection: The Metaphysical Background of Aesthetics in Kashmir Saivism", in K. Vatsyayan and D.P. Chattopadhyaya (eds.), Aesthetic Theories and Forms in Indian Tradition, New Delhi: Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture, Centre for Studies in Civilization, 2008, pp. 127-47.

two methodologies, related to “word” (vāk) and to painting and sculpture. Kashmir

was a melting pot of religious, philosophical and artistic traditions around the beginning

of the first millennium, and the interactions and influences between Śaivism and

Buddhism contributed to their mutual development. Thus, the historical proximity of

Abhinavagupta to the two great monasteries of Tabo and Alchi makes this attempt

both valid and relevant.

Sung Min Kim has negotiated the difficult task of doing justice to both the aesthetic

and the religious aspects of the Buddhist maṇdalas. She has taken into account the

artistic quality without neglecting the spiritual dimension, and placed both of them in

the overall scheme of the four levels of vāk, since in both cases it is a question of

manifestation out of the Unmanifest. Her interpretation is convincing, because such

detailed analysis is not found in the field of the visual arts as it is in the context of

language. Placing the Alchi maṇdalas in the level of sthūla paśyantī (the gross form

of the Visionary Word) is a stroke of genius. Paśyantī is the level of consciousness

and of vāk which encompasses all in one act of vision, without being dependent on

time sequence or analysis of details. It is thus close to the Supreme (Parā) which

would correspond to śūnya in Buddhist thought. When paśyantī manifests at the level

of form (sthūla) – whether in sound or in visual forms – it mediates between the Ultimate

and the manifestation. This accounts for the intuitive, simultaneous vision of a maṇḍala

before its component parts are comprehended or have become the object of ritual. In

sthūla paśyantī the form comes close to pure consciousness (samvid), hence leading

to a state of identification. The author shows the correspondence of samvid in Śaivism

to dharmadhātu in Buddhism, as manifest in Mahāvairocana. In her interpretations

the synaesthetic often plays a role, relating to a transformation of the visual as sound

(as with nāda and the like).

Without going further into the content of the present work, I want to stress its

originality, opening new vistas in the interpretation of sacred art – and not only for

Buddhist maṇḍalas, which are particularly apt at presenting what the author calls “the

essence” (dharmadhātu).2 I am sure that the book will contribute to a deeper

understanding of Buddhist art in both its aesthetic and spiritual content.

Varanasi

August 2014

Bettina Bäumer

2 In this respect her work can be compared to the original approach of Alice Boner in

understanding Indian art, especially sculpture, as for example in her book Principles of

Composition in Hindu Sculpture, New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass and IGNCA, 1990 (reprint).

Preface

It was about twenty-two years ago (in 1992) when I first witnessed the great ritual of Heruka Maṇḍala in Leh, in Ladakh, India. At the time I was an art student and my trip to India was triggered by a rather vague question about the meaning of artistic creations. My encounter with the ritual of sand-maṇḍala was unexpected and indeed overwhelming. First of all, the ritual of maṇḍala that was accompanied by the mantra recitation and mudrās had shaken my senses with their strong aural and visual powers. I was enraptured in the current of colourful visuals and penetrating sounds throughout the ritual that continued over the course of ten days. Above all, the final dissolution of maṇḍala into a flowing river after such an elaborate construction of the colourful form had given me the idea about what “the arts” should stand for: I thought I have seen the truest form of art. The impression of maṇḍala was so strong that I wanted to write an essay about it, when I returned to Korea after the journey. However, I could not grasp the topic, despite that, during the ritual, I had written some notes with technical descriptions; the subject was too formidable to be dealt within an essay. Moreover I had no knowledge either about the background or the philosophy of maṇḍala. However, my personal experience of the maṇḍala ritual in Leh and the mural paintings of mandalas in the monastery of Alchi spoke about its profundity. I started researching the symbolic and religious meanings of maṇḍalas. At that stage, I was mainly concerned about the question of the relation between the concepts and the forms; however, I realized in due course that it is not the symbolic contents of maṇḍalas that make maṇḍalas visually powerful. Several years of research led me to the point of view that the deeper nature of maṇḍalas cannot be explored without touching upon the dimensions beyond concepts and symbols.

Buddhist maṇḍalas have been primarily dealt with in the context of religious practice. They have been understood as a design which helps the practitioner in exploring the inner realm during the rituals. It is said that the subtle forms of maṇḍalas re-created in the mind lead one to the core of maṇḍalas. The symbolic dimension of maṇḍalas has been doctrinally laid out in the visualization method of tantric practices wherein the external figures of a maṇḍala are, one by one, held in the mind and those

xxiv |

mental images gradually lead one to the realization of the Void (Śūnya). However, the

technique of visualization is not known to ordinary people. In spite of their ignorance

of the visualization technique, non-practitioners also respond intensively to the visuals

of maṇdalas, especially if maṇdalas are accomplished by a high standard of arts. The

response of non-practitioners cannot be simply named as the realization of bodhicitta

(mind of enlightenment), karuṇā (compassion) or śūnyatā (the void), as is formulated

for the tantric practitioners. Non-practitioners would not interpret their own experiences

in such doctrinal terms, when maṇdalas are spontaneously re-created in the mind.

These internal images leave an impression of "spiritual enhancement" in the mind,

which I define as "aesthetic". The present volume investigates the phenomenon of

how the Buddhist maṇdalas speak to the heart, and from where their aesthetic power

originates.

Most of this work has been completed for my doctoral thesis under the supervision

of Prof. H.S. Shivaprakash in the School of Arts and Aesthetics, Jawaharlal Nehru

University, New Delhi. It is only thanks to Prof. Shivaprakash that my quest for the

meaningful visuals has been encouraged and possibly taken into a fruit.

I must above all express gratitude for the help and critical comments received

from Dr. Ernst Fürlinger. From the initial stage of the conception till the final refinement

of the writings, he shared his knowledge about the subject and provided me with

treasuries of research sources. Conversations with him stimulated me to carry on the

research with enthusiasm and made me look at the subject from different angles. His

critical comments helped me in organizing my fragmentary thoughts into a structure.

I thank Dr. Bettina Bäumer in having read through my unripe synopsis and given me

helpful comments. Also, I must express thankfulness to her for introducing the field

of Trika Śaivism to me and for helping me out in comphrending the verses from the

old texts. I must equally express my gratefulness to Dr. Christian Luczanits for giving

me a number of practical guidance in regard to the researches on the sites of Tabo and

Alchi. I appreciate his scholarly quality and great generosity that were proved by his

detailed comments on my unorganized draft. I am grateful to Prof. Lokesh Chandra

for his generous help in the matter of textual understanding of Buddhist maṇdalas. He

generously shared his erudition and years of researches on maṇdalas with me. I should

not forget to thank the late Prof. Ramachandra Gandhi for helping me in relating my

theoretical search with the creative activity of paintings. His questions about my

paintings and academic interests stirred me to bring forth the question about the

relationship between form and formlessness - which was the original title of the thesis

• from its dormant state within my consciousness. I also owe thanks to Dr. Kapila

Vatsyayan whose presence and writings have been a continuous inspiration for my research and to Dr. Lolita Nehru who taught me how to write and how to organize ideas.

I must express my gratefulness to Geshe Tsewang Dorje of the Ngari Institute of Buddhist Dialectics in Ladakh for accepting my request for his personal instruction on the practice of tantric visualization. His compassionate teachings were extremely helpful in understanding the descriptions of the practice given in the old texts. I also thank Genla Takpa Jigmet of the Spituk monastery in Ladakh for sharing his understanding of visualization. I thank the monks of the Tabo monastery, especially Lama Urgyen Angrup, for explaining me the revived ritual of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Lama Sonam for helping me at the site of the research.

I gratefully acknowledge the staff in the Western Himalaya Archive Vienna, for providing me with valuable visual materials during my research period; the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund for having financially supported my doctoral research; Mr Tsering Wangchuk of Archaeological Survey of India, Leh, for his assistance. I also express my gratitude to Anil Pawar for his help in many practical matters during the research. I thank my parents for encouraging me all the way through the research. The equal gratitude should be expressed to my friends in Austria, especially Anni, Christa, Hemma and Fransiska for their constant help and love.

I would like to express special thanks to Dr. Jaroslav Poncar for the permission to publish his photographs and to Dr. Christian Luczanits who has not only granted me permission to use his photographs but indeed provided most of materials for the plates in this book. And with extreme gratitude I must mention the name of Michael Ianuzielo for his painstaking proof-reading and language correction.

I dedicate the book to my husband Ernst and our little daughter Yu Zin.

Vienna

August 2014

Sung Min Kim

Abbreviations

DhĀ Dhvanyāloka

DhĀL Dhvanyālokalocana

DMS Dharmamaṇḍala Sūtra

HT Hevajra Tantra

ĪPK Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā

ĪPV Īśvarapratyabhijñāvimarśinī

ĪPVV Īśvarapratyabhijñāvivṛtivimarśinī

LS Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra

MV Madhyāntavibhāga

MVBh Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya

MVT Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Tantra

NS Nāmasamgīti

NSP Niṣpannayogāvalī

NT Netra Tantra

PHṛ Pratyabhijñāhṛdayam

PS Pramāṇasamuccaya

PTV Parātrīśikā-Vivaraṇa

RGV Ratnagotravibhāga

ŚD Śivadrṣṭi

SM Sādhanamālā

SDPT Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra

SpK Spandakārikā

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Voice of the Void

SpV

Spandavivrti

ŚS

Śivasūtra

ŚSV

Śivasūtravimarśinī

ŚT

Śāradā Tilaka

STTS

Sarvatathāgatatattvasamgraha

SvT

Svacchanda Tantra

TĀ

Tantrāloka

TrK

Trimśikākārikā

TS

Tattvasamgraha

VBh

Vijñāna Bhairava

VP

Vākyapadīya

VSU

Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad

VV

Vajrāvalī

YRM

Yogaratnamālā

YH

Yoginīhrdaya

Pl. no.

1: Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, left wall of dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (Western Himalaya Archive Vienna))

2: Central chamber of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

3: Mahāvairocana, central chamber, Vajradhātu Mandala, dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1989 (WHAV))

4: Chamber of Tārā, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

5: Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, left wall of dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

6: Maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī, rear wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

7: Maṇḍala of Mahāvairocana, left wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

8: Maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā, right wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

9: Painting of sokhang, dukhang, Tabo, showing eight Mahādevas, eight Great Nāgas, eight Planets and the founder of the monastery Yeshe Ö and his two sons. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1991 (WHAV))

10: Protectress of Tabo, Wi-nyu-myin, sokhang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1994 (WHAV))

11: View of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala with thirty-three clay sculptures in gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

12: Altar in front of the statue of Mahāvairocana, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1993 (WHAV))

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Pl. no.

13: Clay sculptures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

14: Narrative scenes of Sudhana's pilgrimage, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984)

15: Narrative scene depicting Sudhana's meeting with the master Ratnacūḍa, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

16: A Part of Buddhas of the Ten Directions, upper zone of wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

17: Upper zone of wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. Wi-nyu-myin surrounded by her retinue and animals (below). The trinity of Amitābha, Avalokiteśvara and Samantabhadra (above). (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

18: Avalokiteśvara and Mañjuśrī, upper zone of wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

19: Bodhisattva Sūramgama (dPa'-bar-'gro-ba), circumambulatory path (skor-lam), dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1994 (WHAV))

20: Statues of Vairocana (Amitābha), Avalokiteśvara and Vajrasattva in dri-gtsang-khang (sanctuary), dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

21: Yantra of the goddess Durgā, Rajasthan, 19th century, ink and colour on paper. (source: www.natha-yoga.com)

22: Four-bodied statue of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

23: Akṣobhya, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

24: Ratnasaṃbhava, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

25: Amitābha, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

26: Amoghasiddhi, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

27: View of two from the Sixteen Bodhisattvas: Vajraketu and Vajrahāsa (L-R), Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, south wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. no.

28: Offering Goddesses of Dhūpa and Lāsyā, Vajradhātu Mandala, east wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

29: Central divinity, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Mandala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

30: Akṣobhya-Māmakī, Ratnasambhava-Locanā and four Uṣṇīṣas, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Mandala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

31: Amitābha-Pāṇḍarā, Amoghasiddhi-Tārā and four Uṣṇīṣas, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Mandala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1993 (WHAV))

32: Central divinity, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Mandala, dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

33: Central divinity, maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī, rear wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

34: Maitreya's dhoti with the narratives of Śākyamuni's life and some folk scenes, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

35: Avalokiteśvara's dhoti with various scenes of temples, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar (WHAV))

36: Mañjuśrī's dhoti with the theme of siddhas' yogic practices, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1991 (WHAV))

37: Prajñāpāramitā as Mahāvairocana, rear wall, second storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

38: Central divinity, maṇḍala of Mahāvairocana, left wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

39: Central divinity, maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā, right wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

40: Maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā, dukhang, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

41: Zen drawing of a circle, Seok-Jeong (born in Korea in 1980). (Published in Choi (1998), p. 217)

42: Small twin stūpa (kakani chörten), in front of sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: C. Luczanits 2000 (WHAV))

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Voice of the Void

Pl. no.

43: Superstructure and the inner stūpa, interior of the kakani chörten, in front of sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: C. Luczanits 2000 (WHAV))

44: Maṇḍala of Avalokiteśvara, kakani chörten, in front of sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: C. Luczanits 2000 (WHAV))

45: Diamond pattern in gold emboss, at the intermediate quarters in the inner chambers, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi. (From a photo by J. Poncar 1981)

46: Image painted over the Sudhana’s pilgrimage, west wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1991 (WHAV))

47: Tārā, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi. (From a photo by J. Poncar 1981)

48: Vairocana (Vajriṇī) in the centre of Guhyavajra Maṇḍala, right wall, second storey, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

49: Wave lines and spiral patterns painted on the halo of Bodhisattva Vajraratna, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, south wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

50: Panel of Sāradhvaja, Sudhana’s pilgrimage, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

List of Tables

Table no.

1.1: Corresponding concepts of the five Buddhas

1.2: Emergence of the Sixteen Bodhisattvas in STTS, chap. I

1.3: Iconographic scheme of three maṇḍalas in the third storey of the sumtseg, Alchi

2.1: Maṇḍalas in association with symbolic concepts in Buddhism

4.1: Correspondence between the four levels of vāk, three śaktis and five śaktis of Śiva

4.2: Correspondence between the twelve stages of OM uccāra and the four levels of vāk

5.1: Sixteen kinds of śūnya according to Vasubandhu

List of Illustrations

Illus.

1.1: Geometric layout of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

1.2: Geometric layout of the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

1.3: Geometric layout of the ten maṇḍalas in the second storey of sumtseg, Alchi

1.4: Geometric structure of three maṇdalas in the third storey sumtseg, Alchi.

(i) Maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī

(ii) Maṇḍala of Mahāvairocana

(iii) Maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā

3.1: Dynamism between Mahāvairocana and Prajñāpāramitā in the two maṇḍalas of the third storey of the sumtseg, Alchi

6.1: Maṇḍala structure of the two chambers, kakani chörten, in front of sumtseg, Alchi

6.2: Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi, showing the basic visual structure that consists of circles

6.3: Process of drawing the Guhyasamāja Maṇḍala, explained by Rong-tha Blo-bzang-dam-chos-rgya-mtsho; illustrations as drawn by Don-’grub-rDo-rje (7, 11, 13, 19, 23, 29, 33, 39, 43, 47, 49, 53, 55, 61 and 69)

6.4: Gridlines traced in the nine inner chambers, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

6.5: (1) Vajradhātu Maṇḍala that accompanies references to the Vajrāvalī (Source: Chandra and Vira 1995:63)

6.5: (2) Gridlines traced on the basis of the position of the divinities in the maṇḍala

6.6: Gridlines traced in the chamber of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

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Voice of the Void

6.7: Gridlines traced in the chamber of Tārā, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

6.8: Finer gridlines added to the Illus. 6.6

6.9: Compositional lines for the delineation of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

6.10: Bodily form of Mahāvairocana composed on the basis of triangles, extracted from the compositional lines shown in Illus. 6.9

6.11: Bodily form of Tārā composed on the basis of circles

Introduction

The central question of this work concerns, in a broad framework, the relation between the forms taken in the visual arts and their innate meanings embedded within. This research has been undertaken with the question of how the visible dimensions of artistic forms are related to their invisible dimensions. The invisible dimensions of visual forms are experiential in the arts, and their vital presence unfolds in both the process of artistic creation and in aesthetic relish. While we discuss the inlaid meanings of visual forms, we are naturally confronted with important questions: what is meant by the “embedded content”? Is this a symbolic implication or perhaps a metaphorical connotation?

From the outset, it should be discerned that there is a non-discursive meaning as well as discursive meanings that are charged into visual forms.1 For example, the symbolic or metaphorical meanings of visual elements given in the fold of religious doctrines should be categorized as discursive meanings. The non-discursive layer of visual forms might merely be glimpsed in a flash, as we see in artists’ inspirations that result in the creation of new forms. For the purpose of investigating into the nature of forms and their relationship to the invisible dimensions of these forms, this volume focuses on Buddhist maṇdalas, because they are as profound and multi-layered in their content as they are elaborate and rich in form. Maṇdalas have been a perennial theme in the religious arts of India, and became even more elaborate in both form and concept in their Buddhist context.2 The forms of Buddhist maṇḍalas are traditionally laid down on the basis of the vision attained at the state of the absorption into the non-conceptual world. The term maṇḍala designates different objects according to the context. It may refer to the system of bodily cakras wherein deities reside; or the secret ritual meeting of tantric initiates and yoginīs (melaka) where the participants usually form a circle; the ritual maṇḍala seen during the initiation; or even one’s own

1 Langer calls it “essential import”. See Langer 1953: 373-74.

2 For the historical development and the artistic influence of the maṇḍala form in Asian arts, see Leidy’s article “Place and Process: Mandala Imagery in the Buddhist Art of Asia” in Thurman 1997: 17-47.

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Voice of the Void

body in the process of tantric yoga. Maṇḍala considered in this volume is limited to

those visual objects permanently represented in the monastic complex and meant to

be seen by the public during worship. The Buddhist maṇḍalas are generally

characterized in the form of geometric structures with clear indications of the centre

and the four cardinal directions; and the divinities are either represented in

anthropomorphic forms or in symbolic forms, and are arrayed in a hierarchical order

around the centre within the geometric layout.

The Question of the Relationship Between Forms and the Formless

Before discussing the question of visual forms and their inner content in Buddhist

maṇḍalas, let us consider one concern found in the study of Buddhist arts: although

the Ultimate Reality is defined Śūnya (Void), the Buddha that is the emblem of the

Ultimate Reality, is also conceived in the form of the human body. One may see a

contradiction in Buddhists’ bowing down to Buddha images at the altar yet averring

that the Buddha resides in one’s own mind, not in the external images. However, it is

not to the physical form, but rather to the spirit of the Buddha that devotees bow

down. The physical form of the Buddha is placed at the altar in order to remind people

of their own bodhicitta (awareness of enlightenment) and to mirror the Buddha in

their heart. Another example would corroborate the suggestive characteristics of

Buddhist images. Among the Buddhist communities of East Asia, the portrait of

Bodhidharma, the first patriarch of Zen tradition, is revered and believed to have

spiritual power; thus, monastic painters of the Zen tradition often draw his portraits.

When they draw his portrait, it is not the beautiful face of Bodhidharma but the spirit

imbued in his face that they feel challenged to draw. These two examples may typify

the non-discursive meaning of visual forms embedded in the expression of Buddhist

arts.

If we talk about form in the context of Buddhism, first of all, we are reminded of

the great affirmation of Mahāyāna Buddhism: “rūpa (form) is śūnya, and śūnya is

rūpa”.3 This assertion concisely exposes the non-dualist foundation of Buddhist

arts: the formless can be expressed by means of forms. The elaborate form of the

Buddhist maṇḍala is, in concept, meant to represent Śūnya. But, how can we prove it

or experience it? The Sanskrit word maṇḍala, literally meaning “the circle”, is the

combination of two words maṇḍa (Tib.: dkyil) and la (Tib.: kor), respectively denoting

“the chief divinity and the emanation” or nirvāṇa and samsāra.4 Thus, we notice that

3 Cf. Prajñāpāramitā Hrdaya-Sūtra, tr. Müller 1894: 147-48.

4 The meaning has been explained in DMS of eight century CE. Cf. DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 796.

the term itself contains the two counterparts: the formless Ultimate and multiple forms.

The ritual concerning the creation of a sand-maṇḍala explicitly expresses the ideal of

Śūnya, when the maṇḍala is destroyed to be dissolved in the flow of a river at the final

stage of the ritual. However, how does Śūnya, the Buddhist term for the formless

Ultimate, have anything to do with the colourful forms of maṇḍalas that are

permanently painted on the walls of ancient monasteries and which have been

preserved up to now? The question which is first encountered in regard to Buddhist

maṇḍalas is how the bodily figures and primary colours in maṇḍalas can be consistent

with formless Śūnya. When facing colourful maṇḍalas on the wall of these ancient

monasteries, one is in a difficult position to understand the Buddhist ideal of Śūnya:

these maṇḍalas seem contrary to “the Void” at the first glance. I, personally, had been

struggling with the fact that Buddhist monasteries are filled with images, golden statues

and colourful paintings, which, I felt, were contradictory to the Buddhist ideal of Śūnya.

Nevertheless, one thing is clear: if the employment of colourful forms was contradictory

to the quest for Śūnya, the presentation of colourful forms simply would not have

been the perennial tradition of Buddhist art. Here, we must return to the Buddhist

affirmation: rūpa is śūnya, and śūnya is rūpa. Colourful forms are present in Buddhist

monasteries as a self-evidence of the non-dualism between forms and the formless,

and what we investigate here is the question of these colourful forms of maṇḍalas and

their relation to Śūnya.

Buddhist Maṇḍalas in the Context of the Religious Practice

The symbolic meaning of Buddhist maṇḍalas in the context of religious practice has

been concisely expressed by David L. Snellgrove, a scholar of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism:

Maṇḍala, the primary function of which is to express the truth of emanation and return

(saṃsāra and nirvāṇa), is the centre of the universe. . . . Its core is Mt. Meru: it is the

palace of the universal monarch, it is the royal stūpa; it is even the fire altar where one

makes the sacrifice of oneself.5

His words express the cosmic significance of maṇḍalas. In this text, two essential

concepts of the maṇḍala are implied: the centre and its transformations. However, not

all maṇḍalas are charged with cosmic meanings. Depending on the main divinity

represented in the centre, the purpose and the meaning of maṇḍalas vary. For example,

the maṇḍala of the eight Nāgas is for pacifying the venom of snakes;6 an interpretation

5Snellgrove and Skorupski, 1977, vol. I: 32, n. 4.

6Cf. SDPT, introductory commentary by Buddhaguhya, tr. Skorupski 1983: xxvii.

4 |

Voice of the Void

of overt cosmic symbolism is hardly appropriate for this maṇḍala. In his commentary

on the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra, Buddhaguhya remarks that each maṇḍala is

designed for different purposes.⁷ Thus, one should clearly understand that the cosmic

symbolism with an emphasis on “the centre and its transformation” is apt only when

we deal with maṇḍalas of divinities who represent the Absolute. For instance, the

maṇḍalas of Tabo and Alchi that are the main objects of the investigation in this book

are centred on Mahāvairocana, who represents “the great illumination of

Enlightenment” and “the absolute body of Dharma”. Thus, these maṇḍalas are charged

with cosmic significance, involving such concepts as Dharmadhātu (Ultimate

Dharma), Śūnya and Bodhicitta. As a ritualistic tool, Buddhist maṇḍalas mainly serve

the practice of visualization. However, not every Buddhist is eligible to practice the

visualization of maṇḍalas. First of all, one should be properly initiated in order to

carry out the maṇḍala practice. In the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, the practitioners are

assigned according to their spiritual ability to particular maṇḍalas that are categorized

into four groups. These four categories of maṇḍalas correspond to the Tibetan

classifications of Buddhist Tantras: Kriyā, Caryā, Yoga and Anuttarayoga. Because

Anuttarayoga Tantras mark the predominant stream of Tibetan Buddhism today, it is

mainly the divinities of Anuttarayoga Tantras who are nowadays employed for

maṇḍala practices. Thus, only spiritually advanced monks are said to be able to carry

out maṇḍala practice.

Let us examine how the forms and the formless dimension of maṇḍalas are

conceived by religious practitioners. For monks who practise with maṇḍala images,

the pictorial maṇḍalas are not real maṇḍalas: they are merely reflective images

(pratibimba). The real maṇḍala, which is the “Essence”,⁸ must be internally explored.

During an interview I carried out in Ladakh in July 2007 in order to survey what

maṇḍalas actually mean for contemporary Buddhist practitioners, Geshe Tsewang,⁹ a

practitioner of Heruka Maṇḍala, said:

When the external maṇḍala is successfully internalized, the way how to practise maṇḍala

is revealed.¹⁰

⁷ Ibid.

⁸ The maṇḍala is called in Tibetan, dKyilkor (the centre and the circle), and also sñiṅpo which

means the essence.

⁹ Geshe Tsewang Dorje is the director of Ngari Institute of Buddhist Dialectics, Leh, Ladakh.

He is the former Disciplinarian (Gekoe) of Sera Jey Monastic University, Karnataka, India.

¹⁰ Personal interview in Leh, Ladakh, on 30 July 2007.

His statement confirms that the complicated external forms are not all about maṇḍala,

and there are deeper dimensions to be explored. Unless the real maṇḍala is tasted, one

could not know what the visual maṇḍala is merely by seeing it. Geshe Tsewang actually

used the expression of “tasting a maṇḍala” to indicate its inner sensual experience. It

is remarkable that a religious practitioner used the terminology of Indian aesthetics in

explaining his spiritual experience, being unaware of what rich history the concept of

“tasting” (rasa) has undergone in Indian aesthetics. The use of the metaphor, “tasting

a maṇḍala” by a religious practitioner is particularly significant in dealing with the

aesthetics of Buddhist maṇḍalas.

Buddhist maṇḍalas are taught to be the representation of Śūnya: the essence of

maṇḍalas is Śūnya and their forms are reflective images (pratibimba) of Śūnya. It is

said that realizing Śūnya of the self should precede the visualization of a maṇḍala. From

Śūnya of the self, the deity is generated as the self. In visualization, the self becomes a

divinity through Śūnya and returns to the self through Śūnya, and the deity of maṇḍala

appears in Śūnya and disappears into Śūnya. The practice of Śūnyatā, Bodhicitta and

Karunā (compassion) should precede the practice of maṇḍalas, and the Buddhist practice

of maṇḍalas is essentially meant to strengthen the realization of the Truth that is Śūnya.11

Thus, the Hevajra Tantra (HT), an Anuttarayoga Tantra says:

Bodhicitta which has both absolute and relative forms should be generated by means of

the maṇḍala Circle, etc. (maṇdalacakrādi) and by the process of Self-empowerment

(svādhisṭhānakrama).12-13

HT succinctly explains about the essence of maṇḍala from the religious perspective.

HT further teaches that maṇḍala is the essence which has the nature of void (kha) and

purifies the sense faculties; thus, Bodhicitta is cultivated through maṇḍala.14 Maṇḍalas

are also said to be the abode (puraṃ) of the essence of all the Buddhas

11 In a personal interview (4 August 2007), Geshe Tsewang of Ladakh emphatically stated that

the maṇḍala practice should be based on Śūnya, Bodhicitta and Karunā.

12 The commentary, Yogaratnamālā interprets the term svādhisṭhānakrama as the emanation of

the Process of Perfection. Cf. Farrow and Menon 1992: 215.

13 HT II.4.35, Farrow and Menon 1992: 215. The bodhicitta has been translated by Farrow and

Menon into “enlightened consciousness”, which I find inappropriate. I use the original term

bodhicitta untranslated.

14 Cf. HT II.3.27. “The circle (cakra) is an assembly (nivaham) and having the nature of the

space element (kha dhātu), it is that which purifies (viśodham) the sense objects (viṣayā)

and other aggregates”, tr. Farrow and Menon 1992: 191.

(sarvabuddhātmakam)15 and bears the great bliss (mahat sukham).16 We see a clear notion in HT that maṇdalas are defined to be the Essence (sāram) or Bodhicitta.17 At the same time, they are the means to realize the Essence or Bodhicitta. Thus, we observe that, in religious practice, the notion of Śūnya combined with the concept of Bodhicitta is symbolically implied in the visual images of Buddhist maṇdalas.

Buddhist Maṇdalas as Works of Art?

Many attempts have been made to comprehend maṇdalas primarily on the basis of their association with religious practices, because they accompany the rituals and spiritual practices. In the field of religious studies, their significance has been understood as the representation of doctrinal expositions,18 and their ritual process and ritualistic function have been unravelled.19 In these approaches, the visuals of maṇdalas have been viewed within the framework of traditional interpretations, chiefly as symbols with discursive meanings; however, they have not been questioned in regard to their sheer visual aspect. On the other hand, their visual constitution has been the focus of art historical studies.20 In the field of art history, efforts have been made to trace their formal development. The deities of maṇdalas have been identified on the basis of the ancient manuals of the visualization,21 and the depicted maṇdalas have been compared with possible textual sources.22 However, the scope of previous researches in the field of art history, while focusing on the visuals of maṇdalas, does not seem to include their inner meaning. Buddhist maṇdalas, though used in religious practices, are not merely one more item of religious paraphernalia. Neither are they the same as ordinary works of arts that are free from religious allegories. Being defined to be the object of religious arts, their inner contents and visual forms should be understood together.

Certainly for Buddhist practitioners, maṇdalas are the sacred objects that accompany and help their path to the Enlightenment. Can maṇdalas be seen as works

15 Cf. HT II.3.25, tr. Farrow and Menon 1992: 190.

16 Cf. HT II.3.26, tr. Farrow and Menon 1992: 190.

17 Cf. Ibid.

18 See Thurman and Leidy 1997; Khanna 1979.

19 See Wayman and Tajima 1992; Brauen 1997; Bühnemann 2003.

20 See Malandra 1993; Leidy in Thurman and Leidy 1997; Luczanits 2008.

21 See Chandra and Vira 1995; Snodgrass 1992; de Mallman 1975.

22 See Klimburg-Salter 1999.

of art as well? One may question whether we can deal with maṇḍalas under the

category of arts despite that they have been created in extremely ritualistic settings.

The question may be, at the first hand, argued back on the basis that the separation

between the religion and arts is a modern, Western convention, which resulted from

the rise of individualism and the emancipation of arts free from the power of the

Christian churches. The isolation of arts from religion in the modern concept of arts

should be discerned as the freedom from the institutional authority of the church, not

the denial of religion as a source of artistic inspiration. Even today, the validity of

religion as the source of artistic activities remains intact. Secondly, we should be

reminded that maṇḍalas are created by artists or monk-artists, yet not by ordinary

monks. We should pay special attention to the fact that maṇḍalas have been

permanently depicted on the walls in the monasteries of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. One

is tempted to generalize, given that maṇḍalas are for the initiated, and thus are secret

or esoteric. The initiation maṇḍalas are created temporarily to be the base of an internal

visualization, which are to be dismantled after the rituals are over. Contrary to this

generalization, maṇḍalas permanently painted on the walls of monasteries are open

and publicly displayed. In such a case, they are meant to be seen by ordinary devotees;

therefore, their visual dimensions play a prominent role. These maṇḍalas in particular

should be studied in a context different from that of the initiation maṇḍalas in rituals

or maṇḍala thangkas (roll painting on cloth) for visualization practices. They are works

of arts, not restricted by their religious context.

One should especially note that maṇḍalas are appreciated even away from their

religious meanings. Today artistically executed maṇḍalas are publicly displayed in

exhibitions and people appreciate them even without knowing their ritualistic context

or symbolic indications. People are overwhelmed by the exquisite forms and bright

colours. However, the appreciation of maṇḍalas is different from that of ordinary

pictures of portrait, still life or landscapes, in that the exquisite forms of maṇḍalas

intend to lead one to feel something transcendental. One may have such experiences

even without worshipping divinities delineated in maṇḍalas. These experiences would

be better described in terms of the reaction of the heart, which we may call "an aesthetic

rapture". Such experiences unambiguously indicate the non-discursive inner meaning

different from religious associations or discursive interpretations of symbols. In this

context, they should be essentially seen as "an archetype". Maṇḍalas can be

aesthetically, or even spiritually appealing, without allowing their contents or meanings

to be known, because their form, being "an archetype", speaks to the heart at the non-

discursive level.

The modern understanding of maṇḍalas as the mirror of our psyche can be attributed to Jung's research. His analysis of maṇḍalas created by his psychotic patients23 demonstrates maṇḍalas as "symbols" that have been constantly recurring in diverse cultures, from the ancient to the contemporary. Jung observes that maṇḍalas appear in the process of individuation in case of his patients, in aid of self-healing, and he speculates that they spring from an instinctive impulse. He writes that many patients realize the reality of "the collective unconscious" as an autonomous entity, and these maṇḍalas are governed by the same fundamental laws that are observed in maṇḍalas from different parts of the world. He uses words such as "instinctive impulse", "transconscious disposition" or "collective unconscious" to express the kernel of maṇḍalas as the archetype. Jung views the motif of maṇḍala as "one of the best examples of the universal operation of an archetype".24 Seen as an archetype, maṇḍalas are used as a psychotherapeutic method in the West. In this method, no meanings are given to patients. When patients are to copy maṇḍalas given to them, or when children in primary schools are given drawings of maṇḍalas and asked to fill the scenes with whatever colours they like, it is quite opposite to Jung's method encouraging the active imagination. Although it is not certain whether any contemporary therapeutic application of maṇḍalas in the West can be efficacious in bringing a desirable result, they are based on the idea that the heart spontaneously responds to the visual qualities of maṇḍalas, and that they have an influence in moulding the structure of the mind, whether consciously or unconsciously. Jung's writings on maṇḍalas urge us to uncover that maṇḍalas are primarily the archetypal or primeval space. In addition, we must pay attention to his statement in order to confirm that the maṇḍala as a recurring archetype can be explored in depth through the study of ancient texts.

Knowledge of the common origin of these unconsciously preformed symbols has been totally lost to us. In order to recover it, we have to read old texts and investigate old

23 Jung 1973. Although Jung's researches on maṇḍalas of psychotic patients unearth the fundamental meaning of maṇḍalas as an archetypal symbol, his psychoanalytical interpretations of their visual symbols have little scope of application in regard to Buddhist maṇḍalas, because the cultural background of the symbols depicted in particular maṇḍalas has not been considered in his interpretations. The misapplication is exemplified by his interpretation of the burial ground as "the horror" without the consideration of its tantric context.

24 Jung 1972: 69. From the conclusion of his article "A Study in the Process of Individuation", translated from "Zur Empirie des Individuationsprozesses", Gestaltungen des Unbewussten, (Psychologische Abhandlungen VII), Zürich, 1950.

cultures so as to gain an understanding of the things our patients bring us today in

explanation of their psychic development.25

In Jung’s time, the translations of old texts into Western languages had not been done

as extensively as they are today. Since then, crucial texts in relation to mandalas have

been translated into English, which have tremendously benefitted the present work.

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala

from Tabo and Alchi in the Western Himalayas

In order to inquire into the relationship between the inner contents of Buddhist

mandalas and their visual forms, and to analyse the phenomenon that Buddhist

mandalas demonstrate an appeal even to the hearts of people outside the tradition and

beyond its religio-symbolic meanings, the present volume narrows down its scope of

examination to mandalas in the monasteries from Tabo and Alchi in the Western

Himalayas. These examples have been chosen because they display a rare refinement

and sophistication as comparable with the classical arts, and also because they are one

of the earliest mandalas extant in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, which show the lively

spirit, characteristic of the tradition before the Buddhist mandala had been formally

conventionalized and dogmatically fixed.

The monasteries of Tabo and Alchi were constructed during the period of the Second

Diffusion of Buddhism (phyi dar) that was patronized by the Puran-Guge Kingdom

in the Western Himalayas.26 As is also observed in other monasteries established under

the same historical background, such as Nako, Duṇdḳar, Sumda and Mangyu,

Mahāvairocana (Great Illumination) is the central iconographic theme of the

monasteries at this time. Maṇḍalas are not isolated paintings in Tabo and Alchi, but

25 Jung 1972: 100. The quotation is from the conclusion of the article “Concerning Mandala

Symbolism”, first published, as “Über Mandalasymbolik”, in Gestaltungen des Unbewussten

(Psychologische Abhandlungen, VII), Zürich, 1950.

26 The First Diffusion of Buddhism into Tibet was carried out during seventh-nineth centuries by

the three Dharma kings – Songtsen Ghampso, Trisong Detsen and King Relbachen – which

has been ended by the Lang Dharma’s persecution of Buddhism. The political upheaval resulted

in the disintegration of the Tibetan empire into small principalities. At the end of the tenth

century, Yeshe Ö, the king of western kingdom of Guge, demarcated the beginning of the

Second Diffusion of Buddhism by motivating scholarly researches and translations of Buddhist

texts. A number of translations of major Buddhist texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan in the

Second Diffusion of Buddhism are attributed to Rin-chen-zang-po who was sent by the king

to India.

central to the whole iconographic programme, and vital in creating the world of the

Buddha. Consequently, we encounter in these monasteries maṇḍalas related to

Mahāvairocana. His position as the central divinity characterizes the Yoga Tantra

class; thus these maṇḍalas with the image of Mahāvairocana at the centre are justifiably

viewed in association with what Yoga Tantras say.

Dukhang (assembly hall) of Tabo is resplendent with valuable materials that require

careful attention from various disciplines of study. Although the biography of Rin-

chen-bzang-po (CE 958-1055) claims that it was he who founded the monastery of

Tabo, the inscriptions there reveal that the monastery was founded by Yeshe Ö, c. CE

996. In so far as the present remains indicate, there are only two maṇḍalas represented

in the dukhang in Tabo: Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala.

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala of Tabo is one of rare sculptural maṇḍalas set into architectural

space. Alternately, the entire architectural space of assembly hall (gTsug-lag-khang)

may be conceived as a maṇḍala, constituted by the thirty-three life-sized clay sculptures

that represent the main divinities of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala. Another clearly

recognizable maṇḍala - though it resists our preconception of a maṇḍala in the form

of geometric layout - is located on the west wall of the assembly hall, on the right side

to the entrance to the circumambulatory path (skor-lam) before the sanctuary (dri-gtsang-

khang). It shows seventeen painted figures in a long rectangular arrangement. According

to earlier researches on the site,27 it is identified as the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala.

The research on the inscription in the dukhang reveals that the construction of the wall

paintings as well as the sculptural maṇḍala of Tabo may be assigned to c. CE 1042,

during the renovation of Jang Chup Ö.28

The oldest structure of Alchi monastery - i.e. dukhang - is almost contemporary

to the restoration phase of Tabo, in the mid-eleventh century by Kelden Sherap, a

follower of Rin-chen-bzamg-po. Sumtseg (a three-storeyed structure) is thought to

have been founded in the early thirteenth century by monk Tsultrim Sherap.29 The

dukhang is the congregational hall of the monastery, whereas the sumtseg is the three-

storeyed temple, more conducive for personal worship and prayer. The monastery of

27 See Klimburg-Salter 1997.

28 Cf. Petech and Luczanits 1999. The iconographic programme, dating from the restoration

phase CE 1042, includes painting, sculptures, inscriptions and extensive wall texts. The evidence

of the paint underneath the maṇḍala sculptures makes it clear that the maṇḍala sculptures

belong to the restoration phase.

29 Cf. Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977.

Alchi offers us plentiful maṇḍalas that are more consistent with our conventional imagination of a maṇḍala in a geometric layout. The dukhang of Alchi is completely filled with maṇḍalas on the walls. Six large maṇḍalas of over 3 m in diameter each and a small maṇḍala of Akṣobhya over the doorway create a remarkable visual effect, especially through their prominent large circular frames. Among them, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala seem essential as much as their variations occupy entire walls of the second and third stories of the sumtseg. As far as the scholars have discovered, there are also maṇḍalas in the Durgatipariśodhana tradition in the dukhang.30 Here the central divinity of maṇḍalas is associated with Mahāvairocana or Sarvavid Vairocana (Omniscience-Illumination). In addition, it should be also mentioned in the outset that the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā has a significant place in Alchi, being featured in two maṇḍalas: one in the dukhang and another in the sumtseg. The sumtseg accommodates ten maṇḍalas on the second storey and three on the third storey. The sumtseg is an architectural stūpa, which is traditionally revered as a form of Dharmakāya, and the inscription in the sumtseg reveals that its architectural space had been conceived to be a projection of Buddhist teachings.31 A three-dimensional stūpa is placed at the centre of the sumtseg, representing the concept of a stūpa within a stūpa, which is also demonstrated by the small twin-stūpa (kakani chörten) in front of the sumtseg. Seeing the architecture of sumtseg as a stūpa is important, because it clarifies the meaning behind the setting of maṇḍalas - i.e. essentially participating in the expression of Dharmadhātu.

Doctrine of Vāk

Maṇḍalas are one of the major concerns of Buddhist Tantras, and there is much reference to them found in the context of those tantric practices called mantrayāna (the way of mantras). Though the aesthetic dimension of Buddhist maṇḍalas is the main question of the present volume, the nature of maṇḍalas as understood in the context of religious practice shall also serve as valuable aid for the comprehension of the non-discursive Essence which is supposedly embedded within Buddhist maṇḍalas. In particular, references to the tantric visualization practice provide us with a key to interpret the internal experience of maṇḍalas. Through the visualization of a maṇḍala, the practitioner identifies the self with the various manifestations of the divinity, and

30 Cf. Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 39-40.

31 For the original Tibetan inscriptions and their English translations, see Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 48.

thereby experiences the non-duality of self and divinity. Though there is a fundamental difference between an aesthetic viewing and the tantric visualization with regard to the way the visuals are processed, the visualization practice of maṇḍalas, systematically laid out by the tradition, demonstrates convincingly the innate depth of maṇḍalas, which could be related to the aesthetic immersion. Among the invaluable references that the practice of visualization gives us, the concept of “sound” - as comparable to the Sanskrit vāk, śabda, dhvani and the like - presents us a key to bridge between the ultimate state of Śūnya and the perceptible images, therefore to understand the Buddhist non-dualism of form and the Void. Because maṇḍalas are always combined with mantras and mudrās in tantric practices, it is necessary to ponder upon the notion of subtle sound that explains the conceptual basis of mantrayāna. The descriptions of visualization indicate that the metaphysical levels of form between Śūnya and the pictorial forms of maṇḍalas exist in the nature of sound, which is consistent with the fact that the visuals of Buddhist maṇḍalas have been elaborated in association with the mantrayāna practice, and mantras have been employed as the essential soteriological means to meet the Ultimate Dharma, according to Yoga Tantras. The concept of “subtle sound” plays a central part in analysing tantric practice, and it holds a crucial key to interpret the tantric methods of salvation.

“Sound” is a perennial theme in spiritual traditions of India, and it appears often in the descriptions of cosmic revelation or world manifestations. As the principle of divine manifestation and multiple creation of the world, “sound” has been explored in the book through the concept of vāk. Vāk (often translated as “speech”) is traced back to the period as early as that of Ṛgveda, and its theological and theoretical development may be represented by the philosophy of Trika Śaivism of Kashmir. The doctrine of vāk in Trika Śaivism synthesizes diverse streams of spiritual traditions: earlier Śaiva Tantras, Bhartrhari’s philosophy of sound (Śabdabrahman), the Vijñānavādin’s philosophy of logic and the non-dualistic vision represented in the Pratyabhijñā (recognition) philosophy. The non-dualistic philosophy of Trika Śaivism is well pronounced in the profound aphorisms of the Śivasūtra by Vasugupta. The logical arguments of its non-dualistic theology have been carried out by the Pratyabhijñā School, represented by Somānanda (c. CE 900-50) and his disciple, Utpaladeva (c. CE 925-75). Abhinavagupta (c. CE 975-1025), who represents the culminating point of Indian aesthetics with his theory of rasa and dhvani, is the descendant of these philosophers of Kashmir, and he is the one who accomplished and synthesized the various streams of spiritual traditions on the basis of the non-dualistic philosophy of the Pratyabhijñā School. These key personages of Trika Śaivism of Kashmir are contemporary to the period when the region of the Western Himalayas was actively

interacting with Kashmir, in terms of the arts and religion as well as economy.32

Especially, Abhinavagupta is exactly contemporary to Rin-chen-bzang-po (CE 958–

1055. who was sent to Kashmir for the collection of Buddhist texts and translated a

number of Buddhist texts into Tibetan. His biography reveals the connection of early

monasteries along the Western Himalayas with Kashmir.33

The philosophical exegesis of Trika Śaivism, in my opinion, substantiates the non-

dualistic philosophy of the Yogācāra Buddhists. Especially, the conviction of the

Pratyabhijñā School that Śiva permeates everything and the pratyabhijñā of one’s

own identity (ātman) as Śiva leads one to salvation reminds us of the Yogācārin’s

exposition of Tathāgatagarbha (Womb of Enlightenment). Tucci has recognized the

validity of Trika Śaivism of Kashmir in understanding maṇdalas. In his book on

maṇdalas, he expressed his view that the Hindu yantras are “the quintessential

reduction of the identical idea which the Buddhist maṇdalas are based on”.34

Consequently, he draws upon the Hindu Tantras even in interpreting the symbolic

meanings of the Buddhist maṇdalas. He interprets the Five Buddha Families in parallel

with the five aspects of Paramaśiva or the five tattvas of the absolute plane in the

ābhāsa system of Trika Śaivism: śivatattva, śaktitattva, sadāśivatattva, īśvaratattva

and śuddhvidyā. And the five aspects of Śakti are also referred in relation to the Five

Buddha Families.35 Most of all, he pays attention to the concept of sound in

understanding of maṇdalas, and introduces the third chapter of Abhinavagupta’s

32 The presence of Kashmir artists in Western Tibet has been discussed at length by Tucci in his

Transhimalaya (1973). He mentions the artistic influence of Kashmir on Western Himalaya

(1973). He refers to the importance of Mangnang and its paintings created by a number of

artists from Kashmir summoned by Rin-chen-bzang-po (pp. 91–93). He exemplifies it with

illustrations of a figure of a sādhu (Pl. 114) in affinity to the one depicted on terracottas from

Harvan in Kashmir, as well as figures of divinities (Pl. 122) and an ivory statue from Western

Tibet (Pl. 128). “Work such as this provides indisputable evidence of Kashmir influence in

Tibet in the tenth-eleventh centuries, and similar examples from a later period have been

found at Alchi in Ladakh” (p. 92). He adds examples from Tsaparang (Pl. 138), Tholing (Pl.

136. and Tabo (Pl. 129) as revealing their Kashmir origin.

Snellgrove also states about the same point (1977: 16): “It may be taken for granted, and we

think quite rightly, that the main source of artistic work in Western Tibet and Ladakh from the

tenth to the thirteenth centuries was north-west India, and especially Kashmir, which was then

still a Hindu–Buddhist land, and which is often specifically mentioned in Tibetan sources.”

33 Cf. Tucci 1988 (1932); Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 86–92.

34 Tucci 1961: 47.

35 Ibid.: 50, 55–57.

Tantrasāra to explain the symbolism of sound which lays the basis for the relation between mantra and the emanation of images.36 Tucci’s attention to the texts of Trika Śaivism encourages us to look to their philosophy for the purpose of exploring Buddhist maṇdalas. The vast cosmic vision of Trika Śaivism certainly renders parallel concepts that can be compared or applied to those of the Buddhist maṇḍalas, as Tucci’s approach displays. In addition, the relationship between Kashmir Śaivism and Tibetan Buddhism has drawn attention of eminent scholars, and has been explored in terms of the history,37 the religious practice38 and the arts. The cultural connection between Kashmir and the Western Himalayas during the tenth to thirteenth centuries39 is particularly relevant to the Buddhist maṇḍalas of Tabo and Alchi. One shouldn’t ignore the fact that the artists had been brought from Kashmir to embellish these monasteries,40 and that their work reflects the style of Kashmir arts.41 However, it is not the intention of the present volume that Buddhist maṇḍalas ought to be interpreted in terms of the philosophy of Trika Śaivism at the level of symbolic or doctrinal meanings. The application of the philosophy of Trika Śaivism to the symbolic meanings of Buddhist maṇḍalas ought to be avoided, because the doctrinal or symbolic meanings have been consciously endowed in the context of particular religious practices; thus, they should be interpreted within their own context. It should be clarified that the doctrine of vāk is referred to in this book for the purposes of interpreting the aesthetic phenomena and for structuring the different levels of the meanings of maṇḍalas from the perspective of aesthetics.

36 Tucci 1961: 61-63.

37 See Klimburg-Salter 1982.

38 See the articles Bühnemann 1999; Ruegg 2001; Sanderson 1994, 1996, 2001.

39 See Pal 1989.

40 The presence of Kashmir artists in Western Tibet is especially well corroborated by Rin-chen-bzang-po’s biography where the name of a Kashmir artist is mentioned. Bhidhaka and thirty-two are said to be brought by him, as was requested by the King Yeshe Ö. Cf. Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 92.

41 Pal, while illustrating stylistic variations and their chronological order of mural paintings of Alchi, states that “the style of the murals in dukhang and sumtseg is generally considered to derive from Kashmir which was undoubtedly the principal source for western Tibetan artistic tradition at that time” (1982: 19). He presents paintings of western Tibet rendered in dukhang and sumtsek as “the only surviving evidence for inferring what Kashmir paintings once looked like” (ibid.), because no comparative paintings have survived from Kashmir. Luczanits states, “All the original paintings of Alchi and related monuments can be considered to have been made under the supervision of Kashmiri craftsmen, or at least the strong influence of a Kashmir school” (1997: 201-02).

The comprehensive philosophy of vāk in Trika Śaivism presents us a systematic

way to explain the non-dualism between phenomenal objects and the Supreme Divine,

which may be analogical to the relationship between multiple forms and the formless

Śūnya presupposed in the teachings of Buddhist maṇdalas. It renders elaborate

expositions concerning the nature of worldly manifestations and their relation to the

Ultimate Origin, and mainly deals with the question regarding the relationship between

the Unmanifest Source and multiple creations. Therefore, it is expected that the

comprehension of vāk would impart the framework through which we can explain

what makes the visuals of Buddhist maṇdalas appeal to the heart of people even away

from their doctrinal associated meanings. Moreover, the wide scope of vāk that

encompasses the field of aesthetics has been already testified by the poetics of dhvani

in the texts of Dhvanyāloka and its commentary Dhvanyālokalocana. Vāk, primarily

viewed as the principle or vehicle of transformation, will be scrutinized in this book

in its four aspects: Parāvāk, Paśyantī, Madhyamā and Vaikharī.

The doctrine of vāk also can be validly employed in regard to "the common origin"

of various maṇḍalas as questioned by Jung. Let us briefly think of what is meant by

"the origin". From the religious perspective, the origin would be the Essence of the

divinity, which is manifested in maṇḍalas. In respect to the visual dimension of

maṇḍalas, their origin is the artistic inspiration that gives birth to such forms. Probably,

Jung had not considered the artistic inspiration when he spoke of the origin of maṇḍalas,

while possible that he had rather considered the origin in terms both religious as well

as psychological. From the psychological perspective of Jung, the origin of maṇḍalas

would mean 'the Collective Unconscious' that would give rise to the inner symbolic

meanings. However, these concepts are not to be ultimately separated in the scope of

→ In regard to the arts of Tabo, the style of Buddha figures in the west wall of ambulatory

corridor in dukhang of Tabo has been compared with the metal sculptures attributed to tenth-

eleventh century Kashmir. One of the closest comparisons would be between the Maitreya

Buddha in Tabo (Klimburg-Salter 1997: 181-82) and the standing Buddha in Cleveland

Museum (Klimburg-Salter 1982: Pl. 27). Klimburg-Salter suggests two phases of artistic activity

in dukhang of Tabo: the original in ce 996, and that of renovation in ce 1042. The second

phase consists of four different stylistic groups. She attributes Group A (paintings in the

ambulatory and clay sculptures of maṇḍala in the assembly hall) to the true Kashmir-derived

style, and presumes that groups A and B (all the narrative paintings and the protectress in

the assembly hall) may have been undertaken by the Kashmir artists, as stated in Rin-chen-bzang-

po's biography (Klimburg-Salter 1997: 51). She considers other groups of style to be derived

from the Group A. Luczanits discerns that the style of thirty-three clay sculptures of the

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is only partly comparable to the contemporary Kashmiri style, while the

sculptures of Alchi are recognized as the "direct influence of Kashmiri art" (Luczanits 1997:

202).

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Voice of the Void

vāk. If meaning and form are interrelated, then the devotional source, the psychic source, and the artistic source would be also interconnected, or even converge. The quest for the common origin of mandalas could bring together the divinity, the deepest consciousness - what the collective unconscious in Jungian term suggests - and the artistic inspiration. The doctrine of vāk portrays its highest level Parāvāk to be the artistic inspiration (pratibhā) as well as the pure consciousness (samvid), and simultaneously worshipped as Devī (the Primeval Goddess), which may contain a crucial key in explaining that convergent origin of various mandalas.

Primary Sources of the Research

The understanding of the doctrine of vāk in the present volume has been chiefly based upon those texts that represent the synthetic phase of Trika Śaivism, such as Abhinavagupta’s Tantrāloka with Jayaratha's commentary and his Parātrīśikā-Vivaraṇa.42 The verses from Spandakārikā along with the commentary Spandavivrti by Rājānaka Rāma have been also consulted.43 For logical expositions of vāk, the invaluable sources are Utpaladeva's Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā44 with two commentaries of his own: a short one (vrti) and a long one (vivrti or ṭīkā), of which only fragments are available.45 Abhinavagupta wrote a commentary on ĪPK - Īśvarpratyabhijñāvimarśinī46 - and a much longer commentary on Utpaladeva's Vivrti Īśvarapratyabhijñāvivrtivimarśinī (ĪPVV). Relevant verses on vāk have been translated by André Padoux in French, whose English translation immensely benefited my understandings of vāk.47

In order to comprehend mandalas in the context of Buddhist philosophy, I have mainly employed the texts that belong to the Yoga Tantra class of Buddhist texts, with which the examples of Tabo and Alchi are associated. The primary texts on the Buddhist iconography such as Sādhanamālā (SM), Vajrāvalī (VV) and Niṣpannayagāvalī (NSP)48 are only occasionally consulted, since the present research is more oriented towards the existential foundation of mandalas than to their conventional pictoric appearances. The

42 PTV, tr. Singh 1988.

43 SpK and SpV, tr. Dyczkowski 1994.

44 ĪPK, tr. Torella 2002.

45 Torella 1988.

46 ĪPV, For the English translation see Pandey 1954.

47 Padoux 1992.

48 NSP and VV, two complementary works by Abhayākaragupta (1064-1125) were written around ce 1100. Both texts describe in great detail twenty-six mandalas from various tantric traditions. “NSP focuses on three-dimensional forms of these mandalas for visualization (bhāvyamaṇḍala)

major texts often quoted in the present volume are Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Tantra

(MVT) and Sarvatathāgatattvasaṃgraha (STTS).

MVT provides us with a profound philosophy of Mahāvairocana and fundamental

concepts of the mantrāṇa. We find invaluable materials that especially help in

comprehending maṇdalas of Mahāvairocana. The Tibetan text with Buddhaguhya's

commentary has been translated by Stephan Hodge.49 His translation includes piṇḍārtha

as well. Although MVT is classified as a Caryā Tantra in the Tibetan tradition, it can

also be categorized as an early Yoga Tantra. In the summarized commentary of the

same Tantra called the piṇḍārtha, Buddhaguhya mentions only two classes of Tantras

– Kriyā and Yoga – 50 which implies that the four divisions of Tantras are a later

development. Buddhaguhya classifies MVT in the category of ubhaya (dual), which

combines the orientations of both Kriyā and Yoga Tantras.51

STTS gives more direct references to the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala. Thirty-three clay

sculptures in Tabo have been interpreted first by Tucci as the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala

described in STTS. Along with the MVT, it is regarded as one of the most important

texts of tantric Buddhism in East Asia. The text has been translated into Chinese by

Amoghavajra c. CE 754. The Tibetan translation of STTS by Śraddhākaravarama and

Rin-chen-bzang-po dates from the early eleventh century. There exist Tibetan

translations of Sanskrit commentaries of this text by Śākyamitra and Ānandagarbha,

who were active in the eighth century. In addition, a tenth-century Sanskrit manuscript

has been published.52 This Sanskrit text consists of four major sections and a

commentary section. In the introduction of its Sanskrit publication, Snellgrove outlines

that the text contains "teaching of invocations of sets of divinities with instructions in

setting up their maṇdalas and in the rites and benefits concerned with them".53

→ and describes in detail the iconography of deities. VV explains the construction and ritual use

of two-dimensional maṇḍalas, which are to be drawn (lekhyamaṇḍala) on the ground"

(Bühnemann 2005: 5643). However, there is a different interpretation on the point, how these

two texts are related to the bhāvamaṇḍala and the lekhyamaṇḍala, as is given by Dr. Lokesh

Chandra in the Prologue of this book (p. xvi). "According to Abhayākaragupta, Vajrāvalī, a

practical guide to all the preliminary rites preceding the initiation into maṇḍala, is the main

text while the Niṣpannayogāvalī, which deals with maṇḍalas in details, and Jyotirmañjarī,

which deals with the homa ritual exclusively, are supplementary". (Bühnemann and Tachikawa

1991: xvi).

49 MVT, tr. Hodge 2003.

50 Cf. Snellgrove 1987: 196.

51 Piṇḍārtha 4a, tr. Hodge 2003: 449.

52 STTS, ed. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981.

53 Ibid.: 9.

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Voice of the Void

Snellgrove translated some parts of the Sanskrit text into English in the introduction of

the Sanskrit publication, and also in another publication.54 Giebel has translated

Amoghavajra's Chinese text into English, which comprises only the first part of the

first major section, called Vajradhātumahāmandalavidhivistara. Amoghavajra's Chinese

translation "tallies very closely with the corresponding portion of the Sanskrit text, the

Tibetan translation, and Dānapāla's Chinese translation".55 I have been benefited a great

deal from Giebel's English translations as well as from those by Snellgrove.

One of the major commentators of these crucial Yoga Tantras is Buddhaguhya

from the eighth century.56 His commentaries of MVT have especially helped me in

comprehending some cryptic words found in Tantras. He wrote a commentary on

STTS called Tantrārthāvatāra and another on the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra

(SDPT). Tāranātha mentions him as being very well acquainted with Kriyā, Caryā

and Yoga classes of Tantras.57 His own writing on the mandalas, Dharmamandala

Sūtra, despite being lost in its original Sanskrit, yet existing in Tibetan, presents us

with discourse on mandalas integrated from various Yoga Tantras. Its authorship has

been attributed to Padmākara by Tucci; however, Lo Bue clarifies that it is attributed

to Buddhaguhya on the basis of Tanjur (the second part of the Tibetan canon).

Dharmamandala Sūtra (DMS) is a philosophical poem of 386 verses. Buddhaguhya

states that he explains mandalas' divinities and their palaces from all the great Tantras.

In great detail it lists and describes the essential constituents of the conventionalized

fivefold scheme of the Buddhist mandala. It is thought to be the earliest known account

of the conventionalized mandala as we know today.58

Another important Yoga Tantra for the study of Buddhist mandala is the

Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra. The first translation of this Tantra from Sanskrit into

Tibetan was made at some point at the end of the eighth century and was revised sometime

before CE 863.59 Some information is available from Tāranātha and the Blue Annals,

which refer to three Indian commentators of this Tantra: Buddhaguhya, Ānandagarbha

54 Ibid.; Snellgrove 1987.

55 Cf. Giebel 2001: 7 (translator's introduction).

56 Buddhaguhya was contemporary to the Tibetan King Khri-srong-lde-brtsan who ruled from c.

754 to 798. He is also contemporary to Padmasambhava and Śāntarakṣita. Cf. Lo Bue 1987:

57 Cf. Skorupski 1983: xxv, in the introduction to his translation of SDPT.

58 Cf. Lo Bue 1987: 790.

59 Skorupski 1983: xxiv, in the translator's introduction to SDPT.

(early ninth century) and his teacher Vajravarman.60 Rin-chen-bzang-po (958-1055)

translated two works of this Tantra. Skorupski’s English translation of the Tantra is

based on the Tibetan version which was translated from Sanskrit sometime during the

first half of the thirteenth century by Lo tsa ba Chog, Chos rje dpal. Chapter II of this

Tantra is especially useful for the study of Buddhist iconography and maṇdalas. While

the descriptions of the divinities in the text are simple and unelaborated, merely

mentioning their mudrās, locations and colours, Vajravarman’s commentary gives

detailed accounts on the basic maṇḍala of Tantra91 and the divinities of the maṇḍalas.

However, the text benefits the present research in the context of the visualization

practice rather than in that of the visual elements of maṇdalas, since the discussion of

this book shall be limited to the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara

Maṇḍala.

Nāmasamgīti (NS) is a crucial source which speaks of the nature of the Ultimate as

it had been understood in the period when maṇdalas of Tabo and Alchi were

established. The NS reflects the popularity of devotional practice in the eighth century;

it was still popular in north-east India in the early eleventh century. The text was

translated into Tibetan during the First Diffusion of Buddhism.62 A commentary to

NS that has been affiliated to the Māyājāla Tantra has delineated the ritual of maṇḍala

of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara. The text has been understood as the devotional hymns for

Mañjuśrī, and the title has been translated into “the Litany names of Mañjuśrī”. In

contrast to the prevalent understanding of the text, Chandra draws a new understanding

of the text, based on the titles of the Chinese, Tibetan and Sanskrit manuscripts.63 He

argues that NS is recited by Mañjuśrī addressing the litany of names of Advaya

Paramārtha, i.e. Mahāvairocana in the context of Yoga Tantra.64

60 “From a short colophon at the end of a work by Ānandagarbha, who was a renowned scholar

of the Yoga Tantras, we learn that Vajravarman came from Siñhala (Sri Lanka) and was

Ānandagarbha’s teacher” (Skorupski 1983: xxv).

61 SDPT, tr. Skorupski 1983: 311-12.

62 Cf. Davidson 1981, his introduction in the translation of NS. Also see Klimburg-Salter 1999:

63 Cf. Chandra 1993.

64 Cf. ibid.: 391-94.

Pl. 1 Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, left wall of dukhang, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHA V))

Pl. 2 Central chamber of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

Pl. 3 Mahāvairocana, the central chamber, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1989 (WHAV))

Pl. 4 Chamber of Tārā, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

I.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings

of Buddhist Maṇdalas

I. 1 Maṇḍala Space

The word maṇḍala implies a circular form. Knowing this, it is not surprising that a

circular frame is often a prominent element in the composition of Buddhist maṇḍalas.

Especially in the examples of Alchi, all maṇḍalas have a circular outer frame. For

example, a glance at the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala painted on the left wall of the dukhang in

Alchi (Pl. 1) informs us that the entire maṇḍala is displayed in a circular arrangement.

Along the circumference run lines of vajras and fire. A square is laid within the circle,

with four elaborate toranas (gateways) at the four directions. Along the square, two

bands give room for minor deities of the Maṇḍala. They surround another square which

has the second set of four gates in the four directions, which lead the viewer’s attention

to the inner chamber of the Maṇḍala. The square space is again divided into nine smaller

squares by golden lines of vajras. These nine squares accommodate nine concentric

circles, each of which gives a room for each of nine major deities of the Maṇḍala (Pls. 2,

4). The deity Mahāvairocana to which the Maṇḍala is dedicated is painted within the

central chamber (Pl. 3). The outer circular bands of these concentric circles are punctuated

with four smaller figures placed in the four directions. The geometric layout of the

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala may be illustrated as follows (Illus. 1.1). Elaborate geometric

structures of maṇḍalas in Alchi may be equally well demonstrated by the Dharmadhātu-

Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, placed right next to the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala (Illus. 1.2, Pl. 5).

Maṇḍalas are pictorially represented on cloth or on a wall, or they are spatially

conceived in architectural space. In all cases, maṇḍalas are more than mere physical

objects; while this might be obvious, it is often forgotten when actually encountered.

They are meant to be internally entered by the viewer. However, one cannot enter a

maṇḍala immediately, because it is like a fortified palace, surrounded by borders

pictorially symbolized by fire, vajra and so on. A maṇḍala is a protected space,

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Voice of the Void

Illus. 1.1: Geometric layout of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

Illus. 1.2: Geometric layout of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

fundamentally sealed by several layers of walls. A wall in the maṇḍala structure functions as a protective screen, yet gates give a means of ingress. In order to enter the space within the walls, one should find one's proper entry way. Thus, there are series of gates that allow one's entrance to the innermost space of the maṇḍala. As is represented by the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala painted on the left wall in the dukhang of Alchi (Illus. 1.2, Pl. 5), it is most often protected by three layers of square walls which demarcate the three divisions of the maṇḍala space. Each layer of walls has four gates at the four quarters. It is significant that there are four gates that give access to the innermost space of a maṇḍala. The maṇḍala structure with four gates implies one's circular movement in samādhi or in initiation, which mirrors the traditional practice of parikrama (circumambulation) around a stūpa. Additionally, there are door guardians who watch the path toward the inner zone of the maṇḍala.

"Entering a maṇḍala" means "being allowed to practise with it" in rituals. Entering the innermost space of a maṇḍala, having found one's way through the gates, indicates the spiritual advancement towards Buddhahood. However, it is not limited to its ritualistic context; its fundamental meaning lies in one's inner search for the Self.

In regard to one's approach to the centre of the maṇḍala ground, the unique feature observed in maṇḍalas in the sumtseg of Alchi may be mentioned. Whereas in the second storey, ten maṇḍalas of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala variations share a common

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas

127

geometric layout, bound with two sets of four gates (Illus. 1.3), in the third storey three

mandalas of Mañjuśrī, Mahāvairocana and Prajñāpāramitā have only a single set of

four gates in their layout (Illus. 1.4 i-iii Pls. 6-8). The difference in the number of gates

that leads one to the centre of the mandala ground could be understood in relation to

their locations within the three-storeyed structure. When the sumtseg is considered to be

a three-storeyed stūpa, these three mandalas are at the place of the last round in the

conventional three revolutions of parikrama. Having only one set of gates and being

placed along the third round of parikrama, these mandalas seem to signify that the

practitioner has already come close to the central core of the mandalic world.

Illus. 1.3: Geometric layout of the ten mandalas in the

second storey of sumtseg, Alchi

The examples of Alchi illustrate how appropriately a mandala can be characterized

by the geometric layout and reinforced by circular dynamics. However, when we

discuss about the characteristics of mandalas, mandalas without geometric layout

should be also considered; there are vertical mandalas employed by Śaivas, such as

Triśūlābja Mandala and Tritriśūlābja Mandala1 as well as linear mandalas as we see

in Tabo. These examples suggest that the geometric formation of divine residence is

not indispensable. From these examples we cannot assert that the geometric layout

represents the essential characteristic of every mandala. Here we pay attention to the

1 Cf. Padoux 2003: 225-38. Padoux points out a distinctive characteristic of Śaiva mandalas —

Triśūlābja Mandala, Tritriśūlābja Mandala — described in Abhinavagupta’s TĀ. He states that

in these mandalas, the mental movement of the user is one of ascension or centrifugal, whereas

the concentric geometrical structure of general mandalas has a centripetal motion.

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Voice of the Void

(i) Mandala of Mañjuśrī

(ii) Mandala of Mahāvairocana

Illus. 1.4: Geometric structure of three mandalas in the third storey of sumtseg, Alchi

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas

129

(iii) Maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā

Illus. 1.4: Geometric structure of three maṇḍalas in the third storey of sumtseg, Alchi

dukhang of Tabo, where the entire artistic scheme reflects the theme of “entering a maṇḍala”. Apart from the treasures of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala preserved in the assembly hall (gTsug-lag-khang) in the dukhang, one’s movement from the entrance room (sokhang) to the assembly hall where these maṇḍalas are placed betrays the concept of maṇḍala. The artistic scheme of the entrance room represents the fundamental human desires for prosperity and protection from perils, which in religious terms signifies “the fortification of the buddhakṣetra (the sacred world of Buddha)”. We see here various personages: eight Mahādevas of the Indian pantheon, including Gaṇeśa and Śiva; eight Great Nāgas; eight Planets; historical figures including the founder of the monastery, Yeshe Ö and his two sons (Pl. 9); the protectress of Tabo, Wi-nyu-myin (Pl. 10); several guardian figures such as two dharmapāla clay statues of Hayagrīva and Mahākāla at the doorway to the assembly hall. The entrance room may be compared to the periphery of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala.2 Once one moves past all

2 Cf. Klimburg-Salter 1997: 86. Klimburg-Salter proposes that the figures of the entrance room constitute the outer zone of maṇḍala on the following basis: the eight Mahādevas of the Hindu pantheon, eight Great Nāgas, eight Planets and the twenty-eight mansions are found

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these worldly gods, tutelary deities and door guardians, one steps into the assembly hall, bending low to pass through a small, low doorway, as one should prostrate one's body to enter the interior space.

Entering the assembly hall is a significant step towards the maṇḍala ground's inner zone. In this hall, the most predominant sight is that of the thirty-three clay sculptures (Pl. 11) which demarcate the inner zone of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala. The four-bodied statue of Mahāvairocana (height 110 cm) is at the rear part of the hall (Pl. 12) and the rest are affixed to the middle portion of the walls as if they are floating in the intermediate space. These striking stucco images are placed so as to look down upon a visitor, creating a remarkable visual effect that transforms a physical space to a ritual, metaphysical one (Pl. 13). The narrative scenes of Sudhana and the life of Śākyamuni run below the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, respectively, based on the Gaṇdavyūha Sūtra and the Lalitavistara. Those of Sudhana suggest the preliminary steps that one must pass before reaching "the inner space of the maṇḍala ground". The backgrounds of these narrative scenes are either forests or houses or palaces, and houses or palaces here represent spatial compounds where the true teachings of Dharma are protected. City walls and gates feature frequently in the panels of Sudhana's pilgrimage;3 we observe that Sudhana is often depicted entering city gates, or leaving the city to find his spiritual friends (kalyāṇamitras) (Pl. 14). City walls and gates are not only important visual elements found harmoniously on various narrative panels, but also emphasize the hardship experienced when crossing the layers of walls in order to enter the inner

→ protecting the outer precincts of maṇḍalas listed in the early sources, such as SDPT. SDPT (tr. Skorupski 1983) gives the list of divinities for the periphery of the basic maṇḍala of the Tantra. According to the text, on the outside are the thirty-two divinities: the eight Śrāvakas to the east, eight Pratyekabuddhas to the south, eight Mighty Wrathful Ones to the west, and eight Messengers of the Wrathful Ones to the north. Further outside, there is a circle of sixty-four divinities: Four Great Kings in the four quarters, the Guardians of the Ten Directions on the left sides of the Four Great Kings, eight Planets, the Lunar Mansion, eight Great Ṛṣis, and eight Leaders of the lesser divinities. The text goes on to illustrate the minor divinities that are to be placed outside the circle of the sixty-four divinities, such as the four main Hindu gods - Indra, Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśvara - presiding over the four continents. The same pan-Indian deities appear in the outer circles of Dharmadhātu-Vāgiśvara Maṇḍala (NSP 21; Mallmann 1986: 2, 268-69). Since the paintings of entrance room, belonging to the foundation period (c. CE 996 or 1008), are presumed to be the outer ring of a maṇḍala, we can infer that the maṇḍala scheme had been already planned in the monastery of Tabo from the foundational period, although the major maṇḍala deities in the assembly hall are traced back to the renovation period (CE 1042).

3 See panels II, IX, XII, XIV, XIX, XX, XXV and XXXVIII as numbered in Steinkellner 1996.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Maṇdalas

31

core of Dharma. The repeated use of city walls and gates in Sudhana’s pilgrimage is

also related to the spiritual progress of the Tantric sādhana.4 The scene where Sudhana

meets the master Ratnacūḍa especially draws our attention, because it is depicted

within the setting of a maṇḍala-like structure, thereby telling us about the significance

of the maṇḍala ground in relation to spiritual development (Pl. 15).5 Here, the

composition is framed by a multi-cornered structure, with two doors at each of the

four directions. In the illustration, Sudhana is guided by Ratnacūḍa; they enter the

maṇḍala-like structure from the leftmost door and come to the centre, surrounded by

eighteen Bodhisattvas bedecked with crowns and jewels. According to the

Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra, this maṇḍala-like structure is the ten-storeyed house of Ratnacūḍa,

which may be compared to the ten stages on the path of Bodhisattva. The maṇḍala-

shaped structure in this illustration is an analogy for the inner space charged with true

teaching. Some other panels of Sudhana’s pilgrimage also display this circular maṇḍala

structure,6 and these compositions express the spiritual symbolism of the maṇḍala

ground.

Thematically, the wall of the assembly hall in the dukhang of Tabo is divided into

three horizontal sections. The threefold division is apparently related to the ritual act

of a threefold circumambulation. The upper part of wall presents many figures: the

Buddhas of the Ten Directions (Pl. 16); the protectress of Tabo Wi-nyu-myin

surrounded by her retinue and animals and the trinity of Amitābha-Avalokiteśvara-

Samantabhadra (Pl. 17); the three Bodhisattvas - Avalokiteśvara, Mañjuśrī and

Vajrapāṇi (Pl. 18); various tantric figures; and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala (Pls.

29-31). We further discover that the painting themes of the upper partition display its

affinity to the inner zone of the dukhang, i.e. the circumambulatory path and the

sanctuary. The circumambulatory path (skor-lam) that surrounds the sanctuary is

painted with the thirty-two Bodhisattvas, consisting of sixteen Mahābodhisattvas in

the lower row and sixteen Bodhisattvas above (Pl. 19), the eight historical Buddhas,7

the Buddhas of the Bhadrakalpa (Pl. 19), and the narrative scenes of Sadāprarudita in

4 McMahan (2002: 172) places the story of Sudhana’s pilgrimage in parallels with the generation

and completion stages of the tantric sādhana.

5 Cf. Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra, tr. Cleary 1989: 114-16; Steinkellner 1996: 24.

6 See panels V, XIV, XX and XXXIX. The numbering of the panels has been adapted from

Steinkellner 1996.

7 On the west wall are found the six historical Buddhas. However, it appears to have originally

consisted of eight seated buddhas.

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Voice of the Void

search for Prajñāpāramitā.8 The sanctuary (dri-gtsang-khang; 2.55 × 2.65 m) has a

raised floor and is higher than the rest of dukhang. It contains stucco images of

Vairocana,9 Avalokiteśvara and Vajrasattva, which are larger than life-size (Pl. 20).

A pair of goddesses is painted on either side of these statues, and the entire walls of

the sanctuary are painted with rows of Buddhas.

What we see in the artistic scheme of the assembly hall walls is not arbitrary. One

might ask why the narrative stories of Sudhana and Śākyamuni have been placed at

the lower zone, rather than at the top. If we consider the distinctive artistic themes of

the three levels of the wall, we can infer that two different realms have been represented:

one “human” and the other “divine”, intermediated by the figures of the Vajradhātu

Maṇḍala. Klimburg-Salter interprets the three levels in the assembly hall as being in

connection with trikāya, having applied the iconographic programme of the eighth-

century bSam-yas, first monastery of Tibet (modelled after the monastery of

Odantapurī in Bihar) which became the model of the later monasteries to come in

Tibet.

Thus, also at Tabo, the Buddhist through his circumambulation, at minimum three times,

could ascend through the three bodies (kāyas). The nirmāṇakāya is represented through

the spiritual pilgrimage of Sudhana and the Buddha Śakyamuni, the sambhogakāya is

represented by the images of maṇḍala and the dharmakāya is represented by the images

of Ten Buddhas and their attending Bodhisattvas, also the Tantric images.10

It is an insightful interpretation of the artistic scheme of the assembly hall. However,

it should be applied only in a limited context, and we should not generalize every

maṇḍala to be the representation of the sambhogakāya. The threefold wall division is

significant in the context of the iconographic scheme that leads one to smoothly enter

the maṇḍala space. Even without borrowing the technical terms such as trikāya or

defining maṇḍala as sambhogakāya, it is certain that the lower and upper zones present

8 These narrative scenes have been identified by Luczanits. See his website, http://

www.univie.ac.at/itba/index.html

9 Tucci (1988 [1935]: 78) identified the statue as Amitābha. However, Klimburg-Salter (1982:

160. suggested the identification of Vairocana on the basis of the lion vehicle, and the fact that

older images of Vairocana are represented with dhyāna mudrā. The hypothesis of Luczanits –

that the central Buddha might have been painted white - substantiates the identification of the

statue as the representation of Vairocana. See Klimburg-Salter 1997: 143.

10 Klimburg-Salter 1997: 106.

Pl. 5 Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, left wall of dukhang, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

Pl. 6 Maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī, rear wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 7 Mandala of Mahāvairocana, left wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 8 Mandala of Prajñāpāramitā, right wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 9 Painting of sokhang, dukhang, Tabo, showing eight Mahādevas, eight Great Nāgas, eight Planets and the founder of the monastery Yeshe Ö and his two sons. (Photo C. Luczanits 1991 (WHAV))

Pl. 10 Protectress of Tabo, Wi-nyu-myin, sokhang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: C. Luczanits 1994 (WHAV))

Pl. 11 View of the Vajradhātu Mandala with thirty-three clay sculptures in

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 12 Altar in front of the statue of Mahāvairocana, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: C. Luczanits 1993 (WHAV))

Pl. 13 Clay sculptures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 14 Narrative scenes of Sudhana's pilgrimage,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984)

Pl. 15 Narrative scene depicting Sudhana’s meeting with the master Ratnacūḍa,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 16 A part of Buddhas of the Ten Directions, upper zone of wall,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

Pl. 17 Upper zone of wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. Wi-nyu-myin surrounded by

her retinue and animals (below). The trinity of Amitābha, Avalokiteśvara and

Samantabhadra (above). (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

Pl. 18 Avalokiteśvara and Mañjuśrī, upper zone of wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

Pl. 19 Bodhisattva Śuraṅgama (dPa'-bar-'gro-ba), circumambulatory path (skor-lam), dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1994 (WHAV))

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas | 45

the Buddhist’s spiritual journey both in the empirical and transcendental worlds; the

lower zone below the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala has a thematic correspondence to the forepart

of the dukhang, while the zone above the Maṇḍala is thematically akin to the inner part

of the dukhang. Thus, we observe that there is an overall principle in the artistic

programme that connects all the architectural divisions in the dukhang of Tabo.11 At

this point, it should be asked why the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala was positioned in the middle

of the wall, and in the middle part of the architectural plan, which seems to indicate the

middle of the two realms, i.e. the human earthly realm and the human transcendental

realm. The understanding of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in Tabo in the context of the entire

architectural and decorative scheme induces a significant role of maṇḍalas as the mediator

between the world of sentient beings and the world of the Buddhas.

As we see in the example of Tabo, the geometric layout is not necessary when the

hierarchical arrangement of maṇḍala deities is fulfilled and one’s entrance to the

maṇḍala ground is ushered through a systematic array of religious symbols. However,

later examples of maṇḍalas in every Buddhist country testify that the geometric layout

of squares and circles has been preferred to the non-geometric ones in expressing

maṇḍalas, despite that maṇḍalas could be created without any geometric layout. Why

has the geometric layout become one of the most essential features of later maṇḍalas?

Here, we need to pay careful attention to the difference between maṇḍalas of Tabo

and those of Alchi. The same maṇḍalas appear in both sites with more or less same

iconographic depictions of deities, and their artistic achievement can be attributed to

the group of artists who shared the same aesthetic milieu. Nonetheless, their solutions

in regard to the compositional setting of the deities of the same maṇḍala are different

from one another. The maṇḍala of Alchi demonstrates the stage when the standard

pattern of geometric maṇḍalas had already been established. Once the geometric

settings for the deities have been explored, the composition with squares and circles

becomes the essential mark of the Buddhist maṇḍala.

11 While discussing the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in Tabo, Klimburg-Salter (1997: 120) limits the

sacred space to the entrance room and the assembly hall, and excludes the circumambulatory

path and the sanctuary as parts of maṇḍala. While we might accept her view, the connection

among the architectural parts should not be underestimated. One must remember that the core

of the Indian temple is the inner sanctuary, garbhagrha. The ritual circumambulation and

movement is designed in a way to allow one’s access to the sanctuary to be smooth and

gradual. In the temple, the main axial movement starts from the entrance room, passes the

assembly hall and then in some cases one passes through an antechamber before the sanctuary.

The main purpose of one’s visit to a temple is achieved only when one meets the divine image

enshrined in the sanctuary, often small and dark.

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Voice of the Void

We will examine later what advantages are there for using a geometric layout in creating maṇdalas, bearing in mind that the image of the maṇḍala, metaphysically enfolding the symbolism of the Ultimate and of Śūnya, is the sign positioned between that realm which has been externally displayed and the realm which is to be internally explored. Since an external image is the expression of inner contents, it is presupposed that the geometric layout has its association with the inner contents of the maṇḍalas; in this regard, what are the inner contents of the Buddhist maṇḍala that necessitate such a geometric layout? Keeping this crucial question aside for a later reflection, we now look at another prominent element of Buddhist maṇḍalas, the anthropomorphic image of deities.

I.2 Maṇḍala Deities

I.2.1 Vajradhātu Maṇḍala

One might object to the inclusion of anthropomorphic images of deities as one of the essential components of maṇḍalas, by giving the example of Hindu maṇḍalas. Hindu maṇḍalas most often consist of geometric patterns and the syllables studded within it (Pl. 21). However, even in the Hindu context, the deities are essential. They are invoked by mantras and visualized with the support of geometric drawings of yantras through the process of ritual. Especially, it is the “viewing of the deities”, and not the precision of the drawings of yantras that is implied in “seeing maṇḍalas” at the time of initiation.12 Thus, even in the Hindu context, the visualization of deities is an essential part of the maṇḍala. The difference between Buddhist maṇḍalas and Hindu yantras in general should be found at the point of whether the deities are projected in their “gross” anthropomorphic forms or rather implied in the subtler form of sound. In the Hindu context, it is said that the deities are too powerful and dangerous to be depicted with their iconographic features.13 However, Buddhist maṇḍalas in general visually present anthropomorphic images of deities.

In the assembly hall of dukhang in Tabo, the physicality of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is directly experienced through the three-dimensionality of the Maṇḍala’s deities. The central statue of the four-bodied Mahāvairocana is placed on a throne at the back of the hall (Pl. 22). The four bodies are directed towards the four quarters, seated in vajraparyaṅkāsana with their hands in the gesture of dharmacakrapravartanamudrā. This statue of Mahāvairocana is positioned slightly higher than the level of the statues

12 Cf. Törzsök 2003: 183-85.

13 Cf. TĀ XXVII.23.

of the Four Kula Buddhas, which are placed on the southern and northern walls. In this Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, the identification of the central image, and of the images of the Four Kula Buddhas, is doubtless due to the clear representation of their vehicles, mudrās and body colours (Pls. 23-26). However, the rest of images can be identified only when we rely on the textual source Sarvatathāgatatattvasaṃgraha (STTS) where we find reference to the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala.14 A pair of statues placed on both sides of each of the Four Buddhas comprises the Sixteen Bodhisattvas. They show diverse mudrās in their postures as if they are holding unknown objects (Pl. 27); also, they are seated on a lotus seat, not in the vajraparyaṅkāsana, but rather in sattvaparayaṅkāsana (with only one foot visible, crossed over their thigh). The eight Offering Goddesses are located in pairs to the sides of the guardian figures along the eastern and western walls (Pl. 28). A pair of ferocious guardian figures is placed on the eastern wall and another pair stands at the entrance to the circumambulatory path. STTS describes the manifestation of the thirty-seven divinities, and not the thirty-three we see in the dukhang of Tabo. What is absent in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala of Tabo are the four Mahāmudrās who are specifically defined as pāramitā, usually known as the consorts of the Four Kula Buddhas of the quarters, namely Locanā, Māmakī, Pāṇḍuravāsinī and Tārā. According to Luczanits, these four missing goddesses in Tabo were represented by four clay symbols - vajra, ratna, lotus and crossed vajra - placed on the wooden throne, one between each of the four images of Mahāvairocana.15

The Vajradhātu Maṇḍala painted on the left wall of the dukhang in Alchi (Pl. 1) shows more or less similar maṇḍala deities as those in Tabo. The central figure is the four-headed Mahāvairocana in white, seated on the vajraparyaṅkāsana (Pl. 3). He has two arms and his hands are held in the gesture of bodhyagrī mudrā (the left index finger held by the right fist).16 At the four quarters are the Four Kula Buddhas, and at the intermediate quarters are their consorts, the Prajñā Goddesses. These figures that surround Mahāvairocana are two-armed and one-headed, except Akṣobhya in the east with four heads and eight arms. According to Luczanits, the wrathful representation

14 The clay sculptures of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in Tabo have been identified, shown with photo representations and their locations in the plan of the assembly hall in Klimburg-Salter 1997: 101-03.

15 Cf. Luczanits 1997: 193-94.

16 However, there are traces of two additional upper arms, which reveal the possibility of another pair of arms that might have been hidden at the time of restoration.

of Akṣobhya indicates that the Maṇḍala is not the normal Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, but a Trilokavijaya Maṇḍala as is referred in STTS. In terms of iconography, it is worth noticing that, compared with those of Tabo, the four Mahāmudrās in the Maṇḍala of Alchi are represented anthropomorphically as goddesses, and that here, they are prominently shown in their own independent chambers each with four accompanying figures, whereas in the Maṇḍala of Tabo they remain purely symbolically shown. Sixteen Bodhisattvas are grouped into four so as to punctuate the four directions around Four Kula Buddhas.

Reading Maṇḍala Deities on the Basis of the Sarvatathāgatattvasaṃgraha

The puranic story given in the first chapter of STTS reflects the concept of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala. When the Enlightenment of the Bodhisattva Siddhārtha is described in the first chapter, we encounter the name Vajradhātu, which means "the Invincible Diamond Body". Here, Bodhisattva Siddhārtha, who would become Śākyamuni Buddha, is referred to with his variant name, Sarvārthasiddhi. It is Sarvatathāgata who guides Sarvārthasiddhi in the way of mantra to realize the highest Truth. By reciting mantra, the lunar disk is envisioned in the heart of Sarvārthasiddhi, which means that the Bodhicitta has risen. Through another recitation of mantras, vajra is visualized on the lunar disk. Into the vajra entered the Vajradhātu of the kāya, vāk and citta17 of Sarvatathāgata. Having been consecrated by Sarvatathāgata with the name-consecration of Vajradhātu, Sarvārthasiddhi is called now Vajradhātu. The transformation of Sarvārthasiddhi to Vajradhātu implies the attainment of Enlightenment. The nature of Vajradhātu at the centre of our Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is well exposed in the conversation between Sarvatathāgata and Sarvārthasiddhi who would become Vajradhātu:

Vajradhātu said: "O Lord Tathāgata,18 I see myself as the Body of Sarvatathāgata (sarvatathāgatakāyamātmānam)".

Sarvatathāgata replied: 'O Great Being, conceive yourself as the Vajra of Being (sattvavajra), as the Buddha-Form (buddhabimbam) which possesses all excellent manifestations using mantra: OṂ yathā sarvatathāgatas tathāhaṁ".19

17 Kāya, vāk and citta are often translated as body, speech and mind, respectively. The problem of the translation will be raised later in Chapter III.

18 In the translation of Snellgrove and Chandra (1981: 16), the Sanskrit term tathāgata has been understood as plural, thus translated tathāgatas. However, here the plural form should be seen as an expression of respect.

19 STTS I, ed. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 16. For the Sanskrit text, see Chandra 1987: 4.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Maṇdalas

149

We know from the above that Vajradhātu represents the Body of Sarvatathāgata, the sattvavajra (invincible core of Being), and the original form of Buddha which possesses all excellent manifestations - in other words, the invincible, yet conceivable manifestation of Sarvatathāgata that is itself the seed of all excellent manifestations.

The text continues with the Vajradhātu's petition: “Empower me, Lord Tathāgata, and stabilize this state of Enlightenment (abhisambodhi)”.20 Sarvatathāgata entered the sattvavajra of Tathāgata Vajradhātu to make him fully enlightened in the wisdom of the oneness of Sarvatathāgata (sarvatathāgatasamatājn̄āna), and Sarvatathāgata emerged again out of the sattvavajra as an expression of Vajradhātu's enlightenment. He was consecrated with three other kulas of ratna (jewel), dharma and viśvakarma (universal activity) before he ascended to the summit of Mt. Meru. After this, comes an exposition of five main divinities of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala:

Having reached there [it] empowered Tathāgata Vajradhātu as the totality of Sarvathāgata (sarvatathāgatve’dhiṣṭhaya) and [it] placed him on the Lion-throne of Sarvatathāgata and he faced in every direction (sarvatomukham). Then Tathāgata Akṣobhya, Tathāgata Ratnasaṃbhava, Tathāgata Lokeśvararāja and Tathāgata Amoghasiddhi, having received themselves empowerment in the totality of Sarvatathāgata (sarvatathāgatvam svayamātmanyadhiṣṭhāya), in order to express the universal sameness (sarvasamatāsuprativeshatvāt) of the Tathāgata Sākyamuni with regard to the sameness of all directions (sarvadiksamatā̄mabhyā̄lambya), took their places in the four quarters. . . .21

The above exposition of the deities of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala directs us to see that Vajradhātu's enlightenment resulted in immediate emanations in the form of centre and four directions.

Then the text describes the epiphany of the Sixteen Bodhisattvas and the remaining deities of the Maṇḍala. In the first chapter, they appear as members of vajra kula, but in the other chapters in parts III and IV, they appear as members of dharma kula and ratna kula. Their names change in accordance with the category of kula (lineage). The first chapter describes the Sixteen Bodhisattvas emanating from the samādhi of Vairocana

20 STTS I, ed. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 16. For the Sanskrit text, see Chandra 1987: 4.

21 STTS I, tr. Snellgrove 1987: 242; cf. STTS I, ed. Chandra 1987: 5. Snellgrove translates sarvatathāgata as “all tathāgatas”. However, I quote his translation, leaving sarvatathāgata untranslated. The problem of understanding sarvatathāgata as all Tathāgatas will be raised later in Chapter III. Therefore, the pronoun “they” for “all Tathāgatas” is changed in the quotation as “it”.

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who sits in the centre of the Vajradhātu manifestation. The division of the four kulas of

sattva, ratna, dharma and karma is revealed in Vairocana's states of samādhi, such as

sattva-consecration-vajra, ratna-consecration-vajra, dharma-consecration-vajra and

karma-consecration-vajra.22 The Sixteen Bodhisattvas are allocated to the Buddhas of

the Four Directions, in groups of four, and the four chief Bodhisattvas - Samantabhadra,

Ākāśagarbha, Avalokiteśvara and Sarvatathāgataviśvakarmman - with variations in their

names depending upon the kula allocation of the maṇḍala lead the groups.23

After the epiphany of the Sixteen Bodhisattvas, the remaining deities of the Maṇḍala

are described: four Mahāmudrās (Great Seals) called Sattvavajrī, Ratnavajrī,

Dharmavajrī and Karmavajrī;24 eight Offering Goddesses25 and four Door Guardians.26

Kula means the "family" or "lineage"; furthermore, it represents the evolutionary

principle of emanations. Pañcakulas (the five families or lineages) are the basic units

of classifying the emanations from the centre. The Five Buddhas representing

pañcakulas constitute the main axes of the inner chamber of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala.

However, the STTS follows the division of four kulas in regard to maṇḍalas. Maṇḍalas

are given instruction in accord with the fourfold kulas: Tathāgata, Vajra, Dharma

and Ratna/Karma. The maṇḍala for the Tathāgata kula is known as the Vajradhātu

Maṇḍala, and it is identical with the Trilokyavijaya Maṇḍala of the Vajra kula.27 The

analysis of Snellgrove, the editor of the Sanskrit text STTS states that the main

maṇḍalas are shown to be fivefold:28

22 Cf. STTS, ed. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 17-25.

23 Cf. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 11.

"They are, however, specifically defined as pāramitā, namely as Sarvatathāgatajñānasamaya,

Mahābhiṣaka, Vajradharmatā, Sarvapūjā . . . . They correspond in their colours and positions

in Maṇḍala to the four Great Goddesses - Locanā (SE), Māmakī (SW), Pāṇḍuravāsinī (NW)

and Tārā (NE) - as known in other tantras" (Snellgrove and Chandra in the introduction to the

facsimile of STTS 1981: 31).

25 SE: Vajralāsyā (Wantonness Vajra), Vajradhūpā (Incense Vajra).

SW: Vajramālā (Garland Vajra), Vajrapuspā (Flower Vajra).

NW: Vajragīti (Song Vajra), Vajrālokā (Lamp Vajra).

NE: Vajraṇṛtyā (Dance Vajra), Vajragandhā (Scent Vajra).

26 E: Vajraṅkuśa (Hook Vajra), S: Vajrapāśa (Noose Vajra), W: Vajrasphoṭa (Bursting Vajra),

N: Vajrāveśa (Enchantment Vajra) or Vajraghaṇṭā (Bell Vajra).

27 Cf. Snellgrove 1987: 198.

28 Cf. STTS. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 11, in the editor's introduction. Different maṇḍalas

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas

151

i) Great Vajradhātu Maṇḍala of Tathāgata kula

ii) Trilokavijaya Maṇḍala of the Vajra kula

iii) Trilokacakra Mahāmaṇḍala of the Vajra kula

iv) Sakala-Jagad-Vinaya Mahāmaṇḍala of the Dharma (Padma) kula,

v) Sarvārthasiddhi Mahāmaṇḍala of the Karma kula.

In addition, four other maṇdalas are affiliated to these main maṇdalas of four kulas. Each of them has a subsidiary maṇḍala of “Four Symbols” (caturmudrās) whose primary feature does not change: Vairocana with four Buddhas at the cardinal directions. With the exception of the Trilokacakra Mahāmaṇḍala of the Vajra kula the thirty-seven deities comprise the basic setting of the main maṇdalas of the four kulas. The thirty-seven deities are Vairocana and the Four Kula Buddhas, Sixteen Bodhisattvas, four Mahāmudrās, eight Offering Goddesses and four Door guardians.

What Do the Maṇḍala Deities Symbolize?

1. Mahāvairocana and Four Buddhas

At the centre of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala resides Mahāvairocana. The symbolism of Mahāvairocana is concisely outlined in the verses cited by Vajrapāṇi in the Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Tantra.

I salute you who are bodhicitta!

I salute you who are the source of enlightenment (sambodhi)!

I salute you who are the embodiment of practice which is the levels and perfects (pāramitānaya)!

I salute you who were the first to do it!

I bow to you who reside in śūnya!29

In the above verses, we have a collection of the prime concepts of Mahāyāna Buddhism: bodhicitta, sambodhi, pāramitānaya and śūnya. Mahāvairocana is indeed the symbol

→ referred to in the text are given in ibid.: 9-10. Chandra (in Tucci 1988 [1935]: XXI-XXII) enumerates maṇdalas given in STTS as twenty-four, counting six maṇdalas under the four kula categories.

29 MVT X.5, tr. Hodge 2003: 218.

of highest virtues of Mahāyāna Buddhism.30 He is often conceived of as making the

seal of dharmacakra mudrā because he preaches Dharma in the universe.31 As the

Invincible Body (Vajradhātu) of Enlightenment, he represents dharmakāya of Dharma,

while Śākyamuni Buddha is a nirmāṇakāya (embodiment) of Dharma. In

Vajravarman’s commentary on SDPT, Vairocana is said to represent the Wisdom Body

(jñānakāya) that arises from Dharmadhātu.32

The Buddha in the centre and the Four Buddhas at the cardinal points constitute

the pentad of Buddhas. We observe that the five Buddhas in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala

are represented with their usual features and colours:

i) Vairocana in the centre is painted white, and his hands are in the gesture of

dharmacakrapravartana mudrā. He is seated on the lion throne.

ii) Akṣobhya is the Buddha of the east, and is depicted in blue, with his hands in

bhūmisparśa mudrā. He is seated on the elephant throne.

iii) Ratnasambhava is the Buddha of the south, usually shown in yellow with the

gesture of giving (varada mudrā). He is seated on the horse throne.

iv) Amitābha of the west is shown in red with dhyāna mudrā. He is seated on the

peacock throne.

v) Amoghasiddhi in dark green with his hands in abhaya mudrā is the Buddha of

the north. He is seated on the garuḍa throne.

This set of five Buddhas is shown at the centre of the maṇdalas. In the horizontal

maṇḍala of Tabo, this set constitutes the conceptual centre. The names of these five

Buddhas vary from tantra to tantra; however, their symbolism remains common

throughout the Yoga Tantras. In the Nāmasamgīti (v. 59), the five Buddhas are

explicated in correspondence to the five bodies of Dharma and five jñānas

30 According to Snellgrove, Sarvavid (Omniscient) and Vairocana (Resplendent) are two titles

attached to Śākyamuni as the central Buddha (cf. Snellgrove 1987: 196). In Vajrayāna Buddhism,

the following names indicate the transcendental Being beyond the Five Buddhas: Vajrasattva,

Mahāvairocana, Vajradhara, etc.

31 “The Buddha (namely ‘Resplendent One, Adorned with Rays, Transformation-King’ Vairocana)

is myself with a different name, preaching the Dharma in that universe and saving living beings.’

(Śūraṅgamasamādhi Sūtra, quoted in Snellgrove 1987: 196.)

32 Cf. Wayman and Tajima 1992: 55.

Pl. 20 Statues of Vairocana (Amitābha), Avalokiteśvara and Vajrasattva in

dri-gtsang-khang (sanctuary), dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 21 Yantra of the goddess Durgā, Rajasthan, 19th century, Ink and colour on paper.

(Source: www.natha-yoga.com)

Pl. 22 Four-bodied statue of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 23 Akṣobhya, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 24 Ratnasambhava, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 25 Amitābha, Vajradhatu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 26 Amoghasiddhi, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 27 View of two from the Sixteen Bodhisattvas: Vajraketu and Vajrahāsa,

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, south wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 28 Offering Goddesses of Dhūpa and Lāsyā, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala,

east wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Maṇdalas | 61

(knowledge). We read in Mañjuśrīmitra’s commentary to the verses that the five Buddhas may be understood as the five bodies (pañcakāya) of Buddha: svābhāvikakāya, saṃbhogakāya, nirmāṇakāya, dharmakāya and jñānakāya. And they represent, respectively, tathāgata jñāna (knowledge of śūnyatā or dharmadhātu), ādarśa jñāna (mirror-like knowledge), samatā jñāna (knowledge of equality), pratyavekṣaṇa jñāna (knowledge of discrimination), krtyānuṣṭhāna jñāna (knowledge of the procedure of duty). In the tantric context, the five elements (mahābhūtas) correspond to five syllables, five colours and five Buddhas who are the personification of five jñānas. Table 1.1 shows the corresponding concepts of the five Buddhas in tantric Buddhism. One may wonder how these various concepts like directions, colours, elements (jñānas) could ever be brought together and combined into such networks; the question arises often, as to what is the ground of these esoteric correspondences among different categories.

Table 1.1: Corresponding Concepts of the Five Buddhas

Five Buddhas Vairocana Akṣobhya Ratna-sambhava Amitābha Amoghasiddhi

Direction Centre East South West North

Colour White Blue Yellow Red Dark Green or Black

Element Ether Water Earth Fire Air

Body of Dharma Svābhāvika-kāya Sambhoga-kāya Nirmāṇa-kāya Dharma-kāya Jñāna-kāya

Skandha Vijñāna Rūpa Vedanā Samjñā Samskāra

Jñāna Tathāgata-jñāna Ādarśa-jñāna Samatā-jñāna Pratyavekṣaṇa-jñāna Krtyānuṣṭhāna-jñāna

Bīja OṂ HŪṂ TRAṂ HRĪḤ ĀḤ

The names of the Five Buddhas vary. Here, names are taken from those of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala given in the NSP.

The correspondence is based on the Mañjuśrīmitra’s commentary of the NS. See the translation of Davidson 1981: 26.

For the correspondences among the five skandhas, the five jñānas, and the five Buddhas in detail, see Govinda 1959: 108-110.

Though these correspondences are not always consistent - and especially the connections among colours, elements, bījas and the five Buddhas are often variable - the concept of kula may be thought to be the basis of these correspondences.33 The five Buddhas are called Kula Buddhas because they represent five kulas34 - Tathāgata kula, Vajra kula, Ratna kula, Dharma kula and Karma kula - which are expressed through the symbols of the cakra (wheel) vajra, gem, lotus and four-pronged vajra. Here, the term kula needs due attention. Kula is generally translated as "family"; however, we need to reconsider what is implied in the term kula. Tucci observes Pañca Kula Buddhas from the cosmogonical perspective. He states that Pañca Kula Buddhas signify, "in the meditation process, the four lines of evolution of things or of experience of indiscriminate primeval being".35 According to his understanding, pañca kula are the categories of "the different emanations of the cosmos from the indiscriminate primeval conscience".36 As the term kula means literally "multitude" as well as "family", the cosmogonic implication of the term should not be overlooked, especially in understanding the visual component of the maṇḍala. The role of Pañca Kula Buddhas should be found in their being the principle in the process of emanation and absorption at the level of microcosm as well as macrocosm.

When we deal with the relationship between the central Buddha and the four Kula Buddhas in maṇḍalas, we should more carefully examine the general conception that the four Buddhas are the emanations of the central Buddha: is it the central Buddha Vairocana who is conceived to cause the emanation of the four Buddhas and the other divinities at the cardinal directions of the maṇḍalas? If we refer to STTS in regard to the emergence of the four Buddhas, we can observe that Tathāgata Vairocana is not

33 Lama Anagarika Govinda explains such corresponding systems in following words: "In the symbolism of meditative processes, however, the leading principle is not a theoretical point of view, but the practice and the experiences derived from it. For this reason each school of meditation and each particular sect has its own system, which is maintained by tradition and passed on from master to pupil. Therefore in the distribution of Dhyānī-Buddhas and their mantras among the psycho-physical Centres (cakras) of the body, there can be no single and fixed system. It depends on the meditator, which particular symbol he wants to place into the centre of his contemplation, and from this choice depends the position of all the other symbols of the maṇḍalas." (Anagarika Govinda 1959: 180-81)

34 STTS presents us with caturkula, having combined Ratna and Karma into one.

35 Tucci 1988 (1935): 71.

36 Ibid.: 42.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas 163

the primary source, but is rather the efficient cause of the emanation of the four

Buddhas. Let us ponder over some points extracted from the descriptions in STTS:

i) Bodhisattva Sarvārthasiddhi attained Enlightenment when Sarvatathāgata entered

the sattvavajra of his heart. Having arrived at the moment of Enlightenment, he

was consecrated to be Tathāgata Vajradhātu (Vairocana). As the “expression of

the Enlightenment” of Vairocana, Sarvatathāgata emerged again out of his heart.37

ii) Sarvatathāgata, emerging from the heart of Vairocana, consecrated him with three

other kulas of Ratna, Dharma and Karma, before rising to the summit of Mt.

Meru.

iii) When Sarvatathāgata reached the summit of Mt. Meru, it empowered and

enthroned Tathāgata Vajradhātu (Vairocana) in the centre. It empowered itself,

and took its place at the four cardinal directions as the expression of the all-

pervasion of the Buddha nature. Thus, the core of Vajradhātu Mandala is

established.38

The first point tells us that Sarvatathāgata is the essence of the Enlightenment. The

second point says that Sarvatathāgata is the prototype of the Kula Buddhas. The second

and the third points together indicate that the four Buddhas are not only the emanations,

but are also the agents of empowerment on the path to Enlightenment. We may formulate

the relationship between the central deity and the four Kula Buddhas as follows:

i) Vairocana placed in the centre represents the subject of the Enlightenment, the

Tathāgata kula. Especially, his heart is the place to and from which the all-

pervasive Buddha nature converges and diverges.

ii) Four Kula Buddhas derive from the emanating nature of Sarvatathāgata.

iii) Four Kula Buddhas represent Sarvatathāgata who gives the empowerment for

the Enlightenment. Symbolizing four kulas, they are dynamic agents that

empower a Tantric practitioner in the process of absorption.

From the above analysis, it is understood that it was the nature of Enlightenment

that resulted in the immediate emergence of Sarvatathāgata from the heart of Vairocana.

Here we are in the context where we should distinguish Mahāvairocana from Vairocana

37 Cf. STTS I, tr. Giebel 2001: 23-24; cf. STTS, Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 16.

38 Cf. STTS, tr. Snellgrove 1987: 242; STTS I, tr. Giebel 2001: 25; STTS, ed. Chandra 1987: 5.

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Voice of the Void

of Pañca Kula Buddhas. Mahāvairocana or Sarvavid-Vairocana indicates the Ultimate Dharma, beyond the five kula emanations. When, NS (v. 59) refers to the five Buddhas, it certainly points toward the sixth Buddha that encompasses the nature of five Buddhas.

A Buddha in his nature of five bodies, an overload by his nature of five types of gnosis (jñāna), wearing a diadem whose nature is five Buddhas, having five eyes, he maintains dissociation (asaṅga).39

The above passage tells us that the five Buddhas are the bodily manifestations of a Buddha, i.e. Ādi Buddha (primeval Buddha). It suggests that it is incorrect to understand the central Buddha within the maṇdalas of the Yoga Tantras to be the source of the four Buddha-manifestations. Moreover, the passage signifies that the source of the five Buddha-manifestations exists, yet is inconceivable, because of its nature of “dissociation”. The image we see at the centre of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala represents not only the Kula Buddha Vairocana but also Ādi Buddha Mahāvairocana, who is akula (the Absolute beyond the concept of kula).

It should be emphatically said that Enlightenment is the source of all emanations bearing the form of maṇḍala. When Mahāvairocana is said to be the source of emanations, it is the Ādi Buddha Mahāvairocana, the personification of the Ultimate, not the physical form of Vairocana in the centre that is being addressed. The physical image at the centre of the maṇḍala, which is the devotional focus and the final aspiration, has two levels of form: the manifestation of the Dharma, and the Dharma beyond. When the central divinity is seen as Vairocana of the Five Kula Buddhas, the centre does not alone represent the Ultimate. Even the image of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara or Prajñāpāramitā in the centre of the maṇḍala is merely the reflective image of the Ultimate, although such figures play a crucial role in the spiritual journey that starts from the visuals of maṇḍalas. The central image of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala demonstrates that the visual image at the centre signifies the point where the physicality of the visible is experientially transcended, passing from Vairocana to Mahāvairocana, and from Kula Buddha to Ādi Buddha.

39 NS (v. 59), tr. Davidson 1981: 26. Mañjuśrīmitra in the commentary on the text identifies the five bodies (pañca kāya) as svābhāvikakāya, sambhogakāya, nirmāṇakāya, dharmakāya, and jñānakāya. The fivefold gnosis (pañcajñāna) means: the very pure dharmadhātu gnosis, the mirror-like gnosis, the gnosis of individual inspection, the gnosis of equality and the situationally-effective gnosis. The five Buddhas (pañca jina) are: Vairocana, Akṣobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitābha and Amoghasiddhi. The five eyes (pañca cakṣus) are the corporal eye, the heavenly eye, the eye of insight, the eye of the Dharma and the eye of the Buddha; cf. ibid., fns. 73-76.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas

165

2. Sixteen Bodhisattvas

From the STTS, we have seen that the Kula Buddhas in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala ultimately represent Sarvatathāgata. The text tells us that the Sixteen Bodhisattvas are the sixteen sattvas of Sarvatathāgata. Thus, first of all, we should clarify that the Sixteen Bodhisattvas are not the emanation of Vairocana, despite the samādhi of Vairocana being the space where these Bodhisattvas take form.

The description in STTS shows a certain general paradigm in explaining how the Sixteen Bodhisattvas emerge. The reference that Vairocana's samādhi results in the emergence of the Sixteen Bodhisattvas, is important especially in regard to two aspects. First, it emphasizes the overwhelming processes of transformation implied in the physical forms of Bodhisattvas in the Maṇḍala. Second, it speaks of the relationship of the Sixteen Bodhisattvas to Vairocana, Sarvatathāgata and the four Kula Buddhas. We can understand the paradigm of their emergence from the following description, using the brackets marked with English letters where different terms should be applied in correspondence to different Bodhisattvas. Table 1.2 shows the terms to be placed in the corresponding brackets for each Bodhisattva.

1. Vairocana entered samādhi, called "(a)-Empowerment born of the samaya of Mahābodhisattva (b)" of Sarvatathāgata.

2. From the heart of Vairocana came forth the heart of Sarvatathāgata, called the samaya of (c) of Sarvatathāgata.

3. Mantra (d) came forth from the heart of Sarvatathāgata and condensed into one.

4. Vajradhara (or Vajrapāṇi) became the multitudes of (e) of Sarvatathāgata.

5. (e) entered the heart of Vairocana, and together they became one in the form of (f).

6. From (f), there appear the figures of the Tathāgatas. They performed the various deeds of Sarvatathāgata.

7. The figures of the Tathāgatas became one in the heart of Vairocana, producing the figure of Mahābodhisattva (b).

The description of the emergence of Ākāśagarbha makes clear the relation between the heart mantra of Sarvatathāgata and the sudden appearance of Vajradhara. Cf. STTS, tr. Giebel 2001: 33.

The stages 5 and 6 in the paradigm are sometimes omitted and one comes directly to the stage where the figure of Bodhisattva appears.

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Voice of the Void

Table 1.2: Emergence of Sixteen Bodhisattvas in STTS, chap. I

a. Kula

b. Primary Bodhisattva

c. Aspect

d. Mantra

e. Visual Transformation

1 Sattva Samantabhadra Knowledge Vajrasattva Knowledge-vajras

2 Sattva Amoghajā Hook-Summoning Vajrāja Hooks

3 Sattva Māra Enrapturement Vajrāga Flower - Weapons

4 Sattva Prāmodyarāja Great joy Vajrasādhu Applauses

5 Ratna Ākāśagarbha Consecration Vajraratna Empty space

6 Ratna Mahāteja Light Vajrateja Solar discs

7 Ratna Ratnaketu Wish fulfilment Vajraketu Multi-coloured banner

8 Ratna Nityaprītipra-muditendriya Joy Vajrahāsa Smiles

9 Dharma Avalokiteśvara Dharma Vajradharma Dharma realm

10 Dharma Mañjuśrī Knowledge-Wisdom Vajratīkṣṇa Wisdom swords

11 Dharma Sahacittotpādita dharmacakra-pravartin Wheel Vajrahetu Great maṇḍalas

12 Dharma Avāca Mindful-Recitation Vajrabhāṣa Dharma-syllables

13 Karma Sarvatathāgata-viśvakarmaṇ Karma Vajrakarma Karma-realm

14 Karma Duryodhana-vīrya Protection Vajrakṣa Firm suits of armour

15 Karma Sarvamāra-pramardin Expedient means Vajrayakṣa Tusk-weapons

16 Karma Sarvatathāgata-muṣṭi Binding the vajras of kāya, vāk and citta Vajrasandhi Binds of all mudrās

f. Concentrated Forms

g. Location

h. Symbol

i. Vajra Name

Five-pronged vajra

In front

Vajra

Vajrapāṇi

Right

Hook

Vajrakarṣa

Great arrow

Left

Arrow

Vajradhanu

Great joy

Behind

Tuṣṭi

Vajraharṣa

Adamantine gem

In front

Adamantine maṇi

Vajragarbha

Adamantine sun

Right

Adamantine sun

Vajraprabha

Adamantine banner

Left

Adamantine banner

Vajrayaṣṭi

Adamantine smile

Behind

Adamantine smile

Vajraprīti

Lotus flower

In front

Adamantine lotus flower

Vajranetra

Adamantine sword

Right

Adamantine sword

Vajrabuddhi

Adamantine wheel

Left

Adamantine wheel

Vajramaṇḍa

Tongue

Behind

Adamantine mindful recitation

Vajravāca

Karma-vajra

In front

Karma-vajra

Vajrāviśva

Great adamantine suit of armour

Right

Adamantine armour

Vajramitra

Adamantine tusk

Left

Adamantine tusk-weapon

Vajracaṇḍa

Adamantine bind

Behind

Mudrā

Vajramuṣṭi

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Voice of the Void

8. (b) settled in the heart of Vairocana and uttered his udāna (inspired verse).

9. The figure of (b) descended from the heart of Vairocana. He took up his place on the lunar disc (g) of Sarvatathāgata and again requested instruction.

10. Vairocana again entered samādhi, called “samaya of (c) of Sarvatathāgata”.

11. Vairocana conferred upon (b) the samaya of (c) in the form of (h).

12. Sarvatathāgata consecrated (b) with the vajra name and calling him (i).

13. (i) uttered his udāna.

These Sixteen Bodhisattvas in the STTS are the sixteen Sattvas of Sarvatathāgata:

1. Four of the Sattva kula are the Great Samaya Sattvas; the Great Bodhicitta, the Hook-Summoning, the Knowledge of Enrapturement and the Great Joy of Sarvatathāgata.42

2. Four of the Ratna kula are the Great Consecration Sattvas; the Great Consecration, the Halo of Light of One Fathom, the Great Benefit of Sentient Beings, and the Great Laughter of Sarvatathāgata.43

3. Four of the Dharma kula are the Great Knowledge Sattvas; the Adamantine Knowledge of the Dharma-nature, the Knowledge-Wisdom, the Great Wheel-Turning Knowledge, and the Knowledge of vāk of Sarvatathāgata.44

4. Four of the Karma kula are the Great Karma Sattvas; the Action of the Extended Rules for Offering, the Firm Armour of Great Energy, the Great Expedient Means, and the Knowledge of the Binding of All Mudrās of Sarvatathāgata.45

The text clearly indicates that Vairocana’s samādhi is the space where the heart-mantra of Sarvatathāgata arises, and that the mantra is turned toward the visible form of a Bodhisattva. We encounter here a central concept of Buddhist deities. Ultimately, the visual form of a Bodhisattva has its support in mantra, and the mantra has its origin in the heart of Sarvatathāgata. With the agent - i.e. Vajradhara (or Vajrapāṇī) -

42 STTS, tr. Gibel 2001: 32.

43 STTS, tr. Giebel 2001: 38-39.

44 Ibid.: 45.

45 Ibid.: 53.

Pl. 29 Central divinity, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

Pl. 30 Akṣobhya-Māmaki, Ratnasambhava-Locana and four Uṣṇīṣas, Dharmadhatu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

Pl. 31 Amitābha-Pāṇḍarā, Amoghasiddhi-Tārā and four Uṣṇīṣas, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo. (Photo: C. Luczanits 1993 (WHAV))

Pl. 32 Central divinity, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 33 Central divinity, maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī, rear wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas

73

the heart mantra from Sarvatathāgata undergoes various stages of transformations,

before it takes the distinct form of a Bodhisattva. For example, the mantra of Vajraratna,

having come forth from the heart of Sarvatathāgata, becomes Vajradhara, who became

rays of light which fill every empty space; when the entire realm of empty space

entered the heart of Vairocana, it took the form of a gem. From this gem, Tathāgatas

appeared. Having accomplished the siddhis (yogic attainment) of Sarvatathāgata, they

became one, thus producing the figure of the Mahābodhisattva Ākāśagarbha.46

STTS tells us that Vairocana is the subject of samādhi, and that his heart is the

ground where the visual transformations of Sarvatathāgata take place. However, he is

not the source of the manifestations of the Bodhisattvas. Having been invoked from

the heart of Sarvatathāgata, the Sixteen Bodhisattvas represent the sixteen aspects of

Sarvatathāgata. The number sixteen is charged with a cosmogonical significance in

Indian spiritual traditions, being associated with the ideas of totality and “limitless

plurality”.47 As much as these Bodhisattvas take shape in the Maṇḍala through this

process, comparable to a cosmogonical evolution, the number sixteen in this context

relevantly signifies the totality. Here, the totality should be justifiably ascribed to

Sarvatathāgata. Sarvatathāgata as the principle of form-manifestation and the ultimate

source of the maṇḍala deities will be examined further in Chapter III of the present

volume.

I.2.2 Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala

In the dukhang of Tabo, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala occupies the entire northern

part of the western wall, above two clay statues of Offering Goddesses and the entrance

to the circumambulatory path (Pls. 29-31). In their linear layout, each of seventeen

deities are framed by a circular nimbus. The central divinity, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara

in the form of Mañjuśrī, is seated in the vajraparyaṅkāsana on the large pericarp of a

colourful lotus (Pl. 29). No animal vehicle flanks his seat. He is four-headed and eight-

armed. The central hands make the gesture of dharmacakra mudrā. From top to bottom

his right hands hold a sword, an arrow and a vajra, while his left hands hold a bow, a

book and a bell (a reasonable conjecture, as the shapes are obscured by erosion).48

46 STTS, tr. Giebel 2001: 33.

47 Cf. Gonda 1977: 120-26. Gonda introduces the various references to the number sixteen and

presents its implication of “totality”. He analyses the formation of such conception in terms of

the perception of the lunar cycle.

48 See also Klimburg-Salter 1999: 300.

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Thus, we get the following sets of objects held in the hands of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara:

dharmacakra mudrā, sword-book, arrow-bow and vajra-bell. He wears a red-

coloured, bejewelled crown decorated with five seated Buddha figures painted in five

different colours: blue, white, light green, red and light yellow, obviously indicating

the five kulas.49 The eight figures right next to Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara holding wheels

in their right hands are identified as the eight Uṣṇīṣas on the basis of NSP:50 Mahoṣṇīṣa

(east), Sitātapatra (south), Tejorāśi (west), Vijayoṣṇīṣa (north), Vikīraṇa (north-east),

Udgata (south-east), Mahodgata (south-west) and Ojas (north-west). Each figure is

seated on a lion vehicle, turning toward Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara (Pls. 30-31). Next

to the Uṣṇīṣas on both sides are four Kula Buddhas. The delineation of these figures is

more or less same as that of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara: they are four-headed and eight-

armed, seated in the vajraparyaṅkāsana on lotus pericarps. However, their facial

expressions and body colours vary from Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara, and their animal

symbols are painted under or both sides of their lotus seats. These four Kula Buddhas

are identified on the basis of these animal vehicles and their colouration: blue-coloured

Akṣobhya on elephants, orange-red-coloured Ratnasambhava on horses, red-coloured

Amitābha on peacocks, and blue-coloured (conventionally, dark green) Amoghasiddhi

on garudas. Next to these four Buddhas are placed their prajñā consorts.51 Like the

49 Cf. ibid.: 303-05. Klimburg-Salter compares the visual representation of Dharmadhātu-

Vāgīśvara in Tabo with the descriptions of iconographic texts. This figure coincides with the

description in NSP 21, except in colour and in the fact that the attributes in the upper two left

hands are reversed. The figure of Tabo is painted in reddish white as described in the

Sādhanamālā, whereas the NSP describes yellow for the divinity.

50 Cf. Mallmann 1975: 386.

51 The identification of the Prajñās placed in relation to Akṣobhya and Ratnasambhava is given

in different ways according to the types of maṇdalas. In the description of the four female

deities of the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala in Tabo, Klimburg-Salter (1999: 303) identifies

them as follows: the one next to Akṣobhya as Māmakī; Ratnasambhava-Locanā; Amitābha-

Pāṇḍarā and Amoghasiddhi-Tārā. She introduces the location of the four Prajñās given in

NSP: Māmakī in the south-east, Locanā in the north-east, Pāṇḍarā in the south-west and Tārā

in the north-west. In Snellgrove’s introduction to STTS, we find a different order in placement.

Akṣobhya-Locanā, Ratnasambhava-Māmakī, Amitābha-Pāṇḍarā and Amoghasiddhi-Tārā.

Snellgrove describes also a different set of Prajñās and their location whereas the location of

the four Buddhas coincides with the above: Akṣobhya (E)–Locanā (SE), Ratnasambhava (S)–

Māmakī (SW), Amitābha (W)–Pāṇḍarā (NW), Amoghasiddhi (N)–Tārā (NE). Cf. Snellgrove

and Skorupski 1977: 10. However, according to Vajravarman’s commentary on SDPT, in the

basic maṇḍala of the Tantra, Māmakī is placed in the south-east; Locanā in the south-west;

Pāṇḍarā in the north-west; and Tārā in the north-east.

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| 75

four Buddhas, they are four-headed and eight-armed, seated in the lotus pericarp, but

without any animal symbols. Their bodily colours do not concord to the iconographic

convention. The figure of Māmakī next to Akṣobhya is light red. The figure of Locanā

beside Ratnasambhava is white. The figure next to Amitābha, Pāṇḍarā, is also light

red. The figure next to Amoghasiddhi is Tārā in blue.

In Alchi, the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala is painted next to the Vajradhātu

Maṇḍala (Pl. 5). The centre of the large circular layout of the maṇḍala is shown as a

pericarp of a fully-bloomed lotus, which accommodates the presiding deity of maṇḍala,

Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara (Pl. 32). Like in the Maṇḍala of Tabo, Dharmadhātu-

Vāgīśvara is shown in white, four-headed and eight-armed. However, observation

shows that some iconographic details of these two examples differ lightly from each

other. In the Maṇḍala of Alchi, he is seated on his lion vehicle, and the colours of the

three other faces are yellow to his proper right, blue to his proper left, and reddish-

orange above. The attributes of eight hands are more or less same as the example of

Tabo, except the presence of a book and an arrow in his upper right hands. There are

eight Uṣṇīṣas placed around Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara on eight lotus petals.

To the east of the central chamber of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara we see a blue-

coloured Akṣobhya; to the south, yellow-coloured Ratnasambhava; to the west, red-

coloured Amitābha; and to the north, dark green-coloured Amoghasiddhi. These four

Kula Buddhas are four-headed and eight-armed. They are seated on their animal

vehicles: elephants, horses, peacocks and garuḍas respectively. Each of them has four

faces, of blue, white, red and yellow, and dark green, while the colour of the main face

is same as that of the body. Akṣobhya's hand attributes are the pairs of vajra-bell,

arrow-bow, makara-headed staff-string and sword-mudrā. The objects in

Ratnasambhava's hands are sword-bell, arrow-bow, makara-headed staff-mudrā and

vajra-fist. Amitābha holds sword-lotus, arrow-bow, makara-headed staff-mudrā and

vajra-bell. The hand-held objects of Amoghasiddhi are difficult to define because of

the deterioration of the figure, apart from an arrow and makara-headed staff in two of

the right hands. Like in the case of Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, four Bodhisattvas are affiliated

to each of the four Buddhas; these Sixteen Bodhisattvas are one-headed and two-

armed. Around Akṣobhya are Bodhisattvas in white, yellow, red and dark green.

Around Ratnasambhava are Bodhisattvas in yellow, red, white and blue. Around

Amitābha are two Bodhisattvas in red and two in yellow. Around Amoghasiddhi are

a Bodhisattva in white, another in yellow and two others in dark green. The objects

held in the hands of these Bodhisattvas accord more or less with the symbols of the

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Sixteen Bodhisattvas referred to in STTS: vajra, aṅkuśa, a bow and an arrow, a gem, the solar disk, a wheel, a sword, a book, and the like. On the intermediate quarters are four Prajñā Goddesses with features similar to the main deity and the Four Buddhas; four-headed and eight-armed. The inner square region is guarded by four Door Guardians at the four directions: Vajrāṅkuśa, Vajrapāśa, Vajrasphoṭa and Vajrāveśa. Fifty-two feminine divinities surround these main deities of the Maṇḍala. Based on a reading of Vajrāvalī,52 these feminine deities can be identified as twelve Bhūmis in the east, twelve Pāramitās in the south, twelve Vāśitās in the west and twelve Dhāriṇīs in the north. At the intermediate corners are four Offering Goddesses: Lāsyā, Mālā, Gītā and Nṛtyā. They are placed within a square “palace” that is itself guarded by additional, feminine door guardians. At the four quarters and four intermediate quarters of the outermost square band are the Eight Krodhas. They are of ferocious expression, with four heads and eight arms. These figures bear the appropriate colours according to their directions. Each of these Krodhas is flanked by two feminine divinities, for a total of eight: Puṣpā, Vajrarūpā, Dhūpā, Vajraśabdā, Dīpā, Vajreṣyā, Gandhā and Vajrasparśā. “The Sixteen Bodhisattvas of the Good Age”53 find their place on the outermost square band. All these divine figures are encircled by red nimbus, except the square band of fifty-two feminine deities. These red circles contrast with their blue background, producing a strong visual effect. The outermost circular rim is occupied by rows of figures; yogīs and Hindu deities such as Śiva, Pārvatī, Kārttikeya and Gaṇeśa are noticeable. As is the case with the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala of Alchi is composed of an extensive range of divinities, whereas that of Tabo displays only the major deities of the Maṇḍala.

The Nāmasamgīti (NS) may be used as the conceptual source of the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala. It is said that Mañjuśrīkīrti wrote (presumably in the early tenth century CE) the enormous commentary on NS, called the Nāmasamgīti Tippanī. Mañjuśrīkīrti’s commentary represents the exegesis of the text based on the Yoga Tantra system, and the new ritual structure delineated therein is called the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala.54 In the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, the presiding deity, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara, is Mañjuśrī in his Mañjughoṣa aspect. According to Mallmann55 the name Dharmadhātu-

52 Cf. Chandra and Vira 1999: 68-70.

53 Identification following Snellgrove, in Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 39.

54 See Davidson, in his introduction to the translation of NS (Davidson 1981: 12). See also Chandra 1993: 384.

55 Mallmann 1964: 20.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas 177

Vāgīśvara-Mañjuśrī is reserved for the aspect of Mañjuśrī (Mañjughoṣa) with four faces and eight arms, with the main hands forming the dharmacakra mudrā.56 Mañjuśrī in the Maṇḍala is not merely the Bodhisattva of intelligence, but is also the spokesman of the Dharma; furthermore, he himself embodies Dharma. The description of the deity given in NS as holding a book of prajñāpāramitā, a sword, a bow and an arrow tells that Mahāvairocana is embodied in the image of Mañjuśrī.57 NSP 21, while describing the iconography of the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, mentions that Mañjughoṣa is of the nature of Mahāvairocana (bhagavān mahāvairocanātmā mañjughoṣa).58

The practice of adoring Mañjuśrī, which may have catalysed the development of this grandiose maṇḍala, must have been based on his aspect as Mahāvairocana. And the prominent placement of Mañjuśrī -- especially as demonstrated in the entire artistic schemes of Alchi - may be justifiably understood via his aspect as the spokesman or embodiment of Dharma. The placement of Mañjuśrī in the centre of the Maṇḍala confirms that he has been adored as the highest divinity Mahāvairocana, who is the main focus of Yoga Tantras.

In one of the three maṇḍalas painted in the third storey of the sumtseg of Alchi, the main divinity is the four-headed and eight-armed Mañjuśrī, seated in the vajraparyaṅkāsana position, upon the lion throne (Pls. 6, 33). However, in this maṇḍala it is questionable whether or not he represents Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara, because he holds four pairs of books and swords in his eight arms, and all his faces are white. Usually, the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara form of Mañjuśrī holds the pairs of book and sword, bow and arrow, bell and vajra, and his main hands are in the dharmacakra mudrā; also, his other faces show three primary colours: yellow, red and blue. In this maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī, the eight Uṣṇīṣas are absent. Instead, the four Buddhas and four Prajñā Goddesses are adjacent to Mañjuśrī. Although the maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī in the third storey of the sumtseg is differentiated from Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, the observation of the Maṇḍala in relation to the two other maṇḍalas of Mahāvairocana and Prajñāpāramitā beside it informs us of the eminence of Mañjuśrī (Pls. 7-8). The maṇḍala scheme of the third storey of the sumtseg has been derived from the

56 The name of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara is found in SM 61. According to Bhattacharyya’s study (Bhattacharyya, 1968: 103-04) on Buddhist iconography based on SM, Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara is a form of Mañjuśrī, and he is classified as the emanation of Amitābha.

57 NS 150, tr. Davidson 1981: 37.

58 NSP 21, ed. Bhattacharrya 1972: 65.

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Table 1.3: Iconographic Scheme of Three Maṇdalas in the Third Storey of the Sumtseg

Layers Maṇḍala of Mañjuśrī Maṇḍala of Mahāvairocana Maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā

1st Mañjuśrī Mahāvairocana Prajñāpāramitā

2nd Four Buddhas and four Prajñās Prajñāpāramitā Four Prajñāpāramitās and four Buddhas in the nirmāṇakāya form

3rd Sixteen Bodhisattvas Four Buddhas and four Bodhisattvas (or four Prajñās) Eight Buddhas in the nirmāṇakāya form and four Bodhisattvas

4th Sixteen Bodhisattvas Sixteen Bodhisattvas Sixteen Buddhas in the nirmāṇakāya form

correlating concepts of the three central divinities of Mahāvairocana, Prajñāpāramitā and Mañjuśrī. These three maṇdalas are based on similar geometric structures, consisting of large concentric circles in the inner chamber. (Illus. 1.4 i-iii) The iconographic settings within the structure clearly demonstrate the relationship among these three maṇdalas. Table 1.3 displays the comparison of these three maṇdalas in terms of the iconographic settings. Here the divinities allocated to a layer of the maṇḍala correspond to those placed at the same layer of the other two maṇḍalas. The hierarchical arrangement shown in these maṇḍalas verifies the affinity of the iconographic schemes of these maṇḍalas, which especially pronounces the status of Mañjuśrī to be equivalent to that of Goddess Prajñapāramitā and of Mahavairocana.

I. 3 Colour

When one sees for the first time a Buddhist maṇḍala, it may well be its colour that is its first striking quality. For example, in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, found in the dukhang of Alchi, the contrast and interplay of the primary colours are remarkable (Pl. 1). Here, on a blue background, we find anthropomorphic deities, row by row, painted onto red circles. Painted in white, Mahāvairocana is flanked by four female figures, one blue (eastern), the others yellow (southern), red (western) and green (northern), and the four Buddhas are in their usual colours: Akṣobhya in blue, Ratnasambhava in yellow, Amitābha in red and Amoghasiddhi in dark green. Akṣobhya is surrounded by four Bodhisattvas of blue (E), yellow (S), green (W) and red (N); Ratnasambhava by four Bodhisattvas of yellow (E), red (S), white (W) and blue (N); Amitābha by four Bodhisattvas of light red (E), blue (S), yellow (W) and red (N); and Amoghasiddhi by four Bodhisattvas of green (E), yellow (S), yellow (W) and dark green (N). The colour of each of the four Prajñā Goddesses is the same as that of their corresponding Buddhas, and four small female figures around each goddess are painted in the same colours as their respective goddesses.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas 179

By their colour can one identify the five Buddhas; however, any fixed colour scheme for the Sixteen Bodhisattvas of ten seems obscure, as is seen in the Vajradhātu Mandala of Alchi. Even in the Vajradhātu Mandala scheme in the colours of Sixteen Bodhisattvas. And, to compare the colours of the corresponding Sixteen Bodhisattvas in these two Mandalas yields little fruit. One discernible rule in Alchi is that the colour of the four Bodhisattvas placed to the east of each kula Buddha coincides with that of their respective Kula Buddhas, which seems to tell us that these are the representative Bodhisattvas of the four kulas, and that their colour reflects their kula association. The relation of colour to directional position is noticeable in case of door guardians, who are conventionally coloured blue, yellow, red and bluish green for the directions of east, south, west and north respectively. In particular, the mandalas in the sumtseg of Alchi displays the use of colours charged with symbolic implications. We observe that the mandalas in the second storey of the sumtseg or in the dukhang are painted with five colours. Remarkably, in the mandalas of the third storey of the sumtseg, only white, red and blue are seen (Pls. 6-8). The central images are painted white, and the deities of the east and the west have their conventional colours of blue and red, respectively. However, those of the south and the north are not painted with their conventional colours of yellow and green, but rather in white, as in the centre. Keeping in mind another distinctive feature of these three mandalas of the third storey in the sumtseg - that their geometric mandala fields consist of only a set of four gates, as distinct from other mandala examples - their colour scheme should also be considered in relation to the inner progress in both the ritual and the meditation.

Let us now look at the general symbolic use of colours in Mahāyāna Buddhism. In Buddhism, colours are part of the vijñaptih (mind formulation), as are all other objects or qualities within our range of perception, in that they are derived from our consciousness. Vasubandhu explains as follows:

There is a representation of consciousness (vijñaptih) which appears in the form of colour (rūpa-pratibhāsa). It develops from its own seed (svabīja), which was there in the unconscious, namely ālaya-vijñāna. Then at the proper times it externalizes itself in the form of colour.59

The above verses describe the general Mahāyāna position in regard to colour. It denotes that colours are perceived in association with state of consciousness. In the dualistic

59 Vṛtti on Vimśatikā 9, tr. Kochumutom 1989: 171-72.

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worldview, colours stand for the phenomenal world (samsāra), whereas the absence of colour represents nirvāṇa or śūnya. In his commentary on MVT, Buddhaguhya speaks of the sensual nature of colour and maṇḍala:

The intrinsic nature of colour is to cause attachment. The interest of beings is aroused by the appearance of the colours and attributes of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas and the drawing of the Maṇḍala.60

Having seen the sensual nature of colours that causes "attachment", how can one understand how the cause of attachment can be used in a sacred circle designed to lead one towards Enlightenment? MVT explains the basis of colour use in maṇḍalas.

Although beings are attached to the realms by them, the Buddhas have preciously taught that they have the taste of dharmadhātu, therefore they are called “colours”.61

In conformity with our actual experience, this verse states that colours' intrinsic nature of leading one towards delight and involvement62 is advantageous for drawing one's attention. If their sensual aspects do not imprison the practitioner, they turn one's attention to an optimal centre of concentration. Here lies the specificity of the tantric soteriology, in that the apparent dualism is undermined by the transformation of the apparently negative pole. The colours of maṇḍalas are the instruments to engage one into the state of samādhi. Thus, it is said that their colours have "the taste of dharmadhātu"; Buddhaguhya writes that this is because these colours are "of one taste".63 We learn in the text that colours used in maṇḍalas are fundamentally the aspects of this Dharmadhātu, and especially in Buddhist maṇḍalas, the primary colours are used intentionally with due consideration of their symbolic meanings. When their nature of delight and joy give way to the inner vision, colours let us taste the deeper flavour of Dharmadhātu.

Colours used in the maṇḍala are seen as aspects of Dharmadhātu, first of all, because they undergo the ritual of transformation. They are explicitly endowed with symbolic connotations by means of the visualization and empowerment of the syllables.

60 MVT I.69, comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 123.

61 MVT II.69, tr. Hodge 2003: 122. Hodge assumes that original word for colour could be rāga or raṅga, because they both have colour and attachment among their various meanings (cf. Hodge 2003: 548, n. 30).

62 Cf. MVT II.69, comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 123.

63 Cf. ibid.

Tangible Forms and Symbolic Meanings of Buddhist Mandalas | 181

How colours are empowered and transformed to reflect Dharmadhātu is described in chapter X of MVT, where the vāk mandala is explained.64 The ritual process can be summarized as follows: having prepared the mandala ground, the master first transforms himself into Vairocana. Then, he imagines the colour pigments to be the vast Dharmadhātu, which is Śūnya.65 One by one, all five colours are transformed. For example, the white colour is transformed first. The master imagines that the white pigment is the pure Dharmadhātu that purifies the realms of beings, and is itself Tathāgatas. Then, the syllable ra with a flaming aura is imagined and superimposed onto it. In this manner, red, yellow, green and black colours are in turn transformed. Buddhaguhya specifies in the commentary that the colours are transformed by the Buddha, who is generated by his bīja mantra.66 This ritual of colour transformation that precedes the making of a mandala is based on the correspondence between the bīja mantras and colours; furthermore, the association of colours with bīja mantras lays the foundation for the other symbolic implications of colours in mandalas.

Not only do colours attain symbolic significance in their relation to mantras, but the meanings of mantras themselves are also strengthened due to their correlation with colours. In the section of MVT that describes the colours, shapes and size of the deities of citta mandala, it is read:

The mantras uttered by the Tathāgatas, likewise those uttered by the perfect Buddhas, should be known as white and yellow. That of Vajrapāṇi is multi-coloured. The mantra of Lokeśvara is white due to his type of action.67

Buddhaguhya’s commentary connects the colour white with the dharmadhātu nature of all phenomena, and yellow with enrichment and beneficence. The description of Vajrapāṇi’s multi-colour is due to his nature as the “Awareness of Accomplishment” of those activities that benefit living beings; thus, his mantra is of every colour.68 These references urge one to see the interrelation between colours and mantras. MVT elaborates the symbolic connotations of colours in relation to Dharmadhātu.

64 Cf. MVT X.17, tr. Hodge 2003: 225-26.

65 Buddhaguhya equates dharmadhātu to śūnya, especially in this context (cf. MVT I.17, comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 226).

66 Cf. MVT X.17 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 226.

67 MVT XIII.35, tr. Hodge 2003: 273-74.

68 Cf. MVT XIII.35, comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 274.

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The five primary colours referred to in the MVT are white, red, yellow, green and

black, different from the five colours in the maṇdalas of Tabo and Alchi. One also

observes that the correspondence between the symbolic categories and the colours is

not always consistent. Nevertheless, the discourse on colour given in this Tantra

exposes the fact that colours in maṇdalas are employed not from any criterion of

creating sensual beauty, but rather are consciously used in their symbolic context to

represent multiple layers of reality. In chapter II of MVT Buddhaguhya explains that a

five-coloured cord, used in laying out a maṇḍala, along with five colour pigments,

should be imagined to be the fivefold Awareness (jñāna) of perfect

Enlightenment.69 The Tantra states that colour should be applied from the inside

towards the outside, in the order of white, red, yellow, green and black.70 According to

the commentary, the sequence of colour application is determined by the intrinsic

nature of each colour, and their symbolic correspondence to a fixed stage of spiritual

development. White should be applied first because its intrinsic nature is Dharmadhātu.

Next, red is applied, for the intrinsic nature of the red is involvement with beings by

virtue of the karuṇā (compassion) which benefits beings through expedient means.

Then, compassion ought to be encouraged. Therefore yellow is applied, the attribute

of enrichment. Then, one becomes capable of carrying out everything, and so green

must come next.71 Having been able to carry out all activities, one applies black which

represents the subdual of evildoers; furthermore, the inner regions are black, because

what is within is secret.72

69 Cf. MVT II.19 comm. and X.17 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 103, 227.

70 MVT II.69, tr. Hodge 2003: 122–23.

71 Hodge gives an insightful understanding of green in its doctrinal connotation of “action”:

“Green symbolizes the capacity to perform various different actions because it is not a primary

colour but can be produced by the mixture of several other colours, thus combining the

functions those colours symbolize” (Hodge 2003: 548, n. 31).

72 Cf. MVT II.69 comm. and X.17 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 123, 227.

II.

Multiple Layers of Form Implied in the

Discourses on Maṇḍalas

II.1 Maṇḍalas in Association with the Notion of Trikāya and Triguhya

Among the several inscriptions that remain in the sumtseg in Alchi,1 those towards the left of the feet of the colossal Maitreya are significant in that the purpose of the building is expressed; when one remembers the sumtseg to be both three-storeyed stūpa and maṇḍala, these inscriptions are important for understanding the meaning of the maṇḍala. After lamenting the impermanence of life and urging the practice of religion, they speak further:

Tshul-khrimsod (the founder), in order to demonstrate that possessions are non-substantial and to inculcate the essentiality of universal relativity, has set up these three receptacles of Body, Speech and Mind. In order to remove bodily impurities and to obtain a 'human' Buddha-Body (nirmāṇakāya), he has set up Mañjuśrī as a 'Buddha-Body' image. In order to remove vocal impurities and obtain a 'glorious' Buddha-Body (saṃbhogakāya), he has set up Avalokiteśvara as a 'Buddha-Speech' image. In order to remove mental impurities and to obtain an 'absolute' Buddha-Body (dharmakāya), he has set up Maitreya as 'Buddha-Mind' image.2

The inscription tells that the construction was motivated to demonstrate the "non substantiality of possessions and the essentiality of universal relativity", which is none other than the description of the Buddhist ideal of Śūnya. The ideal of Śūnya was the dominant doctrinal principle of this construction, which most likely influenced the whole artistic programme of the sumtseg. Another doctrinal concept glimpsed through

1 Various inscriptions reveal that the temple was set up more or less as it is now arranged and some repair work was carried out in the sixteenth century, but re-decorators repainted the temple as it was originally (cf. Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 48).

2 Quoted from Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 48. Its original Tibetan inscription is also given; ibid.: 48 n. 33.

these inscriptions is triguhya of kāya-vāk-citta. The three-storeyed structure is meant

to be the receptacle of kāya, vāk and citta. The three colossal statues of Bodhisattvas,

installed in the first storey, signify the purification of kāya, vāk and citta, which is

preliminary to the realization of trikāyas — nirmāṇakāya, saṃbhogakāya and

dharmakāya.

One must remember that maṇḍala paintings, used in the sumtseg in particular and

in monastic complexes in general, are to be understood through their philosophical

association with Śūnya and other Buddhist principles, such as triguhya and trikāya.

These notions are crucial in establishing the non-dualistic relationship between the

Buddha and the individual self. The three levels of nirmāṇakāya, saṃbhogakāya and

dharmakāya tell how the Buddha Dharma is revealed to every sentient being.

Furthermore, trikāya is frequently explained through an analogy to another set of

kāya-vāk-citta. As observed in the above inscriptions from the sumtseg, the three

Bodhisattva statues correspond to the set of kāya-vāk-citta as well as that of

nirmāṇakāya-saṃbhogakāya-dharmakāya. The fourteenth-century rGyal-rabs gsal-

ba'i me-long speaks of the three-storeyed structure in bSam-yas in connection with

those three manifestations of Buddha. According to the description, Śākyamuni and

his retinue were represented on the ground floor, Vairocana and his retinue appeared

on the middle floor, and the upper third floor was dedicated to Sarvavid Vairocana.3

In other words, the three storeys of bSam-yas express a complete set of nirmāṇakāya-

saṃbhogakāya-dharmakāya in their iconographic schemes. If we apply this concept

to the three storeys of the sumtseg, we find an analogy: the first floor denotes

nirmāṇakāya, and therefore themes such as the life of Śākyamuni, pilgrimage and the

spiritual practices of the yogīs find their place on the dotis of the three colossal

Bodhisattvas found there (Pls. 34-36); the second storey, its walls completely covered

by maṇḍala paintings, might represent saṃbhogakāya; and the third floor, with the

three maṇḍalas of Mañjuśrī, Mahāvairocana and Prajñāpāramitā, would thus have

been conceived as dharmakāya. Consequently, one may be reminded of the tripartite

scheme seen in the assembly hall of the dukhang in Tabo.

Textual sources reveal that maṇḍalas are related to these crucial concepts of tantric

practice; however, textual references are not always consistent in regard to the

corresponding systems between the symbolic concepts and maṇḍalas. In

Vajravarman’s commentary on SDPT, trikāya denotes jñānakāya (wisdom body),

3 Cf. rGyal-rabs gsal-ba'i me-long, ed. Sørensen 1994: 378-79; quoted in Klimburg-Salter

1997: 105.

Pl. 34 Maitreya's dhoti with the narratives of Śākyamuni's life and some folk scenes, sumtseg, Alchi. (Photo: J. Poncar 1981 (WHAV))

Pl. 35 Avalokiteśvara's dhoti with various scenes of temples, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar (WHAV))

Pl. 36 Mañjuśrī’s dhotī with the theme of siddhas’ yogic practices, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1991 (WHAV))

samayakāya (symbolic body) and karmakāya (action body). They are respectively related to Vairocana, Śākyamuni and Vajrapāṇi, who arise from dharmadhātu,

bodhicitta and pratītya-samutpāda (twelve links of dependent origination).4 Another variation of the set of three is found in another commentary of SDPT, known as sNaṅ bahi rgyan,5 where different maṇdalas of the Tantra are associated with three kulas,

three mudrās, triguhya and trikāya.6

STTS presents four divisions of maṇdalas: mahāmaṇḍala, samayamandala,

dharmamaṇḍala and karmamaṇḍala. In his commentary on STTS, Buddhaguhya speaks

of the deities of the four maṇdalas, claiming them to have taken shape respectively

from kāya, citta, vāk and karma of Sarvatathāgata.7 In Tattvāloka, another commentary

on that Tantra by Ānandagarbha, the set of four (kāya, citta, vāk and karma) is

associated with four mudrās and five Buddha families: kāya-mahāmudrā with

Vairocana, cit-samayamudrā with Akṣobhya, vāk-dharmamudrā with Amitābha and

karma-karmamudrā with Ratnasambhava or Amoghasiddhi. Here, the four mudrās

correspond to the four maṇḍalas.8 In the commentary of NS, Mañjuśrīmitra identifies

mahāmudrā with sambhogakāya (devatākāya), samayamudrā with dharmakāya,

dharmamudrā with vāk and karmamudrā with nirmāṇakāya. However Surativajra’s

commentary gives a different arrangement: mahāmudrā with dharmakāya,

4 Cf. Wayman and Tajima 1992: 55.

5 Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatejorājakalpālokālamkāranāma translated by Suvidyākaravarman

and dBaṅ phyug rgyal mthsan T.T., vol. 76, no. 3454: 202-1-3 to 235-3-8.

6 See SDPT, tr. Skorupski 1983: xxvii-xxviii.

7 “In the case of the mahā-maṇḍalas, because the array of deities is an arrangement in the

rūpa-kāya (Body of Form), one understands them (the mahā-maṇḍala) as comprising the

magical manifestation of shapes (vikurvāṇa) from the treasury of inexhaustible Body. . . . The

samaya-maṇḍala is characterized by an arrangement of thunderbolt (vajra), iron hook (aṅkuśa),

arrow (śara) and so on, which are symbolizing agents for the way in which emancipation is

comprehended; hence, comprises the magical manifestation of shapes from the arranged treasury

of inexhaustible Mind. . . . The dharma-cakra arranges and disposes the deities who stand for

the practice which is the means of teaching how the Doctrine (dharma) is comprehended;

hence, is the blessing (adhisṭhāna) for the magical manifestation of shapes from the arranged

treasury of inexhaustible Speech of all the Tathāgatas. . . . Accordingly, in the case of the

karma-maṇḍala, it arrays the deities who are the offering and other rites; hence one should

understand it as displaying in concise form the practice of all Tathāgatas for the aim of sentient

beings.” (Mkhas-grub-rje’s Rgyud sde spyiḥi rnam par gźag pa rgyas par brjod, tr. Lessing

and Wayman 1998 (1968): 224, n. 20.)

8 Quoted in Mkhas-grub-rje’s Rgyud sde spyiḥi rnam par gźag pa rgyas par brjod, tr. Lessing

and Wayman 1998 (1968): 225.

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189

Table 2.1: Maṇdalas in Association with Symbolic Concepts in Buddhism

a. Vajravarman's commentary on SDPT

Jñānakāya

Vairocana

Dharmadhātu

Samayakāya

Śākyamuni

Bodhicitta

Karmakāya

Vajrapāṇi

Pratītya-samutpāda

b. Commentary on the SDPT called sNaṅ bahi rgyan

Basic maṇḍala

Tathāgata Kula

Mahāmudrā

Kāya

Saṃbhogakāya

Uṣṇīṣa maṇḍala

Padma Kula

Dharmamudrā

Vāk

Nirmāṇakāya

Maṇḍala of worldly

gods, e.g. Amitāyus

Vajra Kula

Samayamudrā

Citta

Dharmakāya

c. Commentary on STTS by Buddhaguhya

Mahāmaṇḍala

Kāya

Samayamaṇḍala

Citta

Dharmamaṇḍala

Vāk

Karmamaṇḍala

Karma

d. Commentary on STTS by Ānandagarbha (Tattvāloka)

Mahāmudrā

Kāya

Vairocana

Samayamudrā

Citta

Akṣobhya

Dharmamudrā

Vāk

Amitābha

Karmamudrā

Karma

Ratnasambhava/Amoghasiddhi

e. Commentary on NS by Mañjuśrīmitra

Mahāmudrā

Saṃbhogakāya

Samayamudrā

Dharmakāya

Dharmamudrā

Vāk

Karmamudrā

Nirmāṇakāya

f. Commentary on NS by Surativajra

Mahāmudrā

Dharmakāya

Samayamudrā

Saṃbhogakāya

Dharmamudrā

Jñānavāk

Karmamudrā

Nirmāṇakāya

90 |

samayamudrā with sambhogakāya, dharmamudrā with jñānavāk and karmamudrā with nirmāṇakāya.9 These differing accounts render us a glimpse of the scholastic symbolism of these maṇdalas in association with the kāyas, the mudrās, and the triguhyas. Although the correspondences between maṇdalas and the symbolic concepts of Buddhism are not always consistent,10 from the above account we can understand that multiple layers of manifestations have been conceived to be associated with these maṇdalas. (Table 2.1)

II. 2 Multiple Layers of Form in Maṇdalas

II.2.1 Three levels of Maṇḍalas: Svabhāva, Samādhi and Pratibimba

The words of Buddhaguhya presuppose different levels of form between the perceptible forms of maṇdalas and their ultimate meaning of Śūnya. Since Buddhaguhya was the prime commentator of the important Yoga Tantras, his expositions provide us with a reliable basis for understanding the metaphysical dimensions of maṇdalas.

In his commentary to SDPT, Buddhaguhya clearly specifies the relation between a maṇḍala in meditation and one physically delineated. He starts his exegesis on “the concise meaning of maṇḍala”11 with the following verse:

Now I shall teach about the reflected image of the conceptual basic maṇḍala.12

It is remarkable to read the term ‘the reflected image of the conceptual basic maṇḍala’ because it signifies that there is an original image which is reflected. In other words, the original maṇḍala is conceptual and the tangible, externally drawn maṇḍala is a reflected image (pratibimba) of the original maṇḍala (bimba). Therefore, this verse clearly directs the reader towards a metaphysical dimension. On a following verse of SDPT “One should draw the outer maṇḍala”, he gives a detailed commentary:

9 NS, tr. Davidson 1981: 38, n. 127.

10 Cf. Snellgrove 1987: 250-51. In dealing with the tantric set of four Buddha-bodies in allocation to the four cakras in one’s body, Snellgrove mentions: “The allocation is so arbitrary and displays so many variations that this can scarcely be the case” (ibid.: 251). His comment on the tantric equation of four demonstrates how cryptic the allocation is.

11 The complete section of Buddhaguhya’s “the concise meaning of maṇḍala” and verses of SDPT whose commentary it is meant for is translated by Alex Wayman (1990 (1973): 92-97).

12 Ibid.: 93.

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Cognition manifests. One must visualize the samādhi-maṇḍala. The outer maṇḍala is a reflected image of that, and since that is the required basis, one speaks of an "outer maṇḍala"; and in order to symbolize that, there is the expression "outer maṇḍala".13

The commentary clarifies that the samādhi-maṇḍala is the basis of the outer maṇḍala. Maṇḍala's image, externally produced, is the reflection (pratibimba) of the samādhi-maṇḍala, projected by the consciousness of the meditator. This only leaves the question of 'where the samādhi-maṇḍala originates from?'

In the Dharmamaṇḍala Sūtra (DMS), Buddhaguhya renders us three levels of the maṇḍala, wherein svabhāva-maṇḍala is added to the above two categories of meditation (samādhi-maṇḍala) and image (pratibimba-maṇḍala). Buddhaguhya describes maṇḍalas from the perspective of the three levels of form: svabhāva, samādhi and pratibimba. Svabhāva (self-nature), often encountered as a synonym of Śūnya, may be equated to the nature of Śūnya, and its reference in association with maṇḍalas directly connects the perceptible forms of maṇḍalas to the formless Ultimate. According to DMS, the three levels of maṇḍalas can be outlined as follows:

i) Svabhāva-maṇḍala is twofold: absolute and relative. "the maṇḍala of absolute self nature abides in the primeval state itself, just as it is, as nothing at all."14 "The absolute may or may not be categorized."15 The Absolute, which cannot be categorized, is identified with bodhicitta and prajñā, and "it is truly said to be the 'essence' of the maṇḍala, as taught in all the great tantra."16 The absolute svabhāva-maṇḍala that may be categorized is exemplified by skandha (components of personality), dhātu (spheres of sense), āyatana (bases of consciousness) and nidāna (the twelve interdependent causes), and they are said to have the same essential nature as the gods and goddesses, in complete accordance with the Dharma.17 The text states that maṇḍalas of the relative svabhāva-maṇḍala appear as signs in order to represent the absolute truth.

ii) Samādhi-maṇḍala is threefold: meditating on the divinity's self-nature, studying his form and producing him skilfully.

13 Wayman 1990 (1973): 94.

14 DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 796.

15 Ibid.: 795.

16 Ibid.

17 Ibid.

iii) Pratibimba maṇḍala is twofold: with images and with superior images. Six different kinds of media for the maṇḍala-making are given as the former - gold and silver, relievo shell, and so on. The superior image is explained to be threefold, as outer, inner and secret; the outer image is the body with the five limbs, the inner image is the five subtle cakras, and the secret superior image is the union of vajra and lotus.18

Three levels of maṇḍalas described by Buddhaguhya may be understood as three layers coexisting in a maṇḍala with varying levels of subtlety, rather than as three different types of maṇdalas. The three levels of maṇḍalas include not only the external maṇḍala but also the formless and inconceivable maṇḍalas. The “image maṇḍala” refers to the material dimension of a maṇḍala. The “superior image” corresponds to the subtle form, if we interpret “the body of the five limbs” and “five cakras” to be respectively the gross and subtle manifestation of pañcakula (the five lineages). The maṇḍala of the secret superior image means the complete identification of the vajra, i.e. the practitioner, with the lotus which is the undefiled essence.19 The maṇḍala of meditation is related to the process of the contemplation of deities. The maṇḍala of svabhāva may signify the realm of Śūnya, as Śūnya is often defined as svabhāva.

However, some verses from the section about maṇḍala-related flaws or shortcomings give us another possible way to interpret how these three categories could be understood.

If you do not understand the maṇḍala of svabhāva, you will be at cross purpose in your view of dharmatā (absolute truth). . . . If you do not practise the meditation maṇḍala, there will be no result at all since your meditation will be pervaded by discriminating thought. . . . If you do not identify the maṇḍala of images, in your confusion, you will not taste the intended flavour: by failing to ensure the benefit of others you will be at cross purposes with the practice of enlightenment.20

The practice of maṇḍala illustrated in this verse can actually be viewed as three different practices, involving the three categories of maṇḍala. However, since the

18 DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 795-96.

19 The union of vajra and lotus does not necessarily mean sexual intercourse. The vajra here means the practitioner and the lotus symbolizes the pure essence which is not defiled by anger, lust and ignorance. Here the clause “the union of vajra and lotus” is interpreted with the help of Geshe Tsewang, in a personal teaching on 4 August 2007.

20 DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 800.

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193

structure of the maṇḍala is described within the framework of the relative svabhāva-

maṇḍala and since the other maṇḍalas are said to be identical,21 this possibility does

not exclude the concept of a maṇḍala which has three levels of nature: svabhāva,

meditation and images. We may be reminded that the absolute svabhāva which cannot

be categorized is the essence of the maṇḍala. Additionally, when in DMS Buddhaguhya

expounds upon the palace of the maṇḍala, he again illuminates the metaphysical

dimensions of space within the maṇḍala. In the text, the shape of the maṇḍala palace

is explained in the context of the relative svabhāva-maṇḍala, and its space is classified

as fourfold: the exterior, the interior, the entrances and the foundation.

The outer shape is intended as a stūpa, a citadel, a royal residence and a pavilion (on) a

mountain top.

The inner shape is decided in conformity with the various tantras, by the (Buddha) families

and their functions.

As for the entrances, they have lower and upper (parts).

The lower ones consist of the actual entrance and the gateway; the upper ones are built in

a way which is as beautiful as possible (with) mounting steps (round like) elephants'

backs, and so forth.

As for the shape of the basis, it is boundless and level to infinity.22

Buddhaguhya’s exposition on the fourfold shape of the maṇḍala palace projects a picture

of the maṇḍala consisting of layers of inner forms. This fourfold structure actually

describes an internal transformation of form, smoothly grading from the physical level

to the transcendental, proclaiming there to be inner forms beyond the pictorial shapes.

"The outer shape" referred to above may mean the external forms of maṇḍala as we

perceive it. "The inner shape" could mean the subtle form imbued with symbolic

meanings that is grasped when one internalizes the maṇḍala. The text says that the inner

shape is decided by five symbols - wheel, vajra, jewel, lotus and crossed vajra - which

represent the five Buddha families (pañcakula).23 After internalization follows the real

entrance to the realm of Dharma in the state of absorption, which has two stages: low

and high. The aesthetic elaborations over the doorways described in the above verse

seem to imply the joy and bliss of the experience of entering. Having entered the

maṇḍala, one is in contact with the realm of Dharma. The shape of maṇḍala at the state

of complete absorption is "the basis", the realm of dharmadhātu. The text says:

21 Cf. DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 796-800.

22 Ibid.: 796-97.

23 Ibid.: 796, 801.

94 |

The extent of the basis is shown as infinite because of the limitless spread of the dharmadhātu.24

The discourses of Buddhaguhya postulate that the svabhāva-maṇḍala is the origin of the external maṇḍalas, and that those maṇḍalas consisting of the palace, divinities and colours are basically supported by dharmadhātu. Their external forms are transformed through the stages of meditation, and the maṇḍala contains various layers of form, from the gross to the subtle and beyond. We have to bear in mind that the maṇḍalas are not static objects, but are rather objects that must be approached through an internal vision. It should be emphasized at this point that the maṇḍalas are precisely meant to be experienced through such a process. Thus, we should not be bound to the mere external appearance of a maṇḍala, but should instead try to discern how the visuals of the geometric palace, divinities and colours are transformed within the inner consciousness of the viewer. According to DMS, the visual details of divinities - bodily form, colours, marks of perfection, hand gestures, attributes, postures, mode of manifestation, ornaments and garments - are "used as token symbols for the realization, as methodical symbols for marking (the process) and as mudrā for this (tantric) practice".25 The images of divinities seen in maṇḍalas are comparable to the knots that should be untied in order to proceed further within the experience. They are akin to a door through which the inner room is attained.

II. 2.2 Maṇḍalas of Kāya, Vāk and Citta in the Mahāvairocanābhisambodhi Tantra

Now one might consider a different formulation to understand the levels of form in maṇḍalas. The discourse on the three maṇḍalas as described in MVT conveys non-hierarchical, horizontal layers of subtle forms that have taken the external shapes of maṇḍalas. Maṇḍalas, as explicated in MVT specifically denote "the spontaneous manifestation" and "the direct transformation" of the Perfect Enlightenment (abhisambodhi). The manifestation and transformation are the natural results of Vairocana's Perfect Enlightenment, as the full title of the text indicates: Mahāvairocana-abhisambodhi-vikurvati-adhiṣṭhāna-Tantra. In a commentary on MVT, Buddhaguhya explains the term vikurvati (manifestation) as follows:

At the moment of his Perfect Enlightenment (abhisambodhi), he (Vairocana) spontaneously pervaded all of the Three Realms, unsurpassed by anyone, with the Adornments of his

24 DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 802.

25 Ibid.: 806.

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195

Inexhaustible Body. . . . Likewise the Adornments of his Inexhaustible Speech also pervaded all of the Three Realms with the sacred Speech of the Buddha and taught the Dharma. And in the same way, the Adornments of his Inexhaustible Mind manifested as the various cakras of earth, water and so on, which arise from the mind with perceptual images.

Yet, the manifestations of Vairocana’s kāya, vāk and citta are beyond the perceptible range (gocara) of ordinary beings, only perceived by pure Bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra. Thus, they are respectively transformed (adhiṣṭhāna) to the maṇdalas, mantras and mudrās of the Tantra for the sake of trainees. In this setting of MVT, maṇdalas are viewed as the transformation of Vairocana’s kāya, the Inexhaustible Body. On the other hand, it imparts the three maṇdalas of kāya, vāk and citta, which are collectively said to be “arisen from the matrix of compassion (karuṇāgarbhodaya)”. It is perplexing, if we attempt to establish a logically consistent system between the maṇdalas of kāya-vāk-citta and maṇḍala-mantra-mudrā in the Tantra. The kāya-maṇḍala called Mahākaruṇāgarbhodbhāva Maṇḍala is drawn two-dimensionally but is imagined in three dimensions. The vāk-maṇḍala has a bīja for each deity that must be combined with a mudrā. The citta-maṇḍala is also called the Secret Maṇḍala, and its drawing is described in chapter XIII. One should pay careful attention to the fact that the Tantra also describes the layout of citta-maṇḍala. It means that not only is nirmāṇakāya represented at the physical level, but also the dharmakāya, believed to be inconceivable, finds its representation in the physical realm. These three maṇḍalas are all conceived with external forms, taken as only “reflected images” of “the original image” in samādhi.

It is conceived in MVT that the three maṇḍalas of the Tantra are parallel expressions of kāya, vāk and citta of the Perfect Enlightenment, while the expositions of the Dharmamaṇḍala Sūtra imply that three maṇḍalas of pratibimba, samādhi and svabhāva lie within the grades of subtlety, from gross to subtle and beyond. By juxtaposing these two diverse exegeses of maṇḍalas, we conceive the varying layers

MVT 3a-b, tr. Hodge 2003: 44.

Cf. ibid.

"All those same adornments of his Inexhaustible Body and so on are revealed for the sake of trainees as physical, verbal and mental attributes, by means of the maṇḍalas, mantras and mudrās in the Tantra. ‘Adhiṣṭhāna’ means he caused them to be present in the nature and the guise of body, speech and mind, by means of maṇḍalas, mantras and mudrās." (cf. ibid.)

Hodge 2003: 33.

It is elaborated in chapter II of MVT.

96 |

Voice of the Void

of forms in maṇdalas as both parallel and in a series. Nonetheless, we find in both exegeses

a clear conformity in comprehending the metaphysical source of physical maṇdalas. MVT

mentions two aspects of dharmadhātu: the Profound and the Extensive, which is

reminiscent of the description of two aspects of svabhāva-maṇḍala - the absolute and the

relative - given in DMS. The Profound is the bodhimaṇḍa (the core of Enlightenment),

"the place where a Buddha becomes perfectly enlightened", "the place of

Perfect Enlightenment in the Akaniṣṭha realm", and "the places of awakening to the Great

Enlightenment in the abode of men".31 The Extensive is the svabhāva maṇḍala formed

by the Inexhaustible Adornments of Vairocana's kāya, vāc and citta,32 which undergoes

transformation into maṇḍala-mantra-mudrā of the Tantra and also into the three maṇḍalas

of kāya, vāc and citta. Thus, one sees that the three maṇḍalas of kāya, vāc and citta described

in the Tantra are assigned to the Extensive aspect of dharmadhātu. Compared to the

Extensive aspect of dharmadhātu, the relative aspect of svabhāva-maṇḍala lays the basis

for the perceptible expression of maṇḍalas in DMS.

II.3 Practice of Visualization

The visualization practice of maṇḍalas demonstrates their innate depth, their internal

and transcendental experience. Textual accounts of maṇḍalas are most often not any

of methodical descriptions saying how pictorial maṇḍalas should be delineated in

physical space, but rather are meant for the visualization and imagination in the inner

space of one's mind. The process of producing a maṇḍala takes place in the virtual

space of samādhi. However, maṇḍala paintings display a significant similarity to the

instructions given for meditative visualization, in terms of the physical characteristics

such as a square layout with four gates, an eight-spoked wheel in the centre, or any

anthropomorphic revelations of divinities. The present volume does not attempt to

answer the question as to whether the meditation practice of visualizing a maṇḍala

has influenced the maṇḍala arts or vice versa. Nevertheless, the descriptions of

visualizing a maṇḍala certainly highlight the meditative background of the physical

creation of a maṇḍala. They also demonstrate the inseparable relationship among the

three main tools of the tantric ritual: mantra, mudrā and maṇḍala.

II.3.1 Process of Visualization

The process of visualizing a maṇḍala can be observed from the perspective of the

transformation of the relationship between the subject and the object. The descriptions

31 Hodge 2003: 564 in the glossary.

32 Cf. Hodge 2003: 34.

Multiple Layers of Form Implied in the Discourses on Mandalas 197

of visualization given by contemporary practitioners help scholars in seeing the relation between the object of maṇḍala and the meditating subject. For example, Geshe Tsewang of Ladakh, a practitioner of the Heruka Maṇḍala meditation, describes the visualization process as follows:

First, one should study the external forms of a maṇḍala. Each detail - for example colour, posture, attribute of deities and their meanings - should be learnt and carefully registered in the mind. Then, one leaves the external forms of maṇḍala behind, and internally visualizes each detail in due course from outside towards the inside. Depending on the maṇḍala, the order of visual recollection differs. The images of deities are generated at one's own will, and due rituals for entering the maṇḍala should be performed. When all the detail has been visualized, one finally reaches the centre. The central deity is visualized in front of him. The deity gives the blessing to him in the forms of light or rainbow, etc. The blessing of the deity empowers the practitioner in the path to Enlightenment. The maṇḍala is to be practised regularly in order to strengthen the power to reach the highest Truth.33

This process corresponds to the threefold samādhi-maṇḍala mentioned in DMS: meditating on the divinity's self-nature, studying his form and producing him skilfully.34 The above description helps us in grasping the general pattern of visualization as it is practised today.

We now look into some references which have more direct relevance to the maṇḍalas of our concern. SDPT, one of the primary Yoga Tantras, provides us with valuable accounts in this regard. The following excerpts summarize the description given for the maṇḍala of Supreme Royal Maṇḍala (maṇḍalarājāgrī) in the Tantra:35

1. It begins with the recitation: “OṂ the syllable A, the source of all dharmas on account of their non-origination from the beginning.”

2. By means of vajra produced from the syllable HUṂ, there arises the Air-Maṇḍala, on top of it the Fire-Maṇḍala from the syllable RĀṂ, on top of it the Great Waters from the syllables VĀṂ, and on top of them the Gold-Maṇḍala from the syllable KĀṂ. By means of mantra HUṂ SUṂ HUṂ in its centre, Mt. Sumeru is produced. It is empowered by the mantra and the mudrā. On top of Sumeru, by means of karmamudrā, a square palace with four gates is produced from the white syllable BHUṂ.

33 Personal interview with Geshe Tsewang on 4 August 2007.

34 DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 795.

35 SDPT, tr. Skorupski 1983: 26-31.

3. The inner maṇḍala has the eight-spoked wheel. At its centre is the Lion Seat with a lunar disc, and within the eight spokes there are also lunar discs.

4. Entering into a state of concentration known as “Sky Pervading”, the practitioner envisages, on the lunar disc resting on the Lion Seat, the vowels and the consonants melting into one another.

5. By means of the mantra whose svabhāva is the bodhicitta: “OṂ SAGE SAGE GREAT SVĀHĀ”, he becomes fully perfected as Sakya lion.

6. Entering into a state of concentration as Lord Buddha, he should perform the mantra and the mudrā.

7. From the syllable A is produced a lunar disc in the heart of Śākyamuni.

8. Then on the lunar disc, the mantras of all the divinities are brought to maturation.

9. The mantra of each divinity is produced and five rays come forth from the mantra. These rays enter his or her heart.

10. The mingling of the mantra and the rays produces the perfect bodily forms. All the divinities of the maṇḍala should be envisaged one by one.

11. The text describes colours, mudrās, attributes, postures and locations as the characteristics of bodily forms of divinities.

The maṇḍalas of five elements produced from bījas are the foundation for further meditative constructions of maṇḍala. When the maṇḍala palace and its central seat are visualized, then begins the process of the production of images of deities. From items 4-6, the visualization of the central deity is described: one visualizes vowels and consonants melting into one another upon a lunar disc in its centre; by means of the mantra, one becomes the central deity and performs the ritual as such. Items 7-8 describe the generation of the anthropomorphic images of other divinities: syllable A is visualized in the heart. ‘A’ produces the lunar disc where the mantras of other deities come into maturation; the mantra of each deity and five rays coming out of the mantra mingle in the heart and produce the bodily form. Here, we witness the dynamic interplay between syllables and visuals, especially in the descriptions of “vowels and consonants melting into one another” or with “mantra and five rays mingling”. The role of syllable and mantra is seen to be essential in the process of visualization.

Now it is time to examine the description given in Buddhaguhya’s commentary

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on MVT. It needs careful examination because it speaks in detail about the central role

of the syllable A in the process of identification of the practitioner as the central deity,

which has been briefly referred to in the above process from SDPT (item 7).

You should imagine any one of the four aspects of A as appropriate in the moon disc in your

heart. Perceiving that the sound of this A signifies that all phenomena are unborn from the

śūnya, with the technique (yoga) [of realizing that] they are unarisen and unborn from the

very beginning, you should dissolve your psycho-physical constituents (skandhas) into the

śūnya, with the technique of reducing them to atoms. Having imagined that

there is only A present in the moon disc, you should then, following the above method,

dissolve both the moon disc and the A itself, which are without any objective basis, and

maintain samādhi of śūnya for as long as you wish. Then arising out of the samādhi by

virtue of your compassion, you should imagine that A in the area of your heart, with the

conviction that it is like a magical illusion. With the technique of radiating light forth from

that A and then drawing it back, you should transform yourself into the appearance of your

tutelary deity. That should be done until you appear with certitude in the body-image of your

tutelary deity. . . . Having thus transformed your own body into the body-image of the deity,

you should imagine an A in your heart, and following that A you should imagine a moon

disc, the bodhicitta symbol, which is like a mirror. It should be very radiant and unsullied.

You should then imagine that the letter A in its centre becomes the Bhagavat Vairocana.36

The visualization has been described in the context of the identification of the

practitioner with the tutelary deity and its transformation into Vairocana. Here, the

expansion and dissolution of A represent the transformational power found throughout

the process. We will return to the significance of A when we deal with the tantric

practice surrounding Sanskrit syllables.

In Mañjuśrīmitra's Upadeśa on NS we see the intimate relationship between the

mantric sound and the visual form of the maṇḍala. Before the recitation of NS, the

mantra “a ā i ī u ū e ai o au aṃ ai” should be pronounced. Constructing the basic

maṇḍala are the rays of light shining through the mantra, which are the rays of light

from one's own mind on account of the svabhāva of Śūnya. These rays of light are

considered as the vowels (āli) and consonants (kāli). In the centre of the maṇḍala,

Mahāvairocana is to be visualized. In the heart of Mahāvairocana, the Ādi Buddha is

visualized. In the heart of the Ādi Buddha, prajñācakra (wheel of wisdom) is visualized.

By reciting mantra of six mantrarājās six spokes are visualized on the prajñācakra.

36 MVT VI.23 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 175-76. I have in the quotation used the term śūnya

instead of the translation “emptiness” by Hodge.

100 |

Above that cakra, the jñāna-sattva in the form of syllable A is visualized. The rays of

A are imagined to enter the practitioner in the form of the six jñāna-maṇdalas. Mantrin

begins the recitation of the text, being based on the six maṇdalas, proceeding up to

verse 157. Through the recitation of verses 28-41, one visualizes the words

corresponding to the names recited which arise from the syllable A. They transform

into the group of deities belonging to the maṇḍala of Bodhicittavajra (Mahāvairocana).

They go forth to work for the sake of all living beings, and return to assemble again

within the maṇḍala. In the same way, the recitation of the verses 42-66 generates the

maṇḍala of Vairocana in the immediate retinue of the Mahāvairocana maṇḍala; by

the verses 66-76, the maṇḍala of Akṣobhya arises in the east; from the verses 77-118,

the maṇḍala of Amitābha in the west; from verses 119-42, the maṇḍala of

Ratnasambhava in the south; and from verses 143-57, the maṇḍala of Amoghasiddhi

in the north. Then, the twenty praises are recited (vv. 158-62), directed to the whole

great maṇḍala.37

II.3.2 Concepts Extracted from the Visualization Practice

The visualization process seen above, though not exhaustive, underlines some profound

dimensions of maṇḍalas and suggests their metaphysical arena. Now some prominent

concepts that play key roles in the processes of visualization will be taken into account.

The Syllable and the Bodily Form of Deity

Within the process of visualization we first observe a clear indication that the bodily

form of a deity is associated with the syllable. Here, the perceptible form evolves

from the seed syllable (bīja) of the deity; in other words, the bīja is the support of the

bodily form of the deity. As the term bīja indicates, it is the seminal cause that would

bring forth the form through planting and nourishing. The seed syllable, bīja, contains

the innate divine form within it. By means of the recitation of mantra, the bīja of a

particular deity is nourished to grow into a distinct form. The visualization of a deity

on the basis of syllables is well described in a passage from the Sādhanamālā, a tantric

manual of meditation, describing the visualization of the Goddess Tārā.

Square, with four doors, ornamented with eight columns, surrounded by four verandas,

embellished with four arches . . . in the midst of it he should imagine the moon, born by

transformation from a double row of vowels, and above this, a vajra born by the

37 The extraction is based on Davidson’s translation of Mañjuśrīmitra’s Upadeśa of NS. Cf. NS,

tr. Davidson 1981: 45-47.

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transformation of the syllable TĀM. From this the sun is born by the

transformation of a double row of the following letters ḌA, ḌHA, DA, DHA, YA, LA.

When these two (sun and moon) are joined together, great bliss results. With the rays

emanating from these seeds (that is the above-mentioned syllables) he may attract beings.

Then, when he has caused the cycle of his protecting deities to penetrate (into himself) the

yogin should actuate by mediation the Goddess Tārā, born of the transmutation of these

indicative syllables.38

The above passage from SM gives a detailed account about the process which has

been outlined in items 3-5 of the above description from SDPT.39 SDPT only briefly

speaks of the process: “the practitioner envisages, on the lunar disc resting on the

Lion Seat, the vowels and the consonants melting into one another”. SM specifies the

moon born by the transformation from vowels, and the sun, transformed from

consonants. Thus, it can be postulated that the description in SDPT of “vowels and

consonants, melting together” signifies the complete union of the moon and the sun.

The moon represents bodhicitta or prajñā, while the sun stands for bija or

upāya.40 Furthermore, the lunar disc upon the lion seat that follows the visualization

of the maṇḍala palace indicates the co-existence of the moon and the sun. The union

of vowels and consonants is the basis of not only the distinct form of a deity, but also

of the entire maṇḍala group, according to Mañjuśrīmitra’s Upadeśa on NS wherein

the intimacy between the maṇḍala and the mantra is well illustrated. Mantras of the

vowels instigate the state of Śūnya towards manifesting in the form of light, which is

bodhicitta, and the light consisting of vowels and consonants creates the basic maṇḍala,

which gives birth to the six jñāna-maṇdalas.

Outside the general role of syllables in the visualization practice, we observe that

the syllable A has been especially esteemed as the source of multiple forms. For

instance, in Mañjuśrīmitras’s account, the jñanasattva of the Ādi Buddha takes the

form of the syllable A, and A is transformed into six jñāna-maṇḍalas to enter the body

of the mantrin. In SDPT, the visualization starts with the salutation to A, wherein A is

praised as the source of all dharmas (i.e. of all phenomena). In this process, the syllable

A is visualized in the heart of the divinized self, and it produces the lunar disc, which

is the source of all the deities of the maṇḍala. In Buddhaguhya’s commentary on

38 SM (vol. I: 224), tr. Tucci 1961: 34.

39 Supra, p. 98.

40 The text specifies that the vowels and the consonants represent Wisdom and Means.

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Voice of the Void

MVT it is also seen that the syllable A serves as the door through which one dissolves into Śūnya and is reborn with the body of the tutelary deity. The description given above from the MVT verifies the dynamic transformations of A throughout the process of visualization.41

These limited references to the tantric visualization practice, though calling for further investigation, may be enough to highlight the importance of looking into the auditory facet of the visual components of mandalas. We see a close affinity among the descriptions of visualization from various texts, in that it is denoted that the bodily form of a deity or a maṇḍala is metaphysically founded on the union of bodhicitta and bīja. The description of visualization typically begins with imagining the lunar disc, i.e. bodhicitta. The lunar disc is brought to its subtle manifestation by means of consonants or via the bīja of a particular deity. The bīja mantra is literally the divine seed which contains the divine energy in a compact form. When it is planted in the soil of bodhicitta, it will bloom into bimba (the primary manifestation) in the metaphysical plane. Thus, it is the union of bīja mantra with bodhicitta that generates the bimba manifestation of a divinity.42 Here, we should keep in mind that the bimba manifestation of a maṇḍala is not the same as its perceptible pictorial forms. Maṇḍalas described in the tantric texts refer to their bimba form, which the practitioner creates internally, on the metaphysical plane.

A Compound: Maṇḍalas, Mantras and Mudrās

A reading of descriptions of the visualization practice shows that mantras play a crucial role in the visualization of a deity. It is mantra that stimulates bīja to unfold into divine form. In Brhad Gandharva Tantra it is stated: “Bījas contain innate divine forms within them and with just the utterance of mantra, the deity physically presents her or himself.”43 It is easier to understand the intimate connection between mantras and maṇḍalas in regard to Hindu yantras; often the syllables, rather than anthropomorphic images of deities, are written within their geometric layout.44

41 Supra, p. 99.

42 The idea is well represented in HT I.3.2: prathamam śūnyatābodhim dvitīyam bījasamgraham tṛtīyam bimbanispattim caturthan nyāsam akṣaram|| “first the realization of the void, secondly the seed in which all is concentrated, thirdly the physical manifestation, and fourthly one should implant the syllable” (tr. Snellgrove 1959, vol. I: 56, vol. II: 12).

43 Tr. Woodroffe 1951: 245; cf. Joshi 1999: 81.

44 In the context of Hindu ritual, we find a direct connection between maṇḍalas and mantras (cf.

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103

Conversely, Buddhist maṇdalas do not immediately reveal their connections to mantras, except dharma-maṇḍala. While the power of Hindu yantras is assumed to derive from the power of mantra because mantra is the main means to invoke deities to reside within the yantra, Buddhist maṇḍalas to some extent conceal the mantric power behind their anthropomorphic representations of deities. However, a close look into the visualization or the ritual that employs the maṇḍala unveils the role of mantra in generating these maṇḍala deities. The auditory value of mantras is addressed towards the auditory aspect of bīja, thus mantras serve as the efficient agent to bring the forms out of the formless.

That visual images of maṇḍalas have a mantric basis is also stated in the historical record of the three-storeyed temple (dBu-rtse) of bSam-yas.45 Also, in order to explain the intimacy between the syllable and the divine image, Tucci quotes a verse from Śākta Ānandatarangiṇī, in his book on maṇḍalas: “twofold is the aspect of Divinity, one, subtle, represented by the mantra and the other coarse, represented by an image”.46 Here we may also consider mudrā in relation to maṇḍala and mantra. The MVT discusses akṣara (syllable), mudrā and rūpa as the three forms of the divinity.47 Further, it describes two aspects of each form - the perceptible and the non-perceptible. The Tantra states:

→ Padoux 2003: 225-38). In samaya-dīkṣā described in TĀ, chapter XV, the initiand being blindfolded casts flowers on triśūlābja-maṇḍala (ibid.: 228). When the cloth is swiftly removed “he, suddenly seeing the sacrificial area illuminated by the supernatural power of the mantras (mantraprabhāvollasite sthale), is possessed by them and identifies with them (tadāveśavaśāc cchiṣyas tanmayatvaṃ prāpayate).” TĀ XV.451b-452a says: “As a lover perceives directly the virtues of his beloved, in the same way [the initiand] made perfect by the descent of divine grace (śaktipātasamskrtaḥ), experiences the presence of the mantras (mantrasannidhi)”. Padoux adds in this regard: “Tantric pantheons are as much structured groups of mantras as groups of deities”. And he again places emphasis on the power of the mantra in maṇḍalas in the context of the next step of Śaiva initiation, putraka-dīkṣā, which is underlined in TĀ XVII.1-3 and described in TĀ XVI.23-26: “Thus, pervaded with the power of the maṇḍala, that is the power of the mantras placed in this diagram, he will be all the more able to transmit this transforming power to the initiand” (ibid.: 230).

45 “All the murals were [executed] in accordance with the manner of the Sūtra; all the figures (lder tsho) were [executed] in the manner of the Tantric Mantra” Sa-skya-pa (bla-ma dam-pa) bSod-nams-rgyal-mtshan [1312-75], rGyal-rabs gsal-ba'i me-long [1368]. Sørensen 1994: 381.

46 Cf. Tucci 1961: 60.

47 Cf. MVT VII.3, tr. Hodge 2003: 208.

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Voice of the Void

There are two types of letters (akṣara) - sound and bodhicitta. There are two types of

mudrā - that with form and that without form. . . . The natural form (rūpa) of the deity is

of two types - completely pure and the impure.48

The perceptible aspects of these three forms obviously find their empirical

correspondences in mantras,49 mudrās, and maṇdalas, which may be counted as the

triad of tantric rituals. As Buddhaguhya explains, the three types of form describe the

intrinsic threefold nature of the deity; mantras, mudrās and maṇdalas are an inseparable

compound which bespeak the intrinsic perceptible nature of the deity.

The process of creating a maṇḍala in samādhi includes the use of mudrā and mantra

as part of its method. Mudrā has various meanings: a seal or stamp of authority or the

imprint of the seal; a symbolic representation of a concrete form; an idea presented

through hand gestures or facial expressions; a ritual hand gesture; a female partner for

tantric practice; the Supreme Reality.50 In relation to the visualization of maṇḍala, the

term mudrā designates the ritual bodily gestures to invoke and imitate the deity. We

have specific references of mudrā explained in the context of Yoga Tantras in the

Rgyud sde spyiḥi rnam par gag pa rgyas par brjod of Mkhas-grub-rje (cE 1385-1438):

If one intensely contemplates a god in conformity to the acts in the province of a Buddha

but does not apply the mudrās of the four Mudrās, then links of the path are missing.51

Here, it is explicitly stated that mudrā is the crucial factor to link with a deity - to

invoke, visualize and identify with a god. Performing the mudrā of a deity implies the

contemplation of that deity, which finally leads to self-identification.

One should not overlook the meaning of impressing with mudrās: it is the method of

intense contemplation of a god.52

Thus, mudrās designate the entire process of contemplation; or, it is the symbolic

expression through one’s body during the contemplation of a deity. Mudrā is the

primary, immediate method to identify oneself with a deity.53 The triad of tantric ritual

48 MVT VII.3, tr. Hodge 2003: 208.

49 Buddhaguhya in the commentary clarifies that sound refers to the syllable (akṣara) of mantra.

50 Cf. Gupta 2005: 6219.

51 Mkhas-grub-rje’s Rgyud sde spyiḥi rnam par gag pa rgyas par brjod, tr. Lessing and Wayman

1998 (1968): 227.

52 Ibid.: 229.

53 Cf. MVT X.17, tr. Hodge 2003: 225.

Multiple Layers of Form Implied in the Discourses on Mandalas | 105

instruments – mantra, mudrā and maṇḍala – appeals to our three major senses: auditory,

tactile and visual. Being complementary to one another, they play important roles

respectively as auditory, tactile and visual symbols in the cosmogonic manifestation

of deities, and in one's absorption to Dharmadhātu. Considering the relationship of

maṇḍala to mantra and mudrā, we can understand the visual aspect of maṇḍala akin

to the sound of mantra and to the touch of mudrā. Also, it can be surmised that their

forms are not confined to the surface levels of a picture, a recitation or a hand gesture,

but rather extend into subtle dimensions related to one another, bound by a common

metaphysical concept.

II. 4 Non-dualism of Form and the Formless in the Practice and

Theory of Buddhist Maṇḍalas

II.4.1 Non-dualism of Multiple Forms and Śūnya

The visualization of maṇḍala begins with imagining of the state of Śūnya. When the

practitioner abides in the samādhi without perceptible form, he comes face to face

with the deities invoked by their mantras.54 Before making a maṇḍala, one should

first be in the samādhi, in śūnya. The master (mantrin) should transform himself and

his disciples into śūnya, before the teaching and practising of maṇḍala.55 Of course, it

must be asked if Śūnya is thereby innate within the visual component of maṇḍala. In

regard to this question, we may recollect Buddhaguhya's description of the three levels

of maṇḍalas in his DMS, i.e. svabhāva, samādhi and pratibimba maṇḍalas. According

to the text, the svabhāva-maṇḍala is of two kinds: the absolute and the relative. It

seems that Buddhaguhya refers to dharmadhātu or Śūnya when he states, "the maṇḍala

of absolute svabhāva abides in the primeval state itself, just as it is, as nothing at all".56

The absolute svabhāva-maṇḍala may or may not be categorized.57 Of these, the latter

is identified with bodhicitta and prajñā, and is said to be the "essence" of the

maṇḍala.58 In the commentary on MVT, svabhāva-maṇḍala is taught to be the

54 Cf. MVT VII.6, tr. Hodge 2003: 212.

55 The preliminary ritual required before teaching and making maṇḍalas has been mentioned in

MVT, especially in chapter X, about the maṇḍala of aksaras. It says: "Having brought to

mind Sarvatathāgata, Bhagavat Vairocana transformed both himself and Vajrapāṇi into the

primordial state of unbornness" (MVT X.4, tr. Hodge 2003: 217).

56 DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 796.

57 Ibid.: 795.

58 Ibid.

manifestation of Mahāvairocana's Perfect Enlightenment, consisting of his kāya, vāk

and citta. The svabhāva-maṇḍala is the subject matter (abhidheya) of the text, and the

maṇḍala, mantra, and mudrā of the text are the transformation of the triguhya of the

svabhāva-maṇḍala.59 We can presuppose that the perceptible maṇḍalas seen and used

in tantric practice are based on the samādhi-maṇḍala, being its pratibimba. The

samādhi-maṇḍala, being bimba, has its origin in the svabhāva-maṇḍala. Thus, the

svabhāva-maṇḍala has to be recognized as the transcendental origin of all maṇḍalas.

The svabhāva-maṇḍala is said to be without perceptual forms and consists of kāya,

vāk and citta of Perfect Enlightenment. Being the spontaneous and instant manifestation

of Perfect Enlightenment, the svabhāva-maṇḍala is none other than Śūnya.

Practice of maṇḍala evidently represents non-dualism between Śūnya and rūpa,

as is described by the following statement from MVT:

Furthermore, in all places, in all colours, shapes and bodies, they (bodily forms of deities)

arise from inconceivable Awareness, therefore they are also inconceivable. The Awareness

realized always becomes a diversity of Awarnesess for the sake of beings.60

If we define Śūnya as “nothing” in the nihilistic sense and understand “no-form” as

the opposite to “multiple forms”, we are still locked within the mindset of materialism,

placing the concept of Śūnya only at the level of physical existence. At the physical

level, Śūnyatā cannot be reconciled with the multiplicity of beings. However, once

the mindset of duality is transcended, Śūnyatā is not the physical emptiness, but is

rather the principle of being – as the Mahāyāna Buddhist defines Śūnya as svabhāva

in a way. In an ultimate sense, Śūnya is not an object to be realized, but is the state of

the Highest Realization in which there is no duality of subject and object.

The realization of the non-dualism of multiple forms and Śūnya is evident even in

the early Mahāyāna Buddhist texts. An oft-quoted stanza from the Prajñāpāramitā

Hrdaya Sūtra makes a clear statement about the non-duality of form and “no-form”.

There are five skandhas, these he considered as by their nature empty. Rūpa is śūnyatā

and śūnyatā indeed is rūpa. Śūnyatā is not different from rūpa, rūpa is not different from

śūnyatā. What is rūpa that is śūnyatā, what is śūnyatā that is rūpa.61

59 Cf. MVT. Introduction in Buddhaguhya's commentary, tr. Hodge 2003: 44-45.

60 MVT XIII.36, tr. Hodge 2003: 274.

61 Prajñāpāramitā Hrdaya Sūtra, tr. Müller 1894: 147-48.

Multiple Layers of Form Implied in the Discourses on Mandalas | 107

Especially in relation to mantrayāna practices, MVT presents a dynamic concept of Śūnya such a description as "the billowing forth of Śūnya".62 In this dynamic concept of Śūnya conceived by tantric practitioners, Śūnya is not mere still and tranquil. It is comparable to the principle that causes constant waves in the ocean, but which itself resides within itself. It is not only the Dharma but also the principle and nature of all dharmas (phenomena). We observe that this non-dualism of Śūnya and rūpa finds for itself a robust position within tantric practice, as it views Śūnya as the vibrant principle.

Reading MVT, a question arises which is directly related to that of the relationship between forms and the formless in mandalas. While Vairocana explains the creation of mandalas, Vajrapāṇi ponders the riddle of using perceptual forms to realize something which is formless and inconceivable.

Buddhas are without perceptual forms, and reside in dharmakāya. If the Dharma they reveal is without attributes, unconditioned, unequalled, then why is this ritual with perceptual form taught for the mantra practice? It does not accord with reality!63

In contrast to the serious and significant question raised by Vajrapāṇi, the answer given by Vairocana in the Tantra is flat and unsatisfying: it is merely to teach "the stupid who wrongly conceive of their environments" in darkness.64 The commentary on this topic is milder: "although its attributes of the Dharma are like that on the absolute level, it is also appropriate to describe things with perceptual forms in order to guide beings in the future".65 And he specifies the perceptible form to be "the condition of a perceiving subject and perceived objects".66 He seems to say that unless we transcend the condition of the dualism between subject and object, we learn something only from perceptible forms. He divides the perceptible form into two categories: those that bring about benefits and those that do not bring about any benefit. In this categorization, mandalas have been included in the former group. The mandala has been referred to along with sādhana and mantra practice as an example of one whose svabhāva is bodhicitta on the absolute level, thus, that brings about beneficial effects on the relative level. On the other hand, perceptible forms of things such as the calendar or constellations are at variance with the absolute level and also

62 Cf. MVT XIII.1 and XXIV.10, tr. Hodge 2003: 254, 368.

63 MVT II.8, tr. Hodge 2003: 89.

64 MVT II.9, tr. Hodge 2003: 89.

65 Ibid. comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 90.

66 MVT II.8 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 89.

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do not bring about any beneficial effect, even on the relative level.67 We can summarize Buddhaguhya’s teachings as saying that those that bring about benefit have their foundation in bodhicitta on the absolute level, and that is why they are used in the spiritual practice.

II.4.2 Transformation of Śūnya into Perceptible Maṇdalas

When a tantric practitioner employs a physical, visible maṇḍala, he orients himself toward svabhāva-maṇḍala. It should be remembered that, in the texts, the external maṇḍala is perceived to be the transformation of svabhāva-maṇḍala. It is this concept of transformation (adhiṣṭhāna) that connects the pictorial maṇḍala with the svabhāva-maṇḍala. The relation between the svabhāva-maṇḍala and the external maṇḍala lays the conceptual basis for the practice of visualization; it also answers the question of why maṇḍalas are used for spiritual practice directed towards the realization of Śūnya and the generation of bodhicitta.

The citta-maṇḍala imparted in MVT is taught to be the transformation of the dharma-kāya. Since the dharmakāya transcends perceptible forms, it cannot be directly revealed. However, it may be revealed through that which resembles its qualities (guṇa). The Tantra states that it is revealed by means of its transformation into the maṇḍalas of earth, water, fire and wind.68 Attention must be paid here to the point that the inconceivable dharmakāya is revealed within those perceptible forms which share its qualities; this must be considered together with Buddhaguhya’s reference to perceptible forms bringing about beneficial effects.69

i) The inconceivable is revealed by its transformation into what shares its characteristics.

ii) The maṇḍala is a perceptible form that must bring about beneficial effects, because its svabhāva is bodhicitta.

67 Cf. MVT II.9 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 90.

68 Buddhaguhya elaborates how the dharmakāya is transformed into the maṇḍalas of the four elements; the authentic, unchanging quality of the dharmakāya is revealed by its transformation into the maṇḍala of earth, because the earth is stable and unchangingly perfect, like a vajra; the dharmakāya’s nature of freedom from all concepts is transformed into the water maṇḍala; its attribute of liberation from all emotional afflictions is transformed into the fire maṇḍala; the ability to perform all activities is transformed into the wind maṇḍala. Cf. MVT XIII, commentarial introduction, tr. Hodge 2003: 254.

69 Cf. MVT II.9 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 90.

Multiple Layers of Form Implied in the Discourses on Mandalas 109

Keeping in mind these two points, we come to the conclusion that the inconceivable Dharma, which may be called Śūnya, dharmadhātu or bodhicitta, has been transformed into the perceptible maṇdalas which bear resemblance due to shared characteristics. The reason why perceptible maṇdalas are used to generate bodhicitta and to realize Śūnya can be found in the concept of the transformation between form and the formless. By studying the perceptual maṇdalas and entering them in samādhi, the qualities of the Ultimate are realized. Having established the transformational relation between perceptible maṇdalas and Śūnya, two major questions remain: (i) what brings about this transformation? and (ii) what features of maṇdalas resemble Śūnya?

Bimba (Image) – Pratibimba (Counter-Image)

As previously mentioned, the subtle maṇḍala exists in the domain of the inner absorption, and the perceptible maṇḍala is the reflection of another image. The original, the bimba, belongs to the metaphysical plane; the other is its pratibimba, mirror image. The visualization practice of Buddhist maṇḍalas has its foundation in the meditative vision, where bodily forms of maṇḍala divinities take birth from Śūnya with the help of mantras and mudrās. Especially in the discourse of the svabhāva-maṇḍala, the perceptible forms are extended across to the notion of Śūnya with the support of the concept of bimba-pratibimba; this suggests an inner meaning of Buddhist maṇḍalas which is non-discursive and different from their symbolic meanings. However, the primary question of the present volume remains unanswered: how do certain maṇḍalas appeal to people even without any knowledge of their forms, symbolism, or philosophy?

Nevertheless, these textual references make evident a crucial presupposition in approach to the question: when the inconceivable Śūnya is revealed and transformed into maṇḍalas, there is a resemblance between the perceptible forms of the maṇḍalas and the qualities of Śūnya. The external form of a maṇḍala is the transformation of the inconceivable Śūnya for the benefit of ordinary people. As has been noted previously, the tantric source clarifies that the external, gross maṇḍalas are actually meant to appeal to the “stupid” ordinary people.70 Therefore, this volume’s unanswered question is actually in accord with the primary intention of visible, perceptible maṇḍalas. They can stir the heart of people prior to any doctrinal knowledge, because their forms resemble the qualities of Śūnya, which is the original state of the Ultimate Consciousness. Consequently, this volume’s primary question of “how do maṇḍalas appeal to ordinary people?” can be answered ironically on the basis of doctrinal

70 MVT II.9, tr. Hodge 2003: 89.

exegesis: the aesthetic response to mandalas is due to their being the representation of Śūnya. However, this leads to a more specific question: "in what way do external mandalas resemble the qualities of Śūnya?" If their resemblance cannot be proven, one might conclude that it is merely a dogmatic belief that views mandalas to be the representation of Śūnya.

To claim the visual dimension of mandalas as parallel to qualities of Śūnya not only speaks much of tantric soteriology, but also bespeaks of a remarkable affirmation of visual forms, which further accentuates the spiritual dimension of these visual forms. The question "in what way do pictorial mandalas resemble the qualities of Śūnya?" requires an aesthetic approach to mandalas, as well as a philosophical and spiritual comprehension of Śūnya. Additionally, we need to look at the transformative power that works between the perceptible mandalas and Śūnya. The factor of transformation (adhiṣṭhāna), as has been observed by means of the textual references, establishes the non-dual relationship between Śūnya and the pictorial mandalas. Here it should be pointed out that it is through this transformational power that mandalas lead ordinary people to experience Śūnya. The problem of whether this experience of Śūnya through mandalas is direct or indirect demands intense philosophical discussion, which will not be dealt with here.

To sum up, reflection on bimba-pratibimba in this context brings us to three broad but important points to be explored in approach to our question: (1) understanding the qualities of Śūnya; (2) analysis of the visible, perceptible forms of mandala; and (3) investigation of the transformational power in the context of tantric practice.

In the following chapters, these three points will be investigated from the perspective of the concept of vā k. Vāk is a valuable concept to explain the process of the creation or transformational power which is crucial to tantric practice. The doctrine of vāk not only elaborates upon speculations concerning the Absolute, but also systematically describes how the Absolute transforms itself into multiplicity. It explains step by step the process of transformation in both directions: i) the expansion of the formless Absolute into multiple forms, and ii) the absorption of the multiple into the formless Absolute. While it logically describes the non-dualistc relationship between multiplicity and Anuttara (the Highest), it provides the scope that could integrate the multiple layers of meanings implied in mandalas, and help focus upon their aesthetic significance.

III.

Vāk in Tantric Buddhist Practices

WE shall examine in this chapter certain references of vāk in the Buddhist Tantras, so as to better appreciate the context within which the mandalas were included in the artistic scheme of the monasteries of Tabo and Alchi.

The concept of vāk may be primarily placed within the broad framework of the cosmology conception of India. The Sanskrit term vāk is known already in the Ṛgveda as female aspect of the androgynous Puruṣa (Cosmic Man)1 and continued to be a theme yielding profound insights in the Upaniṣads.2 When the traditional post-Vedic texts explain the creation of the world, they employ various Sanskrit terms apart from vāk that also mean “the primeval sound”, such as chanda, dhvani, nāda, śabda and anāhata.3 These terms clearly place this vibrating energy of the creative source as the means by which the entire objective world manifests. Sound is an important concept in understanding the cosmological ideas of India. The Vākyapadīya (VP) provides us with valuable sources in this regard. It starts with the verse:

The Brahman who is without beginning or end, very essence is the word (śabdatattvam), who is the cause of the manifested phonemes (akṣaram), that appear as the objects, from which the creation of the world (prakriyā jagato) proceeds (vivartate).4

A clearer description of the role of sound in world-creation can be found in an oft-quoted verse from the same text.

Knowers of tradition (Vedas) have declared that all this is the transformation of the word (śabda). It is from the chandas that this universe has evolved.5

1 See Falk 1943: 3-14, 23.

2 Cf. Falk 1943: 3-26; Padoux 1992: 4-29.

3 Silburn (1988, glossary) translates dhvani as “spontaneous resonance”, anāhata as “continuous inner resonance” or “the unstruck sound”, and nāda as “inaudible sound”.

4 VP I.1, tr. Iyer 1965: 1.

5 VP I.120, tr. Iyer 1965: 107 (śabdasya pariṇāmoyamityāvidō chandobhya eva prathamam etad viśvaṃ vyavartata).

The vision of the sonic energy that originates from the Highest Principle which gives birth to multiple forms is reminiscent of the process of maṇḍala visualization, wherein the syllable A is the mediating principle between Śūnya and the bodily forms of deities.

Although vāk was speculated to be the divine creative principle as early as the Ṛgveda, the earliest theoretical formulation of the concept of vāk is attributed to Bhartrhari (mid-fifth century CE) in his VP.6 The exposition of VP has been further developed in the philosophy of Trika Śaivism. The tantric philosophers who elaborated the speculation of vāk, including Utpaladeva and Abhinavagupta, are apparently influenced by Bhartrhari's philosophy found in VP.7 Consequently, the concept of vāk has been studied largely within the field of Hindu Tantras or in the Indian philosophy of language; however, its importance has not been duly recognized in the study of Buddhist Tantras, except the attention paid by a few scholars.8 The profound meaning of sound, be it named in Sanskrit vāk, śabda or dhvani, is certainly not the invention of Bhartrhari, or the sole domain of Hindu Tantrism. Even though the term vāk is frequently encountered as one of the triguhya in Buddhist Tantras, and despite that the mantra practice is central in understanding Buddhist Tantras, the fundamental concept of vāk has not been prominently brought forth. The vital importance of the concept of vāk in Buddhist practice is evident in the fact that the two essential soteriological techniques of Buddhist Tantras – mantra and visualization – have a common background in the power of vāk. As the fundamental basis for the practices which use mātr̥kās (alphabets), bījas and mantras, vāk serves as the guiding agent in sāadhanas, and the power of vāk is at work during the transformations described previously, within the visualization process. Lama Anagarika Govinda remarks:

The knowledge of the creative sound lived in India. It was further developed in the various Yoga-systems and found its last refinement in those schools of Buddhism which had their philosophical foundation in the doctrine of the Vijñānavādins.9

It should be pointed out that the term vāk is charged with layers of meanings and symbolism, and that these symbolic layers of the term have often been overlooked while

6 Cf. Padoux 1992: 166.

7 Ibid.: 167.

8 Cf. Hodge 2003: 5. In the translator's introduction to MVT, Hodge gives a summary of the features of Buddhist Tantras: “Speculations on the nature and power of speech are prominent, especially with regard to the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet”.

9 Lama Anagarika Govinda 1959: 26.

VĀK in Tantric Buddhist Practices | 113

dealing with Buddhist practice and philosophy. The term vāk has been conveniently

translated into “speech” in English. The routine translation of the term into “speech”

often veils its profound conceptual layers, and obstructs its conception within

metaphysical dimensions. Furthermore, the scope of kāya-vāk-citta is narrowed in its

English translation as body-speech-mind, which causes a grave misunderstanding in

that we try to interpret the concepts, more or less, purely in terms of human constituents.

Especially, when we encounter the kāya-vāk-citta in the descriptions of the Absolute,

we fail to grasp the meaning because our idea of body, speech and mind implicitly

returns to a psycho-physical level. The English translation hampers any understanding

of the subtle layers of the vāk concept; thus, we tend to view vāk as mere discursive

speech.10 We should keep in mind that the translation of vāk and citta into speech and

mind flattens these concepts and prevent us from considering them in their original

context. The concept of vāk in the Buddhist context needs new academic emphasis, in

accord with its significance in other Indian spiritual traditions.11

III.1 Buddhist Practice of Syllables

The mantra practice had already occupied an important place in Mahāyāna tradition,

indicating that the power of primeval sound had been recognized in the Buddhist context

even before the establishment of the mantrayāna. The practice had already been introduced

in the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra (believed to have originated before second century CE).12 For

example, in the story of Śilpābhijña, phonemes are taught to be the instrument to lead the

practitioner to wisdom.13 In the mantrayāna practice, the sound of mantras and aksaras

(syllables) is understood to be the subtle manifestation of Śūnya. MVT explains that qualities

10 The present work keeps untranslated the original term vāk, even when English translations of

Buddhist texts are quoted in the present volume. The problem of translating citta is not different.

The problem of translating cit as “consciousness” has been raised and criticized in the context

of Trika Śaivism. See Fürlinger 2006. Cit should be discerned from citta in the context of

Trika Śaivism; the former signifies the Pure Divine Consciousness, while the latter denotes the

individual consciousness in which cit is in the state of contract. However, in the context of

Buddhism, citta signifies both cit and citta in the sense of Trika Śaivism, and its meaning

should be understood depending on the context of reference.

11 See Falk 1943.

12 The first Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka Sūtra that includes the Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra is

assigned to the period around second century CE.

13 Gaṇdhavyūha Sūtra. See tr. Cleary 1989: 316–18. The story of the youth Śilpābhijña in the

Gaṇdavyūha Sūtra informs us that the Buddhists had already known of the practice of

phonemes, if it was not a part of the Buddhist practice.

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of Tathāgatas are transformed into the letters of the mantras.14 Having spoken about the attributes of the Perfect Enlightenment, Bhagavān Vairocana declares:

Hence I revealed this reality in the form of letters, by the power of transformation, to illumine the world, and out of pity for beings I teach everything to them.15

The same Tantra views these syllables to be the receptacle of Truth and Reality, proclaiming that they illumine the world. It is believed that the properties of mantras at the absolute level are not created. Preceding any appearance of Tathāgata, it is svabhāva of all phenomena, and the svabhāva of the mantras of a mantrin.16 The sound of Sanskrit syllables and phonemes all performs as symbols within the mantra practice; they have esoteric value. For example, chapter II of MVT explains, “[the syllable] A is a gate to all phenomena because they are unarisen from the beginning. Ka is a gate to all phenomena, because they are without a purpose. Kha is a gate to all phenomena, because they cannot be perceived as objects, like the sky, etc.”17 Here, the phonemes are explained as gateways to samādhi. In samādhi, the transformation of phonemes into such gates is both relative and absolute. On the relative level, they manifest the Buddha’s qualities. Regarding the absolute transformation, they reveal the fact that all phenomena are unborn, even seen from the viewpoint of manifestation itself, and that they are intrinsically empty.18 The syllables with anusvāra, such as ṇa, ña, ṇa, na and ma, have been specifically explained to be the source of mastery, because anusvāra is the symbol of Śūnya. The syllables with the anusvāra are lakṣaṇa (signs) of Śūnya, and therefore they are endowed with all power.19

A Phoneme

In the expositions of MVT, the phoneme A is endowed with profound esoteric meanings, which may be compared to the archetype of all audible and inaudible sounds. The

14 Cf. MVT II.82-83, tr. Hodge 2003: 132.

15 MVT II.73, tr. Hodge 2003: 126.

16 MVT II.81, tr. Hodge 2003: 131.

17 MVT II.84, tr. Hodge 2003: 132.

18 Cf. Buddhaguhya’s commentary on MVT II.84, tr. Hodge 2003: 133. Cf. MVT II.83 comm.: “The relative is the transformation and manifestation of the Strengths, Fearlessnesses and so on, as words and letters. The absolute is the manifestation of the intrinsic emptiness of all phenomena, which are unborn and unarisen from the very beginning, as letters.” (ibid.: 132).

19 Cf. MVT II.85 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 135.

VĀK in Tantric Buddhist Practices | 115

syllable A is associated with one’s entry to Dharmadhātu in the mantra practice.20 The

following passage from MVT describes an esoteric definition of four syllables of A:

Immediately after he (Bhagavat Vairocana) had entered it (samādhi), there arose the four

modes from a single sound, the sounds which make known the entire Dharmadhātu without

remainder, whose strength abides in the Dharmadhātu, whose strength is equal to the

unequalled, which arise from the fervent inclination (adhimokṣa) of the perfect Buddha

and which having pervaded all of the Dharmadhātu became space-like: NAMAḤ

SARVATATHĀGATEBHYO VIŚVAMUKHEBHYO SARVATHĀ Ā Ā AṂ AḤ (salutations

to Sarvatathāgata, who are all-forms and omnipresent! A Ā AṂ AḤ)

As soon as these essence of the perfect Buddha had arisen, then the sounds which make

things known, characterized by the words of the essence of the perfect Buddha, sounded

forth from each one of the gates, which communicate the entire Dharmadhātu.21

The above passage describes the four modes of A: A Ā AṂ AḤ. The fourfold power of

A derives from Dharmadhātu. Because they abide in Dharmadhātu, they have

unequalled power, and they are the essence (hrdaya) of the perfect Buddha. They are

the gates from which emanate those sounds that make known such things as pots,

sheets and the like.22 Here one finds the fundamental basis of the mantrayāna method:

sounds designating distinct or indistinct objects derive from the Dharmadhātu; since

Dharmadhātu is the essence of words and sounds within mundane communication,

by uttering “the essence” of these syllables along with their gross sound, one reaches

Dharmadhātu. And in the Tantra, Vajrapāṇi requests Vairocana:

Please explain the ground of the perfect Buddhas, with whose attainment-accomplishing

words the sons and daughters of good family abide in this very world, experiencing joy

and happiness, without being out of tune with the Dharmadhātu.23

By this request, one is advised to recite the syllable A. Here, A is the principle through

which one could realize the non-dualism between Dharmadhātu and all phenomena.

As we have observed earlier, A plays an essential part in the process of visualization,

and is the syllable of Mahāvairocana, according to MVT. In making the vāk-maṇḍala,

it is said:

20 Cf. MVT VI.106. A with anusvāra is visualized and imagined as the tranquil dharmakāya and

the ground of all.

21 MVT VI.19-20, tr. Hodge 2003: 173-74.

22 Cf. MVT VI.19 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 173.

23 MVT VI.42, tr. Hodge 2003: 180.

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In the centre there is the Bhagavat Mahāvairocana. . . . He should draw either his mudrā,

his body image, or his syllable. Of these, his syllable is A.24

NS also explicitly informs that Mahāvairocana or the Ādi Buddha is born of A, and is

itself A.

And in this way the blessed one, the Buddha, the completely awakened, born from the

syllable A (akārasambhavah), is the syllable A, the foremost of all phonemes

(sarvarnāgryo), of great meaning, the supreme syllable (paramāksarah).25

A is taken as the essence (hrdaya) of all mantras, and all mantras are contained within

A.26 “It is the supreme life-energy, and is called the most excellent magnet.”27 Four

variations of A - A, Ā, AṂ, AḤ - in the doctrinal setting respectively signify Enlightenment,

Practice, Perfect Enlightenment, and Nirvāṇa.28 In STTS, A is instructed to be the heart

mantra of every entry (āveśa).29

Vāk Cakra

The maṇḍala of vāk cakra, which consists of syllables, has been expounded upon in chapter

X of MVT. In the exposition of the maṇḍala of vāk, vāk is said to be the mediating agent

between nirmāṇakāya and dharmakāya, and between all beings and Dharmadhātu. Thus, in

the following passage, the emanations of the maṇḍala of vāk have been compared to “gates”.

Lord of the Secret Ones (Vajrapāṇi), behold the vast emanations of the Mandala of my vāk

cakra which pervade limitless world systems, which are gates of purity, gates which satisfy

all beings according to their wishes and make known the Dharmadhātu to each of them

individually. They are at present engaged in the performance of Buddha activities as

Śākyamunis in unlimited world systems that are more extensive than the realm of space.

Yet, Lord of the Secret Ones, concerning that, beings do not know that this is the arising of

the Mandala of Bhagavat’s vāk cakra, that they are Buddha Bodies arisen from the Essence

[AM] of the arrayed Adornments of vāk of the Buddha, which produces them to satisfy

being according to their wishes.30

24 MVT X.19, tr. Hodge 2003: 228.

25 NS 28, tr. Davidson 1981: 22.

26 Cf. MVT IV.17, tr. Hodge 2003: 163.

27 MVT VI.57, tr. Hodge 2003: 188.

28 MVT IV.15, tr. Hodge 2003: 162.

29 STTS I, tr. Giebel 2001: 70.

30 MVT XXII.3, tr. Hodge 2003: 350.

VĀK In Tantric Buddhist Practices

117

It explains that the emanations from the maṇḍala of vāk cakra pervade all the worldly systems, which implies the all-pervading nature of vāk. These emanations are the gates between Dharmadhātu and all beings. Through these gates, Dharmadhātu is revealed within all beings according to what they wish, and through the same gates all beings enter the Dharmadhātu; therefore, they are called “the gates of purity”.31 The Śākyamunis, the innumerable nirmāṇakāyas found in every worldly system, are said to have been born from the vāk cakra in order to bring satisfaction to all beings. Also, Buddhaguhya clarifies the term vāk cakra: “it is called a cakra because vāk of the Tathāgata which arises in various kinds of forms, enters the [consciousness] streams of beings”.32 Thus, the expression of vāk cakra implies that vāk is the mediating agent between bodily forms (kāya) and consciousness (citta), as well as between all beings and Dharmadhātu.

III.2 The Highest Divinity Conceived in the Nature of Sound

Dharmadhātu

The verses of MVT VI.19-20 quoted earlier account regarding the evolution of sound: from a single sound, four ‘A’s arise; when these four ‘A’s have arisen, the subsequent sounds of mundane phenomena sound forth.33 Here we come across a remarkable reference to “a single sound” that is the ultimate origin of all the words we use. In the commentary to the above teaching of the Tantra, Buddhaguhya adds that “the single sound” from which these four ‘A’s arise is both “unborn and unarisen”.34 The association of four ‘A’s with Dharmadhātu as referred to repeatedly in these verses, suggests that the “single sound” refers to Dharmadhātu, and that here Dharmadhātu has been conceived as existent in a sonic form. It is noteworthy that the description of the cosmogony of “sounds which make things known” is followed by a salutation to Sarvathathāgata in mantra; this implies that Sarvatathāgata might be another name of this source of sound.

Sarvatathāgata

Earlier in chapter I of this book, the term Sarvatathāgata has been referred to in the context of the symbolism of maṇḍala deities as encountered in STTS. References to Sarvatathāgata

31 Cf. MVT XXII.3 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 350.

32 Ibid.

33 Supra, p. 115.

34 Cf. MVT VI.19-20 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 174.

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occur abundantly in descriptions of maṇḍala deities and mantra practices in Yoga Tantras. However, when the English translation of “All Tathāgatas” is given as equivalent to the term Sarvatathāgata, we tend to imagine a collection of innumerable Tathāgatas with personified forms, causing considerable confusion and hampers one from grasping the true meaning of the descriptions. The significance of Sarvatathāgata needs deeper consideration, and a question must be raised as to whether it means “all Tathāgatas” or if it is rather a proper noun replacing Dharmadhātu, with a further emphasis on its innate creative power. For the examination of the significance of Sarvatathāgata, here I pay careful attention to the opening verses of chapter I of STTS.

At that time, Sarvatathāgata filled this Buddha world (buddhakṣetra) just like sesame (tilabimbamiva) [seeds packed closely together in a sesame pod]. Then Sarvatathāgata gathered as if in a cloud and betook themselves to where the Bodhisattva and Mahāsattva Sarvārthasiddhi was seated at the place of enlightenment (bodhimaṇḍa). Manifesting the body of enjoyment (saṃbhoga-kāya), Sarvatathāgata spoke. . . .35

The text continues, relating what Sarvatathāgata as manifested in saṃbhogakāya said to Sarvārthasiddhi:

How will you, who endure ascetic practices without knowing the essence of Sarvatathāgata (sarvatathāgatattvanābhijñātayā), realize unsurpassed perfect enlightenment (anuttaraṃ samyaksambodhiṃ abhisambhotsyase).36

The thorough pervasion of Sarvatathāgata in buddhakṣetra has been compared to sesame seeds packed into a pod. The metaphoric reference to sesame is significant because the literal meaning of bīja could imply an association of Sarvatathāgata with mantra. This association is more plausible when also examining the fact that Sarvatathāgata is said to have guided Sarvārthasiddhi on his way to Enlightenment through mantras, and that the entire group of maṇḍala deities are said to derive from those mantras, who themselves originate from Sarvatathāgata. The statement that Sarvatathāgata took the form of saṃbhogakāya when it communicated with the Bodhisattva in the bodhimaṇḍa indicates that Sarvatathāgata was in a different form before the manifestation of its saṃbhogakāya; probably, its state before the saṃbhoga-kāya manifestation is that of dharmakāya. As described with metaphors of sesame

35 STTS I, tr. Giebel 2001: 23. When quoting the translation of Giebel, the term sarvatathāgata is left untranslated, though he uses “all the tathāgatas”. For the Sanskrit text, see Chandra 1987: 4.

36 STTS I, tr. Giebel 2001: 23.

seeds, or of the contraction of air into clouds, Sarvatathāgata in its state of Dharmakāya

may be envisaged as the innate dynamic forces of expansion and contraction. Though

it is the sambhogakāya form of Sarvatathāgata in the samādhi of Vairocana that plays

the major role throughout the text, it should be clearly realized that it is the dharmakāya

form of Sarvatathāgata that must be understood to be the origin of all maṇḍala deities.

Furthermore, the question put forward in the voice of sambhogakāya Sarvatathāgata

tells the reader that Sarvārthasiddhi should comprehend the Sarvatathāgata Tattva in

order to attain this Perfect Enlightenment. It says that Sarvatathāgata is the principle

of Enlightenment, the source of the knowledge of the Buddhas. It guided the

Bodhisattva on the way to the Perfect Enlightenment, consecrated him as Vajradhātu-

Vairocana and enthroned him in the centre of the maṇḍala. We should keep in mind

that the references to Sarvatathāgata occur at vital points in the texts, which are related

to transformation or spiritual uplift. While Sarvatathāgata is both the source and the

ultimate aspect of the maṇḍala deities, Vairocana is the efficient cause of these form-

creations. The samādhi opens the heart of Vairocana, and he becomes the channel

through which Sarvatathāgata reveals his various forms in the maṇḍala. Here, precision

regarding how the term Tattva is translated is crucial for a correct understanding of

Sarvatathāgata. Even though the term Tattva features in the title of the text

Sarvatathāgata-Tattva-Saṃgraha, the term Tattva has not received worthy attention.

Thus, it is either taken to be insignificant, or is translated by the word “truth”. In this

context, a glance at the writings of Chandra is enlightening. In one of his articles, he

points out that the Tattva in the title of the text means “essence, core, heart”.37 Bearing

in mind that the term tattva has been used in Indian philosophical schools in the sense

of “a category of reality”, thus applicable regarding any hierarchical understanding

within these systems by convention, Sarvatathāgata Tattva is more reasonably

interpreted as “the First Tattva”, “the Highest Principle” or “Essence”, which is named

Sarvatathāgata.

The term Sarva, usually translated as “all”, also needs a new understanding; for

this, we may look at another epithet for Vairocana, Sarvavid. Sarvavid (Omniscient

One) may be understood as “the One with the highest knowledge” as well as “the One

with all knowledge”. Similarly, Sarva in the Sarvatathāgata may be more appropriately

interpreted with a qualitative indication of “supreme”, rather than in a quantitative

denotation of “all”. Indeed, Sarva suggests the meaning of “absolute”. Therefore, we

37 Chandra 1993: 385.

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Voice of the Void

find Sarva as a name of God in the fourth stanza of the Viṣṇu-Sahasranāma-Stotra38

where Sarva, Śarva and Śiva are introduced as names of Viṣṇu.39 The use in the Sanskrit

text of plural forms for Sarvatathāgata, such as sarvatathāgatā or Sarvatathāgataih,

should be seen to be expressions of respect within the Sanskrit grammar. The

Sarvatathāgata Tattva is the origin of mantric power that brings forth the bodily

manifestation of deities, and the knowledge (abhijñā) of this essence is the method to

attain Perfect Enlightenment.

In MVT, the allusion of Sarvatathāgata as the source of mantras is explicit. In

chapter XII, “The Dharma Letter Method, the All-penetrating Gate”, Vairocana, having

explained the samādhi gates formed by the syllables and the letters of the mantras,

praises the mantra method in the following verses.

This is the Dharma discourse regarding skill in the letter method, the process of abiding in

the mantra method, that which is transformed by the transforming power of Sarvatathāgata,

the process of upholding the deity, the skill in the method of all full and perfect Buddhas

and the dance of Bodhisattva practice.40

The message of this passage is unambiguous, saying that mantrayāna is based on the

transformative power of Sarvatathāgata. Another reference to Sarvatathāgata in MVT

is worthy of mention in order to demonstrate the correlation among Sarvatathāgata,

Dharmadhātu and the essence of sound as conceived in the mantrayāna practice. In

the closing scene of chapter II, we read:

As soon as the Bhagavat (Vairocana) had entered it (samādhi), Sarvatathāgata uttered a

sound that permeated the Dharmadhātu and completely protected all the realms of beings

without remainder, and spoke this powerful protector Queen of Vidyā-mantras: [. . .]41

Though these references to Sarvatathāgata are by no means extensive, they urge the reader

to reconsider the significance of Sarvatathāgata in the mantrayāna practice. Sarvatathāgata

could be a designation for the dynamic Dharmadhātu, which undergoes the transformation

38 The Viṣṇu-Sahasranāma-Stotra is a hymn from the 149th chapter of Anuśāsana Parva of

Mahābhārata.

39 I specially thank Dr. Lokesh Chandra for having provided me with the information to support

my understanding of Sarvatathāgata. He states in a personal correspondence, “Sarva-tathāgata

thus means the Highest Tathāgata, endowed with all the supreme qualities”. And, he adds that

“in the Niṣpannayogāvalī, the mantra of Vajradhātu Vairocana is oṃ sarva-tathāgata

mahāyogiśvara hūṃ (p. 47)”.

40 MVT XII.3, tr. Hodge 2003: 251.

41 MVT II.97, tr. Hodge 2003: 149.

into various forms. Its transformational power is conceived to be with the quality of sound;

thus, Sarvatathāgata is comparable to the Primeval Sound, the source of all sounds.

Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara-Mañjuśrī

As the presiding deity of the Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala, Mañjuśrī is said to be one with Dharmadhātu, which is a designation for the Ultimate Dharma. Why is Mañjuśrī especially venerated as Dharmadhātu and regarded as a manifestation of Mahāvairocana? The basis for this seems to be his association with vāk, thus lending him the name Vāgīśvara. This name should be understood in the context of the prevalent tantric practice wherein the concept of vāk is intimately associated with the essence of a divinity, and with perfect knowledge.

Mañjuśrī represents jñāna (knowledge) and is thereby called jñānasattva.42 In Yoga Tantras, his nature is described in relation to vāk (sound). When Mañjuśrī is identified with Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara in the Maṇḍala, he is Mañjughoṣa (the gentle sound). The mantra of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Mañjughoṣa is a ā sarva-tathāgata-hrdaya hara-hara oṃ hūṃ hrīḥ / bhagavān jñāna-mūrti vāgīśvara/mahāvāca sarva-dharma-gagan-āmala supari-śuddha Dharmadhātu-jñāna-garbha āḥ.43 Here, the recitation of “Jñānamūrti Vāgīśvara” (the form of knowledge, the Lord of vāk) displays the nature of Mañjughoṣa as conceived in terms of vāk. The mantra of Mañjughoṣa given in the Sādhanamālā is same as that of Vāgīśvara – oṃ vāgīśvara muḥ - wherein muḥ is the bīja of Mañjughoṣa.

In chapter I of STTS, where the epiphany of Sixteen Bodhisattvas is described, Mañjuśrī says:

Oho I am thought of as Mañjughoṣa (gentle sound) of the Supreme Buddha (sarvabuddhanāṃ mañjughoṣa), by whose wisdom which is formless, the essence of sound will be attained (yatprajñāyā arūpiṇyā ghoṣatvamupalabhyate).44

In the commentary on MVT Buddhaguhya describes Mañjughoṣa as the nature of prajñā connected with vāk.

42 The complete title of NS is the mañjuśrījñānasattvasyaparamārtha nāmasaṅgītiparisamāptah (from the colophon of Paris MS. 62; Filliozat 1941: 31). Other variant Sanskrit titles are given in Chandra 1993: 381-84.

43 Cf. Chandra 2003: 2229.

44 Snellgrove translates “sarvabuddhanāṃ” into “all buddhas” and “yatprajñāyā arūpiṇyā ghoṣatvamupalabhyate” into “in that knowledge which is formless is conceived as sound”. Cf. STTS, ed. Snellgrove and Chandra 1981: 22.

122 | Voice of the Void

He is the Insight connected with speech in nature. Having intellectually investigated and examined the general and specific attributes of all phenomena, that Insight brings about the direct realization of them.45

We see that the remarkable connection between vāk and prajñā is implied in the tantric concept of Mañjuśrī. Mañjuśrī’s prominent twofold association demonstrates the foundation of mantrayāna, in that the knowledge of vāk is the dominant means to attain prajñā.

The text Nāmasamgīti is interesting in relation to the association of Mañjuśrī with vāk, for it leads one to ask, 'to whom are these verses directed?' One might well lose sight of the object of these devotional hymns, because one finds not only Vairocana and other names of Mañjuśrī like Vajratīkṣṇa (v. 111), but it also gives names normally designating other divinities, such as Vajrāñkuśa or Amoghapāśa (v. 66). Scholars like Davidson46 and Wayman47 view the text as addressing Mañjuśrī; Chandra, examining the titles of traditional manuscripts in Chinese, Tibetan and Sanskrit, comes to the conclusion that the verses are devoted to the Paramārtha of Yogatantra (Advaya), which corresponds to the term tattva (essence, core, heart) in the title of the Sarvatathāgata Tattva Samgraha.48 He underlines the role of Mañjuśrī as interlocutor in a number of Mahāyāna texts, such as Saptaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā or Saddharmapuṇdaṛika Sūtra. The homage to Mañjuśrī is given in the third verse of the chapter about māyājālābhisambodhi-krama in the NS.

Oṃ homage to you, Embodied Knowledge of Insight (prajñājñānamūrtaye), Cutter of Suffering, Sharp as a Vajra. Homage to you, Lord of Speech (Vāgīśvara), Gnostic Body (jñāna kāya), Arapacana!49

Once Śākyamuni summons Mañjuśrī and pays homage to him with these words, it is Mañjuśrī who gives instruction in the verses that follow. With the interpretation of Chandra as guide, one notices that those verses teeming with descriptions of various attributes and names are addressed to the Ultimate Dharma, Paramartha or Dharmadhātu.

In NS, the Ultimate Dharma or the Ādi Buddha is often associated with vāk and

45 Cf. MVT II.57 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 118.

46 Cf. Davidson 1981.

47 Cf. Wayman 1985.

48 Chandra 1993: 385.

49 NS 27, tr. Davidson 1981: 22.

mantras, consistent with the important place that the mantrayāna practice holds in

the Yoga Tantras. The following verses verify the relation of Paramārtha to mantra.

Aspirated, unoriginated, without uttering a sound, he is the foremost cause of all expression,

shining forth within all speech.

— v. 29 50

Being highest with mahāvidyās, he is the protector; being highest with mahāmantras, he

is the guide. Having mounted to the practice of the Mahāyāna, he is highest in the practice

of the Mahāyāna.

— v. 41 51

Being Mahāvairocana, he is Buddha; he is a great sage with profound sapience, and as he

is produced by the great practice of mantras, by nature he is the great practice of mantras.

— v. 42 52

As the lord of vā k, the commander of vā k, possessed of eloquence, he is the master of vā k,

unending in fluency, and with true vā k he speaks the truth, teaching the four truths.

— v. 50 53

In addition to these excerpts, verses 65, 101 and 111 can be viewed as conspicuous

examples that embody the conception of the Ultimate Dharma or the Ādi Buddha in

association with vā k. Additionally, the Ultimate Dharma was shown later in this text

in rich, multi-dimensional forms associated with akṣara and mantra.

To be realized by all Buddhas, as the enlightenment of the Buddha, he is supreme; devoid

of syllables, his source is in mantra; he is the triad of the great mantra families. — v. 143

The progenitor of the significance of all mantras, he is the great bindu, devoid of syllables;

with five syllables and greatly void (śūnya), he is voidness in the bindu, with one hundred

syllables.

— v. 144

50 NS 29, tr. Davidson 1981: 23 –

mahāprāṇo hy anutpādo vāgudāhāravarjitah |

sarvābhilāpahetvagrah sarvavākuprabhāsvarah ||

51 NS 41, tr. Davidson 1981: 23 –

mahāvidyottamo nātho mahāmantrottamo guruḥ |

mahāyānanayārūḍho mahāyānanayottamạh ||

52 NS 42, tr. Davidson 1981: 24 –

mahāvairocano buddho mahāmaunī mahāmuniḥ |

mahāmantranayodbhūto mahāmantranayātmakaḥ ||

53 NS 50, tr. Davidson 1981: 25 –

vāgīśo vakpatir vāgmī vācāspatir anantagīḥ |

satyavāk satyavādī ca catuḥsatyopadeśakaḥ ||

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Voice of the Void

Having all aspects, having no aspects, he bears four bindus;54 partless, beyond enumeration,

he sustains the limit at the level of the fourth meditation.

— v. 14555

Abundant references in NS to vāk and to mantras related to Paramārtha lead us to

understand that vāk is the factor that connects Mañjuśrī and Dharmadhātu. The vāk

nature of Dharmadhātu is the essence of Mañjuśrī's activities; in other words, the vāk

nature of Dharmadhātu manifests in the vāk activity of Mañjuśrī. Through vāk, Prajñā

is transmitted from Dharmadhātu to Mañjuśrī, and he is adored as the spokesman of

the verses and teachings that reveal the nature of Dharmadhātu which is perceived in

various forms. Since Mañjuśrī manifests the vāk nature of Dharmadhātu, he is

Vāgīśvara. Thus, we see that vāk is the reason for Mañjuśrī being adored as the revealer

of Dharma, and why he is identified with Dharmadhātu.

III.3 Association of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā with Vāk

The abundant pictorial representations of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in Alchi are

significant, for they demonstrate the religious environment of the time - which informs

equally about the background of the mandalas painted next to them. Prajñāpāramitā

has been extensively depicted in Alchi along with representations of Mahāvairocana,

Śākyamuni, Mañjuśrī and many mandalas. The image of Prajñāpāramitā depicted on

the second storey of the sumtseg reveals her status to be comparable to Mahāvairocana

(Pl. 37). Especially, the two mandalas painted on the third storey of the sumtseg

explicitly demonstrate the dynamic relation between Mahāvairocana and Goddess

Prajñāpāramitā (Pls. 7-8, 38-39). As has been presented in Table 1.3, the innermost

circle of Mahāvairocana in the mandala of Mahāvairocana is surrounded by eight

petals of a lotus, where only the image of Prajñāpāramitā is painted towards the east.

Thus, Prajñāpāramitā is placed in this mandala between Mahāvairocana in the centre

and the set of four Buddhas and four Bodhisattvas in the eight directions. The mandala

of Prajñāpāramitā on the opposite wall gives greater importance to the Goddess; the

central image of Prajñāpāramitā is surrounded by her four manifestations at the four

54 Davidson 1981: 36, n. 120: "Bindu here means bījamantra . . . in this case a ā am ah".

55 NS 143-45, tr. Davidson 1981: 36 -

sarvasambudhaboddhavyo buddhabodhir anuttaraḥ |

anakṣaro mantrayonir mahāmantrakulatrayah || (v. 143)

sarvamantrārthajanako mahābindur anakṣaraḥ |

pañcākṣaro mahāśūnyo binduśūnyaḥ śatākṣaraḥ || (v. 144)

sarvākāro nirākāraśodhaśārdhārdhabindudr̥k |

akalah kalanātītaś caturthādhyānakoṭidr̥k || (v. 145)

Pl. 37 Prajñāpāramitā as Mahāvairocana, rear wall, second storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 38 Central divinity, maṇḍala of Mahāvairocana, left wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 39 Central divinity, maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā, right wall, third storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl.

40

Mandala

of

Prajñāpāramitā,

dukhang,

Alchi.

(Photo:

J.

Poncar

1984

(WHAV))

cardinal directions, and four Buddhas bearing nirmāṇakāya attributes are found at the

four intermediate directions. These two maṇdalas are evidently related to each other,

and they show the unmistakable relationship among Dharmakāya, Prajñāpāramitā and

the Buddhas. In these two maṇdalas, the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā plays an important

part in the centripetal dynamism of maṇḍala, with implications of both emanation and

revelation (Illus. 3.1).

By being represented in the uppermost place in the three-storeyed architectural

stūpa, Goddess Prajñāpāramitā displays her prominence in the iconographic scheme

of the monastery, which is also noticeable in other contemporary monasteries of the

twelfth and thirteenth centuries. There are other maṇḍalas of Prajñāpāramitā in the

dukhang (Pl. 40) and inside the small twin stūpas (Kakani Chörten) in front of the

sumtseg in Alchi. In the Maitreya Hall of Mangyu, a maṇḍala of Prajñāpāramitā shows

the Goddess with six arms, surrounded by other feminine divinities.

Let us consider the difference between the iconographic scheme of Alchi and that

of Tabo in this context.

i) Unlike Alchi, one finds no image of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in Tabo. Only the

narratives of Sadāprarudita in search of the prajñāpāramitā have been depicted

in the ambulatory of the dukhang in Tabo.

ii) The maṇḍalas of Alchi are characterized by their predominant geometric layout,

absent from the dukhang of Tabo.

From these facts, it can be posited that prolific depictions of Prajñāpāramitā in

Alchi may have an analogous relationship to the equally abundant geometric

representations of maṇḍalas found there. It may be assumed that behind their visual

Illus. 3.1: Dynamism between Mahāvairocana and Prajñāpāramitā in the

two maṇḍalas of the third storey of the sumtseg, Alchi.

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Voice of the Void

representations of Prajñāpāramitā and the geometric maṇḍalas in Alchi one could

find a common conceptual basis. Prajñāpāramita has a prominent place in the

iconographic scheme of Alchi; understanding the background of this representation

can explain why such geometric maṇḍalas might have been created so prolifically. In

this regard, one must examine the association of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā with the

practice of mantra, especially keeping in mind the concept of vāk.

III.3.1 The Concept of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā

When the then-new Mahāyāna for the first time focused upon the philosophical concept

of prajñā, hitherto unexamined in earlier schools of Buddhism,56 prajñāpāramitā was

one of the six pāramitās which the seeker-after-truth had to cultivate. Prajñāpāramitā

was initially a designation for a particular group of literature and its teachings. However,

prajñāpāramitā had also been further designated as "the Mother of the Buddhas (jināna

mātā)" and, already in the early stage of its development, was conceived as a goddess.57

Thus, the Aṣṭasāhasrika Prajñāpāramitā (from sometime between 100 BCE – CE 100)

says, "the Saviours of the world who were in the past and these that are now in the ten

directions have issued from her and so will the future ones be".58 And, within the idea

of ekayāna that teaches the ultimate teaching of Buddhism to be singular (despite

differing schools), integrating diverse "vehicles" (yāna) of thought, Prajñāpāramitā

plays a central role as a goddess.59 In the Munimatālamkāra, Abhayākaragupta states:

Thus, the nature of the Mahāyāna is established as being only the one vehicle (ekayāna)

and the absolute (paramārtha) absence of own being (niḥsvabhāvata) of all dharmas.

This (great vehicle) is the Bhagavatī Prajñāpāramitā. This (Prajñāpāramitā) is to be known

56 Conze assigns the literature that informs the first stage of prajñāpāramitā thought to c. 100

BCE (cf. Conze 1967a: 124).

57 In the first chapter (v. 15) of the Ratnaguṇasañcayagāthā (summary verses of the

Aṣṭasāhasrikā) Prajñāpāramitā demonstrates the conception of "the mother of the Jinas" in

the early development of the Prajñāpāramitā thought (cf. Conze 1967a: 125). On the basis of

the iconography of the Goddess described in sādhana nos. 152 and 159 in the Sādhanamālā,

D.C. Bhattacharyya (1978: 45) sees the conception of the goddess conceived in association

with the Five Tathāgatas as early as fourth century CE, since the sādhana no. 159 is ascribed to

the authorship of Asaṅga who belonged to c. CE 300. He ascribes the composition of sādhana

no. 152 to the same period as no. 159.

58 Tr. Conze 1978: 31.

59 Munimatālamkāra, chapter I, "The Prajñāpāramitā itself, the Bhagavatī, is the essence of the

Mahāyāna, the ekayāna precisely" (tr. Ruegg 1977: 295).

as the absolutely real (pāramārthika) bodhicitta, which consists of the non-differentiation

of the Empty (comprehension of śūnyatā) and compassion.60

Mäll stresses the Dharmakāya aspect of prajñāpāramitā, which seems relevant to the

depictions in Alchi of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā juxtaposed with Mahāvairocana.

He remarks:

The authors of Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā saw the Prajñāpāramitā as the only

embodiment of the teaching of all Buddhas, i.e. as Dharmakāya. Therefore all the respect

that should have been paid to the Buddhas was transferred to the Prajñāpāramitā. The

worship of the Prajñāpāramitā text is something that exceeds the worship of all other

objects, mainly the worship of relics (buddhaśarīra).61

While his remark is perceptive, in that it draws attention to the Dharmakāya aspect of

Prajñāpāramitā, the general conception of the Goddess represented in his remarks

should be reconsidered in the context of the images of the Goddess in Alchi. It has

been generally believed that the worship of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras is the

background of Goddess Prajñāpāramitā, and that she is the personification of the book.

It is the assertion of this present work that the adoration of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā

is more than the adoration of sūtras; she should be understood to be the source of

Wisdom beyond words - Dharmadhātu. In the history of Buddhism, the mantrāyāna

was a later development of Mahāyāna, though the philosophy of the former adhered

to the latter. In terms of Bodhisattva practices, the mantrāyāna is, in general,

distinguished from Prajñāpāramitāyāna. If the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā is merely a

personification of the prajñāpāramitā texts in the sense of the early Mahāyāna Sūtras,

then the profuse representations of the Goddess, painted next to the maṇḍalas which

accompany the mantrāyana practice, seem awkward. Thus, it has to be more specified

that Goddess Prajñāpāramitā is worshipped not as the personification of any particular

book or books, but rather as the personification of the True Word or Essence that

those books enshrine. Therefore, the worship of Prajñāpāramitā exceeds the adoration

of any Buddha, Buddha relic or stūpa, because as the supreme reality (bhūtakoṭi) she

is the source of and basis upon which these objects are sanctified. The worship of

Prajñāpāramitā as a feminine divinity should be understood in the broader context of

the Indian spiritual tradition, in that the creative force of the Ultimate has been long

conceived as such, as is observed in the early Vedic concept of vāk.

60 Munimatālamkara, chapter I, tr. Ruegg 1977: 297-98.

61 Mäll 2005: 68.

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Voice of the Void

III.3.2 Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in the Mantrayāna

In the preface of his study on Buddhist iconography, D.C. Bhattacharyya generally presupposes that these images developed through the tantric belief in mantric syllables. He states: “The excessive increase in the number of divine concepts was mainly due to the Buddhist belief, during this period, in the efficacy of mantras”.62 According to his conception of Buddhist iconography, the mantras, being sacred and having efficacy, became deified and developed “with the relevant iconographic specification”.63 His view underlines the importance of the mantra practice in the iconographic rendering of divinities. Conze also refers to evidence of the dissemination of the mantra practice within the early development of Prajñāpāramitā literature, even before the teaching of Prajñāpāramitā was incorporated within tantric ideology. When the large Prajñāpāramitā texts were composed, the forty-three dhāraṇīs were taught.64 The mantras and dhāraṇīs became manifold and diverse through a number of short sūtras which were composed after ce 500, and Vajrapāni found great importance in these texts.65 Conze states that the conception of Prajñāpāramitā had changed drastically under tantric influence.66 He recognizes a particular passage of the Adhyardhaśaktikā (n. XII) as the one truly tantric exposition of Prajñāpāramitā.

Thereupon the Lord Vairocana, the Tathāgata, again demonstrated this method of prajñāpāramitā, called the power which sustains all beings (sarvasattvādhiṣṭhānam): All beings are Tathāgatagarbha, because they all have the self-nature (ātmatā) of Samantabhadra, the great Bodhisattva; all beings are vajragarbha because they are consecrated (abhiṣiktatayā) with the vajragarbha; all beings are dharmagarbha, because all vāk transforms (or manifests; sarvavākpravartanatatayā); karmagarbha [is] in all beings, because all beings exert themselves in doing deeds.67

62 Bhattacharyya 1978: 1.

63 Ibid.

64 Conze 1967a: 135–36.

65 Ibid.: 143–44.

66 Ibid.: 146.

67 Adhyardhaśatikā 12, quoted in Conze 1967a: 146–47. I have modified the translation of Edward Conze given in his article because his translation does not clearly reveal the fourfold concept of kula implied in the text. Tathāgatagarbhāḥ was translated by Conze into “embryonic Tathāgatas” and vajragarbhaḥ into “thunderbolts in embryo”. In my translation, dharmagarbha is what I assume from sarvavākpravartanatatayā into “because all speech comes to pass”.

VĀK in Tantric Buddhist Practices

| 133

Herein prajñāpāramitā is both the method and the power on the basis of which the

Ultimate Dharma is revealed within all beings. In tantric conception, prajñāpāramitā

is the power of transformation; therefore it makes it impossible for any being to be

separate from the Ultimate Dharma. All beings adhere within the Ultimate Dharma in

their four aspects - Tathāgatagarbha, vajragarbha, dharmagarbha and karmagarbha

• which are identical to the four categories of kulas in the Yoga Tantra. The

transformation of vāk has been especially mentioned in the tantric prajñāpāramitā

text above as the basis of how all beings are not different from Dharma. It hints at the

vital role of vāk in the concept of prajñāpāramitā in the tantric context.

Is the Queen of Vidyā in the Mahāvairocanaabhisambodhi Tantra

Identical to the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā?

When studying the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā, one notices many references to the Queen of

Vidyā (Vidyārājñī), found frequently throughout MVT. In a number of verses, the term 'Queen

of Vidyā' is given in place of 'mantra'. The general pattern where 'the Queen of Vidyā'

occurs in the Tantra may be abbreviated as such: the Bhagavat Vairocana spoke the Queen

of Vidyā "NAMAḤ SĀMANTA-BUDDHĀNĀM (or NAMAḤ SARVATATHĀGATEBHYO)

[...]" with other mantras following afterwards; one such mantra praises the nature of this

Queen of Vidyā as identical to that of space (gagana or kha).68

We come across some passages in MVT that link the Queen of Vidyā and

Prajñāpāramitā. In a passage of the Tantra, the Queen of Vidyā has been praised as

"the mother of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas", which is the epithet of Prajñāpāramitā.69

When Buddhaguhya explains the meaning of the Queen of Vidyā in his commentary

to the Tantra, his description coincides with the meaning of prajñāpāramitā.

Vidyā means knowledge and here it refers to the prajñā of Enlightenment. Queen is because

the prajñā of Enlightenment is the most excellent of all prajñās, it is a queen.70

The connection between the "Queen of Vidyā" and Prajñāpāramitā can be observed

in another passage, when MVT gives instruction about the ritual required before the

drawing of the vāk-maṇḍala.

68 See MVT IV.12; VI.29; X.1.

69 Cf. MVT IV.12, tr. Hodge 2003: 161.

70 MVT X.1 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 217.

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Having done the ritual to transform the colours, he should make the mudrā or mantra of

the Blessed Lady Prajñāpāramitā and recite this Vidyā Queen eight times.71

It cannot be ascertained at this stage of the research whether “the Queen of Vidyā”

and the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā are identical or different; further, any connection

between these two in MVT might also be assumed to represent a stage when hitherto-

discrete concepts had undergone a mutual assimilation. Another Goddess, Gagana-

Locanā, can briefly be mentioned in relation to Prajñāpāramitā and the Queen of Vidyā.

Gagana-Locanā, adored as the Mother of Buddhas in MVT,72 is described to be in the

nature of prajñāpāramitā and the prajñā associated with the abhisambodhi.73 In the

aforementioned description of the Queen of Vidyā in her similarity to space (gagana),

one sees a link between Gagana-Locanā and the Queen of Vidyā – however, it is

difficult to know, fundamentally, whether these divinities should be understood as

different names of one goddess. Leaving this problem aside for further separate

research, one can only say with certainty that the Queen of Vidyā and the Goddess

Prajñāpāramitā are linked with regard to their nature as prajñā, and that the concept

of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in the mantrayāna practice can be explored on the

basis of her affinity to the Queen of Vidyā. Regardless of the problem of whether she

is identical with the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā, it is worthwhile to pay heed to the

concept of the Queen of Vidyā because, as mention of her so undeniably indicates her

nature of vāk and the importance of vāk in the Buddhist Tantras, this certainly could

help bring forward an unexplored aspect of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in association

with mantras and the concept of vāk.

The Queen of Vidyā: Vāk

The references to the Queen of Vidyā are more or less always in connection to vāk and

mantra practices; she seems to imply a profound relation to the power of syllables. The

following passage by Vairocana is later expanded by Buddhaguhya’s commentary, which

clarifies that “the Queen of Vidyā” denotes the essence of the vāk cakra. MVT says:

There is a mantra phrase which arises from the Maṇḍala of cakra of Tathāgata’s vāk

which is vast and penetrates into infinity; it is like a multi-formed gem, it completely

perfects all aspirations, it is an accumulation of an immeasurable mass of merits, it abides

71 MVT X.19, tr. Hodge 2003: 227.

72 Cf. MVT II.18 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 108.

73 Ibid.

in unimpeded realization and it is endowed with the power that is independent of the three times.74

Buddhaguhya's commentary asserts that the above passage gives instruction concerning mantras for the maṇḍala - apparently meaning the kāya-maṇḍala, since this passage is drawn from chapter II which deals with producing this particular maṇḍala. Here, he describes vāk cakra, the Queen of Vidyā.

It (vāk cakra) penetrates and encompasses all realms of beings. Wish-fulfilling gem appears in various forms and carries out various actions so that beings may obtain what they desire. Likewise this Vidyā Queen also manifests in various forms for the sake of beings and carries out various activities for them.75

This passage gives the words of Vairocana concerning vāk cakra in its nature of transformation and all-pervasion. According to Buddhaguhya's conception, the Queen of Vidyā personifies the nature of transformation and all pervasion of the vāk cakra. The Queen of Vidyā represents the power of the vāk cakra, and the source of mantras. And the power of the Queen of Vidyā is explained to function at the two levels: absolute and relative.

The strength to generate perception of that relates to the absolute level, and the strength to be unharmed by obstructions by all demons and opponents, through the power of this Vidyā, relates to the relative level.76

Vidyā is understood as the power through which the tantric practitioners are unhindered by obstructions, which bespeaks the important place given to the Queen of Vidyā in this tantric practice. The Tantra teaches that one attains through the empowerment of Vidyā the unhindered reality, Sarvatathāgata.77

This Vidyā Queen reveals Sarvatathāgata, she does not let you depart from the confines of the path of Three Dharmas and she causes you to perfect the Levels and Perfections.78 Buddhaguhya thereafter explains the meaning of "she reveals Sarvatathāgata".

74 MVT II.95, tr. Hodge 2003: 148-49.

75 MVT II.95 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 149.

76 MVT X.1 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 216-17.

77 Cf. MVT X.3, tr. Hodge 2003: 217.

78 MVT XI.3, Hodge 2003: 233.

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By reciting this Vidyā, it will be as though you were seeing the intrinsically existent Maṇḍala (svabhāva-maṇḍala), the residence of Sarvatathāgata; the representational maṇḍala which has been drawn is shown after this Vidyā, or the maṇḍala of all the Buddhas is seen after reciting it.79

The role of the Queen of Vidyā in the creation of an external maṇḍala is explicitly indicated above. In addition she has also been described as the divinity who reveals Sarvatathāgata:

The Bhagavat Vairocana entered the samādhi, called ‘Infinite Victory’. No sooner had the Bhagavat entered that samādhi than there emerged the Vidyā Queen called ‘Universally Unimpeded Power’, which arises from the sphere of Sarvatathāgata.80

Sarvatathāgata may be understood to designate Tattva or Paramārtha, which means “the Highest Reality”, “the Essence” or “the Heart”. The definition found in MVT of the svabhāva-maṇḍala as “the residence of Sarvatathāgata” again confirms that Sarvatathāgata indicates the Essence, which is Dharmadhātu. Subsequently, it follows that the transformational power of the Queen of Vidyā is associated with vāk, and it is this power that reveals Dharmadhātu.

Yet, the Queen of Vidyā is not only the revealer of Dharmadhātu; she is Dharmadhātu itself. Buddhaguhya places the Queen of Vidyā at the ontological level of Dharmadhātu, informing that her power is independent of past, present and future. He states, “that which is unhindered in the past, present and future is śūnya, in other words, Dharmadhātu”.81 MVT also states that the experiential horizon of Dharmakāya is not different from that of the Queen of Vidyā; Buddhaguhya comments that this is evident, given that these two both perceive the true nature of things.82

From these references, the characteristics of the Queen of Vidyā can be summarized.

i) The Queen of Vidyā is the essence of the vāk cakra and is therefore the source of mantra as well.

ii) A tantric practitioner who attains the ultimate realization, an unobstructed state without hindrances, does so through her power.

79 MVT XI.3 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 233-34.

80 MVT X.18, tr. Hodge 2003: 227.

81 MVT X.1 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 216.

82 Cf. MVT X.2 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 217.

iii) She is the revealer of the Supreme Essence (Paramārtha; Dharmadhātu).

iv) She is equivalent to Dharmadhātu. The experience of the Queen of Vidyā, that of the vāk cakra and the experience of Dharmadhātu are not different from each other.

The Representation of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in Alchi and the Textual Descriptions of the Trika Goddess Parā

Certain characteristics of the Queen of Vidyā indicate the possibility of a relation between the Buddhist Goddess Prajñāpāramitā and the Trika Goddess Parā. The symbolism used in reference to the Queen of Vidyā bears striking similarities to that concerning Goddess Parā who has her origin in the philosophy of Parāvāk, the highest level of vāk. The iconographic specifications for the image of Goddess Parā in some Trika Śaivaite texts (including some south Indian examples, influenced by texts from Kashmir)83 display a remarkable affinity to the representation of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in Alchi. The name of Goddess Parā varies, because the Goddess Parā of Kashmiri Trika is incorporated into and superimposed upon the local goddesses of different regions; depending on the source text, one finds ‘Parā’ as co-equivalent to goddesses such as Kubjikā or Tripurasundarī. These goddesses share a common theological base in the philosophy of Parāvāk.84 Sanderson examines the descriptions given in various texts regarding the visualization of the Goddess Parā;85 his research demonstrates that, while these descriptions are not exactly identical, there are still certain common features that are common to all, such as “white like the moon” or as a crystal; “in a white robe”; and having one, three or four faces. When she is described with four hands, she holds a rosary and a book in one pair of hands, and the other pair shows the gesture of cinmudrā (the thumb and the index finger forming a circle), with the other hand bearing a trident or a lotus.

The images of Prajñāpāramitā as depicted in Alchi show benevolent facial expressions and bear the dharmacakrapravartana mudrā. The hand attributes of these images are especially remarkable in their affinity to those which are prescribed for the Goddess Parā. Although there are slight differences, the lotus, book and rosary are common in all images of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā. The dharmacakrapravartana mudrā was understood to

83 See Sanderson 1990.

84 Ibid.

85 Ibid.: 32-42.

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be a combination of jñāna mudrā (touching the chest with the left hand) and the vyākhyāna

mudrā (presenting the right hand palm forward, with the tip of the index finger touching

the thumb tip), respectively representing her aspects: jñāna aspect and the exposition

aspect.86 The vyākhyāna mudrā appears identical to the cinmudrā of the Goddess Parā. It

should be, however, noted that the six-armed form of Prajñāpāramitā in Alchi does not

correspond to any description of Goddess Parā with either two or four hands. This six-

armed Prajñāpāramitā is rather unique; the usual representation of the Goddess is either

with two or four arms.87 Bhattacharyya says that no description of the six-armed Goddess

has been discovered in any Indian Buddhist text, yet tells of a Chinese text that describes

a six-armed form of Prajñāpāramitā.88

On the second story of the sumtseg, an image of Prajñāpāramitā understood to be

a female representation of Mahāvairocana is of particular note (Pl. 37). She is coloured

white, with three clear eyes reminiscent of the three-eyed visage of the Goddess Parā

as described in the second verse of her invocation in the Parātrimśikātatparyadīpikā.89

The iconographic similarity observed between the Buddhist Goddess

Prajñāpāramitā in Alchi and the Hindu Goddess Parā seems to reflect at least a mutual

interaction, if not co-equivalent assimilation. It is likely that this interrelation might

have been aided by their commonly-held association with Sarasvatī, the ancient goddess

of knowledge, who is also the goddess of vāk (Vāgdevī), or rather even this association

would have given them access to Sarasvatī’s iconographic features. The Goddess Parā

is overtly associated with Sarasvatī in her aspect of “the embodiment of vāk (Vāgīśvarī)”

or “of the alphabet (Mātṛkārasvatī, Lipidevī)”.90 The Goddess Prajñāpāramitā is

related to this ancient deity more so in her aspects of knowledge and inspiration;

therefore, she is adored in Buddhism as the source of prajñā. The iconographic

descriptions of Sarasvatī given in Viṣnudharmottara are reminiscent of those of both

86 Cf. Saraswati 1958: 129ff; cf. Bhattacharyya 1978: 43.

87 For an exhaustive discussion about the iconographic features of the Goddess, see Bhattacharyya

1978: 38-39, 41; Shaw 2006: 171-80.

88 Cf. Bhattacharyya 1978: 59-60. He informs that the Chinese Dhāraṇīsamuccaya, translated in

about CE 1000, deals with a six-armed form of Prajñāpāramitā.

89 The text is the commentary of the Parātriśikālaghuvṛtti composed in Cidambaram. “May the

Supreme Power [Parā] protect you, |she who is as brilliantly white] as a markless moon, three-

eyed, adorned with the crescent moon [upon her hair], he [two] hands showing the gesture

(mudrā) and the book.” - Parātrimśikātatparyadīpikā 2, quoted and tr. Sanderson 1990: 33.

90 Cf. Sanderson 1990: 43.

the lesser-known Goddesses: she is described as four-armed, white-coloured, dressed

in white garments and bedecked with many ornaments; her four hands hold such

attributes as a manuscript, a white lotus, a rosary, a musical instrument, a water vessel

(kamaṇdalu) and so on.91 The rosary is said to represent time and the vessel of the

Goddess contains the nectarine fluid of all Śāstras.92 The reference of kamaṇdalu should

be seen in relation to the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in Pl. 37; her third eye might not only

be related to that of the Goddess Parā but also to that of the Vajraśāradā form of Sarasvatī

in Buddhism.93 As their iconographic resemblance overlap, the concept of the Goddess

Prajñāpāramitā might possibly have been incorporated with the vāk aspect of Sarasvatī.94

The passive visual impact of maṇdalas cannot be properly understood away from

their active, meditative dimension wherein the process of visual imagination is

fundamentally co-ordinated by mantras. Vāk, the source of mantra, may be envisaged

as the bridge between the multiple forms of maṇdalas and the Ultimate Dharma. On

the one hand, it is the power of transformation, both centripetally and centrifugally, as

it reveals the Dharmadhātu to sustain in all beings and takes the practitioner to the

realization of the Dharmadhātu. On the other hand, it is Dharmadhātu as much as its

experience is equated to that of the Dharmadhātu. The conception of the Highest

Divinity in the name of Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara-Mañjuśrī, or the references to

Sarvatathāgata in relation to vāk, both demonstrates the tantric perception, and argues

persuasively for the prevalence of the concept of vāk during the spread of mantrayāna.

Though the topic remains as an issue for much deeper research, it is suggestive that

the association of Prajñāpāramitā with the archetypal Goddess of Vāk, Sarasvatī and

the Parā Goddesses surely implies a strong aspect of vāk within Prajñāpāramitā, which

would not be separate or isolated from her attributes of prajñā.

The importance of the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā needs to be seen in the broad context

of Tantrism, as a part of the overall cultural ambience, where śakti (divine energy)

goddesses gained much popularity on the basis of the philosophy and practice of vāk.

91 Cf. Viṣnudharmottara III.64 and 73, tr. Kramrisch 1928: 86, 97.

92 Ibid.: 86.

93 Vajraśāradā has a crescent in her crown, is three-eyed and two-armed, carrying the book in

the left hand and the lotus in the right (cf. Bhattacharyya 1968: 351).

94 Āryasarasvatī, often revered by Buddhist tantrics, being also called Vajrasarasvatī, is of a

white complexion, and holds in her left hand a lotus stalk with the Prajñāpāramitā text atop it

(cf. ibid.).

The prominence that Prajñāpāramitā attained along with the maturation of Mahāyāna Buddhism, marks a palpable development: Dharma, as the Universal Principle, is conceived as of the nature of the Creative Feminine. "The apparent swiftness with which Prajñāpāramitā rose on the Mahāyāna horizon"95 is surprising when one limits one's study to her image as the Buddhist Mother Goddess amidst the patriarchal pantheon of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas: however, when one looks instead at the popular religions of the time, diverse in theology yet together taking part in the overall creation of religious images, it is not surprising to find the Buddhist Goddess of Wisdom clad in the garb of the ancient Vedic Goddess of Vāk. When considering the Goddess Prajñāpāramitā in the context of her affinity to the Queen of Vidyā, the Goddesses Parā and Sarasvatī, she clearly reflects the philosophy of vāk, which might well have influenced the geometric format of maṇdalas as well as the whole spatial planning of Alchi.

95 Shaw 2006: 167.

IV.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

Although the doctrine of vāk has been explored mainly from the perspective of language or literature, it directs to a metaphysical reality much broader than the levels of aural or verbal expression: it encompasses all sensual perception, expression and cognition, including visual images and thought processes. The exegesis of vāk essentially brings together the two extreme poles of Hindu theology - the indivisible Ultimate and the variety of phenomena - and suggests their non-duality by analysing the transformational power of the Ultimate, Parāvāk.

The conception of perceptible maṇḍalas as the reflective image (pratibimba) of the samādhi-maṇḍala hearkens to the concepts of bimba-pratibimba in Trika Śaivism.1 Trika Śaivism maintains that the Divine Consciousness is mirrored in the universe, and that the universe is mirrored in the Divine Consciousness; ultimately, however, there is neither that which is reflected (bimba) nor the reflection (pratibimba), but only the independent free will (svātantrya) of the Divine Consciousness. The infinite variety which is mirrored in the Divine Consciousness is merely the expansion of the Divine Consciousness itself. As much as the concept of vāk is pivotal in explaining the logic of bimba-pratibimba in Trika Śaivism, it may similarly illuminate the relations among the tangible maṇḍala, the samādhi-maṇḍala and the svabhāva-maṇḍala, while providing us with valuable references regarding three crucial points which have been noted in chapters I and II of this book: (1) the qualities of śūnya, (2) the perceptible forms of certain maṇḍalas, and (3) the transformational power explained in the context of the mantrayāna.

It is indeed problematic to simply translate the Sanskrit term vāk as “sound”, “speech”, “word”, or “language”, since one of its central attributes is its multi-layered context; it is impossible to properly define this term without looking into its various

1 Cf. Supra, pp. 109-110. For a short introduction to the concept of bimba-pratibimba in Trika Śaivism, see Swami Lakshman Joo 1991: 29-32.

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levels. In order to dispel any naïve conception of vāk as ordinary, mundane speech, it

is helpful to examine from the outset how the term śabda, which is equally complicated

but usually translated as "word", has been defined from the perspective of philosophy.

The philosophy of Bhartrhari gives many non-conventional meanings for this

term;2 these definitions may also be applied to the term vāk, as much as the theory of

vāk has been developed on the basis of Bhartrhari's philosophy of Śabdabraḥman.

Aklujkar classified these various meanings of śabda into four groups:

i) "Word" as an audible sound which conveys meaning.

ii) "Word" as the mental impressions or images which correspond to the audible

sounds that we call linguistic units.

iii) "Word" as "a whole language, an entire system of linguistic symbols" or "a

language, a collective set, a linguistic system" known by a person.

iv) Ultimately, "word" is that principle, power, or force which is at the foundation

of all linguistic knowledge. It is the entity that makes all individual languages

possible.3

These four categories will help, at the least, in broadening one's perception of the

terms śabda or vāk in preparation for the traditional Trika reading of them.

IV.1 Four Levels of Vāk

Man speaks something through vaikharī, ideates through madhyamā, experiences some

indeterminate state through paśyantī and experiences inwardly some truth through parā.4

This verse from the Parātrīśikā-Vivaraṇa (PTV) expresses how humans experience

and cognize within the four levels of vāk - vaikharī, madhyamā, paśyantī and parā.

Before beginning the commentary on the Parātrīśikā, Abhinavagupta, first describes

the four levels of vāk in the context of the Devī's question regarding the identity between

Anuttara (the Highest, or the Absolute) and kaulika (bodily manifestations). It is implied

in the exegesis that the four-levelled vāk is the essential principle on the basis of which

is developed the non-duality of the phenomenal objects and the Absolute. In this context,

these four levels are described as the transformation of the highest Lord through His Śakti.

2 Aklujkar 2001.

3 Cf. Aklujkar 2001: 452-56.

4 PTV 5-9, tr. Singh 1988: 157, Sanskrit text p. 56.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

The highest Lord is always intent on creativity (visargaparamah) through His Śakti. He showers grace, manifests and withdraws without any restraint.5

Abhinavagupta keeps the four levels of vāk within the context of the manifestation of the highest Lord. Parāvāk consists of Paramārtha that is the undifferentiated consciousness (cit-tattva) of the highest Lord (parameśvara), meaning the Whole or the Complete. When His icchāśakti (power of will) awakens within the state of complete non-differentiation, Parāvāk is mirrored in the paśyantī where the “desire” to express is predominant, but the vācyavācaka bhāva (the principle of expression, literally “the nature of what is expressed and what expresses”) is still indeterminate, and the subject and the object of the cognition are still undivided. The differentiation between the subject and the object starts in the stage of madhyamā. In the vaikharī stage comes the determinate difference between them, and the object of expression attains a concrete form. In this way the commentary illustrates that the scripture called Parātrīśikā is the final result of the manifestation and the transformation of Parāvāk through three stages of vāk.6 From the above introductory notes on the doctrine of vāk, we can deduce the following points:

i) Parāvāk or Paramārtha, the highest truth, is first echoed in an indeterminate form at the paśyantī level.

ii) It is conceived in subtle forms on the madhyamā level.

5 Trikahrdaya quoted in PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 14-15, Sanskrit text p. 5.

6 “So the inner content, i.e. question-answer which appears in the consciousness of the highest Lord in an undifferentiated way because of its being the highest truth, is thought of in the paśyantī stage in an indeterminate form (in nirvikalpa form) with a desire to put it in apportionment of letter, word and sentence; it is positioned with a sense of separateness in the madhyamā stage in a determinate form (i.e. in savikalpa form); it is finally expressed in the form of question and answer in the vaikharī stage, i.e. in gross speech consisting of māyīya letter, word and sentence. . . . The fact of question and answer (vastu) is an ever-present reality which is in the first instance, i.e. at the level of parāvāk without division. . . . The Self who is the natural state of all existents, who is Self-luminous, amusing Himself with question-answer which is not different from Himself, and in which both the questioner (as Devī) and the answerer (as Bhairava) are only Himself, reflects thus as I, ‘I myself, being thus desirous of wonderful delight knowing the truth as it is, appear as question and answer’.” (PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 15, Sanskrit text p. 5.) “This question-answer in its entirety resides really in the divine parāvāk whose quintessence is autonomy (svātantrya) which is independent of everything, which is unsurpassable and is able to bring about what is most difficult to accomplish, and which is not affected even by an iota of dependence on others.” (PTV 5-9, tr. Singh 1988: 108)

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3. Finally, it is concretely formulated at the vaikharī level, where ordinary communication occurs.

These characteristics of the four levels of vāk are associated with the various roles of śaktis; at each stage of vāk, particular characteristics are brought forth by specific śaktis. Each śakti plays a crucial role in determining the nature of the relationship between the subject and the object of both the cognition and the expression. For instance, we have already seen that the rise of icchāśakti in Parāvāk entails the stage of paśyantī vāk. However, the state of paśyantī vāk is determined by jñānaśakti (power of knowledge); therefore, paśyantī vāk is - though still in an indeterminate form - characterized by the incipient differentiation between the subject and the object, or between what expresses (vācaka) and what is expressed (vācya).

The four levels of vāk correspond to three goddesses (Parā, Parāparā, Aparā) of Trika Śaivism as well as the five main śaktis of Śiva (cit, ānanda, icchā, jñāna, kriyā).

The Goddess Parā (parā bhagavatī), Consciousness-Power (samvit prasarantī) not different from Bhairava on the point of expansion according to Her essential nature, is said to be supreme icchāśakti (voluntary power). Her actual expansion as jñānaśakti (cognitive power) assumes the parāparā or paśyantī form and as kriyāśakti (conative power) the aparā or madhyamā form, etc.7

The supreme icchāśakti, the essential nature of the Goddess Parā at the point of expansion, should be understood as the dynamism of primary life-force rather than as the power of any particular or definite desire. The Goddesses Parāparā and Aparā result from the expansion of the Goddess Parā and they are manifested in the jñānaśakti (cognitive power) and the kriyāśakti (conative power). Table 4.1 shows their correspondence.

All these stages of the expansion are conceived as the aspects of Anuttara in the non-dualistic vision of Trika Śaivism, and the Parā (parāvāk or Parāśakti) is the pure

Table 4.1: Correspondence Between the Four Levels of Vāk, Three Śaktis and Five Śaktis of Śiva

Four Levels of Vāk Three Śakti Goddesses Five Śaktis of Śiva

Parāvāk Parā Citśakti and Ānandaśakti

Paśyantī Parāparā Icchāśakti and Jñānaśakti

Madhyamā Parāparā and Aparā Jñānaśakti and Kriyāśakti

Vaikharī Aparā Kriyāśakti

7 PTV 2, tr. Singh 1988: 63, Sanskrit text p. 22.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

state of Anuttara,8 which is characterized by complete awareness (vimarśa, pratya-

vamarśa, cit, samvit). The term Anuttara encompasses many diverse concepts,

including as the complete union of Śiva and His consort, variously understood as

Śakti, samvit, cit, parāśakti or parāvāk. The characteristics of the doctrine of the

fourfold vāk become clearer when viewed in relation to its correspondence to the

Śakti Goddesses and the powers of Śiva. While these systems of divine power explain

cosmic creation and dissolution, the doctrine of vāk particularly well exposes their

reflection in the microcosmic context such in the acts of cognition and expression.

Jayaratha9 describes the etymological dimension of the three levels of manifested

vāk in his commentary on the verse of the Tantrāloka III.236: “When manifesting

differentiation she is said [to assume] a threefold body known as paśyantī, madhyamā,

and vaikharī, which is gross”. According to his commentary, paśyantī (seeing or

visionary) is the consequence of svasvātantrya (autonomous self-determination) of

Parāvāk. “When Parāvāk wishes to appear externally without producing the

multiplicity associated with the vācyavācakakrama (the process of what is expressed

and what expresses)”, it is called paśyantī, “because the light of cit still prevails” and

“since she is a form of the Subject who sees (draṣṭṛ)”.10 Next comes the madhyamā

(middle) stage, so-called because it intermediates between the subject who sees and

the object to be seen (drśya). Here the act of sight or viewing (darśana) is predominant.

This is a plane where, although the process made of what expresses and what is expressed

begins to unfold in outline, the [vāk] nevertheless remains grounded in the intellect

(buddhimātraṇiṣṭha) in a form that is both manifest and unmanifest

(sphuṭāsphuṭarūpatvena).11

In the vaikharī (corporeal) stage, the objective world predominates and the multiplicity

is clearly manifested. This stage is called vaikharī because vāk becomes completely

bodily and extended through the development of phonemes, speech organs, the places

of articulation and the articulatory process.

8 “Whether in the initial stage of parā or the final stage of parā, both of which are the expression

of revered parāśakti and also in its stage of expansion in the form of parāpara, it is throughout

the display of the immutable anuttara.” (PTV 4, tr. Singh 1988: 79-80, Sanskrit text p. 30)

9 TĀ III.236, tr. Padoux 1992: 170.

10 TĀ III.236 comm. (vol. II: 577), tr. Padoux 1992: 170-71.

11 Ibid.

146 |

The three stages of vāk evolve from the highest state of Parāvāk, in terms of the relationship between the subject and the object. In paśyantī vāk, the subject (the śabda or the knower) is predominant, whereas in vaikharī vāk, the object (the artha, or the known) predominates. The madhyamā vāk intermediates between the subject and the object, śabda and artha, the knower and the known; it is the act of seeing, or the knowledge itself. The etymological meaning of the four levels of vāk given in Jayaratha's commentary of TĀ tells that the central concern of the doctrine is how the highest Subject is identified with the manifold objects. It confirms the openness of its scope, applicable not only to the linguistic field but also to other processes wherein the differentiation between the subject and the object is crucial. We may note the Devī's question in the Parātrīśikā that entails the exposition of the four levels of vāk in the commentary of Abhinavagupta: “How does the anuttara immediately bring about the achievement of the multiple manifestations, by the knowledge of which one becomes one with khecarī?”12 Ultimately, the doctrine of vāk explains how the non-dual state of Reality can be explained in spite of the manifoldness of objects and subjects.

The four levels of vāk can be viewed in two ways in respect to their sequences, as both emanative and absorptive processes. One's visualization of the mandala in the samādhi is analogous to the emanative process of Paravak in the sense that the ideation of śūnya is ultimately followed by the manifest forms of the deities. Moreover, the artists' creations also analogize the emanative process of vāk in the sense that the execution of the artistic creation springs from the state of the formlessness and ends with concrete forms. On the other hand, the ritualistic process which is intended towards oneness with the Divine can be understood as tracing back from the corporeal to the pure consciousness and therefore is analogous to the absorptive process of vāk. For instance, one practice using a bīja mantra exemplifies the absorptive process of vāk wherein one's individual ego is dissolved through the physical sound of the bīja mantra into the transcendental heart of mantra itself, which is the pure light of the Divine. Furthermore, the process of aesthetic experience could be appropriately understood as the absorptive process of vāk. Given that the present volume is conducting an inquiry into the doctrine of vāk in relation to the aesthetic experience of Buddhist mandalas, we may look into each level of vāk in specific regard to the absorptive sequence.

12 Parātrisiḱā 1, tr. Singh 1988: 5. Khecarī means “the one who moves in the vast void (kha) of Divine Consciousness”.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism | 147

IV.1.1 Vaikharī vāk

Vaikharī is Not Mere a Language, But is rather a Śakti in Its Essence

Vaikharī vāk is often understood as “the gross, spoken language”. Padoux, an eminent scholar of vāk in Trika Śaivism, states with regard to the levels of vāk: Vaikharī is the final materialization of a continual, timeless and unbroken process which, from parā and, metaphysically, without actually ever leaving her, starts with the visionary (paśyantī) and, through the intermediate (madhyamā), results in the corporeal (vaikharī).

It is true that, in the traditional texts, the discussion of vaikharī vāk often entails illustrations of the emanational process of the phonemes. Thus it is rather natural that the vaikharī vāk is, at a first glance, equated to the category of gross language or speech, and that it is characterized by its phonetic aspect. In consequence, the vaikharī vāk – indeed, the entire doctrine of vāk – has been studied in the context of discursive language, especially in the domain of phonetics and grammar. Having accepted the general understanding of vaikharī vāk, the task of locating it within a discussion on aesthetics would go beyond the limits of its definition as language or speech. We need to carefully consider the characteristics of vaikharī vāk from its textual sources to examine whether it is merely limited to discursive verbal language. If the doctrine of vāk can explain the non-dualism of the Absolute with the manifold phenomena, it should include not only audible speech but also every object of every sense.

First of all, vaikharī vāk is defined as the state where vācya (what is expressed: meaning) and vācaka (what expresses: word) are divided, meaning that it consists not only of vācaka but also of vācya in its scope. If we suppose that vaikharī vāk is merely gross speech, the vācya aspect of vaikharī becomes difficult to explain. Vaikharī refers to the state “in which manifestation of difference of all the existents has proceeded fully (vaikharīprasṛtabhāvabhedaprakāśa-paryantaṃ)”. Vaikharī

Padoux 1992: 219.

Cf. PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 8.

Padoux also mentions that vaikharī consists of vācya and vācaka: “Vaikharī, therefore, consists of all the elements of the ‘significants’ empirically manifested and perceptible to the ear, namely of ‘gross’ phonemes and speech. . . . But vaikharī also consists of all that has to be expressed (vācya), namely ‘gross’ images and representations belonging to conceptual thought, and material objects which form the manifested universe, which the Word brings into existence and words denotes.” (Padoux 1992: 220)

PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 9.

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Voice of the Void

denotes the entire manifested world, and is not limited to the sense of language, and it

clearly includes the words and objects which the words designate.

If vaikharī vāk is not mere a language, a question arises, "why has vaikharī vāk

been described over and over along with the emanation of the phonemes?" The answer

might be found on examining the descriptions of its association with the gross level of

prāṇa that flows in a human body. Texts often describe the phonetic aspect of vaikharī

as linked to the breathing process. The association of vaikharī vāk with prāṇa is

explained in Rājānaka Rāma's commentary of the Spandakārikā 48.17 He states:

The sole support of the form of vāk known as the Corporeal Voice (vaikharī) is the vital

breath (prāṇa) that manifests the individual phonemes, etc. It manifests when the wind of

the vital breath, impelled by the (conscious) exertion applied according to the intention of

each speaker, strikes the chest and other.18

Further on, he writes:

When it (parāśakti) assumes the form of vaikharī vāk, it is said to be the gross power of

action because its manifestation depends upon the pulse (parispanda) of the individual

soul's vital breath (prāṇa).19

Vaikharī vāk is manifested in the corporeal body with the support of prāṇa, and it

starts its function when one wishes and intents to do particular actions.20 Here, vaikharī

vāk is the existential basis, or the precondition of the physical language or any

expression out of our body or mind. We find another remarkable account from his

commentary, which tells that vaikharī vāk is something subtler than the gross sound

of the phonemes.

17 Available sources of Sanskrit manuscripts of SpK have different chapter divisions. I follow

Dyczkowski's numbering of kārikās in his translation (Dyczkowski 1994).

18 SpV 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 131. Dyczkowski translates vāk as "speech", which might

mislead the understanding of the doctrine of vāk. Therefore, here I present the original term

without translation.

19 Ibid.: 132.

20 According to Rājānaka Rāma, icchāśakti corresponds to Madhyamā vāk (SpV 48 by Rājānaka

Rāma, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 132). Then we can interpret that the action of vaikharī vāk is

triggered by icchāśakti in madhyamā vāk. Therefore, we read in the commentaries, "set in

motion according to the will of the person" or "impelled by the (conscious) exertion applied

according to the intention of each speaker".

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

149

It is a form of sound common to all (sāmānyadhvanirūpā), having the form of the letters (varṇa) which are divided into vowels, consonants, and so forth, but it proceeds without being affected by the variety of those who speak it. This is how the aspect of vāk that is called the Corporeal (vaikharī), the receptacle of the breath (prāṇamātrāśrayā) manifested with the division of the phonemes, and so forth, expands (vivṛttih).21

The above quotation is puzzling if the reader is limited to the idea that “vaikharī vāk is none other than the discursive speech”. One notes that the phonemes, sentences or languages are merely gross forms of vaikharī vāk, and its subtle dimension is in the nature of sāmānya-dhvanirūpa, which is not affected by individual variations of expression or form. One might understand from this that vaikharī vāk appears not only in the form of expressed verbal sounds, but it essentially rests in the subtle form of dhvani (resonance), which has a universal character. A verse from TĀ confirms that vaikharī vāk should be understood more in terms of its subtle dimension than being in the limited sense of physical language.

That which is the cause of the rise of the manifested phonemes is the gross vaikharī, whose work (effect) is speech, etc.22

It is clear from this verse that the speech organ and articulation of language are merely the expansion of the gross vaikharī.

Vaikharī vāk is the Direct Cause of the Objective World

Returning to the question of why vaikharī vāk has been often described along with the process of pronouncing phonemes, it can now be understood that language is one of the most appropriate examples to describe the expansion of the subtle vaikharī vāk: the gross, vocal speech is, first of all, produced physically by means of the contact between prāṇa and the bodily organs. Distinct phonemes represent the function of the prāṇa, the vehicle or the channel through which vaikharī vāk manifests. As phonemes are mere examples of the expansion of vaikharī vāk, examples of this gross form of vaikharī would be infinite because vaikharī vāk “is expressed in varied scriptural and worldly forms (śāstrīyalaukikādi-bahubhedamvyaktayām)”.23 Rājānaka Rāma names

21 SpV 48 by Rājānaka Rāma, tr. Padoux 1992: 217.

22 TĀ III.244b, 245a (vol. II: 582):

yā tu sphuṭānāṃ varṇānāmuttpattai kāraṇaṃ bhavet |

sā sthūlā vaikharī yasyāḥ kāryaṃ vākyādi bhūyasā ||

23 Cf. PTV 4, tr. Singh 1988: 79. “Kathayāmi means: ‘I am expressing it by use of appropriate names the series of utterances up to vaikharī that arise from the venerable parāśakti and are expressed in varied scriptural and worldly forms’ . . . ”

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the phonemic manifestation of vaikharī as varṇa-vaikharī and, furthermore, refers to

its musical manifestation (svara-vaikharī) as well.24 The vaikharī vāk that produces

the phonemes is the very principle that produces the objective world.

When [with the movement of the breath, vāk] reaches the cavity of the mouth and divides

itself according to [the different] points of articulation [of phonemes] - the throat and the

rest - it is called vaikharī. This [vāk], due to the impressions of the external world, transforms

itself into such objects as pots and the like, and can thus be grasped by sight and the other

[senses].25

It may be understood, therefore, that in its essence, vaikharī vāk is energy. Its receptacle

is the prāṇa (vital energy), and it appears in the form of vācya (the object) and vācaka

(the subject) in dependence of the prāṇa of a living being.

Vaikharī on the Plane of Aparāśakti (Power of Differentiation)

and Kriyāśakti (Power of Action)

Vaikharī vāk appears in the form of vācya and vācaka. From the above examination

of textual sources, it becomes evident that vaikharī vāk is energy: it is aparāśakti, the energy

that manifests differentiation within the entire phenomenal reality, between

vācya and vācaka, between object and subject. Here, the sphere of objects dominates

over the sphere of subjects, and the principle of māyā (delusion), which is also the

manifestation of Śiva, hinders the identification between subject and object.

Aparā is placed where the world of objects predominates, dominated by Viṣṇu, Brahmā,

and Indra, when they take in themselves māyā and the rest. This power, however, comes

to them thanks to the grace only of the Supreme Lord (parameśvaraprasādajam).26

Vaikharī vāk is on the plane of aparāśakti where the power of action (kriyāśakti)

predominates. As is implied by the elaborate accounts of vaikharī vāk found in the

context of aparāśakti and kriyāśakti, the exposition of vaikharī vāk has its primary

importance in the context of the non-dualist soteriology. It is stated that vaikharī

vāk is the source of fetters and bonds when its origin of Parāvāk is not recognized, but

24 "Again,

just as the expansion of this (power) in the form of the Corporeal Voice of phonemic

sounds (varṇa-vaikharī) is infinitely (varied), so is its development in the form of the Corporeal

Voice of music (svara-vaikharī) with its diversity of notes (svara), scales (grāma), ascending

and descending patterns (mūrccchanā), runs (tāna), classes of melodic modes (jāti) and modes

(rāga), etc." (SpV 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 131)

25 Vṛtti on the VP, quoted by Somānanda in his ŚD, chapters 7-8, tr. Padoux 1992: 218, n. 120.

26 ĪPV 1.5.13 (vol. 1: 254-55), tr. Padoux 1992: 216-17, n. 117.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

once the knowledge of its true nature is attained, it is the source of liberation.

The understanding of vaikharī vāk as aparāśakti and kriyāśakti is central to the doctrine

of vāk, because without the knowledge of its essential nature it is the source of bondage

and will obstruct one's way to the Divine.

If vaikharī vāk is merely understood as

the gross forms of language, or as the objective world, it is indeed the source of bondage

to objects and concepts. In such a case, the next stage of madhyamā cannot be induced.

IV. 1.2 Madhyamā yāk

Madhyamā vāk has the Form of Dhvani (resonance) beyond Prāṇa (vital breath), and is supported by Antaḥkaraṇa (the internal organ of intelligence)

Regarding the emanative process of vāk, madhyamā vāk is the intermediate stage between

paśyantī and vaikharī. Vaikharī is supported by prāṇa. Through prāṇa, vaikharī vāk -

which is essentially energy - would manifest herself in bodily forms. The madhyamā

vāk that precedes vaikharī vāk in the cosmogonial expansion exists beyond any

individual experience of prāṇa. Rājānaka Rāma expounds upon madhyamā vāk:

Its nature is a peculiar resonance (dhvani) that has neither beginning nor end and arises

spontaneously within the body of each living being independently of the effort exerted by

vital breath.

It is said that madhyamā vāk manifests herself "spontaneously" beyond the vaikharī

level that one experiences through the exertion of prāṇa. In the descriptions of the

dhvani nature of madhyamā, one characteristic that is often emphasized is that of its

timelessness.

27

Cf. SpK 48: seyamkriyātmikāśaktihśivasy paśuvartinī |

bandhayitrī syamārgasthā jñātā siddhyupādikā ||

"This Śiva's power of action, residing in the fettered soul, binds it, (but) when (its true nature)

is understood and it is set on its own path, (this power) bestows the fruits of yoga (siddhi)."

(Tr. Dyczkowski 1994: xvii)

28

"When this wealth of vāk is recognized in this way to be the power of the Supreme Lord, it

bestows the highest perfection, but when it is conditioned by its association with the many

fettered souls, it is the cause of bondage." (SpV 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 132)

29

SpV 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 130. Cf. Padoux 1992: 214. Cf. Vrtti on VP which is also in

Rājānaka Rāma's commentary: "Transcending the operation of the vital breath (prāṇavṛttim

atikramya), it is solely based on the (activity of) the intellect (buddhi)." (Tr. Dyczkowski

1994: 131)

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Voice of the Void

"Madhyamā vāak arises spontaneously within the body of each living being." But where? The texts say that its support or vehicle is antahkarana (the internal organ of intelligence). Abhinavagupta gives an analytical description of madhyamā vāak:

Madhyamā, he [Utpaladeva] writes, is that energy of self-awareness (vimarśaśakti) which activates the internal organ (antahkarana), which is to say manas, buddhi and ahaṃkāra resting (viśrāntaṃ) on the substratum of vital energy (prāṇādhāre), the eightfold subtle body (puryastakātmani), in the central place between [the flow of the breaths: madhyabhūmau].30

Madhyamā vāak is in essence the energy of self-awareness (vimarśaśakti), which is experienced through the function of our internal cognitive organs or antahkaranas: buddhi (intellect), ahaṃkāra (ego) and manas (mind). In other words, these internal organs are the field of its action. In regard to the locus of these antahkaranas, Abhinavagupta said they reside in "the substratum of prāṇa" and "in the madhyabhūmi, the central place between prāṇa (inhalation) and apāna (exhalation)". The madhyamā vāak is beyond the prāṇa. Somānanda also states that madhyamā vāak activates antahkaranas in its emanative process, and in its absorptive process it is attained through the twin currents of prāṇa and apāna.31 Madhyabhūmi is the point between prāṇa and apāna. This point is a point of access to madhyamā vāak, whose nature is the energy of self-awareness (vimarśaśakti) and where distinct thoughts are on the way to the indistinct Whole.

Objectivity is Covered by Subjectivity

The internal cognitive organs (antahkaranas) are made empirically manifest in the form of internal thoughts. Thought constructs (saṃkalpa) and discursive thoughts (vikalpa) appear in the madhyamā; therefore, Somānanda uses the term vijñānarūpatva (plane of thought) for the expression of antahkaranas in the Śivadrṣṭi (SD II.6).32 In the emanative process of vāak, it is the stage of madhyamā where the differentiation between the vācaka and the vācya emerges, and the subject and the object are separated

30 ĪPVV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 188), tr. Padoux (with the help of A. Sanderson) 1992: 207.

31 "When this sound (śabda) reaches a plane of thought (vijñānarūpatve) where the desire to express the objects appear, this is called madhyamā." It continues, "This is due to the movement of bindu and nāda (bindunādamarutkramāt)". Utpaladeva comments upon this passage: "This word is called madhyamā. Due to the movement of bindu and nāda means due to the process/sequence of prāṇa and apāna." (ŚD II.6 and comm., pp. 41-42, tr. Padoux 1992: 214, n. 113)

32 Cf. Ibid.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

from each other. "The madhyamā reveals the duality of vācaka and vācya."33 However,

it has both distinct and indistinct forms (parāparā). "Owing to the reflective awareness

attached thereto (vimarśavayāpārā)", madhyamā vāk shares the nature of Parāvāk,

which is the undifferentiated reality.34 On the other hand, the distinct forms of vaikharī

vāk rest latently within madhyamā vāk. Abhinavagupta draws the example of a child

to explain that the distinctive names and forms already exist in madhyamā vāk. Here

distinctive names and forms are the constituents of the objective world, which is the

direct effect of vaikharī vāk.

The phonemes [making up the words] that he is aware of and that are audible pertain to the

plane of vaikharī, in regard to which he is as if born blind [that is, he can hear but does not

know to what the words refer]. It is therefore necessary that vaikharī, together with the

places and organs of speech articulation which make it up, should already exist internally

within madhyamā.35

The manifestation of the objective world at the stage of madhyamā is neither physical

nor empirical, and the objective world, though manifest, remains dominated by

subjectivity, as illustrated by the example of a child's cognitive development.

The relationship between the subject and the object - or between vācaka and vācya

in madhyamā vāk - certainly describes a critical point of the aesthetic experience.

The following passage by Abhinavagupta concerning madhyamā vāk is revealing

because it forms the foundation for the connection between the madhyamā stage and

the initial stage of identification between the subject and the object during the act of

aesthetic relish.

It (madhyamā vāk) consists of a form of knowing (vedanā) that is a covering [by pure

consciousness] of the clearly manifested object of cognition; just as in vācya is vācaka,

here vācya also is superimposed. Such an imposition, consisting of a reciprocal mixing

and covering [of these two elements], can happen only if vācaka is entirely [superimposed]

on vācya, which is all the manifest, and if all the manifest [is imposed on vācaka], and not

otherwise. A cloth cannot cover another one if it is three or four fingerbreadths shorter.

33 PTV, p. 5, tr. Padoux 1992: 205 - madhyamā punah tayor eva vācyavācakayoh bhedam.

34 "Owing to the reflective awareness attached thereto, [appears] as grounded in the same subject

(ādarśya sāmānādhikaranyena vimarśa vyāpārā)." (PTV, p. 5, tr. Padoux 1992: 205)

In the plane of madhyamā, the (Goddess) Parāparā fully develops as residing in the supreme

consciousness (parasamvid). Cf. PVT, pp. 147-48.

35 PTV, p. 159, tr. Padoux 1992: 212, n. 109.

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Voice of the Void

And this omnipresence of all in all (viśvātmakatvam) is due to this mutual mixing up of the

natures proper to [vācya and vācaka].36

Madhyamā vāk consists of the process of knowing (vedana), which is defined as “a

covering of the clearly-manifested object (sphuṭavedyapracchādaka vedanarūpā)”.

It is revealed in the process of knowing because antaḥkaraṇas are themselves the

field of madhyamā vāk. “The process of knowing” denotes “the reciprocal mingling

and covering of vācya and vācaka”, the complete superimposition of the vācaka (the

subject) upon the vācya (the object). This reciprocal mingling and covering of the two

elements of subject and object is a precise description of the initial identification

experienced during the act of aesthetic relish. One should be reminded that madhyamā

vāk has been also defined as a form of sight (darśana).37 The identification between a

viewer and an object during aesthetic relish is a state exactly where a reciprocal

mingling of the viewing subject and the viewed object takes place.

If the stage of madhyamā vāk is understood in terms of this stage of identification,

how can one answer the question, “does subjectivity predominate over objectivity in

the initial identification during an aesthetic experience?”. In the first stage of an

aesthetic experience, at a first glance objectivity seems to predominate over

subjectivity, because the selfhood of the viewer is forgotten and only the object of

appreciation comes into the fore in the aesthetic realm. However, a deeper observation

reveals us that there is a process in here where the objectivity of the viewer melts into

the subjectivity of the object, and thus the relative objectivity of the individual is

overcome. The discursive thoughts and the phenomenal constituents of the viewer

are at rest within the “subjective being” of the object. Abhinavagupta makes explicit

the relevance of this stage of madhyamā vāk to that of one’s identification in the

aesthetic experience when he describes the gross form of madhyamā vāk. He refers to

“the sound (dhvani) produced by a drum or any other similar instrument” as an example

of the gross form of madhyamā vāk, “because their sound is both distinct and indistinct

(sphuṭasphuṭarūpatva)”.38 He explains that it is this undivided aspect (avibhāga) of

madhyamā that makes it aesthetically pleasant.39 Here, Jayaratha comments:

36 PTV, p. 148, tr. Padoux 1992: 210. I have given the Sanskrit terms of vācya and vācaka,

while Padoux translates them “the expressed” and “the expressing”. For the term vedana, I

have used “knowing” instead of “knowledge” in order to emphasize the dimension of ‘action’.

37 Cf. Jayaratha’s commentary of TĀ III.236 (vol. II: 577). Supra p. 145.

38 TĀ III.241b-2a (vol. II: 580).

39 TĀ III.242b (vol. II: 581).

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

1 155

By being attracted to that (the undivided), the state becomes like ‘identification (tanmayībhāva)’.40

Madhyamā vāk is on the Plane of Icchāśakti, Jñānaśakti and Kriyāśakti

Textual sources variously associate madhyamā vāk with icchāśakti (power of will), jñānaśakti (power of knowledge) and kriyāśakti (power of action). According to Rājānaka Rāma in his commentary on SpK, icchāśakti corresponds to madhyamā vāk.41 However, the PTV emphasizes that “the plane proper to madhyamā is on the level of īśvara, which is kriyāśakti”.42 As we have seen with madhyamā vāk being defined as vedanā or darśana (act of knowing or seeing), it is the action that intermediates between the knower and the known in the cognitive process; and between the viewer and the viewed in the aesthetic relish. On the other hand, the madhyamā vāk is said to be in the plane of jñānaśakti, because it acts in the field of the internal cognitive organs, antahkarana. Abhinavagupta explains the association of the madhyamā with kriyāśakti in PTV, and draws further affiliations to jñānaśakti in the Īśvarapratyabhijñāvivrtivimarśinī.

Because that which is expressed by thought comes between [paśyantī and vaikharī] it is [called] madhyamā. Its nature is that of the energy of cognition (jñānaśaktirūpā).43

The text says that when antahkaranas are activated by madhyamā vāk it operates its proper functions, which are samkalpa (intentional thought activity), niścaya (judgement) and abhimāna (self-reference); these constitute the dualistic thought construction (vikalpa). Thus, madhyamā44 is revealed to be thought (cintana).45

IV. 1.3 Paśyantī vāk

The Intense and Synthetic Awareness of the Undivided Whole

From the viewpoint of the cognitive process, paśyantī vāk is the stage prior to the thought construction of madhyamā vāk. According to Abhinavagupta, paśyantī vāk is

40 Jayaratha’s comm. on TĀ III.242. (vol. II: 581): tenātrāpyāsaktyā tanmayībhavo bhavediti bhāvaḥ.

41 SpV 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 132.

42 PTV, p. 148: madhyamā tāvat svādhikārapade kriyāśaktyātmany aiśvare pade . . . (tr. Padoux 1992: 210).

43 ĪPVV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 188), tr. Padoux (with the help of A. Sanderson) 1992: 208.

44 Vimarśamayī vāk in the text.

45 ĪPVV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 188), tr. Padoux (with the help of A. Sanderson) 1992: 207-08.

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the initial stage of insightful knowledge (prathamajñānakāla), wherein there is no distinction between vācaka and vācya (vācyavācakaviśeṣayoḥ abhedaḥ).46 One grasps the undivided whole in the paśyantī stage.

This Śakti which is full of the awareness (vimarśa) of Grace for the entire world is, to begin with, non-different from paśyantī who is parāmarśamayī, i.e. who is always cognizant of the essential nature of the Divine and who has a hundred powers which are boundless in operation.47

Here, paśyantī vāk is clearly described as parāmarśamayī (consisting of a holistic awareness), while the term parāmarśa is also one of the attributes of Parāvāk, as we read in Jayaratha's commentary on TĀ III.236: “She is that who is in the form of Parāvāk, and who is parāmarśa whose nature is the aham (the absolute I)”..48 Paśyantī vāk is described as being very similar to Parāvāk in nature, as it is the first expansion of Parāvāk.49 However, Parāvāk is described as vimarśamayī (consisting of self-reflection) or ahaṃpratyavamarśa (the reflective awareness of aham), whereas paśyantī vāk is said to be idambhāvarūpasya pratyavamarśa (the reflective awareness of objectivity) which is based on aham (ahaṃbhāvaviśrānti).50

In paśyantī vāk, objectivity has not yet arisen and pure subjectivity prevails.51 Although subjectivity (ahaṃtā) prevails in this state, the rise of objectivity (idantā) is imminent. The holistic awareness (parāmarśa) of “the subject who sees” (draṣṭṛ)52 that prevails the paśyantī stage is accompanied by the icchāśakti, the will towards

46 PTV 1 (p. 4): “At the time of initial indeterminate knowledge in paśyantī in which there is no distinction in the word (vācaka) and the referent (vācya), there was obviously not any sense of difference between the word and its referent.” (Tr. Singh 1988: 8)

47 PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 8, Sanskrit text p. 2: sā ca saktihlokānugrahāvimarśamayī prathamataḥ parāmarśamayapaśyantyāsūtrayiṣyamān-ānantaśaktiśatāvibhinnā....

Padoux translates parāmarśa as “the intense form of consciousness” and gives a better translation of lokānugrahāvimarśamayī as “a self-representation filled with grace for the world” (Padoux 1992: 189).

48 Jayaratha's commentary on TĀ III.236 (vol. II, p. 577): asyeti parāvāgrūpasya ahaṃātmanāḥ parāmarśasya, . . .

49 PTV, pp. 82-83: paśyantyāpi parābhatṭārikāyāḥ prathamaprasaratvāt . . .

50 Cf. ĪPV I.5.13 (vol. I: 251-54); quoted in Padoux 1992: 192.

51 Cf. Jayaratha's commentary of TĀ III.236 (vol. II: 577).

52 Ibid.

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differentiation. As a consequence, the emergence of vācya and vācaka is grounded,

and “the lineament of differentiation starts”.53 This differentiation begins because

paśyantī vāk awakens the latent function of the icchāśakti. Paśyantī vāk is thereby

described as belonging to the category of parāparā (or bhedābheda: both difference

and non-difference) as much as does madhyamā vāk. However, at the paśyantī level,

ahantā (I-ness, subjectivity) still prevails, whereas idantā (That-ness, objectivity) is

made concrete at the madhyamā level.

Abhinavagupta also identifies it with icchāśakti.54 In ŚD, to illustrate the connection

between paśyantī vāk and icchāśakti, Somānanda draws the example of a potter. As a

potter whose act of making a pot begins by cognizing the will, the icchāśakti of paśyantī

is preceded by “the subtle expansion of consciousness” (sūkṣma ullāsaś

citah).55 Alternatively, paśyantī vāk is described as consisting of jñānaśakti in

association with the sadāśiva tattva, contrasting to madhyamā vāk that is ascribed to

the plane of kriyāśakti in association with the īśvara tattva. For example, we read:

. . . paśyantī where the differentiation is incipient, and madhyamā where the differentiation

appears, that are in the form consisting respectively of jñānaśakti and kriyāśakti, in the

essence of Sadāśiva and Īśvara. . . .56

The division between the icchāśakti and the jñānaśakti is indefinite according to the

following remark of Abhinavagupta:

53 PTV, pp. 6, 15: bhedāsūtranarūpāyāṃ paśyantyām (cf. Padoux 1992: 189, n. 53). Padoux

(1992: 190) defines the paśyantī stage as “a transition between the complete undifferentiation

and the commencement of differentiation”. He explains that the icchāśakti “corresponds to

the moment that follows immediately after that of the first complete and undifferentiated

awareness. This moment is characterized by a subtle vibration (parispanda) of consciousness,

[. . .] a first non-discursive stirring of the will toward this objectivity” (ibid.: 194).

54 PTV, p. 4: “Paśyantī becomes aware through the sole movement of consciousness of anything

which, desired [by it], is specifically awakened by a definite cause.” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 193)

ĪPV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 189): iyam eva ca icchāśaktirūpa.

55 ŚD 2.84-5 (p. 91): “Just as the agent, be it a potter . . . , or any other person, becomes aware

(vimarśa), in the form of an act of will (icchārūpena), that ‘a pot should be made’, likewise

here (in paśyantī), the same situation [occurs]. How could the will that thus precedes [action],

develop if there was not . . . a subtle expansion of consciousness intent on the prospective

object?” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 194, n. 66)

56 PTV, p. 6: paśyantyāṃ yatra bhedāṃśasyāsūtranāṃ yatra ca madhyamā bhedāvabhāsah,

tatra ubhautra jñānakriyāśaktimaye rūpe sadāśiveśvarasāre.

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Icchāśakti has for its nature the desire to know the object which is to be known (bodhyabubhutsāsvabhāva). The desire to know is, in fact, nothing else in essence but knowledge itself (bodhasvabhāva), for there the [prospective] object is already revealed in the full light of manifestation.57

Forms of Objects are Resorbed in the Stage of Paśyantī vāk

Paśyantī vāk is proximate to Parāvāk, which is an aspect of Anuttara, the Highest or the Absolute. However, it is not transcendental and beyond one’s grasp, for it can be experienced by means of the proper condition.58 It can be deduced from the textual sources that the proper means include memory (smaraṇa) and meditative concentration (samādhāna).

A passage from the Vrtti of VP quoted by Abhinavagupta in his ĪPVV, describes paśyantī vāk at the experiential level, brought about in this case by meditative concentration (samādhāna).

Paśyantī, although the sequentiality is entirely resorbed in her (pratisaṃhrtakramāntah satyapyabhede), possesses however the energy [that animates sequentiality] (samāviṣṭakramaśaktih). . . . She is attained by mental concentration (pratilabdhāsamādhānā). The forms of the objects of knowledge appear in her as immersed in consciousness, their form being either resorbed or absent (samvinniṣṭhajñeyākāra pratilīnākāranirākāra ca). All this appears in her in a variety of discrete aspects or as forms fused into each other, or it may appear as having lost all form (paricchinnārthapratyavabhāsā saṃsṛṣṭārtha-pratyavabhāsā ca sarvārthapratyavabhāsā praśānta pratyavabhāsā ca iti).59

The description of paśyantī vāk from this state of meditation given above is important specifically in the context of aesthetic absorption, because it illustrates how multiple objects appear within this state. They first of all lose their distinct forms as they are immersed in saṃvid (Divine Consciousness). However, the author subtly differentiates the forms at this stage of paśyantī according to their individualities:

i) They appear in subtle forms, while retaining their specific characteristics.

57 ĪPVV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 189), tr. Padoux 1992: 195.

58 Cf. ĪPVV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 195): “One must consider the plane of sadāśiva (sadāśiveśvaradaśā) as a great paśyantī (mahāpaśyantī) in comparison with the innumerable paśyantīs of the individual knowers subject to māyā.” (tr. Padoux 1992: 201)

59 Vrtti on VP 1.142, quoted in ĪPVV 1.5.19 (vol. 2: 226), tr. Padoux 1992: 191.

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ii) They are infused into one another and create a unity.

iii) They become void.

The observation of these three different descriptions reveals that they signify the transformation from a state of subtle forms to the complete dissolution of all forms. The forms of the objects of knowledge lose their distinct nature. At once with this, also within the paśyantī level, there occurs the transformation of vāk itself.

The other means by which one might experience paśyantī vāk is the act of recollection (smaraṇa). Abhinavagupta states the following in his PTV:

Paśyantī is touched (vimrśati) solely through "the act of stringing together" of awareness (bodhasūtranamātreṇa) of anything that is desired (abhiipsitam), and which is specifically awakened by a fit cause (samucitakarananiyama prabodhitam).

He continues, saying that, out of many mental impressions (of such qualities as a dark blue colour or the like), one recalls (smrtirvimrśati) only what is awakened by the memory as its cause (smrtibījaprabodhakaicityā). The phrase "the act of stringing together of awareness" in the above quotation should be interpreted as "the act of recollection" in the context. Here, the distinct forms are unmanifested (nahi prathamajñānakāle bhedo'tra āsphurat). It is remarkable that, in this context, Abhinavagupta draws the visual example of mecaka, the dark blue colour or the eye of a peacock tail; this visual example implies that paśyantī vāk is attained not only by a transformation of gross language, but also through visual memory. These textual descriptions of paśyantī vāk lead to a discussion of the doctrine of vāk intimately connected to the aesthetics of visuals.

That the act of recalling (smaraṇa) opens the door to paśyantī vāk is crucial. In the TĀ, Abhinavagupta equates memory in its highest sense to the Divine Consciousness, samvitti established in the manifested multiplicity.

60 PTV, p. 4: tatastu paśyantī yadyat abhīpsitaṃ tattadeva samucitakāraṇaniyama prabodhitam bodhasūtranamātreṇa vimrśati. . . . Padoux (1992: 193) translates the verse, "Paśyantī becomes aware through the sole movement of consciousness of anything which, desired [by it], it specifically awakened by a definite cause."

61 PTV, p. 4: yathā anekabhāvābhāvajñānasaṃskārasaṃskrtāyā mecakadhyah smrtibījaprabodhakaicityā kimciteva smrtirvimrśati.

62 TĀ 5.137-39: "Memory (smrti), a recalling to mind (smaraṇa), is at the root of all the modalities of existence (pūrvam sarvabhāveṣu vastutaḥ); verily its innermost nature is the mantra (mantrasvarūpa). It is that which allows the apprehension of the deeper nature of these modalities

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discursive (avikalpa) as well as discursive (vikalpa). In memory, although distinct objects are represented (vimarśa viśeṣātmaka vikalpa rūpa) and are thereby discursive, the potency of distinctive expression (śabdabhāvanā)63 is shrouded (samvartita śabdabhāvanārūpa).64 How can these two contradictory descriptions - both discursive and non-discursive - coexist? In regard to this question one should presuppose that in the state of memory there occurs a “transformation” from the discursive to the non-discursive, or vice versa.

The Gross Paśyantī is Nāda (resonance)

The descriptions given above of mental concentration and memory as the means to reach paśyantī vāk present a picture of paśyantī vāk as the subtle, internal synthesis of multiple forms. It appears unlikely for paśyantī vāk to be experienced by any of the five sense-organs, or for it to be nakedly manifest as any particular external object. However, paśyantī vāk is nevertheless also described as something that can be directly experienced by our senses. For instance, the paśyantī vāk is conceived to be of the nature of “such a subtle murmur” (sūkṣmasamjalpasvabhāva).65 In TĀ, Abhinavagupta states:

The gross paśyantī (sthūla-paśyantī) that is in the form of resonance (nādarūpiṇī) as light and beautiful as a series of musical notes (svarasandarbhasubhagā), is not divided into phonemes, and so forth.66

Here, it is “the undivided flow” of musical notes, not divided into distinct sonic units, that is given as an example of nāda and of the gross paśyantī.

→ when they arise (sarvabhāveṣu rañjikā). Memory, [indeed], induces this nature. Colouring [or taking hold of] all objective modalities, as it is present in the multiplicity of forms, it partakes of the innate nature of all things (svasvabhāvasya samprāptih), it is consciousness (samvitti) in the highest sense [of this word] (paramārthatah), abiding in what has been manifested. Know that as such it is called supreme reality [or essence] (parā).” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 397-98). Cf. ĪPV I.4.1 (vol. I: 153): “Thus, he who remembers is none other than the supreme Lord (evaṃ ca sa eva prameśvarah smarati)” (tr. Padoux 1992: 397).

63 Torella translates śabdabhāvanā as “a potential linguistic articulation”. According to Bhartrhari, śabdabhāvanā is present, in various degrees, in every cognition. It exists even in avikalpa cognition, though in a subtle form (cf. Torella 2002: 125-26, n. 42).

64 Cf. ĪPVV 1.5.19 (vol. 2: 226), tr. Padoux 1992: 199.

65 Cf. ĪPVV 1.5.13 (vol. 2: 190, l. 18) mentioned in Padoux 1992: 196.

66 TĀ III.237b-8a (vol. 2: 578):

tatra yā svarasandarbhasubhagā nādarūpiṇī ||

sā sthūlā khalu paśyantī varnādyapravibhāgatāḥ |

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Then, what is nāda? The Netra Tantra defines that the nāda is the sound that fills the world when sphoṭa (a form of sound; dhvanirūpa) expands from the invisible form of Śiva.67 Abhinavagupta defines the nāda as “what is left of the experiencer’s synthetic self-awareness (svātmaparāmarśāśeṣatā) when all differentiating thought (vikalpajñānadīnaṃ) disappears”.68 According to Jayaratha’s commentary on TĀ, the nāda is the unstruck (anāhata), almost unmanifest, sound (dhvani),69 the plane of the Divine Consciousness (saṃvidam) transcending the universe.70 It is puzzling to find the description of Parāvāk in the context of nāda, which has been assigned to the gross paśyantī in the same text. However, this statement is logically tenable, because paśyantī is very close to Parāvāk in nature. In his commentary on NT, Kṣemarāja gives a detailed account about the parā aspect of nāda:71 it is the pure light of consciousness (paracitprakāśarūpa) and the reflective awareness (vimarśātmaka) where the subject (ahantā) and the object (idantā) are uncreated (akṛtaka), where the subject of the objectivity and the objectivity in the subject are co-identified (sāmānyādhikaraṇya), which is also known to be the state of sadāśiva.

A Śrividyā text, the Śāradā Tilaka72 explains the cosmogonial process through

67 NT 21.61-63 (vol. 2: 287-88): “When, from the invisible form of Śiva the sphoṭa, which is a form of sound (dhvanirūpa), expands, impetuously filling the world with sound (dhvanināpūrayaṇ), it is called nāda, O Master of the Gods, and Sadāśiva.” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 97-98, n. 33)

68 TĀ IV.175, tr. Padoux 1992: 98.

69 TĀ V.131 comm. (vol. 3: 1060). Synonyms of nāda are given in the Nāda Kārikā 16-7: “Therefore the existence of nāda (nādah parāḥ) is established which is synonymous with sumaṅgalā, mālinī, mahāmāyā, samanā, anāhata, bindu, aghoṣa, vāgbrahma, kuṇḍalinī tattva and the category of vidyā. These names have been stated in different Āgamas.” (Tr. Chakravarty 1992: 12)

70 TĀ V.75 comm. (vol. 3: 1000): nādadaśāṃśrayet’itivimarsātmikaṃ viśvottīrṇāṃ saṃvidamāśādayedityarthāḥ |

71 NT 21.63 comm. (vol. 2: 288): śaiva nādabhaṭṭārako ’kṛtakahantedantā-sāmānādhi karaṇyavimarśātmakaparacitprakāśarūpaḥ iti nādaḥ sadāśivaḥ iti sāmānādhikaranyokter āśayaḥ — “This blessed nāda is the pure light of the Supreme Consciousness when it becomes aware both of itself as the repository of objectivity and of this objectivity which dwells within itself, as being uncreated, of identical nature and as dwelling in the same substratum (which is sāmannyādhikaraṇya).” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 101, n. 46)

72 The Śāradā Tilaka (Forehead-ornament of Sarasvatī) is a basic matric digest along with the text Prapañcasāra. The author of the text, Lakṣmaṇadeśika or Lakṣmaṇa Deśikendra was a

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the terminology of sound, in which nāda is the permeating sonic principle, akin to resonance, in contrast to the concentrated state of bindu (point; drop). After describing the Absolute permeated by vāk, this text says:

Out of the Supreme Lord (parameśarāt), overflowing with existence, consciousness and bliss (saccidānandavibhavāt), endowed with kalā (sakalāt), was born the [phonic] energy (asīcchaktis). Out of that came forth nāda (tato nādo) and out of nāda (nadād), bindu (bindusambhavah) which is a manifestation of the supreme energy (paraśaktimayah), and which itself divides into three (sākṣāt tridhā 'sau bhidyate punah). Its three portions are called: bindu, nāda and bīja.73

According to this text, both nāda and bindu have two levels of existence. Nāda, before the Supreme Energy (paraśakti) is concentrated into the form of bindu, is called parānāda, and the nāda at the other level that occurs after the division of the bindu is called aparānāda. The actual manifestation of paraśakti emerges from the form of bindu, which displays three divisions - bindu, nāda and bīja - for the on-going emanative process of creation.74

The stages prior to the paraśakti manifesting the empirical creation have been elaborately described in NT. Here, one encounters three levels of nāda between śakti and bindu: nādānta, nāda and nirodhinī. The difference between nāda and nādānta (literally meaning “the end of nāda”) is illustrated in Keśemarāja's commentary on NT. He states that Śiva, the eternal knower, becomes aware in an undivided way (āmarśa) of parānāda that is like “the indistinct murmur of a brook”

→ Śaiva religious leader, reported to have been a pupil of Utpaladeva. Lakṣmaṇadeśika is commonly placed to the eleventh century CE. About the text, see Goudriaan and Gupta 1981: 134f.

73 ŚT 1.7-8 (vol. 1: 16-17), tr. Padoux 1992: 87. The text continues to explain the cosmogonical process until the empirical world is created. Śabdabrahman comes into existence out of the threefold division of bīja, bindu and nāda, and assumes the form of kuṇḍalinī. Through the rise of kuṇḍalinī, the phonemes (varṇa) arise. Then come speech, the gods, the elements, and the whole empirical world. Cf. Padoux 1992: 87.

In Śaiva Siddhānta text Mrgendra Āgama Kriyāpāda (I.2.), bindu is the outcome of nāda which again is the resultant of śakti (śakternādo 'bhavat binduh). When the anāhata sound becomes condensed in the inner recess of the mind as an inner cognition (antahsamkalpa), it gradually becomes well shaped like a round ball of speech (sampinditavāgrūpah). It is named bindu because it is nothing but a drop (binduriva binduh). Cf. Chakravarty 1992: 4.

74 According to the text, aparā bindu is of the nature of Śiva, bīja of that of Śakti, and aparā nāda is the union or mutual relation between Śiva and Śakti (cf. ŚT 1.8-9; Padoux 1992: 116-17).

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(avyuccchinnadrutanadīghoṣa), and at the same time grows aware of the world and

universe filled with nādānta, which is like "the echo of a bell without sound"

(dhvanināghaṇṭānurananarūpeṇa nādāntena jagat viśvam āpūrayan).75

Here one should note that nāda is the indistinct continuous resonance, whereas the nādānta is

the moment when the subtle indistinct vibration of nāda is dissolved, close to the state

of absolute non-manifestation. On the contrary, when the nāda moves on towards

manifestation, it becomes nirodhinī or nirodhikā. Nirodhinī is a state where nāda

rests (viśrāmyati) and brings forth (unmajjayati) the deep pervasiveness (adhāra-

vyāptim) for manifestation by merging into its own pervasiveness (svavyāpti-

nimajjanena).76

The relevance of the concept of nāda in the context of the doctrine of vāk, especially

in association with paśyantī vāk, is evident from Kṣemarāja's exposition of nādānta.

Nādānta starts to radiate forth in order to bring the universe into manifestation, being

replete with the energy of the Supreme Word (parāvākśakti) wherefrom it originates.77

Here it is made clear that nādānta originates from Parāvāk, and it is this all-pervasion

without manifestation that precedes the subtle manifestation of sound in the form of

nāda. Nādānta may be imagined as a state between Parāvāk and paśyantī, or as the

highest level of the paśyantī vāk. Nirodhinī is said to be the level where the dynamism

peculiar to mantras appears; thus, it is also called mantrakaḷā.78

The association of mantravīrya (the potency of mantra) to nirodhinī in particular can be best understood

when one remembers that paśyantī vāk is defined in PTV as "the initial creative state

of the energy of the highest mantra".79

The observation of the state of nāda and its

diverse levels may help one comprehend the transformations of forms at the level of

paśyantī.

Is Paśyantī vāk Comparable to Bindu?

Paśyantī vāk is the initial creative moment in the emanative process of vāk, where -

after inconceivably subtle developments on the parā level - the unmanifested and

75

Cf. NT 21.63, comm. (vol. 2: 288), tr. Padoux 1992: 102.

76

Cf. NT 21.64 comm. (vol. 2: 289), tr. Padoux 1992: 103-04.

77

NT 21.63 comm. (vol. 2: 288), tr. Padoux 1992: 102.

78

Cf. NT 21.64 comm. (vol. 2: 289), tr. Padoux 1992: 104.

79

PTV 1 (p. 5): paramahāmantravīryavisṛṣṭirūpāyā . . . |

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undivided Whole begins to unfold its parāparā dimension. It may be said that paśyantī

vāk is at the border between parā and aparā. In the cosmogonic process described in

ŚT and NT, bindu is the stage between parāśakti (the supreme power) and aparāśakti

(the power of differentiation). Bindu, divided into its three divisions, represents the

actual beginning of manifestation. The various stages from Parameśvara to parābindu

according to ŚT – or from unmanā to bindu in NT – are analogous to the sequential

development of forms from Parāvāk to paśyantī vāk. Comparable to the various stages

of transformation within paśyantī vāk, the stages from bindu to Parameśvara seem to

signify the process of swallowing the manifested back into their absolute, unmanifested

source.80 The relation of paśyantī vāk to bindu is difficult to clarify, because the textual

sources give inconsistent descriptions of each concept and their relations. Nevertheless,

to study the exposition of bindu as compared to paśyantī vāk would help in discerning

the various stages of forms within paśyantī vāk, because both of them represent the

initial creative moment.

The literal meaning of bindu is “a point” or “a drop”. As a geometrical point, it is

positioned in between form and the formless; therefore in itself it implies many-layered

metaphorical meanings. It is the source from which everything emerges, and to which

all created beings return. Synonyms of bindu are given in the Ratna Trayā Parīksā:

śabdatattvaghoṣā (the essence of the sonic element), vāgrahma, kuṇḍalinī, dhruvam

(the stable), vidyā, śakti, parā (the transcendent one), nāda, mahāmāyā, vyoma

(limitless space) and anāhata (the unstruck sound).81 While bindu is understood

through these many layers of meanings, its sonic nature persists, due to its intimate

association with nāda. As explicitly said in TĀ:

It is a sound (śabda) in the nature of a subtle sound resonance (nādātmaka) present in all

animate creatures and dwelling there (sarvaprāṇiṣvavasthitah), dividing between high

and low [while] beyond all activity.82

In the Sanskrit phonemic system, where vowels are seen as an expansion of the energy

of Śiva, anusvāra is the bindu into which gathers the energy of every vowel from a to

au, and from which begins the manifestation of Śiva through the agency of Śakti.83

80 The expositions of bindu given in ŚT and Kāmakalāvilāsa tell that “bindu and its division are

therefore . . . the same gathering up and then dividing movement of Śiva’s energy” (Padoux

1992: 116).

81 Cf. Ratna Trayā Parīkṣā 70-71, tr. Chakravarty 1992: 2.

82 TĀ III.113b-114a, tr. Padoux 1992: 276.

83 Cf. PTV 5.

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Instead of making an exhaustive survey of the multi-layered concepts of bindu, the present investigation shall focus on its particular qualities that relate to paśyantī vāk. As in paśyantī vāk, where subjectivity prevails and objectivity exists in an unmanifest form, bindu is conceived as the Knowing Subject. In this sense, bindu is said to have the nature of pure light, consistent to its being assigned to the plane of sadāśiva tattva.84 In his commentary on the Śivasūtra, Kṣemarāja defines bindu as supreme light: binduḥ parāprakāśaḥ.85 When Abhinavagupta explains in TĀ that the first principle prakāśa-tattva abides in the knower, the knowledge and the known,86 he adds:

This pure light (prakāśamātra), shining while these three luminous aspects (dhāmatraya) remain, is called bindu (vindu) in the scriptures. It is regarded as Śiva's bindu (śivavindu).87

In Abhinavagupta's Tantrasāra (chapter I), the light of Śiva, though it itself consisting of no-form, is said to make manifest all forms through kriyāśakti. When the phonemic emanation is explained, bindu is also equated to knowledge (vedana) and to light.

Then, at the end of the power of action, all that was to be done and has been accomplished is about to enter into the Absolute, but, before doing so, it all exists as bindu which is essentially knowledge (vedana) and pure light (prakāśamātra).88

If we are bound to the definition of bindu as a point of concentrated energy or as a geometrical point, it is difficult to understand its description as the penetrating light of Subjectivity, sometimes found written in Sanskrit as vindu. In another passage from TĀ (III.110-11) which illustrates this aspect of bindu as both pure light and the Knowing Subject, we read:

Even at this stage that transcendent power (anuttaraśakti) though making its form clearly manifest and taking on limitations of the impurities of objectivity (jñeyakalā), it is yet always of the form of bindu (vindurūpinī). When kriyāśakti develops fully (uditāyām

84 YH (I.56ab): “The seat of Sadāśiva, O goddess, is in the mahābindu” (sadāśivāsanam devi mahābindumayamparam), tr. Chakravarty 1992: 14.

85 ŚSV 2.2, pp. 49-50, tr. Singh 1979: 87.

86 TĀ III.130b-1a (vol. II: 486).

ittham prakāśatattvasya somasūryāgnitā sthitā || api mukhyamtatprakāśamatratvam na vyapohyate |

87 TĀ III.133-34, tr. Padoux 1992: 273.

88 Tantrasāra I, pp. 14-15, tr. Padoux 1992: 273.

166 | Voice of the Void

kriyāśaktau) in the realm of knowable objects, the instrument of knowledge, and the experiencing subject (somasūryāgnidhāmani),89 the undifferentiated light (prakāśa) which pervades all is our Supreme Bindu (bindu paramo).90

Jayaratha comments on the above verses:

This (vettīti vinduḥ) is the autonomous knower (svatantrạḥ pramātā) in the very act of knowing. Its nature is light, supreme indivisible (avibhāgaḥ parah prakāśaḥ). He never loses anything from its original nature.91

The above references show that bindu – especially when written as vindu – is the principle of light and awareness which is unchangeable even in the turbidity of objectivity, and that it is the shining state of true awareness where one finds united the three conditions of knowledge: pramātr̥ (the knower), pramāṇa (the knowledge) and prameya (the known). The use of the term vindu emphasizes a particular concept of bindu as the conceptual point where the manifold objectivity touches the Subjectivity. Here it may be appropriate to again quote a verse from PTV:

Paśyantī is touched (vimrśati) solely through "the act of stringing together" of awareness (bodhasūtranamātrena) of anything that is desired (abhiṣitam), and which is specifically awakened by a fit cause (samucitakarananiyamaprabodhitam).92

The association between the two concepts of bindu and paśyantī, brought together due to their functional parallels, is further strengthened under the bodha (awareness) aspect of bindu. The pure light and awareness represented by bindu is apparently none other than the narrative description of bodha. Particularly in PTV, when bindu is described as “cognizing the Bhairava nature of the heart”,93 it is the bodha that perceives the Śiva nature of the individual heart. Just as bindu is recognized as the symbol of bodhicitta in tantric Buddhism, bindu being especially written as vindu could be a signifier of bodha in Trika Śaivism.

89 Here, sūrya, soma, agni signify knower, knowledge and known – pramātr̥, pramāṇa and prameya.

90 Tr. Chakravarty 1992: 18.

91 TĀ III.110 comm., tr. Padoux 1992: 274.

92 PTV, p. 4: tatas tu paśyantī yad abhiṣitaṃ tattadeva samucitakāraṇaniyamaprabodhitam bodhasūtranamātrena vimrśati . . . |

93 PTV, p. 230: bhairavātma vedanārūpatayā bindvātmakaṃ hrdayam (hrdaya is in the nature of bindu that is represented in the cognition of its Bhairava nature).

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

IV.1.4 Parāvāk

Parāvāk is in the Plane of Parāśakti, That is, Anuttara

In the doctrine of vāk, Parāvāk is often described to be similar to śaktitattva, for example in the nature of vimarśa (reflective awareness), sphurattā (shining forth), svātantrya (spontaneity) and camatkṛti (wonder). Though the Śakti aspect of Parāvāk is particularly mentioned, Parāvāk is essentially inherent to the inseparable relation between Śiva and Śakti. Therefore, the divine light (prakāśa) is an important aspect of Parāvāk, without which there would be no pulsation that brings forth manifestation. In the following verse, Parāvāk is envisaged as having the nature of pulsation (sphuritam), prakāśa, the Self (aham) and the uninterrupted highest truth.

Beginning with paśyantī up to vaikharī, the parāvāk full of the wondrous delight of her own self (svacamatkṛti), resting within her own self which is all Light (prakāśa), continues pulsating (sphurati). That pulsation is indeed the Self (aham) which is uninterrupted highest truth (avicchinnatā paramārtham).94

While Parāvāk is described as the union of Śiva and Śakti - pure light (prakāśa) and the citi (consciousness) or pratyavamarśa (awareness) - it is seen as the heart of Parameśvara, the highest category within the tattva system.95 The vrtti of the Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā (I.5.14) by Utpaladeva mentions Parāvāk - identical to citi - to be the foundation of everything, including the Divine Self:

It (she) is not to be understood as the counterpart of non-being (abhāvāpratiyoginī) [but] it also pervades non-being (abhāvavyāpinī); it is existing (sattā), being (bhavatā), the subject of the action of being (bhavanakartrtā); permanent (nityā), because untouched by space and time (deśakālāspaṛśāt). . . . It constitutes the foundation of the self of the supreme Lord, who is all things (sā viśvātmanah parameśvarasya svātma pratiṣṭārūpā); the various agamas call it the heart (hṛdayam).96

When parāvāk is said to be the heart of the Highest Divine, this demonstrates a crucial basis for recognizing Parāvāk as Anuttara, which is occasionally called Parāśakti.97 A

94 PTV 1, tr. Singh 1992: 9, Sanskrit text p. 2. Jaideva Singh’s English translation of “tadevam sphuritamavicchinnatāparamārtham aham iti” has been replaced by my own translation.

95 ĪPK I.5.14: “It (she; parāvāk) is that which is said to be the heart (hṛdayam) of the supreme Lord (parameṣṭinah), in so far as it is his essence” (tr. Torella 2002: 121).

96 ĪPK I.5.14, tr. Torella 2002: 122.

97 TĀ III.249a (vol. II: 585): anuttarā parecchā ca parāparatayā sthitā.

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Voice of the Void

verse from Pratyabhijñāhrdayam of Kṣemarāja presents an integral overview of these

terms:

Having the form of parāśakti, citi, the goddess, who is the absolute freedom, consisting of

the awareness of anuttara (anuttaravimarśamayī), non-different from Śiva, is the cause

(of the world).98

Citi, an aspect of Parāvāk,99 is defined as “having the form of parāśakti” and

"consisting of awareness of Anuttara". Though it would be an extremely difficult

task to systematically construct the specific relationships among the concepts of

prakāśa, citi, parāśakti, vimarśa and anuttara, a preposition can be drawn that Parāvāk

is not merely equated to śakti tattva, but is placed in correspondence to the Divine

Absolute, expressed by the words Anuttara or Paramārtha. Parāvāk is the state of

"complete Oneness", where there is complete absence of any distinct objects.100 Yet,

it is present at all times, in every experiant and in every object, because it is beyond

time and space or any other limitations, and it utterly pervades the stages of paśyantī,

madhyamā and vaikharī.101 The nature of Parāvāk as being placed at the level of the

Highest (paramārtha) is expressed in the following words of Abhinavagupta:

What is the stage of parāvāk (parāvāgbhūmiḥ) is the power of non-māyīya word

(amāyīyaśabdaśakti) and is of the nature of the highest truth (paramārthasvabhāva). It is

unconventional (asāṃketika), natural (akṛtaka), having as its essence the stamp of the

highest truth (pāramārthikasaminskārārasārā), and is inspired by the truth of the energy of

the mantra of I-consciousness (vakśyamāṇanayena mantravīrya bhūtāṃśacoditā).102

98 PHr 1 comm.: parāśaktirūpā citih bhagavatī svatantrā anuttaravimarśamayī

śivabhattārakābhinna hetukāraṇa | Cf. Singh 1963: 46-47.

99 Cf. ĪPK I.5.13.

100 “In the parā (supreme) stage, there is, indeed, total absence of any object whatsoever” (PTV

1, tr. Singh 1988: 12).

101 “The parāvāk which is non-dual, i.e. identical with the (supreme consciousness) is present in

all experiants always in her integral nature uniformly in all states, i.e. even at the level of

paśyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī.” (PTV, tr. Singh 1988: 8, Sanskrit text p. 2) Cf. ĪPK I.5.13,

author’s vṛtti: “This is the First Word (ādyā-vāc), in which the expressible is undifferentiated,

without beginning or end in that it is constituted by perpetual consciousness, autonomous” (tr.

Torella 2002: 121).

102 PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 9, Sanskrit text p. 2.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

Parāvāk is the Pratyavamarśa (reflective awareness), the Essential Nature of Citi

One of the main characteristics of Parāvāk relevant here is the citi-pratyavamarśa (Divine Consciousness and pure reflective awareness). Parāvāk is defined as the “power of the activity of consciousness (citikriyāśaktih), i.e. reflective awareness (pratyavamarśātmā)”.103 In ĪPK, Utpaladeva explains Parāvāk in relation to citi:

Consciousness (citiḥ) has as its essential nature reflective awareness (pratyavamarśātmā); it is the supreme word (parāvāk) that arises freely (svarasoditā). It is freedom in the absolute sense (svātantryametanmukhyam), the sovereignty (aiśvaryam) of the Supreme Self (paramātmanḥ).104

The above verse identifies citi with pratyavamarśa. It specifies that Parāvāk is self-manifested (svarasoditā) and is citi-pratyavamarśa. The author’s vrtti of this verse dwells on its exposition while discussing Parāvāk; therein, Parāvāk is defined as the “primeval vāk” (ādyā vāk), which is “of the nature of eternal citi” (nityacitsvarūpatva), and its nature is described through such terms as freedom (svātantrya) and sovereignty (aiśvarya).105 Parāvāk is envisaged as Divine Consciousness (citi), the subject of pure awareness (pratyavamarśa). In ĪPV Abhinavagupta elaborates upon Parāvāk as the source of conventional language, drawing upon aspects of pratyavamarśa and camatkāra (wonder):

Pratyavamarśa is “sounding forth” by nature that expresses internally (antarabhilāpātmakāśabdanasvabhāvah). This śabdāna (sounding forth) indeed has nothing to do with the “conventional” (saṅketa). The uninterrupted camatkāra (avicchinna-camatkārātmaka) that is seen as an internal nod of the head gives life to the letters a, etc. that is the conventional sound on the plane of māyā (akārādimāyīyasāṅketikaśabda). She is the basis of the awareness of fragmented objects (ādipatyavamarśāntarabhitți-bhūtatvāt). From ‘being fullness’, she is parā, and from ‘speaking and expressing the

103 ĪPK I.5.14, author’s vrtti: śaiva pratyavamarśātmā citikriyāśaktitaḥ |

104 ĪPK I.5.13: citiḥpratyavamarśātmā parāvāk svarasoditā | svātantryametanmukhyam tadaśvaryam paramātmanḥ || (Tr. Torella 2002: 120)

105 ĪPK I.5.13, author’s vrtti: “This is the first word (ādyā vāk), in which the expressible is undifferentiated (abhinnavācya), without beginning or end in that it is constituted by perpetual consciousness (nityacitsvarūpatvenādyantā), autonomous (paratantra) (svātantryam), independent of any other reality, which has the name of ‘sovereignty’ (aiśvaryam).” (Tr. Torella 2002: 120-21)

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world by pratyavamarśa', it is called vāk. Thus, she, essentially in the form of cit (citrūpatayā), resting in her own self, manifests (udita) and produces (sadānastamitā).

She is the eternal 'I' (aham).106

By means of pratyavamarśa, Parāvāk expresses every form (abhilāpti pratyavamarśena) and resides at every level of cognition. However, pratyavamarśa itself is not involved in producing any conventional form; it is beyond such due to its being devoid of any mental construct (vikalpa).107

It is the camatkāra aspect of Parāvāk that triggers the process of manifestations. It implies that pratyavamarśa, of the nature of 'sounding forth' (śabdanasvabhāva), lies beneath all forms without being obstructed by this.

That Parāvāk expresses the world through the pratyavamarśa denotes that pratyavamarśa embodies Parāvāk in the world. Particularly, awareness of the Self (ahampratyavamarśa), itself being the light (prakāśātma), is Parāvāk.108

Parāvāk, being differentiated from ordinary audible sound, is at once the nature of sounding forth (śabdanātmabhāhilāpa), permeation in the form of Divine Consciousness (samvidrūpāveśī), and the shining light within (antarabhasamānah).109

Parāvāk Permeates the other Three Levels of Vāk

Trika Śaivism presents a picture of the entire world as being constituted by vāk. Parāvāk, equivalent to Anuttara or Parāśakti, is the one that brings about congruency among the various levels of vāk.110

The analytical description of Parāvāk quoted above

106 ĪPV 1.5.13 (vol. I: 252-54), tr. Padoux 1992: 175-76 with emendation.

107 ĪPK 1.6.1: ahampratyavarśo yaḥ prakāśātmāpi vāgvapuh | nāsau vikalpahsa hyukto dvayaksepī viniścayaḥ ||

"The reflective awareness 'I' (ahampratyavamarśa), which is the very essence of light, is not a mental construct (vikalpah), although it is informed by the word (vāgvapuh). For a vikalpa is an act of ascertainment (viniścayah) presenting a duality" (tr. Torella 2002: 128, Sanskrit text p. 27).

108 Ibid., ahampratyavamarśo yaḥ prakāśātmāpi . . . |

109 ĪPV 1.6.1. (vol. I: 303) viṣayarūpāt śrotagrāhyāt śabdād anya eva antarabhāsamānaḥ samvidrūpāveśī śabdanātmabhīlāpo vāk. Cf. Padoux 1992: 177.

110 PTV 3: 'Abiding as she does in the form of power of hearing, she has that sovereign power (svātantrya) which consists in effecting congruous and suitable connexion by blending all sound in a meaningful whole. . . . For one attentively intent on knitting the words in a sensible whole, there may be clear comprehension to some extent. Therefore in such a case, it is the congruous connexion of the words which can be of use. It is the goddess parāśakti (the supreme creative power) who brings about the congruous connection.' (Tr. Singh 1988: 68, Sanskrit text p. 24)

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

171

(ĪPV 1.5.13), substantiates how the distinct forms originate from Parāvāk. The verse

tells that it is due to the śabda-natured pratyavamarśa and to camatkāra that the

Parāvāk manifest all forms. In the doctrine of vāk, even vaikharī vāk is present in

Parāvāk (parābhatṭārikāsamvidantargatam tu vaikharīpadam),111 and so is Parāvāk

present in the vaikharī vāk.

Parāvāk is the primeval undivided state from which originates all power of the

other levels of vāk; it denotes the state before any māyā-borne differentiation or

limitation arises. Thus, it is defined as the state of nirvikalpa, devoid of thought

constructs. Being itself nirvikalpa and śuddhavimarśa (pure awareness), Parāvāk

radiates forth all manifestations in their various forms. The other levels of vāk are the

forms brought forth by the radiant pulsation (sphurattā) of Parāvāk whose nature is

light (prakāśa), being enraptured by the wonder of her own creation (svacamatkṛti).112

Without Parāvāk, there would be no manifestation, and the world would be utterly

insentient.113 As the source of all manifestations and expressions, it is not affected by

the conventional rules, but rather persists under all the forms as “the effulgence

(vāñmahasi) of the highest mantra (mantravapuḥ)”.114 Here it is important to keep in

mind that mantra often stands for Parāvāk, implying that something perceptible can

indeed be esteemed as having the status of the Highest.115 One article of evidence that

Parāvāk pervades even the vaikharī stage is demonstrated in the common experience

that any cognition of a distinct object is impossible without the indistinct consciousness.

While describing the pervasion of Parāvāk through the entire range of manifestation,

Abhinavagupta states that no apprehension of distinction in vaikharī or madhyamā

111

Cf. PTV, p. 158, tr. Padoux 1992: 218.

112

Cf. PTV 1, tr. Singh 1992: 9. Sanskrit text p. 2.

113

“Without her (Parāvāk) there would accrue the condition of non-manifestation, in paśyantī,

etc. and thus would arise the contingency of absolute insensateness (jaḍatā).” (PTV 1, tr.

Singh 1992: 9, Sanskrit text p. 2)

114

PTV, pp. 193-94: All of this (diversity of divisions of phonemes) “abides in the great effulgence

(mahāmahasi) of the mantra of parāvāk (paravaṅmantra), which is pure conscious awareness

(śuddhavimarśa), subject neither to māyā nor to the conventions [of ordinary speech]

(amāvīyasāṃketika)”. PTV gives us a concrete example of how a seer experiences the parāvāk.

“Thus the sages see that the non-conventional body of the [supreme] mantra (asāṃketikam

mantravapuḥ) takes on mutually differing forms and they teach that it must be revered since it

is that which brings about the conventions [of ordinary speech].” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 185-86)

115

For mantra conceived as Parāvāk, see Padoux 1992: 185, n. 45.

172 |

vāk is possible without vimarśa of Parāvāk, and the sovereignty of vimarśa never ceases.116

Throughout PTV, Abhinavagupta asserts a number of times that all three levels of vāk inhere within Parāvāk. Taking special note of phonemes, he explains that the objects of distinct experiences - whether one refers to external speech or inward imagination - are all present in Parāvāk.117 He affirms:

Therefore, though the condensation of the phonemes becomes distinct only in the vaikharī, yet it abides primarily in parāvāk which is all inclusive (sarvasarvātmaka).118

He explains that the difference in the vaikharī stage is due to the organs that generate the distinct experience, and in the state of parā these organs exist in the undivided whole (sarvasarvātmaka).119 The discrete division of objects and subjects within vaikharī vāk exists inwardly at the madhyamā and on the paśyantī levels as well. Without any differentiation at these two more subtle levels, the power of the senses that supports the distinct experience would not even exist at the vaikharī level, and no distinct internal thoughts could occur.120 In this way, vaikharī vāk is thought to inhere within the madhyamā vāk, madhyamā vāk within the paśyantī vāk, and paśyantī vāk in Parāvāk. Ultimately, all three levels of vāk rest within the undivided state of Parāvāk.

So by this repeatedly thought-out reasoning, entering more and more into the interior, cherish that consciousness (pariśilyatām samvidam) which is a mass of awareness and is all-inclusive, and therefore the abode of guttural and labial energies (also), and in which inheres that creative I-consciousness, viz. aham (vimarśātmaka) which is the very

116 PTV 5-9: “In the being of this indeterminate I-consciousness (vimarśa), its sovereignty of the creativity never ceases. In the vaikharī stage or in the madhyamā stage in which there is subtle māyīya objectivity, this kind of apprehension of difference (bheda-vimarśa) is not possible if it is completely excluded from the indeterminate I-consciousness (bheda-vimarsa is not possible if it is completely excluded from the indeterminate I-consciousness (bhāsanātirekī).” (Tr. Singh 1988: 111, Sanskrit text p. 45)

117 Cf. PTV 5-9, tr. Singh 1988: 176-77.

118 Ibid., Sanskrit text p. 64: evam ca ghanībhavo'pi vaikharīrūpe yadyapi sphuṭībhavati, tathāpi sarvasarvātmani parāvāgvapuṣi mukhyatayāvatist!te |

119 Ibid.

120 Ibid.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

173

quintessence of autonomy (svātantryasāra), which is the venerable phoneme, the highest

mantra (mahāmantrarūpavarnabhattāraka), and is (always) inherent within.121

IV.2 Vāk in Mantra Practice

IV.2.1 Mantra and Parāvāk

In PTV the multiplicity of the phenomenal world is represented by the expansion of

Sanskrit phonemes and is described in accord with the Trika Śaivite system of thirty-

six tattvas. The correspondence between the tattvas and the syllables is established for

the purpose of nyāsa (the assignment of mantras to various parts of the body of the

practitioner).122 The expression of the phonemes as a manifestation has

thus developed as a ritualistic tool, employed to reify the connection between the

individual body (the microcosm) and the multiple deities who perform as personifications

of the Ultimate (the macrocosm). Distinct sound comes into being at the madhyamā

level, and the creative force imbued inside the phonemes has been named Mālinī, the

Goddess of madhyamā vāk. The creative force within syllabic sound represents tattvas,

and the gestures known as mudrā. But here, the sound employed is not that of the ordinary

vernacular, but rather is the symbolic engagement of human language.

Mantras are countless in number. Some of them would seem to have been drawn

from ordinary language; others, not. Also significant is that there is a hierarchy among

mantras: some are regarded as superior because they allow access to a higher goal.

The Trika philosophy describes different levels among mantras according to upāya

(path or method) in question.123 AHAM is used in śāmbhavopāya (spontaneous way to

realize Śiva Consciousness); SAUH and KHPHREM for śāktopāya (resorting to cit-

sakti in order to realize Śiva Consciousness, for example, practising the idea that the

Śiva nature is truely in oneself); and a number of different mantras in the ānavopāya

(engagement of technical means in regard to the limited self in order to realize the

Śiva nature in oneself).124 If the mantras are to be employed towards worldly desires,

121 PTV 5-9, tr. Singh 1992: 177. Sanskrit text p. 64.

122 Cf. PVT 5-9. “In these letters of Mālinī, the structure of śakta-śarīra has been described in

Mālinī-vijaya for the purpose of nyāsa. Thus the principle that ‘everything else is in everything’

has been completely demonstrated.” (Tr. Singh 1988: 149, Sanskrit text 53)

123 Cf. Padoux 1992: 389.

124 Cf. Padoux 1992: 380-81. For a brief introduction to the three upāyas of Trika Śaivism, see

Jaideva Singh’s introduction to the Śivasūtra (Singh 1979: xxxi-lvii).

they are seen to be inferior. The superior mantras, such as OM, AHAM, or SAUH, are viewed as the seeds of creation itself, at the level of Parāvāk.125 SpK compares certain important mantras to various organs of the body:

Seizing that strength (bala), mantras, endowed with the power of omniscience, perform their functions, as do the senses of the embodied. It is there alone that they (mantras), quiescent and stainless, dissolve away (niranjanāḥ) along with the adept's mind (sahārādhakacittena) and so partake of Śiva's nature (śivadharminaḥ).126

The commentary of Rājānaka Rāma elaborates on this analogy of mantras to bodily organs:

As the sense organs perform different functions while being part of the same living being, while belonging to the same individual consciousness, likewise mantras, although equally vivified, in essence, by the infinite power of the divine spanda, have each their particular role and field of activity.127

It is noteworthy that mantras are viewed as constituting the same consciousness - in this context, spanda - and that each mantra plays a particular role, as does a bodily organ in a living body. Thus, as there are some organs in the body that are essential to life, there are mantras that are more fundamental in the animating body of cosmic consciousness. For instance, SAUH, the mūlamantra of the Parātriśikā, is likened to the heart of the Divine Consciousness, and is therefore called the heart (hrdayam), or amṛtabīja. The potency of the whole universe lies in the form of bījamantram SAUH,128 and all the perfections given in the Bhairava Tantras are said to be attained through this heart mantra.129

125 Padoux expresses his comprehension of mantras: "The manifestation of Speech, at the highest level, often assumes the form of either OM or AHAM... or else of SAUH, the heart bija, or of any other mūlamantra. Mantras, in this respect, though consisting of phonemes, are looked upon as their source: as the supreme Word. In such a perspective, the utterance of a mantra is identical with that of the Word which creates the world." (Cf. Padoux 1992: 160)

126 SpK 26-27, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: xvi.

127 SpV 26-27, tr. Padoux 1992: 389.

128 Cf. Parātriśikā 25. "As the great banyan tree lies in the form of potency in its seed, even so this universe with all the mobile and immobile beings lies in the seminal mantra (sauḥ), the very heart of the Supreme." (Tr. Singh 1988: 244, Sanskrit text pp. 92-93) Cf. ibid. 10: hrdayam bhairavātmanāḥ; TĀ IV.192-93 (vol. 3: 840), tr. Padoux 1992: 388.

129 Cf. PTV 18, tr. Singh 1988: 204, Sanskrit text p. 77.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism 175

The vocalized sounds of mantra exist at the vaikharī level, and arguably at the level of madhyamā.130 However, the true power of mantra (mantravīrya) derives from its basis in Parāvāk. Drawing from the example of SAUH and KHPHREM, TĀ relates that it is parāmarśa that endows mantras with their efficient power; without this, mantras are lifeless. From the following verse, we notice that the higher mantras are characterized by their nature of “heart” and their aspect of vimarśa-prakāśa, which is comprised by Parāvāk.

This synthetic and intense reflective awareness (parāmarśa), uncreated (akrtrimam) and immaculate (anābilam), peculiar to these [two mantras – SAUH and KHPHREM], is known, [the masters] say, as “I” (aham). It is the very Light of Light (parakāśasya prakāśatā). It is the efficient power (vīryam) – in the nature of the heart (hrdayātmakam) – of all the mantras. But for it they would be lifeless, like a living being (jīva) deprived of heart.131

We read in ŚS (II.1), cittammantrạ̣: mantra is citta. Kṣemarāja explains in his commentary of the text that cittaṃ “is that by which one cognizes (cetyate), one becomes aware of (vimrśyate) the ultimate reality (param tattvam)”.132 He further equates citta to “the reflective awareness (vimarśarūpam) and consciousness (samvedanam) of mantras like prāsāda (SAUH), prāṇava (HUM or OM) “which are in the nature of the fullness of pulsating radiance (pūrṇasphurattā)”.133 Thus, in its ultimate sense, mantra is understood as citta, vimarśa or samvedanam, of the nature of full radiance. According to the same commentary, mantra is “that by which one deliberates (mantryate) secretly, or contemplates inwardly, and that by which one becomes aware of not being different or separate from the supreme Lord”.134 Therefore, the proposition of “cittammantrạ̣” which is the undivided state. The reference of the mantra in equivalence to citta is also found in the Buddhist context. In the Yogaratnamālā, a commentary of HT, Kṛṣṇācārya135 relates the nature of mantra to bodhicitta:

130 PTV 28. In PTV, SAUH is said to be vocalization at the madhyamā level (cf. tr. Singh 1988: 253, Sanskrit text p. 96).

131 TĀ IV.192-93 (vol. 3: 840), tr. Padoux 1992: 388.

132 ŚSV 2.1, tr. Padoux 1992: 383-84.

133 Ibid.

134 Ibid.

135 “In his caryā songs, Kṛṣṇācārya proclaims himself to be a Kāpālika yogī” (cf. Farrow and Menon in the introduction to the translation of HT and YRM, 1992: xi-xii).

176 |

The Mantra is that which when recalled (manana), saves (trāna). Thus Mantra, the nature

of which is the non-duality of Voidness (śūnyatā) and Compassion (karuṇā), is the

Enlightened Consciousness (bodhicitta). For the purpose of different practices mantras

are composed of ā and other letters of the alphabet.136

YRM affirms that mantras originate in bodhicitta;137 it is the aspect of citta that charges

mantras with their power and efficiency.138 Without citta, mantra is a mere collection

of phonemes. Mantra, being the citta of a devotee, connects him to the deity of the

mantra; without citta, identification with the deity can never arise.139

Not only is mantra a means to approach Parā, but also itself represents this

dimension of reality. In the following verse from ŚSV of Kṣemarāja, mantra is

unambiguously portrayed as having the nature of Parāvāk:

That whose body is knowledge is the blissful One in the form of the totality of sounds

(bhagavān śabdarāśih), whose soul is the pulsating radiance, the awareness of the perfection

of the absolute “I” (pūrnāhamvimarśātmā sphurattā), consisting in the undivided totality

of the universe (aśeṣaviśvābhedamaya). Such is the secret . . . of mantras.140

And, Parāvāk is often described as the “highest mantra”:

136 YRM I.1.28, tr. Farrow and Menon 1992: 20.

137 YRM, beginning of I.2: “The different mantras, beginning with om followed by other syllables,

are called mantras because they issue from the Enlightened Consciousness (bodhicitta).” (Tr.

Farrow and Menon 1992: 25)

138 ŚS II.3: vidyāśarīrasattā mantrarahasyam. “The secret of mantras is that being whose body is

[pure] knowledge” (tr. Padoux 1992: 385).

139 ŚSV 2.1: “The mantra is not a mere conglomerate of different syllables. It is the very mind of

the devotee (ārādhacittam) who, through intense awareness (vimarśaparatvena) of the deity

of the mantra (mantradevatā), acquires identity (sāmarasyam) with the deity. . . . As said in

the Tantrasadbhāva: ‘The life (jīvabhūtā) of mantras is she who is considered as the

imperishable Energy (śakti)’.” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 384)

140 ŚSV II.3, tr. Padoux 1992: 385; cf. ĪPV I.5.14: Here Abhinavagupta states that the heart is

reflective awareness and the supreme mantra (hrdayam vimarśarūpam parāmantrātmakam).

“The mantra is the heart of everything (sarvasya hi mantra eva hrdayam). . . . It is in the

nature of the free activity of consciousness (mantraś ca vimarśātma), and the latter consists in

the energy of the supreme Word (vimarśanaṃ ca parāvācchaktimayam). [It is said] indeed in

the Āgamas that but for these [mantras] there would be neither words (śabda), nor objects

(artha), nor movement of consciousness (citer gatiḥ).” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 386)

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism | 177

This energy [which creates the worlds] abides first of all in the absolute consciousness beyond time and space, made of the supreme great mantra.141

Or,

This energy of the Supreme Word (parā vāksakti), which is not different from the light of consciousness (citprakāśa) is in the nature of the supreme great mantra (mahāmantrarūpa), eternally present and manifest. She is the active and living reflective awareness of the absolute “I” (pūrnāhamvimarśamayī).142

IV.2.2 OṂ Ucāra

The bīja mantra OṂ is also regarded as supreme, and its utterance is practised to reach the true nature of the Divine. We find many references to uccāra (the yogic practice of mantra vocalization) of OṂ 143 in SvT and NT.144 Through the practice of the vocalization of OṂ , the upward movement of breath energy (haṃsa) reaches its highest point, called unmanā.145 The twelve stages of OṂ uccāra are given in the following order: A; U; MA; bindu; ardhacandra; nirodhinī; nāda; nādānta; śakti; vyāpinī; samanā; and unmanā.

The practice of the utterance of OṂ starts with the successive utterance of A, U and MA. The nasal sound of bindu (the point) is vocalized after MA. One then progresses through the stages of ardhacandra (the half-moon), nirodhinī (the hindering), nāda (resonance), nādānta (the end of resonance), śakti, vyāpinī (the penetrating), samanā (with thoughts, or the mental) and finally to unmanā (without thought, the trans-mental). The experience of these levels of sound is accompanied by passage through the subtle cakras in the body. Here, the bindu of anusvāra after the utterance of MA is the point at which the sound transforms from physical to subtle.146

141 PTV 1, pp. 3-4: sa ca śakti . . . prathamataraṃ paramahāmantramayām adeśakālakalitāyāṃ saṃvidi nirūdhā . . . (tr. Padoux 1992: 386-87).

142 PHr 12 comm., tr. Padoux 1992: 387: citprakāśād avyatiriktānityoditamahāmantrarūpā pūrṇāhamvimarśamayī yā parā vāśaktih. (Sanskrit: Singh 1963: 79)

143 In Trika Śaivism, uccāra of OṂ is a code name for kuṇdalinī-yoga practice.

144 The uccāra practice of OṂ , as given in these texts, is described in Padoux 1992: 405-07.

145 Cf. SvT 4.262 (vol. 2: 166): śivatattvagato haṃsa na caret vyāpako bhavet (having reached the śiva-tattva, haṃsa subsides and becomes all-pervading), tr. Padoux 1992: 95, n. 28).

146 According to NT, the utterances from a to bindu are correlated to the gross elements from earth to water.

178 | Voice of the Void

The subtle sonic vibration becomes almost dissolved at the nādānta stage, and is absorbed into pure energy at the śakti stage. The stages after śakti from vyāpinī to unmanā are said to be of Śiva nature, and are described with the term Śūnya. Vyāpinī is śakti immanent within the manifestation, and it is called mahāśūnya. Samanā is the “Void of Tranquillity”, which transcends time and space.147 Unmanā is defined as niṣkalam ātmatattvam (the undivided Self) and sābhāsaṃ nirābhāsaṃ paratattvamuttamam (the highest, including all manifestation and beyond all manifestation).148 Unmanā is the supreme transcendental energy, at one with Śiva and virtually identical with him.149 Associated with the supreme Śiva (Paramaśiva), unmanā is described as the state completely pervaded by Śiva (śivavyāpti), and is the “void beyond void” (śūnyati-śūnya).150

The following points in the exposition of OṂ uccāra are particularly significant in relation to our question of forms and formlessness within maṇḍalas.

i) The transformation of sound observed in the OṂ uccāra is reminiscent of the transformation of vācya and vācaka through the four stages of vāk.

ii) The stages of unmanifest energy from vyāpinī to unmanā, classified as the Śiva-tattva, are described as having the nature of Śūnya.

The speculation and practice of OṂ uccāra is the outcome of the intense experience of sound. It illustrates the continuity between the Cosmic Consciousness and the prāṇa of our body. By bridging two poles with subtle concepts between, their non-dualism is realized. It bears emphasizing that the process of OṂ uccāra provides a detailed classification of sonic forms which supplements the four divisions of vāk. The accounts of the stages from bindu to unmanā help one envisage the subtle dynamism that takes place from madhyamā vāk to parāvāk; in particular, the stages from vyāpinī to unmanā, with their characteristics defined in terms of Śūnya, may underscore any comparison between Parāvāk and Śūnya. Although it would be imprecise to draw any unilateral equivalence between the twelve stages of uccāra and the four levels of vāk, there is a certain correspondence between these two systems (Table 4.2). There could well be some difference of opinion concerning the demarcation of madhyamā vāk and paśyantī

147 Cf. Fürlinger 2009: 227-28; cf. Silburn 1983, introduction.

148 NT 22.22 (vol. 2: 314).

149 Cf. NT 21.60 (p. 285): saśaktịḥ paramā sūkṣmā unmanā śivarūpiṇī.

150 Cf. NT 21.61 comm.; TĀ 11.20; VBh 51; SvT 4.388.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism

Table 4.2: Correspondence Between the Twelve Stages of

Oṃ Uccāra and the Four Levels of Vāk

Twelve Stages of Uccāra of OM

Four Levels of Vāk

Akāra (A)

Ukāra (U)

Makāra (MA)

Bindu

Ardhacandra

Nirodhinī

Nāda

Nādāanta

Śakti

Vyāpinī

Samanā

Unmanā

Vaikharī

Madhyamā (and Paśyantī)

Paśyantī

Parāvāk

vāk. Yet, all would agree that the stages from śakti onwards find their parallel in Parāvāk. The stages of śakti, vyāpinī, samanā and unmanā are described in similar to what we have observed under the topic of Parāvāk.

Higher Levels of OM Uccāra and Śūnya

A study of the sensual experience of sparśa based on the Trika Tantras describes the metamorphosis at the level of śakti in between the subtle sound (nāda-nādāanta) and Śūnya (vyāpinī-samanā-unmanā).151 One passage from TĀ affirms the understanding of śakti in her experiential form - touch (sparśa) - and tells a great deal about what happens between the manifested energy that produces forms and the transcendental energy that is beyond form. In TĀ (XI.29-31ab) we read in the context of tattvas:

In the earth, at the end of guṇa principle (from water to guṇa) and māyā (i.e. from puruṣa to māyā) there exist smell, taste and visual form, respectively, in the order of their comparative subtlety. In accordance to this established reason even at the end of the śakti principle there is a certain subtle form of touch, for experiencing which yogins are all the time longing. But consciousness (samvit) at the end of (above stated) touch shines as pure consciousnessness (śuddhaicit) with the characteristic of void (vyomarūpa). Having risen (rūḍha)

151 Fürlinger 2009.

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Voice of the Void

there, one reaches the Highest (parām) whose nature is light by its own (svaprakāśātmikām).152

This passage introduces the paradigm of the non-dualistic soteriology of Trika Śaivism, establishing relations among sensations at the level of the subtle body, tattvas, śūnya, samvid, prakāśa and parā. Here, it is samvid in the form of vyoman (the void of immensity) which characterizes the stages after śaktitattva, indicating the highest state of Parā. The four higher levels of OM uccāra – śakti, vyāpinī, samanā and unmanā – apparently unfold the multi-layered nature of Parāvāk. Parāvāk is the name for the undivided Ultimate, and this undivided Ultimate is experienced with a great variation of intensity. SvT (chapter IV) refers to the six successive stages of śūnya in correspondence to the OM uccāra system,153 mentioning three śūnyas before vyāpinī: ūrdhvaśūnyam, adhahśūnyam and madhyaśūnyam.154 Vyāpinī, samanā and unmanā are allocated, respectively, to the fourth, fifth and sixth śūnya.

Whereas SvT chap. IV refers to the levels of śūnya in the absorptive sequence, in another chapter it refers to śūnya in the emanative sequence in relation to the stages of OM uccāra. In chapter XI, SvT shows how the world came (or comes) into being. The process of world creation starts from the churning (ksobha) of the void (vyoma) by the heat (svatejasā) of Śiva, the effective cause of the world (nimitta kāraṇa).155 It then continues:

From that, śūnya has arisen, from śūnya, sparśa (touch) has arisen (samudbhava). From that nāda has arisen. . . .156

Kṣemarāja’s commentary on the verse specifies the first śūnya as samanā and the second śūnya as vyāpinī, which is “the śūnya of Anāśrita Śiva”:

From that in the nature of the samanāśakti [comes] the void (vyoman). This void (śūnya) attains the state of vyāpinī, in the nature of manifesting the entire universe and dissolving it into non-being within the venerable Anāśrita (Śiva).157

152 TĀ XI.29-31a, tr. Chakravarty 1999: 304. His English translation rūpa into “colour” has been replaced by “form” above.

153 Cf. SvT 4.289-94 (vol. I: 216-18); Silburn 1969.

154 Cf. SvT 4.289 (vol. I: 216).

155 Cf. SvT 11.3a-4a. (vol. II: 308-09).

156 SvT 11.5 (vol. II: 310).

157 SvT 11.5 comm. (vol. II: 310), tr. Bettina Bäumer in personal communication.

The Doctrine of Vāk in Trika Śaivism | 181

This commentary clarifies that samanā signifies śūnya with the subtle vibration after the initial churning, and unmanā is the original state of Śiva "before the churn". Thus, śūnya of unmanā can be understood as pure openness without even any subtle transcendental vibration. Vyāpinī is the state of pervasion.158 As the above explanation of Kṣemarāja portrays, vyāpinī is associated with śūnya of non-being, the state where the lustre of the entire world is absorbed into absolute tranquillity and is thereby designated mahāśūnya.159 The attainment of unmanā level signifies complete fusion with the Śiva nature (śivavyāpti), and it leads one to "the compact mass of cit and ānanda (cidānandaghana)".160

Various levels of Śūnya have been delineated in the system of OM uccāra. That the more subtle levels of the system have been described in terms of varying degrees of Śūnya displays that the dynamism exists not only in the category of being but also in that of non-being. Śūnya, from śakti to the samanā level - which can be categorized as non-being, consistent with the fact that they are called Śūnya -- is a state in which there is still subtle movement, be it though transcendental. Unmanā is static, without any dynamism. The textual references to Śūnya in the context of the OM uccāra system have been drawn upon in an attempt to see the relation of Parāvāk to Śūnya. As a result, it may be proposed that there are various levels of Śūnya within Parāvāk.

158 Cf. SvT 4.261 comm. (vol. I: 208) vyāpinyāṃ tvakkeśapade vyāptim labdhvā . . .

159 Cf. Kavi raj 1990: 92.

160 Cf. SvT 4.261 comm. (vol. I: 208) “. . . attaining this unmanā energy, the pure light inseparable from the cosmic totality, he becomes completely fused with the Supreme Bhairava, the undivided mass of cit and ānanda.” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 406-07)

V.

The Doctrine of Vāk

as a Theoretical Basis for Understanding

the Aesthetics of Maṇḍalas

V.1 Parāvāk and Śūnya

V.1.1 References to Śūnya in Trika Philosophy

ONE frequently comes across the term śūnya in Trika texts, particularly regarding the description of Anuttara (the Highest), which demonstrates the characteristics it shares with Mahāyāna Buddhists. The concept of śūnya then represents the state where all creation is immanent, yet without any dynamism. In his TĀ (XXIX.133-35), Abhinavagupta uses the term Śūnya to refer to "the original state", both before the dynamics of manifestation have occurred and after they have returned. He says:

If, with the consciousness of the heart (hrdayasamvittȳ) thus exercised by means of any practice whatsoever, the quiescent form (śāntam rūpam) of Śiva manifests, one then gains access to the appeased state (śāntamśivapadam), similar to an unruffled sea. When one becomes established in that state, the whole host of the divine energies of the [main] wheel stand still, free of fluctuation, suspended in the void (śūnya), in undivided beatitude (nirānanda).¹

From these verses, Śūnya is the original state of the Cosmic Consciousness, the unobstructed state reached when one realizes the truth of the Heart (hrdaya, essence). Similarly, in PTV, Abhinavagupta uses the term śūnyarūpa to describe the state of vyoman of hrdaya (the open emptiness of the Heart). When he comments on verse 4 of the Parātrīśikā: kauliko'yam vidhirdevi mama hṛdvyomnyavasthitah (the plan of creation in accordance with kula abides in the ether of my heart), the term śūnyarūpa is used to describe the nature of hṛdvyoman where all the manifestation is held in a state of potentiality in the receptacle of Creation, which is analogously called "the

¹TĀ XXIX.133b-5a (vol. VII: 3385), tr. Silburn 1988: 193.

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas

| 183

heart". "Heart" is one of the main metaphors in Trika Śaivism for the dynamic, creative

dimension of the Absolute. It can be experienced, because it is immanent as well as

transcendent. It is also called śakti, citi or Parāvāk.2

While viewing Śūnya as the state of Highest Consciousness, what is really remarkable

is that even the Śūnya after Śūnya has been conceived. As we have seen in the description

of unmanā, the highest state that can be reached through yogic practice is said to be

śūnyātiśūnya, the Śūnya beyond Śūnya, still yet characterized as Śūnya. TĀ assigns the

term śūnyātiśūnya to this most supreme level of Paramaśiva, who is understood to be

the thirty-seventh tattva, above Śiva, the highest tattva in Ābhāsa system.

Beyond the Śivatattva, is the śūnyātiśūnya, without any support (anāśrita), that is beautiful

enlightenment (bodhasundaram), free (svatantryam), and without any differentiation

(sarvāvibhāgātma). The thirty-seventh tattva is called Paraśiva.3

The Śūnyātiśūnya has been postulated as the all-inclusive principle called as the thirty-

seventh tattva, beyond the comprehensive system of the thirty-six tattvas. SvT presents

the seventh Śūnya above the sixth Śūnya of unmanā, and calls it aśūnyaśūnya (the

non-void void).4 One of the meanings of Anuttara given by Abhinavagupta in his

PTV signifies “beyond ākāśa” - i.e. “beyond Śūnya”.5 In the passage from TĀ found

above, śūnyātiśūnya is a term for the Highest beyond the highest manifestation, Śiva.

However, a higher state than śūnyātiśūnya has been postulated in the commentary of

PHr (4). It states that śūnyātiśūnya, equated with such terms as prakāśābhedana (non-

different from the Light) and Anāśritaśiva, is the first state to be manifest after

Paramaśiva flashes forth with the desire to manifest the universe.6 Although attributing

2 Cf. PTV 4 comm., tr. Singh 1988: 78, Sanskrit text p. 29.

3 TĀ XI.21-22a (vol. V: 2105).

4 Cf. SvT 4.292 (vol. 1: 217); cf. Padoux 1992: 96, n. 29. YH (3.174ff.) describes the meditation

of the six voids which are correlated with kalās of bija up to unmanā. Beyond these there are

the great void (mahāśūnya), which is the supreme level (param tattva); cf. Padoux ibid.; cf.

Silburn 1969.

5 PTV 1: “Anuttara is now analysed as anut + tara. A in anut means avidyamāna (not existing),

nut in anut means impulsion, i.e. successive action (kramātmakā-kriyā) depending on the

duality of going and coming, i.e. movement in space and time. So anut means that in which

there is no impulsion of the successive movement. This anut is well-known among people as

ākāśa (ether), etc. i.e. śūnya or void. ‘Tara’ is a sign of comparison, meaning better, higher. So,

'anuttara' means higher even than ākāśa or ether." (Tr. Singh 1988: 25, Sanskrit text pp. 9-10)

6 Cf. PHr 4 comm., tr. Singh 1963: 55.

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Voice of the Void

the term śūnyātiśūnya to Anāśritaśiva is inconsistent with the reference above, where

it indicates Paramaśiva, we yet cannot always universally fix these concepts into a

concrete system, as their verbal descriptions are the outcome of subjective experiences

and rely on personal expressions of those experiences in particular context. As Jayaratha

clarifies while commenting on the above passage (TĀ XI.21-22a), the thirty-seventh

tattva is postulated to clearly denote the nature of both transcendence and immanence

within the highest principle, whereas the thirty-sixth tattva could only be understood as

transcendental.7 He says: “However, there is no such tattva really existent”.8 Therefore,

what is important to recognize is that the śūnyātiśūnya, whether designated to

Anāśritaśiva or Paramaśiva, has the nature of both transcendence and immanence. The

unimaginable Highest beyond śūnyātiśūnya of Paramaśiva has been also postulated in

the notion of the thirty-eighth tattva (TĀ XI.22b-23a): not different from the thirty-

seventh tattva in nature, but designating “the Highest” beyond any experience or

definition (anavacchinna).9

At this point, it should be kept in mind that the śūnya of Trika Śaivism does not

always represent the state of Parā, as is the case with Mahāyāna Buddhism. When the

Vijñāna Bhairava tells to meditate on the śūnya of the five senses, the śūnya denotes

the non-substantiality of the phenomena.

By meditating on the five voids of the senses which are like the various colours of the

peacock's feather, the yogī enters in the Heart of the absolute Void.10

In VBh, we see that objects that are ‘empty in nature’ have been taken as the basis for

meditation – for example, the silence after sounds11 or open landscapes12 and even the

physical body as void.13 These verses themselves reveal that these forms of śūnya

7 TĀ XI.21 comm., vol. V: 2106.

8 Ibid.: nahi vastutahkiñcidevaṃ tattvaṃ sambhavati.

9 TĀ XI.22b-23a, vol. V: 2107. However, the thirty-seventh and thirty-eighth tattvas are same

in nature, representing the highest state of undividedness (avibhāga), freedom (svātantratva),

and consisting of cit (cinnayatva); cf. TĀ XI.28.

10 VBh 32, tr. Swami Lakshman Joo 2002: 33.

śikhipakṣaiścitra-rūpair maṇḍalaiḥśūnyapañcakam |

dhyāyato'nuttare śūnye praveśo hṛdaye bhavet ||

11 Cf. VBh 41.

12 Cf. Ibid. 60.

13 Cf. Ibid. 43.

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas | 185

have been employed towards the realization of the higher levels of śūnya, as

exemplified above. Due to their physical or conceptual resemblances, they stand as

the path to Śūnya within the Parā level, and thus are used for meditation.

In a different context, śūnya is a state comprised of experiants (pramātr) that are

bound to māyā (delusion) and limitation. In his PHr, Kṣemarāja explains that the

manifold (nānā) universe is brought about by the reciprocal adaptation of the object

(grāhya) and the subject (grāhaka). The verse is followed by commentary about the

eight states of experiants.14 Among them, the second level of experiants, called śūnya

pramātr or pralayākala pramātr, is characterized by the insensible prameya

(object).15 Here, śūnya is the low state where consciousness (cit) is in the form of

contraction.16 It is unawareness, similar to the experience of deep sleep.

The different notions of śūnya revealed in Trika Śaivism reinforce the idea that

śūnya is no mere speculative concept or object of knowledge, but is rather an object or

a state of experience: this is how diverse notions could have developed under the

umbrella of śūnya. But, even at the low state, śūnya is not dissociated with Śūnya at

the Parā level. Objects whose forms are indistinct have been placed above distinct

forms (sakala), and are preferred for the purpose of reaching the Highest, Anuttara.

Although the non-dualistc worldview of Trika Śaivism informs that all objects

originate from the Highest, those objects that reflect this dimension of Śūnya within

their forms are accepted to be the best method to attain the highest Awareness.

14 Cf. PHr 3, tr. Singh 1987 (1963): 52–54.

The eight states of experiants are as follows: (1) Śiva is at the seventh level. (2) At the sixth

level of mantramaheśvara, sadāśiva-tattva governs; the experience is dominated (ācchādita)

by the consciousness of I (ahantā) and the idantā is incipient (asphuṭa); the object is both

identified with and differentiated from the subject. (3) At the fifth level of mantreśvara, īśvara-

tattva governs; the entire universe is experienced as “I am this”; idam is distinct (sphuṭa). (4)

At the fourth level of mantras, śuddhavidyā-tattva governs. (5) The third level of vijñānākalas

exists above the māyā-tattva. Vijñānākalas are devoid of agency (kartrta) and in the nature of

pure awareness (śuddha-bodhātmānaḥ); the object of knowledge (prameya) - sakalas and

pralayākalas are identified (tatabhedasāram) with the experiants. (6) Śūnya or pralayākala.

(7) The first level of experiants, sakalas station from māyā to earth; prameya is limited and

different from themselves (cf. Swami Lakshmanjoo 1991: 51–63)

15 Cf. PHr 3, tr. Singh 1987 (1963): 53–54.

16 Cf. Ibid.: 60.

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Śūnya in Mahāyāna Buddhism

Śūnya, in the negative sense of physical emptiness or non-substantiality, has been well described in Buddhism, especially in the philosophy of the early disciples of Gautama Buddha and those of the Mādhyamikas.17 The dialectics of negation fully developed by Nāgārjuna in his philosophy of Śūnyavāda is a model to prove the emptiness of distinct form and language. Nāgārjuna’s dialectics dealt with phenomena and refuted their validity. This can be interpreted as an attempt to show the imperfection of vaikharī (corporeal) level of existence. The apparent negation of language, propounded by most of the Mahāyāna philosophical schools, is due to “its limited capacities for expressing the truth of things, and its tendency to foster delusion”.18 This is certainly characteristic of vaikharī vāk. Ultimately, this method of negation was used to restore “existence” from the phenomenal level to the higher level. The “higher level of reality” implied in the dialectics of negation is hinted at in the affirmation of Nāgārjuna: “nirvāṇa is not different from samsāra, and samsāra is not different from nirvāṇa”.19

One should keep in mind that Mahāyāna Buddhists were not satisfied with any mere negation of phenomena, but rather were attempting to grasp the higher truth. While rejecting the corporeal reality of phenomena, they pursue the vision of Ultimate Reality and developed various meditation techniques to this end. Thus, it is evident that the Vijñānavādins develop a deeper speculation of Śūnya, where is seen the affirmation of Śūnya as the Ultimate. At this point, we find descriptions of Śūnya

17 In PHr Kṣemarāja explains that different philosophical traditions partly represent what the complete system of Trika Śaivism has achieved. In this regard, the followers of Buddha have been introduced as “maintaining that the fundamental principle is only a continuum of cognitions”. And the Mādhyamikas have been viewed to be “considering abhāva (non-being) as the fundamental principle” (cf. PHr 8, tr. Singh 1963: 66).

18 McMahan 2002: 4.

19 Mūlamadhyamakakārikā XXV.19-20: na samsārasya nirvānāt kimcid asti viśeṣaṇam, na nirvāṇasyasamsārāt kimcid asti viśeṣaṇam | nirvāṇasya ca yā koṭih koṭihsamsāraṇasya ca, na tayor antaraṃ kimcit susūkṣmam api vidyate |

"There is not the slightest difference between samsāra and nirvāṇa. There is not the slightest difference between nirvāṇa and samsāra. Whatever is the limit of nirvāṇa, that is the limit of samsāra. There is not even the slightest difference between them or even the subtlest thing." (Tr. Garfield 1995: 331)

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comparable to Parāvāk. In the Madhyāntavibhāga of Maitreyanātha, lakṣaṇa (characterizing form) of Śūnya is explained:

. . . the non-being of duality (dvayābhāvo), and being of this non-being (abhāvasya bhāvah).

It is neither a being (na bhāvo) nor a non-being (nāpi vābhāvah).20

Vasubandhu's commentary explains that, here, duality means the dual positions of the object apprehended (grāhya) and the subject apprehending (grāhaka), and that Śūnya is to be understood as both non-being (abhāva) and true nature (svabhāva).21

How is it not non-being? Because of the being of non-being of duality (kathaṃnābhāvo yasmāddvayābhāvasya bhāva).22

Here, it is important to note that the śūnya of Buddhism designates not only the negation of any dualistic apprehension, but also the affirmation of non-dualism. Further, in the commentary of this text, Vasubandhu lists sixteen kinds (bheda: divisions) of śūnya (Table 5.1).23

It is important to realize that here, śūnya is not merely a negative state of nothingness, but is the central notion which explains the various modes of existence. It is understood that śūnya is experienced in multiple dimensions, from the Ultimate to the phenomenal. The Ultimate Śūnya (paramārtha-śūnyatā) presents Śūnya as the Highest Reality, which apparently directs one's attention towards the description of Śūnya as the source of maṇḍala in the visualization practice, and which is comparable to the Śūnya aspect of Parāvāk.

The Buddhist śūnya also corresponds to the pratyavamarśa (Pure Awareness) of Parāvāk.

Śūnya is the Ultimate (paramārthatā) because of its scope of exalted knowledge (āryajñānagocaratvāt).24

20 MV I.13ab, tr. Anacker 1984: 217, Sanskrit text pp. 427-28.

21 MVBh I.13a, Anacker 1984: 217.

22 MVBh I.13b, tr. Anacker 1984: 217, Sanskrit text p. 428.

23 Cf. MVBh I.16c, tr. Anacker 1984: 219, Sanskrit text p. 429. The list of sixteen śūnyas as given in the Bhāṣya, and their secondary interpretations in Table 5.1 are based on the Madhyāntavibhāga I.17 and its commentary.

24 MVBh I.15, tr. Anacker 1984: 218, Sanskrit text p. 428.

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Table 5.1: Sixteen Kinds of Śūnya According to Vasubandhu

Kind of Śūnya

Secondary Interpretation

1. Adhyātma-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the fields of the internal senses = bhoktr-śūnya: śūnya of the experiencer

2. Bahirddhā-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the external elements = bhojana-śūnya: śūnya of the experienced

3. Adhyātmabahirddhā-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the internal and external elements = dehaśūnya: śūnya of the bodya

4. Mahāśūnyatā

Great śūnya = pratiṣṭhāvasthu-śūnya: śūnya of the habitat

5. Śūnyatā-śūnyatā

Śūnya of śūnya = śūnya of śūnya through which those śūnya are seen

6. Paramārtha-śūnyatā

Śūnya of Ultimate Truth = śūnya of all that is seen under the Ultimate Truth = śūnya of whatever object of understanding a Bodhisattva may resort to

7. Samskrta-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the conditioned

8. Asamskrta-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the unconditioned

9. Atyanta-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the greatness

10. Anavarāgra-śūnyatā

Śūnya of inferior and superior

11. Anavakāra-śūnyatā

Śūnya of no-rejection

12. Prakrti-śūnyatā

Śūnya of nature

13. Lakṣaṇa-śūnyatā

Śūnya of defining marks

14. Sarvadharma-śūnyatā

Śūnya of all laws or events

15. Abhāva-śūnyatā

Śūnya of non-being

16. Abhāvasvabhāva-śūnyatā

Śūnya of the self-being of non-being

a Vasubandhu's commentary (MVBh) on the verse MV I.17 (tr. Anacker 1984: 219) clarifies that the body is the seat of the internal sense-field (experiencer) and the external objects experienced, and that adhyātmabahirddhā-śūnyatā means "śūnya of the body".

Now, the present study can begin to further investigate the parallels between Parāvāk and the Vijñānavādin concepts of the Ultimate. When the perceptible maṇḍala is said to be a reflective image (pratibimba), the source of this image is to be traced not in the negative sense but rather in the creative sense of Śūnya, which is parallel to the other notions of Tathāgatagarbha, Dharmakāya and Ālayavijñāna. These notions of "the Ultimate", placed in the centre of the non-dualistic philosophy of the Vijñānavāda texts,

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explain the creative dimension of Paramārthaśūnya,25 and explicitly expose the dynamic aspect of the Ultimate; therefore, they draw a remarkable set of parallels to the concept of Parāvāk. To recognize the transformational aspect of the Ultimate conceived in both traditions of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Trika Śaivism is critical in dealing with the primary inquiry of this work: how the Buddhist mandala resembles Śūnya from the perspective of the Trika concept of vāk. The affinity observed in these concepts of Highest Vāk and mandalas on the basis of the theory of vāk. The closer look into the qualities of Parāvāk and Her transformation may illuminate through analogy the relationship between the Ultimate Dharma and its reflective image (pratibimba), the form of mandala.

Parāvāk and Dharmakāya/Dharmadhātu

MV informs that Dharmadhātu is a synonym of Śūnya. It says:

Tathatā (suchness), bhūtakoṭih (the reality-limit), animittam (the signless), paramārtha (the Ultimate), dharmadhātu (the ground of all events) are, in brief, synonyms (paryāyāh) for śūnyatā.26

Dharmadhātu has been described in the Prasphutapadā27 (a commentary on the Abhisamayālañkāra) as possessing the nature of ākāśa (extensive space) and of prakrtiprabhāsvara (natural luminosity).28 Similarly, prabhāsvara (illumination) has been attributed to Śūnya.

How is śūnya neither defiled (na kliṣṭā) nor impure (nāpi cāśuddhā)? - Because of the luminousness of citta (prabhāsvaratvāccittasya).29

25 It is made explicit in RGV that these terms are synonymous to one another. Cf. RGV comm. I.86, tr. Takasaki 1966: 261.

26 MV I.14, tr. Anacker 1984: 218, Sanskrit text p. 428.

27 The full title of the text is the Abhisamayālañkārakārikāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstratīkā.

28 In the Prasphutapadā, Dharmamitra (late eighth to early ninth century CE, cf. Ruegg 1977: 284) examined the penetration (nirvedhabhāgīya) of gotra as the ground (ādhāra) of practice (pratipatti). Dharmamitra's exposition of the nature of gotra included a description of dharmadhātu: "Concerning the nature of the gotra it has somewhere been stated to be the dharmadhātu [as in the following scriptural statement]: 'O Jinaputras, what is termed the gotra of Bodhisattva assumes dharmadhātu, it is as extensive space (ākāśa), and it is naturally luminous (prakrtiprabhāsvara); the Bodhisattvas residing in it are born in the family of Buddha-Bhagavats of the past . . . future . . . and present.' (T.T vol. 91, Ēa: fol. 54a4-54b2, tr. Ruegg 1977: 289-93)

29 MVBh I.22, tr. Anacker 1984: 221, Sanskrit text p. 431. Śūnya is seen neither pure nor impure,

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The qualities of limitlessness and luminosity may well be comparable to the attributes of cit and prakāśa found in the descriptions of Parāvāk. Its all-pervasiveness is emphasized more in the notion of Dharmakāya, which is compared to that space which pervades all forms.30 So, it could be asked what the difference is between Dharmakāya and Dharmadhātu. In the Ratnagotravibhāga, which describes the two aspects of Dharmakāya, we find that Dharmakāya includes Dharmadhātu as one of its two aspects. The text says:

The Absolute Body (dharmakāya) is to be known in two aspects [One] is dharmadhātu which is perfectly immaculate, [The other] is its natural outflow (niṣyanda), the teaching Of the profound [truth] and of the diverse guidance.31

On the other hand, texts such as MVT have said that Dharmadhātu is also twofold, its aspects called “the Profound” and “the Extensive”.32 As mentioned earlier, the transformational aspect of Dharmadhātu has been referred to in MVT as being associated with the emergence of maṇḍalas, mantras and mudrās. The Akṣayamatinirdeśasūtra adds that this relation between essence and phenomena is connected to the notion of Dharmadhātu. According to the text, Dharmadhātu is constituted by twenty-two “realms”, of which four are elements, six are sense-organs, six are perceptions associated with the sense-organs, and six are objects of the senses. Though they are the main constituents of saṃsāra, dharmadhātu lies beyond saṃsāra by having absolutely no characteristic (lakṣaṇa) which can be said to “reside” in any

→ neither undefiled nor defiled. The above verse explains one aspect of Śūnya. A description of another aspect follows: “How is it neither undefiled nor pure? Because of the adventitiousness of defilements in it” (katham nākliṣṭā na śuddha-kleśasyāgatkatvataḥ); cf. Anacker 1984: 221, Sanskrit text p. 431.

30 Cf. RGV, concluding commentary on chap. I.145-47, tr. Takasaki 1966: 286: Just as space (ambaram) is considered to be all-pervading always, Similarly it is held to be always all-pervading; Just as space pervades all visible forms, Similarly, it pervades all the multitudes of living beings.

31 RGV I.145, tr. Takasaki 1966: 284.

32 Cf. MVT XIII.14 with the commentary of Buddhaguhya explaining what means “Profound” and “Extensive”, tr. Hodge 2003: 264; cf. Piṇḍārtha of MVT elucidating the topic of sambhoga-kāya, tr. Hodge 2003: 463; Buddhaguhya in the introduction to MVT advocates that those who are mainly oriented to the Profound and the Extensive Dharmas are qualified to practise mantrayāna.

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of these realms.33 One might note that the particular use of Dharmakāya or Dharmadhātu

seems rather subject to its context. What is relevant to this present discussion is that the

description of the twofold nature of the Ultimate Dharma be it called Dharmakāya or

Dharmadhātu betrays a strong reminiscence of the doctrine of vāk. The concept of

Parāvāk corresponds to that of Dharmakāya in the sense that it encompasses both the

highest principle and all its manifestations; at the same time, it corresponds to the notion

of Dharmadhātu that remains pure, in spite of its manifestation in every form and

cognition. Also, its external, creative “outflowing” aspect may be compared to paśyantī,

madhyamā or vaikharī, wherein is found discourse of Reality. Asaṅga’s commentary to

RGV explains34 that the first aspect of Dharmadhātu is perfectly pure (suviśuddha) and

is the acting sphere of non-discriminative wisdom (avikalpajñāna). The second aspect

is the natural outflow from Dharmadhātu (dharmadhātu-niṣyanda), which brings about

the attainment of Dharmadhātu.

It (dharmadhātu) produces (prabhava) the communication (vijñapti) among living being

according to their faculties in discipline (yathāvainayika).35

Dharmadhātu is Truth in the form of teaching (deśanā-dharma);36 it is explicitly

associated with the inner spirit of the teaching. The commentary refers to Dharmadhātu

as the cause of the manifestation of vijñapti (the image of cognition), which in Trika

Śaivism is attributed to the vāk aspect of Anuttara (the Highest).

Parāvāk and Ālayavijñāna

Ālayavijñāna is the term which signifies the origin of multiplicity in the eight vijñāna

system of the Vijñānavādīn. It denotes the primeval state where everything rests,

invisible and unmanifest, but potentially existent. Thus the past, present and future

co-exist in Ālayavijñāna. Just as Dharmakāya (or Dharmadhātu) has been understood

as being twofold - one aspect not subject to change and the other with a

transformational quality - Ālayavijñāna is also said to have two aspects. Ālayavijñāna

is the source of seven other vijñānas. Here the term vijñāna encompasses every state

from the pure uninterrupted state of Consciousness to daily discriminative cognitions.

Through the system of the eight vijñānas, Vijñānavādins explain the relationship

33 The text is quoted in Wayman and Tajima 1992: 53-54.

34 Cf. RGV I.145 comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 284-85.

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

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between these two poles. Ālayavijñāna is absolute at one end of this spectrum, yet is

transformative (pravṛtti) at the other end. The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra calls in the

Sagāthakam (59) the transcendental aspect of Ālayavijñāna "paramālaya-vijñāna",

expressing its supreme quality; its aspect that undergoes transformation (pariṇāma)

is called "vijñaptir ālaya".37 The former is ālava as it is in itself and is known as

prabandha (ceaseless). The latter is ālaya as the ground of mental representation

(vijñapti), and is known as lakṣaṇa (the sign or manifested). It is primarily undefiled,

yet appears in the dualistic mindset, devoid of purity, soiled by external defilements.38 LS

explains that Ālayavijñāna is not momentary when it is together with the habit-energy

(vāsanā) of that which does not flow outward (anāsrava), but it is indeed momentary

when it is found with the manas and vāsanā of evolving vijñānas.39 Here one finds the

conception of the Ultimate both in negative and affirmative terms, as is consistent with

"being and non-being"and "neither being nor non-being" both equally applying to

Śūnya. In its absolute aspect, it is envisaged as the waveless ocean, which is reminiscent

of the same description for samvit or cit in the Trika Śaivite texts.40 LS says:

It (Ālayavijñāna) is like a great ocean in which the waves roll on permanently but the

[deeps remain unmoved, i.e. Ālaya-] body itself subsists uninterruptedly, quite free from

fault of impermanence, unconcerned with the doctrine of ego-substance, and thoroughly

pure in its essential nature.41

This passage presents the notion of the all-pervasive Absolute, unimpeded by space or

time.42 A Trika Śaivaite text, PTV gives a direct reference to Ālayavijñāna equivalent to

Parāvāk.43 At the end of his elucidation of the pratibhā, Abhinavagupta refers to

Ālayavijñāna as the undivided whole, the source of every idea and recollection. Here,

pratibhā does not merely mean ‘the poetic inspiration’ as is often translated in the field

37 Cf. LS II.37-38, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 33-35, 231; cf. ibid., introduction: xxv-xxvii.

38 Cf. LS VI.220-21, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 190.

39 Cf. LS VI.235-36, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 203.

40 Cf. PTV 1, Singh 1988: 24, Sanskrit text p. 9.

41 LS VI.220, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 190.

42 Cf. TrK 30: “It is the inconceivable (acintyah), beneficial (kuśalo), constant ground (dhātu),

not liable to affliction, bliss (sukha) and the liberation body (vimuktikāya) called the Dharma

body of the Sage (mahāmuneh).” (Tr. Anacker 1984: 189, Sanskrit text p. 423)

43 Cf. PTV 5, tr. Singh 1988: 94, Sanskrit text pp. 36-37.

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of aesthetics, but rather designates the undivided Divine Consciousness (nirvikalpa samvid), identical to Parāvāk. It is further explained that vikalpa cannot arise by itself without svātantrya, and thus is based on the undivided consciousness (samvid) that is called the Supreme Goddess Pratibhā (pārameśvarī pratibhā). Then it continues:

Those, who are adept in discrimination (vivekakuśala), have experienced Ālayavijñāna in this very way.44

Here, “adept in discrimination” apparently indicates the Buddhist School of Logic which was affiliated to the Vijñānavādin.

It should be noted that the notion of Ālayavijñāna represents the Paramārtha-śūnya as the creative source that puts forth the existential basis for everything; for this is often read the equation of the notion of Ālayavijñāna to that of Tathāgatagarbha (Womb of the Enlightened Ones).45 LS says:

Tathāgatagarbha known as Ālayavijñāna evolves together with the seven vijñānas.46

In this context, one can draw upon a particular aspect of Parāvāk: Parāvāk is the ground on the basis of which all levels of vāk exist, whether in subtle or in gross forms; every level of vāk inheres in Parāvāk and Parāvāk is manifested through every level of vāk. In the system of eight vijñānas, duality is seen to cause from the adherence of the manas to six sensory vijñānas and its non-adherence to Tathāgatagarbha-Ālayavijñāna; in the doctrine of vāk, the nature of duality is attributed to the non-realization of Parāvāk inherent to vaikharī vāk. Just as the dual states of vaikharī are restored to the non-dual state of Parāvāk by overcoming their adherence to those distinct parts of cognition, the realization of the śūnya-nature of these eight vijñānas makes the condition of duality cease.

While Ālayavijñāna is pure and unaffected, it forms the basis for all existence and cognition. Due to its aspect of pravṛtti (manifestation), it transforms itself into the

44 Ibid., Sanskrit text p. 37. In this verse, Ālayavijñāna is compared to the undivided highest consciousness, pratibhā, and obviously we can place the Buddhists’ Ālayavijñāna as equivalent to Parāvāk. But Padoux (1992: 200) places it at the level of paśyantī and gives a reference from ĪPVV where Abhinavagupta identifies icchā-śakti with Ālayavijñāna. Cf. ĪPVV I.5.5 (vol. 2: 99,1.7): icchākhyālaya vijñāna.

45 Passages from LS explicitly identify Ālayavijñāna with Tathāgatagarbha. Cf. LS VI.221-23, 235-36, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 190–93, 203–04.

46 Cf. LS VI.223, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 192–93.

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seven other vijñānas. Throughout this aspect of manifestation, it is the seed that contains everything (sarvabījakam).47 In the state of sainthood (arhatva), the seventh consciousness, called manas, is produced (vyāvṛti) out of Ālayavijñāna, and in turn the latter becomes the object of the cognition (or ālambam) of manas; in this state, manas has the nature of “always reflecting” (mananātmakam) and indeterminate (avyākṛtam), though it is obstructed (nivrta), being always conjoined with four afflictions.48 Manas is conscious of the presence of Ālayavijñāna, but misunderstands it as “ego”, thus affecting the perception of the six other vijñānas.

The relationship between Ālayavijñāna and manas is, to some extent, analogous to that between Parāvāk and vaikharī vāk.49 One of the major characteristics of manas is the function of discrimination. We have seen that vaikharī vāk is also characterized by its nature of “distinction”, and that this function of distinction binds one to the world of phenomena. In the system of eight vijñānas, phenomenal reality is produced by the discriminative cognition of manas via the six senses, reminiscent of the function of vaikharī vāk. It is dependent on manas as to whether one sees only the world of phenomena consisting of the six sense cognitions, or if rather one grasps the solitary reality (vivikta dharma) of Ālayavijñāna. Manas has these twin objects of cognition: one is Ālayavijñāna and the other, the six sense cognitions.50 When the manas interprets the six vijñānas as the act of ego in the discriminative dualistic framework (vikalpa), not seeing their basis in Ālayavijñāna, one is bound to the world of phenomena. Then what turns manas to see the non-apparent reality, Ālayavijñāna? It is the realization of the śūnya nature (specifically, niḥsvabhāvatā) of the six sense cognitions51 that reframes the relation between the Absolute and the world of phenomena. It changes

47 Cf. TrK 2, tr. Anacker 1984: 186, Sanskrit text p. 422.

48 Cf. TrK 5-6, tr. Anacker 1984: 186, Sanskrit text p. 422.

49 Prāṇa is the sole support of vaikharī, and samvid is one of the synonyms of Parāvāk. The relation between samvid and prāṇa has been explained by Kallaṭa, quoted in Chakravarty 2001 (1988): 141: prāk samvit prāṇe pariṇatā (consciousness in its first creative upsurge manifests itself as prāṇa). Chakravarty adds: “Prāṇa so to say mediates between consciousness and the external manifestation in space and time.” (Ibid.)

50 Cf. TrK 15, tr. Anacker 1984: 187, Sanskrit text p. 422. The six sense cognitions either arise altogether or not.

51 Cf. TrK 17, 23-25, tr. Anacker 1984: 187-88, Sanskrit text pp. 422-23. Anacker in his note on the translation of TrK 29, specifically explains āśraya-parāvṛtti (revolution at the basis that turns manas to see the Reality) in connection with śūnya (ibid.: 190).

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the point of view of manas, allowing it to see that all the data from the sense cognitions

are mere reflections of Ālayavijñāna. The role of manas in producing images of distinct

objects may be compared to their production by vaikharī vāk, binding one to them.

Yet, at the same time, manas holds the key for understanding the non-dual Reality

comprising the Absolute and the world of phenomena. Therefore, it is evident that the

realization of the negative śūnya in the system of eight vijñānas is the basis of realizing

the higher Śūnya; that śūnya which is understood as a result of negation leads one to

the Absolute Śūnya.

Parāvāk and Tathāgatagarbha

Just as the Vijñānavādins' texts tell of Dharmakāya and Ālayavijñāna having a twofold

nature, so as well is the case with the notion of Tathāgatagarbha. Tathāgatagarbha

has two natures: one is called prakrtistha gotra, likening it to gold, which is immaculate;

the other is samudānīta gotra, compared to the seed that germinates.52 It should be

noted that the term garbha means not only the womb (yoni) but also the germ or the

foetus. It has the aspect of the indivisible receptacle where everything evolves, yet at

the same time it is the seed of evolution. In the doctrine of Tathāgatagarbha, one

finds an unambiguous expression of a non-dualistic approach to Reality, as the

following verse of RGV demonstrates:

O Śāriputra, the Ultimate Truth is a synonym of the mass of living beings (sattva dhātu).

The mass of living beings is, O Śāriputra, nothing but a synonym of Tathāgatagarbha.

Tathāgatagarbha is, Śāriputra, nothing but a synonym of dharmakāya.53

In this passage, all objects in the phenomenal world are viewed as being essentially

identical with the Ultimate.54 Here, one observes successive identifications:

Paramārtha with the world of sentient beings, the world of sentient beings with

Tathāgatagarbha, and Tathāgatagarbha with Dharmakāya. Furthermore, the central

message of these identifications is that 'all things have Tathāgatagarbha and are

possessed by Tathāgatagarbha'. It is said that it is not the sense vijñānas that are

subject to transmigration and which undergo pleasure and pain, but

52 RGV I.149, tr. Takasaki 1966: 288.

53 RGV commentary on chapter I.1, tr. Takasaki 1966: 143.

54 See another quotation given in RGV I.148 comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 287. “The Tathāgata,

being Reality (tathatā), is [identical with] the Matrix of these living beings

(garbhasarvasattvānām).”

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Tathāgatagarbha.55 In the non-dualistic philosophy of Tathāgatagarbha, everything

is equal due to the existence of Tathāgatagarbha. RGV (I.27) says:

The multitudes (rāśi) of living beings are included in the Buddha’s Wisdom (buddhajñāna),

Their immaculateness is non-dual by nature,

Its result manifests itself on the Germ of the Buddha (buddha gotra); therefore, it is said:

all living beings (sarve dehinah) are possessed of Tathāgatagarbha (the Matrix of the

Buddha).56

According to this verse, the (Buddha) gotra57 is the quintessence of the non-duality of

55 Cf. LS VI.236, tr. Suzuki 1999 (1932): 204.

56 RGV I.27, tr. Takasaki 1966: 197.

57 Takasaki (1966: 21) gives the basic idea of interpreting the word gotra: “. . . among the

Buddhist literatures is gotra = dhātu = hetu, or gotra = bīja. . . . In India, however, by a

common use, this word means ‘family’, ‘clan’ or ‘lineage’, and analogically, it is used in the

sense of ‘germ’, ‘mine’ or ‘matrix’.”

Snellgove translates the term gotra as "fold", when it is used in the meaning of a "category of

people", which is divided in terms of their spiritual ability. "LS describes no less than five

folds, those of Disciple (śrāvaka), of Lone Buddhas (pratyekabuddhas), of Tathāgatas (i.e.

for Bodhisattvas), of uncertain people, and of those who never desire salvation." (Snellgrove

1987: 110) However, the term gotra underwent a semantic change. In the earlier concept of

the gotra-division, only those who belong to the tathāgata gotra (lineage) could raise bodhicitta

and attain the ultimate nirvāṇa. Thus, the term came to mean "the essence of Buddhahood" or

the seed which has to be brought into maturity through the training of the mind. "The Sanskrit

term used for ‘essence’ in this particular sense is garbha, which normally means ‘womb’ or

‘embryo’.” (Ibid.: 112) Garbha meaning both "womb" and "embryo" encompasses both "the fold"

and "the substance".

An objection against the doctrine of these variations of gotra has been raised, since it has been

stated that because there is no differentiation in dharmadhātu, gotra cannot contain difference

either. It is stated in Daśadharmaka Sūtra: "Just as one knows [the presence of] fire [by

inferring it] from smoke . . . similarly one knows [the presence of] gotra of the intelligent

Bodhisattva by means of [its] inferential mark. Concerning the inferential mark in this context,

[54a] this refers to the fact that there are certain particular natural marks in a case where there

exists some person possessing a particular sense base (āyatana). But it is not correct to speak

of an inferential mark (linga) that indicates the presence of gotra where there is existence of

dharmadhātu, because dharmadhātu is universal (sāmānyavartin). Hence the Lord (bhaṭṭāraka,

viz. Maitreyanātha) has stated that here gotra has dharmadhātu as its nature. Nevertheless, it

is not the case that there are [therefore] no varieties [of gotra]; although it is settled that in

reality gotra is one, still what the comparison has indicated to be the intended meaning is that

the postulation of difference as such depends on peoples’ special āyatanas due to nature or to

the process of perfection." (Tr. Ruegg 1977: 290-91)

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas

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the phenomenal world and Tathāgatagarbha. It is the key concept for establishing the

non-dualistic vision. According to Asaṅga's commentary, the idea that “every living

being is at all times possessed of Tathāgatagarbha” has three meanings:

(i) dharmakāya of the Tathāgata penetrates all living beings (tathāgata-dharmakāya-

parispharaṇārtha); (ii) the Tathagatā, being tathatā, is the undifferentiated whole

(tathāgata-tathatā- 'vyatirekārtha); and (iii) there exists the Germ of the Tathāgata [in

every living being] (tathāgata-gotra-sambhavārtha).58

However, in the matter of whether the original Tathāgatagarbha is pure or defiled,

the discrimination between the Buddha and the objects of the phenomenal world is

valid.59 As Ālayavijñāna is described as sarvabījakam, Tathāgatagarbha is both the

seed (bīja) of all as well as the seed of Tathāgata - i.e. it is the cause (hetu) of the

existence of the phenomenal world as well as of the acquisition of the nirvāṇa. The

relation of the pure essence of Tathāgata (tathāgatadhātu) to the defilements of the

phenomenal world is expressed analogically as “a germ” (bīja) and “the husk of a

seed” (aṅkurah).60

Tathāgatagarbha is said to be both śūnya and aśūnya. It is śūnya in respect of

“being devoid of defilement”, and it is aśūnya in respect of “being” the anuttara dharma

(highest principle).61 Asaṅga quotes a verse from Āryaśrīmālā-Sūtra (221):

Tathāgatagarbha is devoid (śūnya) of all the sheathing defilements, which differentiate

58 RGV I.28 comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 198.

59 Cf. Mahāyānasūtrālaṅkāra IX.37 quoted in RGV I.148 comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 288:

Though being undifferentiated among all,

Tathatā (Reality), in case the purification is perfected,

Is [called] tathāgatatva (Buddhahood); therefore,

All living beings are possessed of the Matrix of Buddhahood.

60 Cf. preceding the verse RGV I.115.

61 Cf. RGV I.155, tr. Takasaki 1966: 301:

The essence [of the Buddha] (dhātu) is [by nature] devoid (śūnya); of the accidental [pollutions]

which differ from it;

But it is by no means devoid (aśūnya) of the highest properties (anuttara-dharma); which are,

essentially, indivisible from it. //155//

Takasaki's translation of “the accidental which differ from it” betrays its dualistic frame of

thought, which is inappropriate to infer into the Tathāgatagarbha. Here, “which differ” may

mean “the nature of differentiation”.

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Voice of the Void

and separate. Tathāgatagarbha is by no means devoid (aśūnya) of Buddha-dharma which are indivisible, inseparable, inconceivable and far beyond the sands of Gaṅgā in number.62

Here, it is noteworthy that “defilement”, the veil of Tathāgatagarbha, is described as the state of “differentiation” and “separation”. Tathāgatagarbha, which is the essence of a being, is said to be in a state of “non-differentiation”; as discussed above, in vāk is found the pair of “non-differentiation and differentiation” regarding “the Ultimate and its evolutes within it”.

One of the central themes expounded upon in the doctrine of vāk is the dynamics between Parāvāk and the three levels of vāk, respectively, defined as non-differentiation and differentiation (bhedābheda or vibhāgāvibhāga).

Tathāgatagarbha is said to be buddha dharma, which is “inconceivable, indivisible, inseparable from the wisdom (amuktajña)”.63 Tathāgatadhātu (a term equivalent to gotra), of the nature of the undifferentiated (asaṃbheda), is the very sphere or domain (object) of the highest knowledge.64

In other words, Tathāgatagarbha represents the undivided Whole which is revealed by the highest level of jñāna (knowledge). The highest knowledge implies the realization of the Undivided Whole, which can be interpreted to be Paramārtha-śūnya.

Regarding the cognition of Tathāgatagarbha, the commentary on RGV (I.155) says:

Indeed, without the introduction to the knowledge of the highest truth of śūnya (paramārthaśūnyatājñāna), nobody can attain or realize the non-discriminative sphere (avikalpadhātu) [of the Tathāgata].65

Associated with Dharmadhātu, Ālayavijñāna and Tathāgatagarbha, the Absolute has

62 Āryaśrīmālā-Sūtra 221c, quoted in the commentary of RGV I.155: śūnyastathāgatagarbho vinirbhāgairmuktajñaiḥ sarvakleśaiḥ | aśūnyo gaṅgānadīvālikāvyativṛttairavinirbhāgairamuktajñairacintyairbuddhadharmairiti ||

In the translation of Takasaki (1966: 301), additional interpretative phrases have been added in brackets: “defilements . . . separated [from the Absolute Essence]” and “Buddha-dharma . . . inseparable [from the Absolute Essence]”. Here in the above text I omitted those in the brackets because they seem misleading. Vinirbhāgairmuktajñaihsarvakleśaiḥ has been translated by Takasaki as “all the sheath of defilements, which are differentiated and separated”. However, the clause describes the nature of the defilements. Thus, Tathāgatagarbha is śūnya of all the defilements, which are sheathing, differentiating and separating.

63 RGV I.86 and comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 259.

64 paramatattva-jñānaviṣyas tathāgatadhātuḥ (RGV I.29 comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 199).

65 RGV I.155 comm., tr. Takasaki 1966: 302: na hi parmārthaśūnyatājñānamukhamantareṇa śakyate’vikalpo dhāturadhigantum sākṣātkartum |

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas

been commonly conceived as possessing a twofold nature in Vijñānavāda Buddhism: the

unchangeable immaculate and the transformational. The transformational aspect of the

Absolute lays the foundation for explaining how the realm of phenomena is not different

from the Absolute. As described in Trika Śaivism, Parāvak - while being described as

Paramārtha, untouched by space and time - sustains itself in the realm of perceptible

objects by means of its transformation into paśyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī vāk. We

notice that there is an accord between Trika Śaivism and Mahāyāna Buddhism in regard

to the fundamental concept of the Absolute. While Vajrayāna Buddhism demonstrates the

transformational nature of the Absolute to be found in one’s keen awareness upon vāk

through its mantrayāna practice, the concepts of the Absolute in Vijñānavāda Buddhism

make evident the truth that the non-dualistic philosophy of Mahāyāna Buddhism

fundamentally corresponds to the vision of vāk as conceived in Trika Śaivism.

V. 2 The Non-dualism of Creation and Concealment

within the Doctrine of Vāk

Although three levels of vāk - paśyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī - ultimately originate

from Parāvāk and essentially inhere within it, they are not identical to Parāvāk so

long as they remain in the state where differentiation exists between vācya and

vācaka.66 It is significant that vaikharī vāk, though seen as the state in which the divine

bliss has disappeared, does not degrade into “a fallen state, apart from the Divine”. It

is the divine power of concealment that veils the true nature of the Divine in the phase

of vaikharī vāk. However, vaikharī vāk is at the same time understood to be the

completion of the divine creation. For the manifestation of form, two aspects of divine

nature are involved: one of creation, another of concealment.67 The creation of multiple

forms is here seen as the concealment of the Divine Whole. The light (prakāśa) is

obscured, thus the state of bliss (ānanda) is negated; pure awareness (pratyavamarśa)

66 Cf. PTV 5-9: “Thus vaikharī herself, who has acquired development through madhyamā, so

long as she remains in herself with words and their referents perfectly manifest, expressing

mutual diversity and having the network of the categories of existence within herself, so long

she is aparā. The development of the madhyamā stage which inheres in parā is known as

parāparā, and also the growth of paśyantī. In her own self, parā is the divine goddess.” (Tr.

Singh 1988: 156, Sanskrit text p. 55)

67 SpK 46-47 (III.14-15), quoted in PTV 5-9. “The powers are ever in readiness to conceal his

real nature, for without the association of words, ideas cannot arise.” Similarly, “The rise, in

the bound soul, of all sorts of ideas marks the disappearance of the bliss of supreme immortality.

On account of this, he loses his independence. The appearance of the ideas has its sphere in

sense objects.” (Tr. Singh 1988: 193, Sanskrit text p. 71)

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is invaded by the discerning mind in the hand of māyā (delusion). Without the concealment of the true nature of the Divine, no multiplicity of form could be accomplished. Kṣemarāja says in the Parā Praveśikā:

Thus, it (akrtrimāham; parameśvara) is the origin (kartrtvam) of the life (ajadatvam) in this world; at the same time, the world (jagatah) is the result (kāryatvam) of and dependent (adhīna) upon the covering of light (aprakāśatvam).68

Out of His or Her own freedom, the Divine emits (sphurati) the world within the Absolute Light (prakāśa). This is the beginning of creation, which is often described in the context of Parāvāk. The forms, thereafter manifested, are seen as the condensation of the divine vibration as well as the limitation of true, undivided nature, but are not seen to be fundamentally separated from it. “Condensation” means the imprisonment of the nāda nature of the Divine into the hard-shell of the objects of senses, and the petrification of the śabda nature into varṇa (literally, both phonemes and colours).69

When the concepts of “creation” and “the created” are seen in such a philosophy wherein both revelation and concealment are inseparable, what could be the significance of “seeing multiple forms” or “hearing multiple sounds”? A non-dualistic worldview would allow such activities to ultimately restore the forms from the vaikharī level to the Parā level, which means a reversion to the ānanda experience of Light (prakāśa) and Pure Awareness (vimarśa). It is this experience of Parāvāk that has been the major theme of the aesthetic discussion in India. Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka describes aesthetic experience as follows:

The enjoyment of rasa takes the form of melting (druti), expansion (vistara) and radiance (vikāsa). This enjoyment is like the bliss that comes from realizing [one’s identity] with the highest Brahman.70

Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka’s expression implies that the aesthetic experience has the same goal as the spiritual experience. When SvT (IV.275) teaches about the meditation particular to each level of uccāra, the spiritual experience at the śakti level (śaktigati) is described to be “sparśa of the nature of supreme joy (sparśānandātmā)”.71 In the uccāra system, śakti is

68 Parā Praveśikā, p. 3, translation with the help of Ernst Fürlinger.

69 Also see Larson 1974: 44.

70 Quoted in DhĀ II.4, tr. Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan 1990: 222. For Sanskrit, see DhĀ 1998: 83.

71 SvT 4.275 comm. (vol. 1: 212).

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the stage from which the practitioner enters the level of mahāśūnya. In this regard, the

experience of ānanda in relation to the experience of Śūnya can be examined. Kṣemarāja’s

commentary on SvT provides a similar reference to ānanda in the spiritual experience:

After having adopted (grhītvā) the form of “end of sound” (nādānta rūpatam) and having

come to rest (layam yāti) in the reality of śakti (śaktitattve), he/she - when nādānta has

ended (praśamya) - takes refuge (śrayati) in the “aperture of Brahman” (brahmavīle)

through the touch of joy of the Self (ānandasparśātmatām).72

It is noteworthy that the experience of śakti is described along with the term ānanda,

the universal bliss. From the viewpoint of aesthetics, ānanda is a state that occurs

simultaneously with camatkāra (wonder), and both ānanda and camatkāra describe

the culmination of the aesthetic experience.73 On the basis of the understanding that the

experience of ānandasparśa (the touch of bliss) happens at the śakti level, it can be

inferred that the experience of camatkāra also occurs at this level - i.e. in between the

experience of subtle resonance and that of Śūnya, as we have seen in the OM uccāra

practice. Therefore, it is supposed that the experience of Śūnya comes after the experience

of camatkāra. It is thereby deduced that camatkāra signifies the aesthetic wonder that

arises when all manifested energy is absorbed into the transcendental energy, Śūnya.

A question now arises: “Can one aesthetically experience Śūnya when the

culmination of the aesthetic experience is defined by the term camatkāra?” If

camatkāra occurs when the subtle forms are dissolved, before the state of Śūnya

pervades, then even at its highest point any aesthetic experience cannot be more than

a glimpse of Śūnya. Swami Lakshman Joo, a contemporary practitioner of Trika

Śaivism, asserts that Parā cannot be experienced in this body.74 In such a case, though

ānanda and camatkāra are often said to be of the nature of Parāvāk, the aesthetic

rapture characterized by them would be interpreted as the experience of the highest

stage of paśyantī vāk, where one has had a glimpse of Parāvāk.

V. 3 Sanctification of Mandalas on the Basis of

the Doctrine of Vāk

It would now serve this study to examine the relation between mantras and ordinary

language, for this is analogous to the relation between mandala paintings and ordinary

72 SvT 4.260 comm. (vol. 1: 207), tr. Fürlinger 2009: 235.

73 Cf. ĪPVV vol. II, p. 177. “Camatkrti means the act of a person savouring (bhuñjānasya), that

is, the bliss constituted by the full achievement of fruition.” (Tr. Torella 2002: 118, n. 23)

74 Swami Lakshman Joo 1991 (1985): 41.

visual representations. Ordinary language represents the product of vaikharī vāk, determined by conventional rules and comprised of mental constructs. However, the innate dualistic nature of ordinary language is superseded in the doctrine of vāk and it is restored to the non-dual source of Parāvāk, on the basis of which the mantra represents the direct revelaton of Parāvāk.

In the doctrine of vāk, even ordinary language is seen to originate from and be grounded in Parāvāk in the same way as are mantras. In spite of that, mantras are distinguished from ordinary language. One may object to this distinction by refuting: “if everything in the objective world originates in Parāvāk, there cannot be any hierarchy among things”. This objection may also be applicable to maṇḍala paintings: “if everything originates from the formless Śūnya as Buddhist texts say, then there is no difference between maṇḍalas and ordinary objects”. A similar objection is indeed put forth in the attempt of some contemporary artists to deny any distinction between ordinary daily objects and works of art.75 This dispute ultimately brings one to the question of why maṇḍala paintings are esteemed to be more spiritual than mundane art: if mantras are sanctified due to some objective basis, then on a similar basis would maṇḍalas be distinguished from ordinary objects. Therefore, this speculation on mantras can be looked upon in order to solve the question as to why maṇḍalas are specified as a means of meditation.

Mantras consist of a syllable or a group of syllables.They can be intelligible or unintelligible. There are even mantras that cannot be pronounced. Or, a mantra can be an intelligible sentence or a group of sentences, and be similar in appearance to ordinary speech. In the matter of how to define a mantra, Padoux answers, “mantra is a formalized utterance declared to be a mantra, ‘revealed’ by those texts and masters who are entitled to do so”.76 Mantra is regarded as revealed, rather than a human creation. Mantras are governed by sacred rules, and by tradition are inherited from a spiritual preceptor. The practitioner must observe specific rules to pronounce a mantra. However, once a person is established in the state of Parāvāk, his speech stands beyond any conventional rules. TĀ says:

Whatever he who is established in the uncreated heart (akṛtrimaitathrdayārūṭho) does, breathes or reflects, it is regarded as the recitation of mantra (japa).77

75 See the article of Hertz (1978) for the theoretical reflection on the development of the axiom, “art of non-art”.

76 Padoux 1992: 379.

77 Cf. TĀ IV.194: “One who has reached this uncreated heart, whatsoever he does, whatever he animates or thinks, all this is regarded as mantric recitation.” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 390) A person

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1203

This example is noteworthy because it implies that ordinary language can be mantra if it reveals the nature of Parāvāk. The consideration of the formal aspects of mantra tells us that its mere appearance cannot be a criterion in defining a mantra. A mantra can be a collection of lifeless phonemes at the level of vaikharī,78 and ordinary speech can be a radiant mantra of Parāvāk; it depends on ‘how predominant is the citta (the consciousness)’ by which one identifies with the Undivided One, the Heart (hrdaya).79 In Buddhist terms, it is more specifically citta oriented towards Bodhicitta – as distinct from manas (the mind) inclined towards thought construction – that charges mantra with the power to lead one to the state of the undivided. It should be noted that ordinary language has a greater tendency towards discursive thought, whereas mantra orients towards non-discursive awareness. What is relevant is not any particular way of arranging sounds or letters, but rather their inherence to Parāvāk.80 Due to the predominance of citta, mantra is differentiated from ordinary language. Furthermore, mantras are classified into hierarchical levels depending on how directly they represent the state of Parāvāk.

Analogous to the relation between mantra and ordinary language is the essence of maṇdalas distinct from that of ordinary objects. Just as mantras that have limited functions to fulfil worldly goals are placed lower in the mantrayoga, so too with maṇḍala; despite complex rules required to accomplish their limited goals, those do not represent any essential characteristic of maṇḍala. As the recitation of mantra is ideally a process of one’s identification with the deity,81 so is the visualization of divinity in the form of maṇḍala. A maṇḍala is a cosmic form of divinity, with which a practitioner is ideally identified. This identification is attempted “by entering the maṇḍala”; without “entering the maṇḍala”, a maṇḍala remains an external object.

→ who achieved the undivided state of Parāvāk, while speaking, is free from conventional rules of language, that is vaikharī.

78 Cf. TĀ IV.192-93; ŚSV II.1.

79 Cf. ŚSV II.1.

80 Cf. PTV 5-9. Abhinavagupta quotes the Trikahrdaya: “. . . it is not only the position of the letters of a mantra, but the power of creative energy (vīrya) that is inherent in it that matters. It is by being preserved with that creative energy, that the mantras are really preserved, otherwise what remains constitutes merely a number of letters (varṇa).” Tr. Singh 1988: 150, Sanskrit text p. 54.

81 Kṣemarāja, in ŚSV II.1, says: “[The mantra] is the very mind of the devotee who, through intense awareness of the deity of the mantra, acquires his identity with that deity.” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 384)

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When it remains external, it does not enter the self. Thus, "to enter the maṇḍala" also means that "maṇḍala enters the individual self". In this process of identification, there occurs an intermingling of the concepts of subject and object. Once they are intermingled, the subject and object produce an indistinct form of cognition which is the state of the beginning of madhyamā. The rigid boundary between subject and object is dissolved through the very action of identification for which the maṇḍala has been created. Maṇḍalas are therefore primarily distinguished from ordinary objects in that the intention of their creation is that they are to be identified with, and will ultimately awaken Bodhicitta.

V.4 Gross, Subtle and Transcendental Forms of Vāk

V.4.1 Description of the Three Forms of Vāk in the Tantrāloka

In its description of vaikharī, madhyamā and paśyantī vāk, TĀ divides them each into three parts — sthūla (gross), sūkṣma (subtle) and parā (transcendental).82 The sthūla forms of vaikharī, madhyamā and paśyantī have already been briefly examined in Chapter IV. The gross paśyantī is exemplified by the harmonious oneness of beautifully arranged musical notes in the form of nāda. The sound of a drum, which is both distinct and indistinct, represents the gross madhyamā. Finally, the cause of physical speech is said to be the gross vaikharī.83 The detailed description of these gross forms of all three levels of vāk is of particular interest from the perspective of aesthetics, because it unambiguously allows for sensual objects to be placed "beyond" the limited state where the Pure Light is obscured, and where the Pure Awareness is obstructed by the dualism of subject and object. The gross forms of paśyantī and madhyamā vāk are exemplified by objects which one can experience through the aural sense.

According to this description, the matter of aesthetic pleasure is decided by how much the dualism of subject and object is surmounted in order to generate the harmonious oneness. In the context of gross paśyantī, Abhinavagupta writes.

Undivided unity that consists in aesthetic pleasure (mādhuryam) is called śakti.84

He asserts that the one who is immersed in the nāda form close to samvid (Divine Consciousness) instantly experiences the state of tanmayībhūti (unity) because of its

82 TĀ III.237a (vol. II: 578): tāsāmapi tridhā rūpaṃ sthūlasūkṣmaparatvatah |

83 TĀ III.237b-245a (vol. II: 578–82).

84 TĀ III.238b (vol. II: 579): avibhāgaikarūpatvaṃ mādhuryamśaktirucyate ‖

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas | 205

similarity to samvid. It is remarkable that nāda is said to be similar to samvid due to its

harmonious unity of distinct sounds despite that it possesses form. In the case of gross

madhyamā, the aesthetic quality derives from its qualities of non-distinction and non-

division. For example, the sound of a drum is aesthetically pleasing because it consists

of a single undivided note (avibhāgasvaramayī), and its repetitive rhythm (tālapāṭha)

is also of the nature of the undivided. Jayaratha comments that absorption into the

undivided-ness of the gross madhyamā leads one to a state of unity (tanmayī bhāva).

In contrast, the gross vaikharī that brings about distinct sounds such as physical speech is

too harsh to bring forth any aesthetic pleasure.

Abhinavagupta states that the gross form at each of the three levels of vāk begins

with anusandhānam (the intention of a definite aim). For example, in the gross paśyantī,

nāda is preceded by the determinate intention of “I play ṣa”, in the gross madhyamā

by the intention of “I play sweetly”, and in the gross vaikharī by the intention of “I

speak”. This subtle form (sūkṣma), which is anusandhānam, may well correspond to

icchā (will), which characterizes parāparā-śakti as it is taught later in TĀ.85 Icchā of

the parāparā-śakti results in the act of producing particular forms. Anusandhānam

should be understood as the “spontaneous” apprehension of a form, which entails the

intention of manifesting such a form. Abhinavagupta states:

The individual anusandhānam of three (levels of vāk) is indeed clearly apprehended

(samvedyate).86

The parā form precedes each of the sūkṣma forms of paśyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī.

The three parā forms are defined as “where Śiva, the paracit (supreme consciousness)

resides”.87 Jaideva Singh explains that the original forms of paśyantī, madhyamā and

vaikharī that inhere in their source, parā, are called parā-paśyantī, parā-madhyamā

and parā-vaikharī.88 According to him, the parā forms of paśyantī, madhyamā and

vaikharī are compared to bimba, whereas their state which is manifested is pratibimba.

85 TĀ III.249 (vol. II: 585). The verse describes the three śaktis of Śiva that bring forth the

manifestation: parā, parāparā and aparā. Parā is anuttara; parāparā is the will (icchā); and

aparā is the power of unfolding called “knowledge”.

86 TĀ III.247a (vol. II: 583): prthagevānusandhānatrayam samvedyate kila |

87 TĀ III.248a (vol. II: 584): tatparam tritayam tatra śivah paracidātmakah |

88 Cf. Singh 1988: 109, n.

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Voice of the Void

V.4.2 Significance of the Exposition of the Sthūla-Paśyantī

and the Sthūla-Madhyamā

One might be misled to formulate simple correspondences between the three states of

parā, sūkṣma and sthūla in respect to the three levels of paśyantī, madhyamā and

vaikharī, and therefore to simply call paśyantī the transcendental, madhyamā the subtle

and vaikharī the gross. However, the doctrine of vāk establishes other terms as well:

subtle (sūkṣma) vaikharī, transcendental (parā) vaikharī, gross (sthūla) madhyamā,

transcendental (parā) madhyamā, gross (sthūla) paśyantī and subtle (sūkṣma) paśyantī.

It is indeed significant that Trika Śaivism envisages not only the gross form of vaikharī

vāk but also those of madhyamā vāk and paśyantī vāk. In such a philosophical

framework, sensual objects are to be apprehended as manifestations not only of the

vaikharī vāk, but also of the madhyamā vāk and the paśyantī vāk. In other words, the

three stages of vāk are manifest in the forms that can be experienced through the five

senses. The gross vaikharī is based on the subtle vaikharī, which is the definite intention

towards and desire for such a form. The subtle vaikharī arises from the original vaikharī

at the parā level. In this way, madhyamā and paśyantī also have their gross forms

being based on their subtle forms of will to bring forth such forms, which in turn

originate from their parā states. Therefore, vaikharī, madhyamā and paśyantī vāk

inhere in the undivided state of Parā. Parā is the direct cause not only of paśyantī, but

also of madhyamā and vaikharī because they exist in Parā as parā-paśyantī, parā-

madhyamā and parā-vaikharī. In Parāvāk, everything shines and is apprehended as

not separate from Parāvāk.89

The important proposition of the doctrine of vāk – especially in relation to aesthetics

• is that there are vaikharī objects, madhyamā objects and paśyantī objects. As seen

in an earlier section, it is said that difference and diversity exists even in the paśyantī

and madhyamā levels, but only at the stage of vaikharī is that difference distinct and

perceptible as the powers of senses are fully awakened. In order to comprehend the

three forms of the three levels of vāk, the dualistic structure of mundane understanding

• that vaikharī indicates external objects, madhyamā the mental image or thought,

and paśyantī the subtle beginning of cognition - must be overcome. Mental impressions

and thoughts might be instead manifestations of vaikharī vāk if they be sufficiently

distinct and discursive. On the other hand, external objects can be categorized as

madhyamā or paśyantī according to which degree they reveal their undifferentiated

89 Cf. PTV, tr. Singh 1988: 44: tat paśyantyupari parābhūmiḥ bhagavatī-yatra sarvam-

abhedenaiva bhāti ca vimṛśyate ca |

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas

nature of Parāvāk. Thus, what decides the levels of vāk is the relation between the

whole and its parts, regardless of whether the object in question is physical or mental.

When the unity of the whole predominates over the parts to reveal samvid in an external

object, it is restored to the state of Parā; then, such an object should be thought of a

manifestation of paśyantī vāk. However, when the parts of an object predominate and

the vision of the whole is obstructed, the object is not restored to the state of unity and

thus remains at the vaikharī level. Therefore, it is read in TĀ that the aesthetic

appreciation of external objects in representations of madhyamā vāk or paśyantī vāk

leads one to tanmayībhāva (the state of unity),90 wherein one experiences the Undivided

Whole to some extent.

V. 5 Transformation of Form in the Doctrine of Vāk

The four levels of vāk are essentially concerned with the relationship between the

subject and the object, and they provide insight into the process of how the subject-

object dualism is transcended in favour of the undivided, non-dual state. The doctrine

of vāk describes the transformation from the distinct, divided state of subject and

object to the non-distinct, undivided state of subject and object. The transformation of

the relationship between vācya and vācaka as delineated in the doctrine of vāk is

reminiscent of the transformation that mandalas undergo in the process of self-

identification. In other words, it can be defined as “the transformation of our awareness

from the vaikharī level to the level of Parā”. Vācaka can be replaced by the terms

śabda, subject or that which expresses, and vācya by the terms artha, object or that

which is expressed. This process of identification — from the point of view of the

doctrine of vāk — may explain the spiritual and aesthetic dynamics of mandala, as

well as possibly answering some important questions concerning Buddhist mandalas:

“why is it necessary to visualize the forms of the deities and their mandalas in tantric

spiritual practice?” or “why do Tantras put such emphasis on visualization (of

mandalas) in pursuit of the realization of Paramārtha?”

Stage of Vaikharī vāk

Within the vaikharī level of cognition or expression, a particular object is seen in

terms of its distinct characteristics, and those characteristics define the object. It is the

viewer who assigns these characteristics to the object. At this stage, the viewer and

the viewed remain separate. At the vaikharī level, cognition is vikalpa (thought

construct), and the viewer identifies the object with apparent characteristics, “not seeing

90 TĀ III.239b-41a, 242 comm. (vol. II, pp. 579-81).

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its true nature (svabhāva)". It is the specific power of vaikhari vāk that produces these distinct forms. Thus, at the vaikharī stage, the viewer is the subject of the act and the viewed is the object of the act. Here, the act governed by vaikharī vāk brings forth the division between the subject and the object.

Stage of Madhyamā vāk

Madhyamā vāk is also characterized by the state of vikalpa, and the relationship between vācaka (that which expresses) and vācya (that which is expressed) is still based on the dualistic model. However, madhyamā vāk marks the point where the border between the subject and the object begins to break down. Here lies the power whose action - especially in the form of seeing or cognizing - bridges the subject and the object. It is distinguished from vaikharī vāk due to the predominance of subjectivity over objectivity, and to its being indistinct as well as distinct. It seems contradictory that madhyamā vāk is characterized as "the dualistic thought construct" and at the same time there is the "predominance of the subjectivity over the objectivity". In fact, there are found several references that appear inconsistent if one merely considers madhyamā - or any other level of vāk - to be a fixed state. The study on vāk carried out for this present work suggests that the four levels of vāk are broad classifications that must be considered as a continuous dynamic flow. Therefore, these fourfold divisions are rather "dimensions" or "forms" of the One Undivided Reality of Vāk. As understood from reading the Vrtti of the Vākyapadīya I.142, each level of vāk contains various sub-stages within its category.91 Therefore, madhyamā vāk should be understood as a range of stages, starting from the point where the distinctive thought process gives way to the non-distinct internalization, and ending close to the point where objectivity is completely covered by subjectivity. As related by Abhinavagupta, madhyamā vāk represents the initial state of identification where "a clearly manifested object is completely covered by subjectivity" and "the reciprocal mixing of the subject and the object" takes place.92

Identification: Transformation from Vaikharī Vāk to Madhyamā Vāk

So, what causes this co-identification? The identification between the self and the object does not always happen, even though there is always contact between the subject and internal or external objects. If one is bound to vaikharī vāk, no such identification would occur, because vaikharī vāk is the power to bind one to the state of duality.

91 Cf. Supra, p. 158.

92 Cf. PTV (p. 148), tr. Padoux 1992: 210.

The Doctrine of Vāk and the Aesthetics of Mandalas 1 209

A passage from PTV explains what causes vaikharī to transform itself into madhyamā and the subsequent stages. In the context of the expansion of the creative power of Śiva, the text describes the contact of external objects with an experient. First, Abhinavagupta narrates the quality of Śiva, a name which could be replaced by "the Absolute" or "the Reality":

Śiva who consists of Parāvāk and creativity (visṛṣṭi) in the form of expansion of the energy (vīrya) of the great mantra . . . 93

According to the passage, once objects of sense experience enter the experient through the inner or outer sense-organs, they abide in the "central channel" of the body (madhyānāḍibhuvi, viz. suṣumṇā) in the form of the sentient breath or life principle (prāṇātmanā cetanarūpeṇa), which is called ojas. This ojas, the energy resulting from the contact between the sense object and sense-organ, is diffused into and enlivens every part of the body in the form of "undivided power" (avibhakta-vīryarūpa). Ojas inheres inside every part of the body. Then, when an "exciting" form or sound (brṃhakarūpam rūpaśabdādi) enters through a sense-organ (indriya), it awakens the "fire of passion" in the form of "the stirring of vīrya" (vīryakṣobharūpa-kāmānalaprabodhakam bhavati), due to the nature of expansion (brṃhakatvāt).94 In this exposition, the "exciting" sense experience is distinct from ordinary ones. A particular form or sound stirs the undivided power in the body - i.e. vīrya - due to its nature of expansion (brṃhakatva). It may be inferred from its context that the brṃhakatva, which causes this stirring of the undivided power in the body, represents Śiva's expansion of creative power. The text up to here explains how the creative power of Śiva enters an individual body. Furthermore, the text describes the topic of sense experience in relation to aesthetic delight, demonstrating that the above process properly describes the moment when the significant contact between the viewer and the viewed entails the process of "reciprocal mixing". The sensual pleasure is caused by the contact between brṃhakatva of a form or sound (or any equivalent sensation) and the undivided power, vīrya of the experient; both brṃhakatva and vīrya here represent the creative power of Śiva.95 Or, as is mentioned specifically in the context of the aesthetic experience, it is the union between the creative cosmic energy (mahāvisarga) of the object and ojas (vital energy) of the subject - the dimensions or forms of the same Universal Power - that brings the delight in question:

93 PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 42, Sanskrit text p. 15: śivo hi paravāṁmayamahāmantravīrya-visṛṣṭimayaḥ . . . The above translation has been given by the author.

94 Ibid.

95 PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: p. 43, Sanskrit text p. 16.

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Even a (beautiful) figure brought into prominence by the meeting of two eyes affords delight (sukha) only by the device of its union with the mighty seminal energy (mahāvisarga-viśleṣaṇa-yuktyā) which stirs up the energy of the eyes (tadvīryakṣobhātmaka); such is also the case when the ears hear a sweet song.96

According to the earlier exposition, even if an object does not stir the vīrya, once it enters through a sense-organ, it abides within the body in the form of ojas. However, by the touch of the creative power of Śiva in the form of the brṃhakatva (expansion) of an object, one's sense perception is led to an aesthetic delight. A verse that follows the above exposition expresses that the pleasure of the stirring of vīrya is produced by the creative power of Śiva - i.e. vimarśa.97 It has been observed in an earlier section that vimarśa is the essential nature of Parāvāk. Here one should remember that prāṇa is the support of vaikharī vāk,98 and madhyamā is defined as "the energy of self-awareness (vimarśa śakti) which activates an internal organ (antahkarana)".99 The impressions of external objects remain in the prāṇa of the body, implying the level of vaikharī. The great change that occurs at the stage of madhyamā is marked by the role of vimarśa śakti. The contact between brṃhakatva of an object with ojas (vital energy) signifies transcendence from the distinct and divided conception of the object. Once the object is removed from its dualistic frame by the vimarśa śakti - i.e. the madhyamā vāk - the act of viewing or hearing draws one towards an unobstructed vision of pure awareness. As SpK says:

This Śiva's power of action, residing in the fettered soul, binds it, (but) when (its true nature) is understood and it is set on its own path, (this power) bestows the fruits of yoga (siddhi).100

Stage of Paśyantī vāk

The next level of vāk, paśyantī, is described as distinct and indistinct, just as madhyamā vāk is. It is characterized by both vikalpa (distinct thought) and nirvikalpa (without distinct thought). However, unlike madhyamā vāk, its objectivity only exists in a

96 PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: p. 43, Sanskrit text p. 16.

97 Vimarśa is described as full of creative pulsation (spanda) of perfect Bhairava-consciousness (paripūrṇabhairavavasamvid-ātmakam), the absolute freedom (svātantryam), full of power of bliss (ānandaśaktimayam) (ibid.).

98 Cf. SpV 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 132.

99 Cf. ĪPV VI.5.13.

100 SpK 48, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: xvii.

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potential “germ” form. While paśyantī vāk is described as the state of parāparā –

both distinct and indistinct - it is at the same time said to be close to the undivided

state of Parāvāk. It has been earlier said that paśyantī vāk is reached when certain

conditions are met; one of these is “memory”. When Abhinavagupta explains

“memory” in TĀ we notice that the synthetic awareness of the multiplicity - in other

words, the unity of the multiplicity or multiplicity in unity - is an important aspect of

paśyantī vāk. This multiplicity certainly exists within paśyantī; yet unlike vaikharī or

madhyamā, is also rest within the unity.

Memory (smṛtiḥ), a recalling to mind (smaraṇam), is at the root (vastutaḥ) of all the

modalities of existence (sarvabhāvesu); verily its innermost nature is the mantra

(mantrasvarūpa). It is that which allows the apprehension of the deeper nature of these

modalities (bhavyasvarūpa) when they arise. Memory (smṛtiḥ), [indeed], induces this

nature (svarūpa). Colouring (rañjikā) [or taking hold of] in all objective modalities, as it is

present (sarvatrāvasthitena) in the multiplicity of forms (anekākārarūpeṇa), it partakes of

the innate nature of all things (svasvabhāvvasya samprāptiḥ), it is consciousness (samvittiḥ)

and the ultimate truth (paramārthaḥ), abiding in what has been manifested (vyaktiniṣṭhā).

Know that as such it is called supreme reality [or essence] (parā).101

This gives a critical exposition of paśyantī vāk in the context of memory, which is

related to the process of identification. Above in the context of madhyamā vāk, we

have read that it is the contact between brṃhakatva in the object and ojas in the body

that brings forth the initial stirring of vīrya within an aesthetic experience. Now can

be discussed the sequence of the aesthetic experience in the description of paśyantī

vāk, found in passages such as “colouring in all existence with multiple forms in the

way they are manifested. . .”. Multiple forms are grasped, as they are present. By

doing so, the constituting forms of paśyantī partake of and become one with “the

inner nature of all beings”. It is the synthetic vision (parāmarśa) of paśyantī that

makes one able to take hold of multiple forms, and at the same time to become one

with their inner nature, which is ultimately samvid. And this inner nature that the

forms become identified with is Parā, as it is shown in the last part of the quotation.

Finally, as “mantrasvarūpa” indicates in the beginning of the above quotation, the

paśyantī level is based on Parāvāk,102 which is essentially vimarśa.

101 Triśiro Bhairava Tantra quoted in TĀ V.137-39, tr. Padoux 1992: 397-98. Padoux’s translation

of paramārthaḥ is “in the highest sense of the word”, which is replaced in the above translation.

102 Also see ĪPV I.4.1 (vol. I: 153): “Thus, he who remembers is none other than the supreme

Lord (evaṃ ca sa eva parameśvaraḥ smarati).” (Tr. Padoux 1992: 397)

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Paśyantī is no static state, and neither are vaikharī, madhyamā or Parāvāk. The level of paśyantī is not only said to have multiple forms in a synthetic unity, but its forms undergo a transformation, since they are correlated to the process of cognition. Rājānaka Rāma’s description of nāda, which represents the gross form of paśyantī, suggests that these transformations take place even within paśyantī vāk:

It (nāda) is a peculiar resonance (dhvani), similar to that of the buzzing of a bee, greedy for honey. It begins with (a sound like that of) the loud roar of the current of a fast flowing river and (then) becomes progressively manifest in increasingly subtler forms.103

It has been observed in Vrtti of VP that paśyantī is also described to be almost “without form”.104 Distinct forms disappear in paśyantī vāk, and the forms of the objects of cognition undergo a transformation from the discursive to the non-discursive. From a cosmogonial standpoint, it is said to be the transitional stage between the Undivided Ultimate and the beginning of Its manifestation. In the reverse order, it marks the transitional stage from the fusion of distinct and indistinct forms to the Oneness of the Undivided Formlessness. Pure subjectivity shines in the stage of paśyantī. Therefore, paśyantī can be compared to bindu, suggesting the transition between the realm of forms to that of formlessness, the undivided Pure Consciousness. Before its complete dissolution into Parāvāk, paśyantī is reflected in the speculation of bindu as “the pure light” and “the knowing subject”.

Stage of Parā vāk

Parāvāk is essentially citi, vimarśa or pratyavamarśa, which is the pure awareness of the Undivided Ultimate. It is formless (nirākara)105 – yet, the descriptions of Parāvāk are accompanied by terms connoting visual input, such as prakāśa (light) or sphurattā (radiant vibration), at the subtle and non-physical levels. Even various dimensions of Parāvāk can be to some extent delineated into a hierarchy, with the help of the paradigm found in the twelve stages of OM uccāra. The stages from śakti to unmanā in OM uccāra can be compared to specific attributes of Parāvāk. For example, śakti is described as the stage where all the energy rests and is characterized by the term

103 SpV 42, tr. Dyczkowski 1994: 119.

104 Vrtti on VP I.142 quoted in ĪPVV I.5.19 (vol. 2: 226): “The forms of the objects of knowledge appear in paśyantī as immersed in consciousness (samvinniṣṭhajñeyākara), their form being resorbed (pratilīnākara), and absent (nirākara)” (tr. Padoux 1992: 191).

105 Cf. TĀ IV.196.

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ānanda which is associated with camatkāra. The samanā stage is associated with the sphurattā in the commentary of NT.

It (samanā) radiates (sphurati) in the form of the energy which brings forth the transcendental emanation (mahāsr̥ṭiśaktirūpatayā) that is the expansion of the countless cosmic emanations and withdrawals it holds within itself (garbhīkrtāśeṣaviśvasr̥ṣṭis amhāraprapañca).106

However, it would be inappropriate to analytically allocate each attribute of Parāvāk to parallel stages from śakti to unmanā, because both the system of vāk and that of OM uccāra are extremely subtle. Moreover the descriptive terms referred to in these systems are meant to express the Undivided Whole. The purpose of comparing the attributes of Parāvāk with the higher stages of OM uccāra is to see the continuity that flows through the journey of forms from the vaikharī level to Parāvāk, and to understand the connection among their attributes - for example, the dynamic camatkāra juxtaposed to the formless cit and the absolute freedom of svātantrya. The higher stages of OM uccāra from the śakti level onwards apparently introduce the dissolution of form, step by step. Therefore, they give us the concept that the extremely subtle forms of paśyantī - parallel to nāda and nādānta in the OM uccāra system- gradually disperse and become one with the Absolute at the level of Parāvāk. Even in the stage designated as Parāvāk, the journey of forms does not stop; there is a continuous dynamism. The concept of form ends only at the final stage of Parāvāk, which may be compared to unmanā in the uccāra system. 'Seeing the various levels within Parāvāk' is important because they bridge and establish the continuity between the subtle forms of paśyantī and the formlessness of Parāvāk. It reveals the subtle ascension that takes place in the higher stages of the aesthetic experience, which is also related to the question, 'in what way could Śūnya be attained by means of the aesthetic experience of mandalas?' The exposition of Parāvāk in the nature of Paramārthaśūnya (the Ultimate Śūnya) explains how the subtle latency of form comes into being out of Śūnya, and how the multiplicity of forms ultimately returns to Śūnya.

106 NT 21.61 comm. (p. 286), tr. Padoux 1992: 95, n. 25.

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Voice of the Void

Notes

Through the study of Buddhist Tantras, one sees how vā k is thought to be the intermediate agent between kā ya and citta, having the nature of both. Without the aspect of vā k, the citta aspect of Mahā vairocana can neither be revealed within the kā ya of ordinary beings, nor can kā ya of ordinary beings be said to be non-different from citta of the Ultimate Dharma. More importantly, it must be remembered that vā k is in no way limited to verbal expression which upholds discursive teaching or didactic instruction: it is rather a principle of every manifestation or expression. Vā k is the principle that binds the physical realm with the transcendental in a non-dual embrace. If vā k could be confirmed as the connecting agent between kā ya of ordinary beings and citta of Mahā vairocana, then the relationship between the bodily forms of maṇ dalas and Śū nya (or citta) of the Ultimate Dharma could also be explained by means of vā k. Therefore the concept of vā k may be legitimately emphasized in regard to the investigation of how significant are maṇ dalas in the context of the spiritual search for the Ultimate Dharma.

However, a doubt still remains whether the concept of vā k as explained in the context of spiritual practice gives a satisfying answer to the question of this work, "why do certain maṇ dalas touch the heart of some people despite their having no knowledge of maṇ dalas?". Is the aesthetic process of "seeing maṇ dalas" identical to the process of spiritual practice? Earlier, three points had been extracted for investigating these questions: (i) the visual forms of maṇ dalas; (ii) the nature of the Ultimate Dharma; and (iii) how the former is transformed into the latter. As the methodological framework of the investigation upon these three points, the four levels of vā k as described by Trika Śaiva philosophy have been studied in Chapter IV. The theory of vā k in Trika Śaivism defines the non-dualism of form and the formless through the classification of these four levels of vā k. It provides an elaborate exegesis about how manifested forms can be redeemed to the state of complete freedom. In such a framework, we perceive a theoretical basis to discuss the aesthetics of maṇ dala, and the study on the mantra practice of OṂ in relation to the doctrine of vā k throws light on the subtle transformation that takes place at each level of vā k. It confirms that the four levels of vā k are four loose categories that explain in the continuous flow of transformation of forms. The higher levels of OṂ uccā ra, being described in the Tantras in the terminology of Śū nya, lead us to see the link among Parā vā k, the Buddhist ideal of Śū nya and Vijñā navā din's concepts of the Ultimate.

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In the doctrine of vāk, everything is integrated within Parāvāk, and everything results from sphurattā (flashing forth) of Parāvāk. When Parāvāk manifests herself - though her nature of vimarśa and prakāśa is never impeded - the recognition of her real characteristics is hindered due to her transformation into paśyantī, madhyamā and vaikharī vāk; on the contrary, the reality of Parāvāk is realized through the reverse transformation from vaikharī to paśyantī vāk. The four levels of vāk deal not only with transformation between the physical and the metaphysical, but also with perceptible objects at the levels of madhyamā and paśyantī. The exposition of the gross form (sthūla) of paśyantī and madhyamā displays another dimension of the doctrine of vāk, which is especially significant in the field of aesthetics. The affirmation of the gross forms of paśyantī and madhyamā vāk open space for discussing the spirituality of sensual forms; thus, this lays a crucial basis to explain the "sanctification" of maṇdalas. And the transformations observed at the four levels of vāk unveil the inner journey that accompanies the "aesthetic relish".

VI.

Establishing the Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala

on the Basis of the Doctrine of Vāk

When ordinary, non-initiated viewers look at maṇḍalas, they at times might be

overwhelmed - not by doctrinal meaning or ritual significance, but by visual harmony

of form and colour that maṇḍalas present. The fact that maṇḍalas are also permanently

expressed on the walls of monasteries, as like those in Tabo and Alchi suggest that there

is a fundamental aesthetic motivation behind these maṇḍalas. The question "how can

maṇḍalas emotionally affect the hearts of viewers" has earlier led this present work to

the observation that an aesthetic response to Buddhist maṇḍalas can be understood

through their relationship to Śūnya. That observation has subsequently raised another

question, "how do the external forms of Buddhist maṇḍalas resemble the qualities of

Śūnya?" In relation to that question, the aesthetic scope of the doctrine of vāk has been

examined. In the present chapter, the external forms of maṇḍalas will be explored from

the perspective of the theory of vāk, in attempt to understand for what reason colourful

Buddhist maṇḍalas are considered to be representative of the formless Śūnya.

VI. 1 Redefinition of Maṇḍalas from the Perspective of the Vāk Theory

What Comprises the Maṇḍala

Vācaka Aspect

Maṇḍalas on the monastery walls are often viewed as "the physical support" from

which meditation proceeds. Yet, one should keep in mind that the space of a monastery

where maṇḍalas are found is not only for monks, but for the lay people as well. It is

implausible to think that these maṇḍalas had been painted on monastery walls purely

for esoteric rituals, because no mandala could have been permanently painted on such

a wall, in such a public space, for any esoteric ritual, be it meditative or initiatory.

Thus, instead what should be postulated is that those maṇḍalas had another purpose

to serve - and any occasional ritual use would possibly be secondary. It is logical to

suppose that such maṇḍalas are present mainly for lay devotees, in a similar context

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217

to how scholarship views the Buddhist wall-paintings of the Ajanta Caves. When the maṇdalas are permanently expressed on the walls of monasteries, they are to be seen and appreciated by ordinary devotees who ardently wish for raising their Bodhicitta, yet who cannot always remember its permeating nature due to their involvement in saṃsāra. These Buddhist maṇdalas are therefore more an artistic expression than a ritual instrument, standing for the inner vision of the non-dual ideal for the benefit of ordinary people with a dualistic mindset. It should be noted that they are presented as "an expression", and when the expression is executed skillfully it is called "an art". However, this art is different and distinct from that of narrative paintings on monastery walls - such as, again, the Ajanta Caves - the understanding of which is more straightforward, and the knowledge of which is pedagogical or doctrinal. In contrast, maṇdalas are not meant for discursive teaching. They are the visual language which expresses the non-dursive Ultimate Dharma, and for this reason, they are called "the Essence". The purpose of maṇḍala in Tabo and Alchi can therefore be formulated as such: "They speak for the inner vision of ‘the Essence’ for ordinary devotees".

Vācya Aspect

The visual forms of Buddhist maṇḍalas signify a "meaning (vācya)" in their synthetic totality. Yet, the meaning of these visual forms is different from any denoted or associated meaning. The final meaning of these forms cannot be confined to any distinct object, but rather is non-dursive. Something non-distinct or unlimited should be postulated to be the object of these representations. Earlier in this book it had been seen that the tangible maṇḍala is a reflective image (pratibimba) of the samādhi-maṇḍala which is grasped at a subtle mental level,1 and that the true meaning of maṇḍala is "the Essence", because the gross, tangible maṇḍala originates from the Essence. The maṇḍala is said to be "the abode of the essence of all the Buddhas",2 because it contains the Essence. This Essence signified by the maṇḍala has been given many names, including Bodhicitta, mahat sukham (Great Bliss),3 Śūnya or Dharmadhātu, and others.

1 See Buddhaguhya’s “the concise meaning of the maṇḍala” in his commentary to SDPT, tr. Wayman 1990 (1973): 92-97; DMS, tr. Lo Bue 1987: 795.

2 Cf. HT II.3.25: Vajragarbha asks: “Why is the Maṇḍala Circle (maṇḍalacakra) known as the abode (puram) of the essence of all the Buddhas (sarvabuddhātmakam)?” (Tr. Farrow and Menon 1992: 190)

3 Cf. HT II.3.26. “Maṇḍala is said to be the essence (sāram), the Enlightened Consciousness (bodhicitta) and the great bliss (mahat sukham). Maṇḍala is so called because it holds the great bliss, that is, bears it.” (Tr. Farrow and Menon 1992: 190)

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Problem of Vācya and Vācaka in Maṇdalas

In this speculation on what maṇḍala is and what it represents is encountered the problem of word (śabda) and meaning (artha). Maṇḍalas have two aspects vācaka and vācya. The tangible maṇḍala is vācaka which expresses, and which is the object of visual sense. At the same time, the maṇḍala is vācya, in that the ultimate meaning of its form is the essence. The vācya and the vācaka converge, with the presupposition that the purpose of the tangible maṇḍala is to express the qualities of the Essence, and for the Essence to be tangibly revealed in the visible form of maṇḍala. If the vācya and the vācaka are intended to converge in a single expression, as is the case with Buddhist maṇḍalas, that expression must be distinguished from ordinary objects; indeed, such an expression has already transcended the limit of ordinary objects at the subtle level (sūkṣma) in its distinct intention (anusandhānam) itself. From the perspective of the philosophy of vāk, ordinary speech and distinct objects represent the state where vācya and vācaka are differentiated, which is the product of vaikharī vāk. Abhinavagupta traces the gross form (sthūla) of each level of vāk to its respective subtle form (sūkṣma), and the subtle form of each vāk is defined as the intention of creating its respective gross form.4 Thus, the gross form of vaikharī vāk springs from the intention (anusandhānam) of the vaikharī object, while the gross form of paśyantī springs from the intention of the paśyantī object. In other words, it is the intention to create the vaikharī or paśyantī objects that brings forth the vaikharī or paśyantī object.

We may now consider the ritual maṇḍala used for the practice of visualization from the perspective of the theory of vāk. Starting with the physical basis of the maṇḍala, the practice of visualization attempts to realize the Essence. Here, the physical form is intended for mental reproduction and inner absorption, and the physical form of such a maṇḍala does not serve its purpose if it is not meditated upon, and recreated in one's meditative space. This meditative maṇḍala, being the subtle re-creation of the external maṇḍala in the meditative space, exists beyond the physical realm. Still, it is not easy to state authoritatively whether the mental image of the maṇḍala is yet at the level of vaikharī or if it be already within madhyamā vāk; both interpretations are valid. It is still at the level of vaikharī vāk because all the differentiated details of the physical form are to be remembered and reproduced in the visualization, which means that the differentiating principle of vaikharī vāk still dominates in the mental representation. On the other hand, the mental image is certainly subtler and more conducive to the undifferentiated state than the physical image could be; thus, it can

4 Cf. TĀ III.245b-247a (vol. II: 583). Cf. supra. pp. 204-05.

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be said that it also exists at the domain of madhyamā vāk. Probably the mental image of maṇḍala could be placed at the threshold between the vaikharī and the madhyamā.

In case of those maṇḍalas meant for visualization, their artistic standard could be secondary, because it is by means of one's meditative power that the vācaka aspect of the maṇḍala converges with its vācya aspect; also, the physicality of the external form is transcended in the meditative space of indistinctness. Here, it is in one's internal space that one passes the threshold of physicality. Hence, it may be said that those tangible elements of maṇḍalas remain merely at the vaikharī level if they are not internalized in meditation. Only when they are internalized and the central deity is identified with the self, do they serve their purpose in leading one through the madhyamā level and further to the paśyantī state, where the Essence is realized. This visualization can be interpreted as the process of identifying the vācaka and the vācya, on the path to paśyantī or parāvāk. In such a context, the maṇḍala may be compared to a guide map or a diagram of the meditation process, while the experience of the Essence remains esoteric and invisible.

On the other hand, a maṇḍala painted in a public space for the laity needs a different method to serve its purpose, because the Essence should be revealed even without involving the practice of visualization. While maṇḍalas intended for meditation seize the inner vision of the Essence within, those painted for the laity - such as those in Tabo and Alchi - should unfold the Essence more readily. If the nature of the Essence is not reflected in the external form, it remains concealed. If the Essence is not represented by the physical form of the maṇḍala, the vācya and the vācaka of the maṇḍala remain differentiated at the vaikharī level, and the maṇḍala might not be particularly arresting or impressive to the casual observer. The Essence should be reflected in their visible form, if the maṇḍala is to serve its purpose.

From the perspective of the theory of vāk, the state of "the Essence which is reflected on the external form of maṇḍala" is the state where the vācya and the vācaka are approaching union with each other. This state may be related to both madhyamā and paśyantī in varying relationships between the vācaka and the vācya, explained in the doctrine of vāk. Madhyamā vāk marks the initial stage of identification where the reciprocal fusion between the vācya and the vācaka takes place. In the paśyantī state, the fusion between the vācya and the vācaka has led to the almost un-differentiated unity, which is close to the state of Parāvāk.

Public maṇḍalas cannot be so rigidly bound to any particular level of vāk, despite this discussion about the relationship between their vācya and vācaka aspects.

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However, the relationship between their vācya and vācaka aspects can be judged on

an aesthetic basis of these mandalas. Depending on how successfully the physical

forms (vācaka) reflect the qualities of the Essence (vācya), a mandala can echo the

vaikharī, madhyamā or paśyantī vāk. Indeed, the success of a mandala's expression

is determined by the level of art employed in its fabrication. When a mandala is

successful in expressing the qualities of the Essence, its vācya and vācaka aspects are

in union, its ultimate meaning — the Essence — and its external forms are un-

differentiated from each other. When the ultimate meaning unfolds in the external

form of a mandala, that mandala is worthy of being identified as paśyantī vāk, which

is close to parāvāk.

VI.2 Mandalas of Alchi Interpreted as the Gross Paśyantī

It is art that accomplishes the revelation of the Essence in the sensual forms of mandala.

The high standard of art demonstrated in the mandalas of Tabo and Alchi enlivens the

visual forms from the vaikharī to the paśyantī level. It would now be fruitful to examine

mandalas of Alchi in comparison to the aspects of paśyantī vāk, and to interpret their

aesthetic power on this basis of paśyantī dimension.

VI.2.1 Nature of Paśyantī vāk

First of all, it will be helpful to again touch upon the essential characteristics of paśyantī

vāk to understand in what sense the mandalas of Alchi could be seen in this light.

i) Paśyantī vāk is characterized by parāmarśa (synthetic awareness) of the Undivided

Whole. It is said to awaken only by the penetrating activity of bodha

(enlightenment or awareness) (bodhasūtranamatrena).5

ii) At the paśyantī stage, subjectivity prevails. However, this subjectivity has

objectivity as its object of awareness (idambhāvarūpasyapratyavamarśa).6

iii) There is no separation of vācya and vācaka, or of subject and object.

iv) The unity of the whole predominates over the distinct parts.

v) Various distinct forms are fused into one another to the extent that there is the

non-existence of distinct forms. Therefore, with-form and without-form exist

together (parāparā).

5 Cf. PTV, p. 4. Cf. Supra. p. 159.

6 Cf. ĪPV I.5.13 (vol. I: 251-54). See also Padoux 1992: 192.

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Paśyantī vāk is the stage very close to Parāvāk, which is the pure trans-physical light (prakāśa), the pure awareness (vimarśa). Paśyantī is similar to parāvāk in nature, though the sense of objectivity - or the dualism of the object and the subject - is inchoate. It is described as the subtlest stage in the process of evolution and absorption at the microcosmic as well as at the macrocosmic level. It also represents the internal subtle synthesis of multiple forms of objects in the process of cognition.

However, the four levels of vāk are not always explained in any successive sequence. As seen above, Abhinavagupta in his TĀ describes his perception of three levels of vāk (vaikharī, madhyamā and paśyantī) in their own independent lines of development.7 According to his discourse about these three vāks, each vāk originates from Parāvāk, and each of these three levels of vāk has three manifestations (rūpa): gross (sthūla), subtle (sūkṣma) and transcendental (parā). Here, paśyantī is not only a subtle state but is also a sense object, and vaikharī is not only a gross manifestation but is also the subtle will (anusandhāna) that desires the creation of such a manifestation.

In the context of understanding maṇḍalas, both these aspects of paśyantī are relevant:

i) paśyantī as the internal subtle stage of absorption and cognition;

ii) paśyantī as the external object of sense experience.

The former is related to the mental procedure, and could somewhat explain the transformation of form that takes place at the final stage in the visualization of maṇḍala. The latter is concerned with a physical, sensual activity, and thus with the aesthetic appreciation of maṇḍalas. Evidently, the latter aspect of paśyantī is more significant for comprehending the aesthetic dimension of maṇḍala. The gross form of paśyantī described by Abhinavagupta opens a scope for recognizing the non-discursive dimension of form in maṇḍalas.

VI. 2.2 Speculation on Sthūla-Paśyantī

The gross form of paśyantī is often compared to “the murmuring sound of a stream”. In ĪPVV, the paśyantī is described to be “such a subtle murmur” (sūkṣsamajalpa-svabhāva).8 In TĀ, the gross paśyantī is said to be “in the form of nāda”.9 In NT, nāda

7 Cf. TĀ III.237b-245a. Cf. Supra. pp. 204-05.

8 Cf. ĪPVV I.5.13 (vol. 2: 190, l. 18).

9 Cf. TĀ III.237b.

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is compared to "the indistinct murmur of a brook" (avyucchinnadrutanādighoṣa),10 and

Abhinavagupta describes nāda "as light and beautiful as a series of musical

notes"11 which are not divided from each other.

Then, why is the murmuring sound of a brook comparable to nāda and paśyantī?

The answer to this question seems crucial for understanding which objects in the

physical realm could be said to reveal paśyantī vāk, which is close to Parāvāk, which

is the creative, immanent and vibrant aspect of the Highest (Anuttara). First, the

physical characteristics of a "murmuring brook" might be scrutinized. The murmur

of a brook is an undivided sound, continuously flowing with neither beginning nor

end; indeed, it even sounds like a repeating loop of a single unit of sound. Such a

perception is even implicit in the fact that various different languages transcribe the

sound of a flowing brook with an onomatopoetic word, and repeat the word in order

to indicate a continuous flow - for example, in the Korean language, the syllable jol is

repeated: jol-jol-jol-jol. . . . One hears oneness in that the repetitive sound endlessly

continues. However, when one is absorbed into the murmur of a brook, one hears

innumerable variations of sounds created by the water within the harmonious unity of

the sound. A variety of tones, beats or even melodies start emerging. These various

sounds seem to arise and disappear ceaselessly: before grasping one sound, another

sound touches the senses, and that sound seems again disappearing before it can be

seized. Within the unity of sound, multiple sounds are enfolded. It is the complete

harmony and the union of multiple sounds - the synchronism of oneness and

manifoldness - that makes the murmuring sound of a brook a valid analogy for the

nature of paśyantī vāk. In the sound of a brook, multiple sounds are distinct. However,

at the same time one cannot say that these multiple sounds are distinct because they

are completely superseded by a larger unit of harmonious sound. These resonances

are indistinct in the sense that they are thoroughly fused with one another, and they

lose their discrete separation. These characteristics observed in the form of "the

murmur of a brook" are reminiscent of the parāparā (indistinct–distinct) aspect of

paśyantī vāk, described in the following verse:

All this appears in her (paśyantī) in a variety of discrete aspects or as forms fused into each

other, or it may appear as having lost all form.12

10 Cf. NT 21.63 comm. (vol. 2: 288); cf. Padoux 1992: 102.

11 Cf. TĀ III.237b.

12 Vrtti on VP I.142, quoted in ĪPVV I.5.19 (vol. 2: 226): paricchinnārtha-pratyavabhāsā

samsrṣṭārtha-pratyavabhāsā ca sarvārtha-pratyavabhāsā praśāntapratyavabhāsā ca. (Tr.

Padoux 1992: 191)

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Abhinavagupta refers to “a series of musical notes” as an example of the perceptible form of paśyantī. If attention is paid to the analogy of “a series of musical notes”, one might also discover in there these characteristics of a brook's murmur; it is the co-existence of multiple forms and the indistinct whole that makes “a series of musical notes” comparable to paśyantī vāk. Its various distinct notes are intertwined with one another till they merge into a single stream of musicality. It is reminiscent of the ocean - also a metaphoric image of the Divine Consciousness, in that the waves constantly come and go, yet still remains a part of the great ocean, its depths forever still. Each note plays its role and has its meaning in relation to the others; none is distinct within the flowing oneness, though all retain their distinct form. At the moment of one's absorption into the sound, one's hearing is directed not to any particular sound of any particular note, but rather to the musical essence (rasa) manifested by those particular sounds. It is this dynamic fusion of the various notes that is borne within the harmonious flow of sound, and it is that fusion which endows the distinct notes with any musical life. When distinct notes fail to be mingled in harmony, they remain distinct in disharmony, which is contrary to most traditional aesthetic sensibilities. “A series of notes” whose life abides in its nature of “distinct and indistinct” (parāparā) indeed manifests paśyantī vāk in its corporeal form.

However, why has Abhinavagupta allocated “the sound of a drum” not to the gross form of paśyantī but to that of madhyamā, even though its life abides also in the parāparā nature?

The sound of a drum consists of “a single note” and the repetitive rhythm, which literally express the undivided. In contrast, the sound of a string instrument consists of “multiple notes”, which create an undivided oneness. Though both forms of sound directly or indirectly convey the vision of the undivided, the difference lies in the means by which “the undivided” is conveyed. The sound of a drum represents the undivided through its unchanging, unvarying form, whereas the sound of a string instrument does the same by means of its variety of different notes. In case of the sound of a drum, the undivided does not express the whole that enfolds the many forms, whereas in the sound of a string instrument, the non-duality of the whole and the parts is physically conveys a picture of the undivided form, its form, being technically simpler than that of sthūla-paśyantī (gross form of paśyantī), has a shortcoming in its ability to express the vision of “the undivided encompassing all divisions”. Here, multiplicity is inferred to be innate in its simple undivided form, whereas in the sthūla-paśyantī it has as prominent a place as does Oneness. The comparison of the sound of a drum with

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that of a string instrument emphasizes an important characteristic of paśyantī vāk: "multiplicity in unity". In paśyantī vāk, the multiple varieties of form are not merely the constituents of "the undivided" but are the instruments to create "the undivided".

VI.2.3 Maṇḍalas and Nāda

The characteristics observed in the examples of the murmur of a brook and a series of musical notes render the nature of nāda. They provide a framework by means of which the aesthetic value of maṇḍalas could be established. Now, having returned to the topic of maṇḍalas, it is to be noted that the above analyses concerning these types of sound bring to light parallel characteristics exhibited by the maṇḍalas of Alchi. The above comparison between the sound of a string instrument and that of a drum is applicable to the visual field. The distinctiveness of the colourfully formed Buddhist maṇḍalas is accentuated when they are compared to a typical Zen drawing of a circle (Pl. 41). This one-stroke drawing used in East Asian Zen practice stands in stark contrast to the maṇḍalas of Indo-Tibetan tradition. The practice of drawing a circle is based on the belief that in its simplest form the circle represents not only the emptiness of Śūnya, but also its fullness and perfection. In the Zen tradition, the circle represents the image of Enlightenment or the true "I".13 It is regarded as the archetype that expresses the Absolute. Thus, the cosmos is expressed in the simple drawing of a circle and the multiple forms that fill the cosmos are believed to be symbolically innate within it. The symbolism of a circle in the context of spiritual practice is more or less the same as that of Indo-Tibetan maṇḍalas. These two different expressions ultimately represent the universe of the Absolute. However, they use opposite, even contrary methods to represent the same. Now, comes the question: "why has the maṇḍala developed with complicated colours and forms, if the meaning could have been more easily represented by the mere drawing of a circle?"

Seen from the perspective of the theory of vāk, Buddhist maṇḍalas executed with variegated forms and colours coincide with the characteristics of paśyantī vāk, whereas single-stroked drawings of a circle may be compared to madhyamā vāk. Reminiscent of the characteristics of the sound of a drum,14 the Zen drawing of a circle also consists of a single form without any colour or without any elaboration of distinct forms. Multiplicity is not expressed, but theoretically implied in the philosophy of the black ink as well as in the symbolism of the circle. Here colours are omitted because they disturb the mind, resulting in the distortion of objects. Thus, the pure spirit is to be

13 Cf. Choi 1998: 170, 228.

14 Cf. TĀ III.242b-244a (vol. II: 581-82).

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expressed through black ink, not through any appearance of multi-coloured objects.

Whereas one of the prominent characteristics of paśyantī vāk is "the unity of

multiplicity" or "the multiplicity in unity", the ink drawing of a circle is neither

concerned with colours, nor with any artistic fusion of multiple forms. The multiplicity

is to be omitted and the white paper left intact, so as to portray Śūnya. Here, the

indistinct principle of Śūnya is dominant so as not to give any place to colour or form,

which is none other than the result of vikalpa (dualistic thought construction) that

differentiates Śūnya from multiple forms. It is the opinion of the author that such a

treatment of Śūnya derives from a negative, materialistic understanding of the concept.

Although the indistinct principle of Śūnya is well represented in the ink drawing of a

circle and consequently breaks apart the sheath of distinct forms, it does not realize

the non-dualist ideal in its physical form. It will be relevant at this point to refer to

Abhinavagupta's notes concerning nāda, to find that a product of vikalpa cannot be

said to be paśyantī even if it affirms the non-dual ideal in theory. Abhinavagupta

defines nāda as follows:

What is left of the experiencer's synthetic self-awareness (svātmaparāmarśaśeṣatā) when

all differentiating thought (vikalpajñānādīnāṃ) disappears.15

Abhinavagupta's definition of nāda helps in extracting the avikalpa (devoid of dualistic

thought construction) nature of the perceptible representation of paśyantī vāk. The

significance of the physical forms of Buddhist mandalas should be emphasized, for

they are the realization of non-dualism devoid of vikalpa.

On the other hand, the Buddhist mandalas are also distinguished from Hindu

yantras in terms of their aesthetic approach. Hindu yantras consist of geometric shapes

and bīja mantras without any anthropomorphic representation of divinities (Pl. 21).

As a result there is neither harmony nor tension among the diverse forms, though their

geometric structures give a stark impression of "the Principle" and therefore raise a

certain aesthetic emotion in the viewer. Although the mandalas of Alchi are equally

based on a geometric structure, their aesthetic approach is different for their displaying

dynamic interactions of multiple forms within a rigid layout of geometric forms. They

indeed exemplify the nāda nature of paśyantī vāk, creating various sounds within a

harmonious whole by means of dynamic colours and forms. As the sound of a brook

that can neither be caught nor be frozen in one's sense perception, the dynamic forms

in the mandalas of Alchi continuously flow through the tension between the distinct

and the indistinct, and between the perceptible and the trans-perceptible.

15 TĀ IV.175, tr. Padoux 1992: 98.

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VI.3 Visual Elements of Gross Paśyantī in the Maṇdalas of Alchi

There are certain characteristics particular to the maṇdalas of Alchi that are suggestive of paśyantī vāk: their large-scaled format; their geometric layout and the hierarchical arrangement of the deities represented; the combination of geometric structure and curvilinear detail in the bodily forms of divinities; the synthetic harmony of five primary colours and their multiple tones. The present section shall attempt to analyse those visual elements of these maṇdalas which help contribute to their paśyantī nature. The analyses will focus on how the distinct parts of a maṇḍala are integrated to the whole. Though the scope of analyses does not include the subjective experience of maṇdalas, I shall dwell from time to time upon the inner response to these visual characteristics, because the act of seeing cannot be separated from the aesthetic process of internalization. These observable aspects, which manifest both multiplicity and unity, underline the parāparā (indistinct and distinct) nature of paśyantī vāk. The analyses that will be undertaken here attempt not only to propose that the Buddhist maṇdalas of Alchi demonstrate a representation of sthūla-paśyantī, but also to deal with the question of how perceptible maṇdalas resemble the qualities of Śūnya. Earlier, Parāvāk had been examined alongside the Mahāyāna concept of Śūnya. Paśyantī vāk is conceived to be very close in nature to Parāvāk. If these maṇdalas are affirmed to be the gross form of paśyantī vāk (which is close to Parāvāk), the conclusion is that those maṇdalas represent “something” very close to Parāvāk, and display the qualities of Śūnya.

In these analyses, the maṇdalas of Alchi are taken as the example of sthūla-paśyantī, yet those of Tabo are not included. Although they are based on the same concept and share some common features, they are quite different from each other - chiefly in the matter of their geometric structuring of space. While the geometric layout is a prominent visual element in the maṇdalas of Alchi, the maṇdalas of Tabo were designed with a linear structure for their deities. Though the maṇdalas of Tabo demonstrate an equally high standard of craftsmanship as do those of Alchi in the matter of their execution, the linear arrangement certainly offers a different visual impact from that of the geometric layout of the maṇdalas of Alchi. The visual effect of the geometric layout will be explained later, in relation to the concept of maṇḍala.

Second, the maṇdalas of these two sites also differ in the matter of the range of their iconographic schemes. In Tabo, both the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala and Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara Maṇḍala depict only the central group of divinities; the divinities at the periphery are absent. Although the iconographic depiction in the entrance room of the dukhang in Tabo may be considered to be the peripheral divinities of the Vajradhātu

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Maṇḍala, with the central group of the Maṇḍala displayed in the assembly hall, the separation of the central group of divinities from the peripheral group creates but little coherence among the divinities of the Maṇḍala in the eyes of viewers.16 For these reasons, the following analyses refer mainly to maṇḍalas of Alchi.

VI.3.1 Relationship of an Observer to the Large-scaled Maṇḍala

The maṇḍalas painted at Alchi are so large that, in dominating the visual perspective, they virtually include the viewer within them. When one sees such a maṇḍala, one generally first looks at its centre; this design principle needs careful study, since it plays a crucial role in determining the relationship between the viewer (the subject) and the maṇḍala (the object).

First, one should examine how the eyes of a devotee move across the dukhang of Alchi. We enter the hall of dukhang and bow to the Buddha Vairocana at the main altar. Within that subdued, sacred stillness, the devotee begins the ritual of circumambulation. This circumambulation is analogous to the spiritual pilgrimage itself, and the Maṇḍala of Sarvadurgatipariśodhana is painted at the beginning of the circumambulatory path so as to clear every obstacle in the path to Enlightenment. We then arrive to the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, or more precisely, the Trilokavijaya Maṇḍala (a variant form). One may stand and look at maṇḍala without necessarily understanding what each and every figure represents; however, the colours and forms are delightful and vibrant, and hint towards the presence of something profound; so, we remain before the maṇḍala, observing it. The pillars and the seat for the monks in the hall prevent us from stepping back and seeing the maṇḍala in its entirety, so we remain fairly close to the maṇḍala, difficult to “objectify” the whole construct. The close view of the large maṇḍala conduces us, the viewer, to virtually place ourselves within the object and to become involved in the object's space. Therefore we ourselves are included within the maṇḍala, clearly marked by a large circle. The white rim that comprises the outermost periphery of the maṇḍala is filled with prominent black drawings of vajra, the stark contrast of black on white establishing a clear demarcation of the circular dwelling of the maṇḍala. Its diameter of approximately 380 cm

16 In fact, in Tabo, when the Vajradhātu ritual was revived in 2004 after a long break, monks had to paint a new Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang despite that the original Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is still vivid and present, right there. When I interviewed Lama Urgyen of Tabo monastery in 2007 and asked why they had made the new maṇḍala, he answered that it was necessary because the old maṇḍala does not show all the divinities required for the maṇḍala ritual.

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contributes to "the impact of enfolding" - clearly, it is much easier to create such an enfolding effect with a large circle than with a small one. In this case, the sense of "being enfolded within the maṇḍala" is immediate; it is also reminiscent to the state of internalization in the visualization practice, in regard to subjective involvement and absorption. We are immediately within the maṇḍala ground by simply looking at it; although what we see is a two-dimensional painting, the flat surface is transcended by the fusion of our body and the maṇḍala, and the layers of immaterial space are set to open beyond the two-dimensional field.

That the viewer is physically within a maṇḍala means that he or she is integrated within the maṇḍala ground. Physically incorporating the viewer into itself in this manner, the large scale of a maṇḍala has an apparently functional advantage. Probably, the same intention may be observed behind the three-dimensional Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang of Tabo. Here, entering the assembly hall immediately brings the devotee into the inner zone of the maṇḍala, leading him surrounded by the three-dimensional maṇḍala-deities of over life size.17 Similar to this is the twin stūpa (kakani chörten) found before the sumtseg in Alchi (Pl. 42). Stūpas in general are believed to be a form of Dharmadhātu, representing the citta aspect of the Buddha. They are fundamentally maṇḍalas in the form of three-dimensional architecture.18 Particularly, the kakani chörten in front of the sumtseg demonstrates an elaborate maṇḍala-style plan (Illus. 6.1).

Illus. 6.1: Maṇḍala structure of the two chambers, kakani chörten, in front of sumtseg, Alchi.

17 One actually enters the assembly hall of the dukhang in Tabo from the east, just as maṇḍalas in general are entered from the east in the practice of visualization.

18 See Snodgrass 1992.

Pl. 41 Zen drawing of a circle, Seok-Jeong (born in Korea in 1980).

(Published in Choi (1998), p. 217)

Pl. 42 Small twin stūpa (kakani chörten), in front of sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: C. Luczanits 2000 (WHAV))

Pl. 43 Superstructure and the inner stūpa, interior of the kakani chörten, in front of sumtse.g, Alchi.

(Photo: C. Luczanits 2000 (WHAV))

Pl. 44 Maṇḍala of Avalokiteśvara, kakani chörten, in front of sumtse.g, Alchi.

(Photo: C. Luczanits 2000 (WHAV))

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Its structure has two chambers and two towers. Each chamber demonstrates the concept of "a stūpa within a stūpa", which seems to signify the Buddha, both transcendental and immanent. Each chamber is shaped like a cross at the ground level, and this cross transforms to a square towards the upper level. The inner stūpa is a multi-angled superstructure found on the upper level (Pl. 43). The interior is covered with murals, including maṇdalas of Prajñāpāramitā and Avalokiteśvara (Pl. 44). Each chamber of the kakani chörten has a passage through the lower structure, and two openings connect the inner zone of the stūpa to the outer zone. It is remarkable that in Alchi one can actually enter the inner space of this twin stūpa and stand right below the inner stūpa, as stūpas in general are only used for circumambulation.

These large wall-paintings of maṇḍala or architectural maṇḍalas are different from small-scaled maṇḍala thankas (scroll paintings) in terms of the relationship between the viewer (the subject) and the viewed (the object). A small maṇḍala thanka is used for individual meditation. A meditator is the subject who is initially distinct from the object. If the meditator attempts to enter the subtle space of maṇḍala behind its flat surface, the physical distance between the subject and the object has to be overcome by means of one's inner visualization, implying the process of internalization. On the contrary, the maṇḍalas of Alchi created at a considerably larger scale include the viewer within their space even from the first glimpse, as do architectural maṇḍalas. While the fusion of the viewing subject and the viewed object is generated by means of the internalization in case of maṇḍala thankas, it is externalized in the large-scaled maṇḍalas of Alchi.

VI.3.2 Geometric Layout

Circular Format

Maṇḍala literally means "the centre and the periphery" - in other words, a circle. Maṇḍalas are based on the meditative vision that emerges at the state of absorption. The dynamic of maṇḍalas can be summarized as the simultaneous flow of centrifugal and centripetal forces; the four Buddhas at the four directions conceptually play the role of axes in the dynamics of these forces. In this conceptual setting, the four Buddhas represent four lineages (kulas), manifesting the omnipresence of Sarvatathāgata throughout time and space. Their presence at the cardinal points mediates the centre to every direction, representing the four jñānas (insights). These four jñānas again converge into the jñāna of Dharmadhātu, symbolized by Vairocana in the centre.19 And

19 Cf. MVT II.12 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 104.

the Sixteen Bodhisattvas, being the emissions of the sixteen aspects of Sarvatathāgata

in the samādhi of Vairocana, iconographically play the role of extending the centre to

the periphery, while withdrawing the periphery to the centre.20

It should be noted that in case of the linear maṇdalas observed in Tabo, the

dynamism of maṇḍala is rather conceptual, whereas it is explicitly expressed in the

geometric maṇḍalas of Alchi. In the linear maṇḍalas, the dynamism of the centrifugal

and centripetal forces is vivified only through one’s familiarity with the iconography.

Here, they are called maṇḍalas not because they are in the shape of a circle, but because

they have the conceptual dynamics of a circle established by the hierarchical placement

of the deities. For example, in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala of Tabo, the four Buddhas are

arranged not around the main statue of Mahāvairocana, but seated against the left and

right walls of the assembly hall. They can be identified in relation to Mahāvairocan

and other divinities only by the devotee who would have the knowledge of who these

deities are. Even without any circular frame or any clear geometric layout, the dynamic

relationships among these deities are established in the mental space of a devotee while

he or she walks through them during the ritual of circumambulation. With the linear

maṇḍalas, the concept of maṇḍala is established by means of one’s knowledge of the

deities and their interrelations; therefore, subsequent to the understanding of these

divinities, the dynamism of a circle is internally created. Yet the circle in the mental

conception is rather subtle and evasive, whereas the shape of circle can immediately

display the inner dynamism among these divinities.

The process of laying out the geometric abode for the maṇḍala deities starts by

defining the circular maṇḍala ground. The circle is the symbolic form of Space and

Time, unborn and limitless. In principle, a circle is drawn by connecting points equidistant

to a fixed centre. The way how a circle is drawn implies fullness and the union of

multiplicity. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad, which provides a fundamental philosophy and

symbolism of form for the Indian artistic tradition, also talks of the circle:

The breath of life (prāṇa) is (contained) in its form, even as the mind is in man (puruṣasya

manaḥ). The circle is time, according to the Vāstuveda. The movement of the circle is

restricted (by its circumference), like the fluctuation of the mind (cittavṛttiḥ).21

20 The number thirty-six, the number of the main divinities in the maṇḍalas of Yoga Tantras, has

been examined by Tucci in its symbolic context. Tucci calls our attention to the esoteric meaning

of the number thirty-six. He points out that thirty-six is the number of the dhātu (elementary

categories) and also the number of the letters of the mantra (cf. Tucci 1988 (1935): 54–55).

21 VSU II.6 comm., tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 56.

234 | Voice of the Void

This verse shows the traditional conception of the circle analogous to the Cosmic Man (Puruṣa). The forms that arise inside the circle are as the prāṇa (breath of life) of the Cosmic Man.22 Since the circle has been perceived to symbolize the receptacle of the Cosmic Mind in the Indian artistic tradition, it is a rather natural consequence that Bodhicitta (Mind of Enlightenment) – Dharmadhātu or Śūnya in other words – is expressed in the form of circle, i.e. maṇḍala. If the circle symbolizes the Cosmic Man, the centre of the circle signifies the place where resides the primeval Cosmic Consciousness. VSU states that the centre (bindu) is like the soul (ātman) in man.23 No circle is without a centre, by definition; if there is no centre, there is no circle. Typical traditional craft would employ a compass, in this case a wooden stick attached to a peg by a length of rope. The peg is fixed in an indentation at the centre; thus, the nature of the centre of the circle is hollow (vila or guha), which corresponds to kha or Śūnya at the metaphysical level. The hollow centre signifies Śūnya at the centre of the maṇḍala.

The symbolic significance of the centre of the maṇḍala is embodied in its aspect of bindu. The centre of a circle is called bindu, and the geometric centre of a maṇḍala is madhyabindu (or marman). While bindu has been examined in Chapter IV in regard to paśyantī vāk, it was seen that bindu is not merely the term for a physical point that is the beginning step of any sequence of transformation, but it is indeed a profound concept that encompasses the notion of knowledge (vedana) and pure light (prakāśa), denoting bodha (enlightenment). In the context of Buddhist maṇḍalas, the centre is the door to Dharmadhātu. In the commentary on SDPT called the Durgati-pariśodhanārtha-Vyañjana-Vṛtti, Buddhaguhya explains:

The centre is taken as a round palace which is the symbol standing for Dharmadhātu . . . Dharmadhātu is primordially pure; the nave is a symbol showing that. . . . The nave, which is the circular palace of the centre, is Dharmakāya.24

The bindu as the symbol of bodha and Dharmadhātu is physically expressed by the hole in the centre of the geometric layout of a maṇḍala, or by the anthropomorphic

22 Cf. VSU II.7 comm., tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 56.

23 Cf. VSU II.6, comm., ibid.

24 SDPT comm. by Buddhaguhya, from the section which he calls “the concise meaning of the maṇḍala” (PTT, vol. 76, p. 22.1 to 23.1) tr. Wayman 1990 (1973): 95-96. These verses are drawn from the commentary to the following verse from SDPT (PTT, vol. 5, p. 84-4,5): “The casting of thread with diamond line is the casting of thread of the centre maṇḍala. Like the wheel of the law, it has sixteen spokes along with a nave.”

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk

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Illus. 6.2: Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi,

showing the basic visual structure that consists of circles

image of the Highest Divinity in the finished maṇḍala. In the maṇḍalas of Alchi and Tabo, Mahāvairocana signifies bindu. However, in the linear maṇḍalas of Tabo, the conceptual bindu does not coincide with the physical bindu of the maṇḍala. In Alchi, the mudrā of the central deity (Mahāvairocana or Sarvavid Vairocana) of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala coincides with the madhyabindu of the maṇḍala.25 Furthermore, there are arrayed circles within circles of deities, the inner zone comprised of three rings (Illus. 6.2): the first circle marking the chamber of Mahāvairocana, the second one the group of four Kula Buddhas, and the third one the group of four Prajñā goddesses.

The association of bindu with bodha and Dharmadhātu explains why the circular format has been preferred in creating maṇḍalas for tantric practice. It is observed that the circle perceived as the receptacle of “the Universal Mind” has been deeply rooted in the artistic tradition of India, and that the centre of the circle represents the portal to realize the Universal Mind, analogous to Dharmadhātu or Śūnya in Buddhism. The basic symbolism of a maṇḍala is similar to that of a circle; however, maṇḍalas involve many more complicated forms than do simple circles. Here lies the artistic value of Buddhist maṇḍalas; within them, various forms and colours are employed in order to externally bring forth the prāṇa of Cosmic Man. In laying out the geometric structure of a maṇḍala, the initial circle is followed by a network of life lines (prāṇa), the basis for the execution of the various forms to come.

Geometric Divisions

The geometric layout of a maṇḍala should also be understood through the principle of pañjara (cage), a fundamental layout concept in the image-making traditions of India. Pañjara is a grid of vertical, horizontal and diagonal lines. It is the basic geometric layout on the basis of which the physical form of a divinity is drawn. Since at the cosmic level maṇḍala is also a bodily manifestation of a divinity, the geometric palace of the maṇḍala is none other than the pañjara and the various anthropomorphic divinities within correspond to the various parts of a divinity.

As much as any perfect circle cannot be drawn without a firmly fixed point at the centre, perfect forms (sūrūpa) cannot be produced in the traditional Indian arts without the pañjara lines.26 VSU instructs that the first circle should be divided in order to

25 The mudrā generally symbolizes citta. In the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala of the dukhang, Alchi, the bodhyagrī-mudrā of the central divinity is placed at the level of the heart; thus, here the madhyabindu conveys the symbol of citta more explicitly.

26 Cf. VSU II.21 comm., tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 63.

obtain the limbs of an image.27 The cosmic implication of the lines that divide the

circle is compared to the Creator's act of dividing the world,28 and these lines and the

white powder used for drawing them are named vajra.29 These lines are canals of cosmic

order (ṛta).30 The principle of pañjara is a traditionally-established means to both outline

the form of the “Unknown Essence” and to implant this Unknown Essence into the images.

Thus, the lines of the pañjara are also called tattvarekhā (essential lines):

By depending on the essential lines (tattvarekhā), the soul of form (rūpātmā) is perceived

also in the represented image (pratirūpa).31

As a variety of crops grow thanks to the rain, so do various forms arise from the lines,

and thus they are compared to sacrificial offerings.32 When various forms (pratirūpa)

are delineated on the basis of these lines, these forms are thought to become perfect

and to approximate the essential form (tattvarūpa).

This symbolism of pañjara is seen in the process of creating a geometric layout

for a maṇḍala, in that the form is generated out of the formlessness (Illus. 6.3). The

following description is based on the drawing techniques for the Guhyasamāja Maṇḍala

as explained by Rong-tha Blo-bzang-dam-chos-rgya-mtsho, a Tibetan master of

Buddhist art and iconography in the nineteenth century.33 Since I have not yet come

across any sources which explain the drawing process of the maṇḍalas of Alchi, we

shall instead study the accounts of the Guhyasamāja Maṇḍala. Nevertheless, the

structure of the Guhyasamāja Maṇḍala is akin to that of Vajradhātu Maṇḍalas and

thus the study of one may well yield conclusions we can apply to the other. In the

descriptions of the process that shall follow, some terms and descriptions are not based

27 Cf. VSU II.9 comm., ibid.: 57.

28 Cf. VSU II.7 comm., ibid.: 56.

29 Cf. VSU II.4 comm., ibid.: 55.

30 Cf. VSU II.23 comm. (sā ṛtasya dhārā), ibid.: 64.

31 VSU II.22 comm.:

tattvarekhāvalambane rūpātmapratyakṣaṃ bhavati pratirūpe ca

This sentence has been translated by Boner, Sarma and Bäumer (2000: 64) with a slightly

different nuance: “By depending on the essential lines, the soul of form becomes manifest,

and also that of the represented image”.

32 Cf. VSU II.22 comm., tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 64.

33 Rong-tha Blo-bzang-dam-chos-rgya-mtsho 1971.

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on the Rong-tha's writings, but rather for the sake of clarity I have given them

descriptive names of my own devising. For example, “the Primary Circle” is given by

me for the sake of ease of description.

1. A circle is drawn first; it shall be referred to as “the Primary Circle” (Illus. 6.3(7)).34

2. A vertical line is drawn through the centre, bisecting two points of the

circumference and the centre, and a horizontal line is drawn, bisecting it. Thus,

the four directions are created by the vertical and the horizontal axes which meet

at the centre, Madhyabindu. The four directional lines composed by the vertical

and the horizontal axes are the basis of expansion of Madhyabindu and the Primary

Circle (Illus. 6.3(7 and 11)).

3. The Madhyabindu projects itself in the form of four bindus onto the four

directional lines. On the basis of these four bindus, the Primary Circle emanates

four larger circles (Illus. 6.3(11)). These four offspring of the Primary Circle

shall be referred to as “the Emanative Circles”. The ratio between the radius of

the Primary Circle and that of the outer edge of the Emanative Circle is 2:3. Four

circumferential points of these four Emanative Circles meet at the Madhyabindu

(Illus. 6.3(13)).

4. Diagonal lines are drawn which connect the Madhyabindu with four meeting

points of the four Emanative Circles. The diagonal lines mark the four intermediate

directions (Illus. 6.3(19)).

5. Lines are drawn at the meeting points of the four directional lines and the Primary

Circle, and these form “the First Square”. The meeting points of two Emanative

Circles adjacent to each other are also joined with lines, and these form “the

Second Square”. The ratio between the First Square and the Second Square is

also 2:3. The Second Square unites the centres of the four Emanative Circles,

and also each centre with the meeting points of two Emanative Circles adjacent

to each other (Illus. 6.3(19)).

6. Next, gridlines are drawn, intersecting regularly across the circles and squares

proportionally (Illus. 6.3(23 and 29)).

34 The numbers given after the “Illus. 6.3” in the illustrations of the present book indicate the

number of illustrations by Don-’grub-rDo-rje in Rong-tha Blo-bzang-dam-chos-rgya-mtsho

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk

239

7. The square band formed by the First Square and the Second Square is again divided into smaller sections (Illus. 6.3(33)). These lines lay the basis for fixing the palace wall of the maṇḍala.

8. On the basis of the grid (made at point 6 above), gridlines are drawn in the four directions outside the Second Square, yet inside the Emanative Circles (Illus. 6.3(39)).

9. Based on these gridlines, the four gates are drawn (Illus. 6.3(43 and 47)).

10. Three circular bands (for the rings of fire, vajra and lotus) are drawn above the four gates. The Outermost Circle intersects the circumference of the four Emanative Circles at the four directional points. Therefore, the four Emanative Circles are again within a greater circle (Illus. 6.3(49 and 53)).

11. On the basis of the grid, the Inner Circle is drawn within the Primary Circle. The Inner Circle has two bands, for the motifs of radiance and vajra. It is divided into nine sections (Illus. 6.3(55 and 61)).

The above process of structuring a maṇḍala can be summarized in the following order of drawing:

1. The original state of formlessness

2. Madhyabindu

3. The Primary Circle

4. Vertical and horizontal lines: the four directions

5. Four Emanative Circles

6. Two diagonal lines: the four intermediate directions

7. The First Square

8. The Second Square

9. Grid formed by the extension of four directional lines; the expansion of the dynamic principle

10. Division of the square band for the formation of the palace walls

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Illus. 6.3(7)

Illus. 6.3(11)

Illus. 6.3(13)

Illus. 6.3(19)

Illus. 6.3(23)

Illus. 6.3(29)

Aesthetics of Buddhist Mandala and the Doctrine of Vāk

1241

Illus. 6.3(33)

Illus. 6.3(39)

Illus. 6.3(43)

Illus. 6.3(47)

Illus. 6.3(49)

Illus. 6.3(53)

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Voice of the Void

Illus. 6.3(55)

Illus. 6.3(61)

Illus. 6.3(69)

Illus. 6.3: Process of drawing the Guhyasamāja Maṇḍala, explained by Rong-tha Blo-bzang-dam-chos-rgya-mtsho; illustrations as drawn by Don-‘grub-rDo-rje 7, 11, 13, 19, 23, 29, 33, 39, 43, 47, 49, 53, 55, 61 and 69

AESTHETICS OF BUDDHIST MANDALA AND THE DOCTRINE OF VĀK

11. Extension of the grid outside the Second Square for the formation of the gateways

12. Four gates and gateways

13. Three circular bands and the Outermost Circle that encompasses the four

Emanative Circles

14. The Inner Circle within the Primary Circle

15. Division of the Inner Circle into nine sections.

The process of creating the maṇḍala ground reveals the innate dynamism of expansion and the absorption in the geometric networking of space. This dynamism is conspicuous when it is seen how the circles are used. Primarily, the circle is a unifying principle, as is represented in its drawing method. In the layout, the Primary Circle results from the expansion of the Madhyabindu, and it is itself the basis for further expansion into the four Emanative Circles. These four Emanative Circles are the principles for further form projections, which remind one of the four Kula Buddhas in the maṇḍala metaphysics. These four Emanative Circles are again encompassed and unified by the greater circle at their extreme circumferences. The Inner Circle is traced within the Primary Circle as if the latter steps inwards towards the Madhyabindu. Thus, what is seen through the circles in the structure of the maṇḍala is the dynamism of the formless Essence that expands and again draws back. In the later execution of detailed images enshrined within this geometric structure, the dynamics of absorption turns again to expansion, as the images are drawn from the centre to the periphery.

We can also observe in the above process that the primary geometric shapes are divided into smaller sections in order to generate distinct forms. Gates and walls are drawn on the basis of the gridlines dividing the circles and squares. The grid is formed by means of the re-duplication of the vertical and the horizontal axes. The primary vertical and horizontal lines meet at the Madhyabindu, and they establish the four directions. The establishment of four directions signifies the penetration of four points at the circumference of the circle by the centrifugal force of the Madhyabindu. These primary vertical and horizontal axes serve as the primary vectors for the projection of forms. The vertical has two opposite orientations: up and down. The horizontal also has two opposite orientations: right and left. They invert and change in the centre; the Madhyabindu is the point that changes upward to downward, or vice versa; and the orientation towards the right changes its direction 180° at the point of Madhyabindu. Two pairs of opposite directions lose their characteristics at the Madhya bindu: the

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four directions meet at the Madhyabindu and all their distinct characteristics of

movement lose their meaning. The Madhyabindu is of zero mathematical value, and at

the same time it implies everything, in that by representing the four directions, it serves

as the foundation of all manifestation of form. Thus, the method of drawing the maṇḍala

affirms that the Madhyabindu within represents Śūnya as the source of creation.

Principle of Order: The Proportion and the Act of Measurement

The process of creating the geometric ground of a maṇḍala demonstrates that the

division of the maṇḍala space is not arbitrary, but is rather based on certain rules of

measurement. In that sense, the proportion resulting from this measurement is the

principle of order that would reveal tattvarūpa (essential form) in the plane of pratirūpa

(represented form). It is also the principle of harmony that integrates multiple distinct

forms into unity. The Sanskrit term for the measurement is māna, which derived

etymologically from the root mā. Mā means “to make, produce, create” and “to build

according to the standard of measurements”.35 From its etymological context, one

notices that the act of measurement itself implies the act of creation, and the act of

measuring is indispensable to the creative process. In the spiritual context, the act of

measurement is a means to bring the macrocosm to the microcosmic ground. In creating

the Vedic ritual ground, measurement was executed on the basis of the length of a certain

parts of the human body.36 It is the way to relate parts to other parts, and parts to the

whole.37 By applying the dimensions of a man to the ritual ground, the whole ritual

ground becomes the body of the person that would become one with the macrocosmic

body of the world through the ritual process. Dagens defines the significance of māna:

“A measurement whichever it is, is the expression of the relation between a known unit

and the size of what is to be measured”.38 The measurement is an approach to the

unknown, invisible and inconceivable by means of the known. In the Indo-Tibetan

tradition in particular, the element of proportionality takes precedence in creating sacred

35 Cf. Staal 1992: 355–57.

36 In creating the Vedic ritual ground, the standard of measurement is determined on the basis of

the dimensions of the yajamāna who is carrying out the ritual. In image-making, the digit

(aṅgula: length of a finger taken from the body) – a common unit for the measurement –

refers not to the finger of a śilpin but to that of the image.

37 For example, a śilpa text, Mayamata, says at XV.28cd-29ab: “The breath of the pillar at its top

is what is called ‘module (daṇḍa)’; all the elements of the buildings are to be measured

according to the value of the module” (Tr. Dagens 1992: 376).

38 Dagens 1991: 371.

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk | 245

images. The merits and demerits of artistic works are judged in terms of the perfection

of their proportion.39 However, one should not expect any fixed proportion as a universal

rule. Gega Lama, a contemporary Tibetan monk-painter, says:

Traditionally it is said that standardized proportions exist to avoid degeneration in the arts

. . . one who is qualified is free to improvise and to introduce his own innovations wherever

the standards are incomplete or there is something not clearly delineated by tradition.40

An accomplished artist is allowed to set up his or her proportions according to his or

her conception of the essential form (tattvarūpa). Thus, the proportion is to be

understood rather as the act of dividing space with symbolic and aesthetic values than

as the absolute rule of any fixed numerical values.

Nature of Madhyamā vāk

The process of drawing the geometric layout demonstrates the structural dynamics

and their metaphysical implications built into the Buddhist maṇḍala. Consistent with

the metaphysics of pañjara, the geometric layout of a maṇḍala serves as the channel

between the prāṇa (vital breath) of the Puruṣa (Cosmic Man) and the forms within

the ground. The visual principle is devised to contain the essential form (tattvarūpa)

within the represented form (pratirūpa). The process of drawing the geometric layout

involves the act of measurement and the decision of proportion, comparable to the

recitation of mantra in the sense that it absorbs the mind of the artist into tracing

tattvarūpa. Being both distinct and non-distinct, the geometric layout is a means to

bring forth the distinct forms and resembles the Essence, in its non-distinction. On the

one hand, it is a way for empirical forms at the vaikharī level to reach that of Parāvāk;

on the other hand, it is a way for Parāvāk to reveal Herself in the corporeal forms at

the vaikharī level. The geometric layout is meant for the corporeal life of the Essence.

The cosmic breath is to be manifested in the rhythm created by the repetitive use of

the geometric shape and lines. The rhythm turns more dynamic when the geometric

forms are repeated, be they enlarging or diminishing, and the proportional divisions

also enhance the rhythm in the maṇḍala space, which endows the maṇḍala with the

quality of vital sound. The geometric layout of the maṇḍala, or of the pañjara in

general, may well be compared to the sound of a drum that is at the level of madhyamā

vāk according to TĀ. Like the sound of a drum in the orchestra that supports the exploration

39 Cf. Gega Lama 1983, vol. I: 67-70.

40 Ibid.: 75.

of various tones and melodies while constantly repeating regular beats, the geometric

layout produces the basic rhythm that supports the rise of various distinct forms. The

madhyamā nature of this geometric basis is to be ultimately dissolved in the complete

maṇḍala at the level of paśyantī vāk, as the sound of drums swell beneath the music of

orchestra.

VI.3.3 Geometric Basis of Figures

Positioning Divine Figures on the Networks of Energy

It is important to note that a maṇḍala is a space allocated for divinities. The geometric

layout accommodates divinities in accordance with their hierarchical status, with the

highest divinity at the centre. The hierarchical placement of deities within a maṇḍala

space expresses the network among the various categories of deities. As the compositional

lines of pañjara is designed for tracing the limbs of a divinity, the deities of different

categories are allocated along orderly divisions, each denoting different limbs of the

Cosmic Mind. The dynamism of geometric shapes and lines is not confined to the drawing

process of a maṇḍala’s geometric structure, but it is also a determining principle on the

basis of which forms of various deities are fixed within the geometric layout. It would

seem that the division of nine chambers with nine circles within is one of the most

dominant schemes of maṇḍala composition in Alchi (as shown in Illus. 1.1, 1.2 and

1.3). Yet, apart from these visible geometric divisions, the invisible gridlines can be

intuited in terms of the position of divinities. They are the lines of energy that flow

through the figures of divinities that give coherence to the limbs of the divine body.

Illus. 6.4 shows the trace-work of gridlines in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang

of Alchi. Though invisible, they work as guides for arranging the various deities.

The inner zone of this Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is divided into nine sub-squares. The

individual circles of the five Buddhas are placed along the vertical and horizontal axis

lines. The remainders of the nine divisions at the intermediate directions are set aside

for the circles of the four Prajñā Goddesses. This maṇḍala consists of forty-five

divinities in the inner zone, instead of twenty-five41 as envisaged in STTS. STTS does

not refer to the emanation of these Prajñā Goddesses, but only mentions the emanation

of four Mahāmudrās. If the four Prajñā Goddesses are understood to be identical with

the four Mahāmudrās, they appear twice in maṇḍala: a group around Mahāvairocana

and another group in the circles at the four intermediate directions. If they are identical,

41 The number twenty-five indicates five Buddhas, Sixteen Bodhisattvas and four Mahāmudrās.

The eight Offering Goddesses and four Door-guardians are not counted in this number.

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk

1247

D-1 V-1 V V-2 D-2

Illus. 6.4: Gridlines traced in the nine inner chambers, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi.

These lines vary in their importance to the compositional structuring, with some lines being more important to the composition than others. The degrees of importance are to be considered while the compositional lines are initially traced.

1. The vertical and horizontal axis lines (V, H) are the most prominent. These axial lines divide the entire maṇḍala space into four.

2. The inner zone is further divided into eight divisions by two diagonal lines (D-1, D-2).

3. The gridlines connect the bindus of the nine concentric circles (V-1, V-2, H-1, H-2).

4. The secondary diagonal lines are drawn parallel to the primary ones, intersecting the bindus.

5. Furthermore, the grid becomes finer and finer when the images of sixteen Bodhisattvas and their sixteen counterparts are related to one another. When the symbolic patterns at the intermediate directions of each chamber are connected to one another by means of diagonal lines, the composition gains further subtler dynamics.

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Voice of the Void

the latter group may be seen as a projection of the former. What would have been the

reason for representing Mahāmudrās twice? If this maṇḍala is compared with the

same maṇḍala in the dukhang of Tabo, it is in Tabo that the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala is

depicted more precisely and faithfully to the iconographic scheme of the root Tantra

— STTS. On the contrary, in the maṇḍala of Alchi, the deviation from the textual

source to add these four circles of the Prajñā Goddesses epitomizes the priority of

compositional significance over the iconographic precision in fixing these maṇḍala

deities. Another example of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala may help in understanding the

compositional principle of the maṇḍala in Alchi. The illustration of the Vajradhātu

Maṇḍala that accompanies references to the Vajrāvalī portrays five individual

maṇḍalas for the five Buddhas in its inner zone (Illus. 6.5(1)).42 Illus. 6.5(2) shows the

compositional networks implied by the positions of the deities. Compared to that of

the maṇḍala of Alchi, one sees a much less solid network of compositional lines (Illus.

6.4 and 6.5(2)).

Though the addition of the four circles of the Prajñā Goddesses in the maṇḍala of

Alchi is not based on any textual instructions, it plays a significant role in creating a

dynamic composition. Having been placed at the intermediate directions, these four

circles of the Prajñā Goddesses enhance the thrust of the two basic diagonal lines in

Illus. 6.5(1): Vajradhātu Maṇḍala that accompanies references to the Vajrāvalī

(Source: Chandra and Vira 1995: 63)

Illus 6.5(2): Gridlines traced on the basis of the position of the divinities of maṇḍala

42 Cf. Chandra and Vira 1995: 63.

the inner zone. These diagonal lines are especially significant in the maṇḍala space

because they add dynamic movement to the static vertical and horizontal axes. While

the addition of four Prajñā Goddesses is seen to be crucial in laying the foundation of

dynamics in the composition, the composition of nine chambers proves itself fitting

for creating the solid networks of lines.

In the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala of Alchi, the deities of the inner zone of the maṇḍala

have diverse relations to one another in their placement, in contrast to the juxtaposition

of deities in the outer zone of the same Maṇḍala. They are based on the invisible

compositional networks wherein one divinity is related to others through vertical,

horizontal and diagonal lines. They are fixed into a network of grids at the points of

intersection. For example, the bodhyagrīmudrā of Mahāvairocana in the centre is in

the exact same spot as the Madhyabindu of the entire maṇḍala, proving to be the

centre of the networks of energy for the entire composition.43

As the compositional lines grow in number, so do the number of compositional

divisions, and the range of lines from important axial lines to subtle diagonals of relation

becomes wider. In other words, as the compositional grid grows more intricate, the

composition simultaneously becomes both more dynamic and harmonious. It is

apparently due to a compositional concern as to why the diamond-shaped pattern is

used at every intermediate direction within the nine concentric circles. (Pl. 45) The

repetitive use of this pattern strengthens diagonal lines, and its visual importance is

demonstrated by the elaborate technique of embossing used in its execution.

By tracing these compositional lines, it can be recognized that the vividness of the

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala derives in great part from the position of deities on the basis of

the fine network of grids. The grid, being pañjara, represents the energy network of

the elements. VSU defines the vertical as having the nature of fire, the horizontal, the

nature of water and the diagonal, that of wind.44 The nature of these three elements is

of movement or flow. The crucial parts of the bodies of these deities are positioned at

the junctions of these channels, and the interrelations of these deities in various postures

are based on the innumerable energy lines in every direction. Yet, their major relations

are established on the basis of the parallel lines of the vertical and horizontal axis

lines, shown in Illus. 6.4.

43 The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad compares the madhyabindu to be the life-breath of the earth (II.14)

and of Brahman (VI.8 and 11).

44 Cf. VSU VI.5, tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 98.

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Delineation of Divine Images

We have seen above that the positions of the deities are established on the basis of the implicit, underlying grids. These basic compositional lines are further divided when the bodily forms of deities are to be drawn. Deities are represented in diverse postures on the basis of subtle lines elaborated from a basic grid-work. In a visual composition where bodily forms are represented, the posture of each figure is not viewed in isolation, but rather all the figures with their diverse postures together create a collective movement, comparable to a group dance. Various movements of deities placed in circular nimbus in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala project invisible energy lines along different vectors. Here, two examples of the Mahāvairocana chamber and the Tārā chamber are selected to show that the deities of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang of Alchi are based on the fine grids that offer subtle axes for drawing the images of deities. (Illus. 6.6-6.8)

Geometric Abstraction of the Body

In the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang of Alchi it may be seen that the bodies of the maṇḍala deities are drawn on the basis of such geometry as circles and triangles. The body of Mahāvairocana is delineated with the aid of the diagonal lines parallel to those lines of the sixteen digits (Illus. 6.9), which form the triangles when incorporated with the parallel lines of horizontal axis H. As a result, the distinct parts of Mahāvairocana are comparable to a geometric structure made up of triangles (Illus. 6.10). Here it should be noticed that the form has been created with remarkable conformity to the symbolic content of the object of the expression. The triangle, the symbol of knowledge and fire,45 here has been used by the artist’s intuition as an expression of the symbolic body of knowledge and light – i.e. Mahāvairocana. In the example of Goddess Tārā, a number of regular circles are traced to constitute the body of the Goddess. The delineation of the body of Tārā is supple, yet dynamic. The bodily representation of the Goddess is not based on any naturalistic anatomy but on a geometric structure. Illus. 6.11 demonstrates the circular structure traced in the body as well as the movement of the Goddess. Within the frame of a circular nimbus, a number of proportional circles are traced, and the form of the Goddess is interpreted to be the assemblage of these invisible circles. The repeated use of a geometric form brings rhythm into the composition. These circles are placed with their centres along the axial lines of the sixteen digits of the circular nimbus. Because a circle intrinsically

45 Cf. VSU II.15, tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 60.

AESTHETICS OF BUDDHIST MANDALA AND THE DOCTRINE OF VĀK

1251

Illus. 6.6: Gridlines traced in the chamber of Mahāvairocana

Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

Illus. 6.6 shows the central chamber of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang of Alchi (Pl. 2). It consists of the

main circle of Mahāvairocana in the centre and four circles of Mahāmudrās towards the four directions. The ratio

of the diameters between the Vairocana circle and a Mahāmudrās’ circle is 2:1. Thus, the chamber has the basic

geometric form of a concentric circle. These five circles are placed in the form of a cross, and the positions of four

Mahāmudrās are fixed in the shape of a rhombus within the large circular frame A. The Madhyabindu of the

maṇḍala is placed at the point of bodhyagrīmudrā of Mahāvairocana. The vertical and the horizontal axes (V and

H) radiating from the Madhyabindu join the four other bindus. The central circle of Mahāvairocana is double in

diameter compared to those of four Mahāmudrās. Each of these five circles is divided into three and traced in the

form of a concentric circle with their diameters in the ratios of 1:2:3. The bodily parts of the divinities are orderly

arranged in conformity to the three divisions of the circles. The upper body of Mahāvairocana is traced within the

inner circle A-3. His three heads and the low part of his body are arrayed within the middle circle A-2; and his head

at the top and his lotus seat with two lion vehicles are drawn in the outer circle A-1. The tranquil posture of

Mahāvairocana is mainly based on the vertical and the horizontal axes: his lower body on H and his upper body

and faces are on V. Therefore, the potentiality of movements is not directly expressed, but lies dormant. The axial

lines V and H may be divided into sixteen parts to draw the basic grids of A. Four representations of diamond-

shaped symbols are found to just fit in four squares in the intermediate directions along the line of the rhombus Rh.

The basic gridlines of A meet at the crucial points in the body of Mahāvairocana: the nose of the top face, bindu

at the forehead of the front face, the throat, the hands in the bodhyagrīmudrā, navel, the knees, and the feet of the

lion vehicles.

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Voice of the Void

Illus. 6.7: Gridlines traced in the chamber of Tārā, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, dukhang, Alchi

Illus. 6.7 displays the compositional networks of the Tārā chamber in the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala. It consists of five circles: the main one in the centre accommodates the image of Tārā and the other four are for the feminine Bodhisattvas. The basic geometric structure is identical with the central chamber of Mahāvairocana of Illus. 6.6: five circles are set within the concentric circle with a diametric ratio of 1:2. As with the example of Illus. 6.6, it is helpful to understand the positions of the limbs of the deities if each of five circles is divided into three parts. The dynamically-posed arms of the deities resemble the svastika, and are delineated within each of the middle circles. Circle A may be divided into sixteen parts along the vertical and horizontal in order for proper proportions. The diamond-shaped symbols, as with the earlier example, are arrayed along the outline of the rhombus established by the four circles of the Bodhisattvas. In this chamber, the compositional centre does not coincide with any significant points of the body of Tārā, such as the navel, the hands or the heart. The axis of the body deviates from the central axes of V and H. The posture of Tārā is conspicuously asymmetrical, unlike other divinities in the centres of the nine chambers in the Maṇḍala. In the upper body of Tārā, the axis of movement flows parallel to the D-2-V, a line that divides the circle into sixteen digits. The line D-2-V-1, which is the main axis of the upper body, is obtained when a parallel line of D-2-V is drawn from the point a, i.e. the meeting point between A-2 and V. The axis of the lower body, D-1-V-1, is obtained by drawing a parallel line of D-1-V from point p, another meeting point of A-3 and V. While the parallel lines of the line D-2-V actually determine the proportion of the upper body in width, those from D-1-V help in expressing the upward thrust of the body.

All deities of the inner zone of the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, except the five divinities in the central chamber, are given an identical posture in their lower bodies; their right legs are bent and the left legs are stretched. This posture of legs emphasizes the extended thrust in the lower bodies. In the image of Tārā, the line D-2-H merely determines

→ contd. on page 253

Aesthetics of Buddhist Mandala and the Doctrine of Vāk

V

Illus. 6.8: Finer gridlines added to the Illus. 6.6

We need finer gridlines than those in Illus. 6.6 in order to comprehend the proportion and delineation of the body of Mahāvairocana. Illus. 6.8 traces subtler compositional grids that could have been the basis for delineating the body of Mahāvairocana. In Illus. 6.6 the circle A-1 has been divided into eight parts along both axes, V and H. Here, each of these eight parts is divided into three, thus twenty-four divisions are formed. Along these finer divisions are some significant parts of the body: the bindu of the top face, the head cakra (brahmavile) of the frontal face, the pendant in the shape of inverted triangle, the soles of the feet and the bottommost part of the body. The vertical lines dividing the horizontal axis in twenty-four parts demarcate the width of faces and bodily details.

→ the outline of her right thigh, while the energetic posture of her lower body is primarily traced in parallel to the D-1-H. The lines derived from the D-1-H are also traced along the forearms in her active movements. In case of the four Bodhisattvas, the major axes of their lower bodies are not parallel to D-1-H, but rather to the diagonal axes of D-1 and D-2. Though the posture of their lower bodies resembles that of Tārā, there is a difference in detail due to the dynamic subtlety in the movement of Tārā. For instance, the left foot of Tārā is stretched lower than the right foot; therefore, the base of the image is at a slightly reclined angle, whereas the four Bodhisattvas are drawn on an even base.

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Illus. 6.9: Compositional lines for the delineation of Mahāvairocana, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala dukhang, Alchi

The lines of the sixteen digits are important for the delineation of the body of Mahāvairocana. The lines D-1-V, D-2-V, D-1-H and D-2-H serve as the support for deciding the angles of the limbs of the body. The lines D-1-V-3 and D-2-V-3 determine the lines of the two side-faces. The meeting of these two lines in symmetry produces a triangle with the inverted point that coincides with the navel. The lines D-1-V-4 and D-2-V-4 decide the chest line and the width of the halo. These two lines meet at a point that indicates the place of the genital cakra. The lines D-1-V-2 and D-2-V-2 pass through the outlines of the hands as well as the cheek lines of the frontal face. These two lines create two significant triangles. The upper triangle includes the front face and the triangular pendant, which emphasizes the inverted top of the triangle. Its top meets with the top of another triangle that includes the bodhyagrīmudrā of Mahāvairocanā. The lines D-1-H-1 and D-2-H-1 meeting at the navel of the divinity run in parallel to the extended thighs, and form a triangle at the base. The lines D-1-V-1 and D-2-V-1 meeting at the top of the top head apparently constitute the basic form of the image.

The postures of the four Mahāmudrās are more or less identical. They are seated upright with their faces slightly reclined at angles, parallel to D-1-V and D-2-V. Their arms are extended to the circumference of the middle circles at a 90° angle, parallel to the diagonals D-1 and D-2. Their arms in the form of a svastika create the subtle movements.

Aesthetics of Buddhist Mandala and the Doctrine of Vāk

1255

Illus. 6.10: Bodily form of Mahāvairocana composed on the basis of triangles, extracted from the compositional lines shown in Illus. 6.9

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Illus. 6.11: Bodily form of Tārā composed on the basis of circles

The nimbus, the circle A-1, is divided into three, yielding A-2 and A-3. Four circles (C-1-1~4 in blue) are traced in

the proportion of 2:9 in relation to A-1. Their centres are located on the sixteen-digit axial lines of the circle A-1;

the centre of C-1-1, on the vertical axis V, those of C-1-2 and C-1-3 on the main diagonals, D-1 and D-2, and that

of C-1-4 on the D-2-H. Five circles (C-2-1~5 in purple) are traced in with a 4:9 proportion in relation to A-1. Thus,

the ratio between the diameters of C-1s and C-2s is 1:2. The centres of the C-2s are also located on the main axial

lines: the centre of the C-2-2 on D-L; that of C-2-3 on the point where D-2-V and A-3 meet; that of C-2-4 on D-1-

H; and that of C-2-5 on H. In the face of the Goddess, three circles (C-3 in brown) of the same diameter are traced

along D-2-V-1, the axial line of the upper body. C-4 is a concentric circle of one of C-3 circles.

signifies movement through its form, when circles are repeated and overlap to greater or lesser degrees, they create the effect of a rhythm. The form of the Goddess Tārā, defined on the basis of the dynamic movement of circles, invokes a sense of harmonious vibrancy, which is in accord with the doctrinal symbolism of Tārā, that is, “the accomplished actions”.

Geometric Principles in the Creative Process

The compositional analyses presented with these illustrations might merely be hypothetical. In addition, the question remains unsolved as to whether the geometric grid had been actually used in delineating the maṇḍala deities or had it been more intuitively and spontaneously conceived by the artist at the time of creation. However, these analyses at least assure the presence of geometric principles in the delineation of the bodies of the divinities, which prove that the harmonious forms of these divinities in the whole composition of maṇḍalas in Alchi are a great deal indebted to their geometric basis.

The rhythmic composition of circles or triangles endows the network of grids (pañjara) with certain life-breath, which lays the foundation for concrete forms to come. The body delineated on the basis of these geometric principles demonstrates one of the perennial concepts of man in Indian traditions: the human body is permeated throughout by the cosmic principles, and the cosmic principles are symbolically revealed through geometric principles. Therefore, the human body drawn on this basis of geometry signifies an idealized body, saturated with the spirit of Cosmic Consciousness. Furthermore, the pragmatic aspect of the geometric principles observed in any artistic drawing processes, reinforces their symbolic content: the geometric lines and shapes help the artist see the relations among different parts of the body while he draws them, and also lets him observe the distinct parts in various relationships to the whole composition. If an artist sees only the distinct parts, the geometric lines are not required, because he or she would not be concerned about the “relations”. In the above illustrations, not even the decorations around the bodies of divinities are without meaning in the overall geometric structure. In Illus. 6.10, the pendant on the neck of Mahāvairocana is incorporated into the form of a triangle, and in Illus. 6.11, the bead hanging down from the neck of Tārā to her lotus seat plays a part in the geometric composition that expresses her circular movements. In the artistic process, the geometric principles primarily work at the pragmatic level to help bring forth a compositional balance among the parts, and to unite these parts into the correlated whole. These geometric principles are not only the means to enliven the nature of the

258 |

whole, but also to highlight the characteristics of the individual parts, when they are artistically applied. Distinct parts can reveal the nature of the image only when they are incorporated into the correlated whole.

VI. 3.4 Skillful Execution of the Distinct Parts

In the passages above, we have investigated the geometric principles that lie behind the maṇḍala structure and the bodily representations of deities. Geometric principles are certainly a decisive factor in the maṇḍalas of Alchi, infusing the composition with a sense of dynamic harmony restoring the distinct parts to the non-distinct whole. However, the aesthetic power of these maṇḍalas in Alchi does not solely depend on geometric principles. Neither the geometry nor the iconographic completion is the sole cause of the visual power of these maṇḍalas; for instance, the geometric structure of the maṇḍala on the left wall of the dukhang in Mangyu is more elaborate than those of Alchi, and its structure evokes a certain aesthetic power - but nevertheless, the crude repainting of later periods diminishes its aesthetic merit. The figures of the deities in the maṇḍala of Mangyu that could avoid being repainted tell that the maṇḍala had originally been executed by the group of artists who would belong to the same artistic community behind the work at Alchi. Although the repainting had been faithful to the original form, the standard of artistic skills in the execution of details is much less sophisticated than that of the original. Thus, the example of Mangyu demonstrates the crucial role of artistic skill in engendering aesthetic power into maṇḍalas. If the geometric principle were to stand for the non-distinct nature of the Cosmic Mind, the artistic skill revealed in the execution of such details as bodily contours, ornaments or decorations enlivens these distinct objects and speaks for the realm of phenomena. In the maṇḍalas of Alchi, the distinct parts are illuminated as much as is the non-distinct whole.

The Corporeality of the Body

The bodily form of the divinities in the maṇḍalas of Alchi, though based on geometric forms and lines, are not purely governed by geometric principles. They display quite a strong contrast to other examples from later periods when the geometric principle supersedes the sensual qualities of the divine body (Pl. 46). For example, the image of Tārā - while her movement and bodily form are firmly based on geometric principles - is equally arresting in its sensual characteristics (Pl. 47). The parts of her body that are matched to the circular forms have been already shown in Illus. 6.11. Yet, not every part of her body is drawn in accord with a line or a circle. Some expressions are also quite natural: for example, the line that flows from her abdomen to her belly, or

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk | 259

the waistline that turns to the hip. The representation of her navel is based on an observation of the natural form. The delicate curves of her fingers and the wrinkles on her palms demonstrate a taste for the beauty of natural forms. The intention of a subtle movement of the face is betrayed in her delicate curvilinear eyelids and eyebrows. The gently-graded colours also emphasize the flesh-tones. The life-like quality of the image is enhanced by a delicate gradation of red on the eyes. Attention taken for ornamentation and decoration on the body of the Goddess displays the artists' obsession for technical details as well as the viewers' sensibilities. The beautifully patterned dhotī wraps her body, and its folds flow in sympathy with her lively movement. Further descriptions of the sensuous characteristics exhibited in the images of the Alchi maṇḍalas would merely belabour this point; they are already well recognized even among the non-academic community, so much that the small village of Alchi has become a booming tourist spot. In the context of the present discussion, it is important to note that these sensual features superbly represent the individual and distinct aspect of forms, in contrast to their geometric principles. In the maṇḍalas of Alchi, said to be the reflective image of the Cosmic Consciousness or Dharmadhātu, the transient worldly forms are also on display.

Ornaments Revealing the Nature of the Divine

It has been seen that the decorations on the dhotis of the three colossal Bodhisattvas in the sumtseg in Alchi narratively express the nature and activities of the Bodhisattvas. The dhotī of Maitreya is decorated with Śākyamuni's life and some folk scenes (Pl. 34). Avalokiteśvara's dhotī shows various scenes of temples which enshrine different statues of divinities such as Prajñāpāramitā and Mañjuśrī, adored by devotees and monks (Pl. 35).46 Mañjuśrī's dhotī is decorated with the theme of the yogic practices of the siddhas (Pl. 36). Likewise, in the maṇḍalas, the decorations around the bodies of the divinities are not only demonstrating the element of corporeality, but they also contribute to express the nature of the maṇḍala deities.

It may be worthwhile to dwell upon a remarkable visual effect created by the miscellaneous elements in the maṇḍalas of Alchi. The fluttering scarf ubiquitous to the deities there exemplifies how a decorative element can express the nature of the Divine. The lines supporting the scarf viewed in relation to the compositional grids prove that they play a strong role in reinforcing the geometric basis of the composition.

46 Snellgrove suggests that these scenes represent probably places of pilgrimage in Kashmir. Cf. Snellgrove and Skorupski 1977: 51.

Illus. 6.6 and 6.7 show that these flowing lines demarcate the middle circle A-2. However, they are not merely subordinate to the geometric composition, but rather enhance the rhythmic flow of the composition, while their irregular curves break the hard shape of the concentric circle. Careful observation of the lines of the scarf in these maṇdalas of Alchi brings the realization that these scarves have been drawn with their two ends rising upwards. They flutter up not because of any implied breeze, but rather due to the inner energy of the maṇḍala deities, rising upwards.47 In this sense, the rising scarf is a materialization of the abstract energy that springs forth from the deities. The visual effect of the scarf is evident in the image of Vajriṇī on the right wall of the second storey of the sumtseg (Pl. 48). In the image, the scarf draws particularly complicated yet symmetrical curves. The flowing lines of the scarf are integrated with the folds of the dhoti, and are further connected with the hairs of the divine vehicle. The distinct parts are integrated by the artists' vision, seeing through the relations among these distinct objects. Thus, the scarf, dhoti and lion are not independent objects, but rather they exist dependent on one another, and move in relation to one another. When these objects are integrated in the form of abstract wavy lines, though they remain distinct objects, they are at the same time non-distinct. The flowing curves thereby formed by these distinct parts result in non-distinct "musical" lines of waves within the circular nimbus.

The integration of the distinct parts of scarf and dhoti is not only found in the image of Pl. 48, but it is a common feature that characterizes every representation of Alchi maṇḍala deities. The waves also feature in the maṇḍalas of Tabo. There, they are combined with spiral patterns and are delineated with prominent lines, in a strong contrast to the background of the nimbus which has delicate creamy gradations (Pl. 49). A similar pattern of wavy lines is also used in one of the narrative panels of "Sudhana's pilgrimage" in Tabo, where Sāradhvaja emanates the multiple manifestations by his power of meditation. In that panel, the body of Sāradhvaja is joined with various manifestations within a circular composition through waves and spirals (Pl. 50).48 In Tabo, the delineation of the waves is more distinct, and the symbolic

47 The visual importance of the fluttering scarf is conspicuous in the goddess statues that surround the three colossal Bodhisattvas in the sumtseg. The stucco statues of these goddesses are three-dimensional and fixed on the wall by means of iron rods. In these statues, separate iron rods hold aloft fluttering scarves that wrap around the body of the goddesses.

48 In the panel of Sāradhvaja where Sudhana meets the monk Sāradhvaja sitting in meditation, Sāradhvaja is depicted as emanating various beings from his body, such as Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, monks and soldiers. The Gaṇḍavyūha Sūtra says that by the power of

Pl. 45 Diamond pattern in gold emboss,

at the intermediate quarters in the

inner chambers, Vajradhātu Mandala,

dukhang, Alchi. (From a photo by J. Poncar 1981)

Pl. 46 Image painted over the

Sudhana's pilgrimage, west wall,

gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: C. Luczanits 1991 (WHAV))

Pl.

47

Tārā,

Vajradhātu

Maṇḍala,

dukhhang,

Alchi.

(From

a

photo

by

J.

Poncar

Pl. 48 Vairocana (Vajriṇī) in the centre of Guhyavajra Maṇḍala, right walk, second storey, sumtseg, Alchi.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2009)

Pl. 49 Wave lines and spiral patterns painted on the halo of Bodhisattva Vajraratna, Vajradhātu Maṇḍala, south wall, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: J. Poncar 1984 (WHAV))

Pl. 50 Panel of Sāradhvaja, Sudhana's pilgrimage, gTsug-lag-khang, dukhang, Tabo.

(Photo: J. Poncar 2001 (WHAV))

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk

significance of the wave-line is more perceptible. As is clear in the narrative of

Sāradhvaja, the waves express the vibrating powers that bring about phenomenal

manifestation from the state of formlessness. The nimbus has been the space for

symbolic decorations representing the nature of Dharma throughout the history of

Buddhist arts.49 So the waves drawn on the nimbus may be understood as the form of

divine nature as is also the case with the clay sculptures of Tabo. In Tabo, these wave-

lines are distinct as independent visual elements. On the contrary, in Alchi they are

suggested by the combination of distinct elements, such as scarves, ornaments, dhotis

and the bodies of the deities. The colour scheme of the maṇ�dalas of Alchi emphasizes

the prominence of these waves: with just a few exceptions, blue predominates,

constantly applied to the halo and the rim of the nimbus as well as to the scarf and the

folds of dhotī.50 They create a lively, flowing blue band through the entire composition

of the maṇḍala. The undulations of blue waves feature at regular intervals within the

space of the maṇḍala, reminiscent of the traditional analogy of the ocean for

Consciousness.51 The original state of Consciousness is the static centre free from

waves; but due to the power of this centre arises every phenomenon, as waves

→ concentration he produces an inconceivable infinite body in each successive mental moment,

and manifests an infinite variety of bodies. Cf. Gaṇdavyūha Sūtra, tr. Cleary 1989: 73-84.

49 The legend of the first portrait of the Buddha (cf. Gega Lama 1983: 42) tells about the symbolic

context of the decoration on the halo. When King Bimbisāra of Magadha commissioned an

artist to paint a portrait of the Śākyamuni Buddha, he was so overwhelmed by the splendour of

the Buddha that he could not draw him while looking at him directly. Only when the Buddha

set himself at the bank of a clear pool, the artist could draw while looking at the reflection on

the water's surface. His drawing is said to have shown the central figure of the Buddha

surrounded with designs symbolizing the twelve nidānas (twelve links of dependent origination).

The pattern of twelve nidānas in the first legendary portrait of the Buddha may refer to the

decoration in the halo. Thus, we see that the halo of the divine has been decorated with

symbols that reflect the nature of Dharma. The halo at the back of the anthropomorphic form

of the Buddha has undergone various changes in the history of Buddhist arts. The Buddha

images created in the second and third centuries CE in Mathura region had the pattern of half

circles at the circumference of the halos, whereas in the fifth century, in the same region, the

halos of Buddha images were embellished with beads, lotuses and radiating lines. It was left

empty in the Buddha statues from Sārnāth in the fifth and sixth centuries.

50 In case the deity is coloured blue, the scarf and the folds of the dhotī are in dark green or

black, and the halo is painted white.

51 Cf. supra, p. 192; Cf. PTV 1, tr. Singh 1988: 24, Sanskrit text p. 9; LS VI 220, tr. Suzuki 1999

(1932): 190.

constantly arise within the ocean. The waves wrapping around the bodies of the deities,

rising up through the maṇḍala space, speak for the nature of the Divine.

VI. 3.5 Five Primary Colours and Their Tones

Some regularity might be seen with regard to the colours of the maṇḍalas of Alchi:

i) Maṇḍalas are painted on blue backgrounds.

ii) The five Buddhas are white, blue, yellow, red and dark green.

iii) The nimbus of the deities are painted red.

iv) The halos are painted blue; if the deities themselves are blue, the halo is white or

dark green.

v) The scarves and the folds of the dhotis are painted blue. If the deities are blue,

these features are painted dark green.

The colour schemes observed on the second and third storeys of the sumtseg in

Alchi typify the symbolic use of colours in maṇḍalas. The five primary colours used

for the ten maṇḍalas in the second storey are generally associated with the five Kula

Buddhas and the five knowledges (jñānas). The threefold set of white, red and blue

usually associated with kāya, vāk and citta, respectively.52 Three maṇḍalas on the

third storey of the sumtseg have been painted with these three colours, except that the

gates towards the four directions are painted with the colour appropriate for their

lineage. The sense behind these two different colour schemes for maṇḍalas on the top

two levels of that stūpa might only be understood in dependence on doctrinal

symbolism. It should be confessed that no comprehensive, universal principle behind

the colour schemes in the maṇḍalas of Alchi could be ascertained during my research.

For example, no principle behind the colours chosen for the bodies of Sixteen

Bodhisattvas could be gleaned, because their colours vary from one maṇḍala to

52 In the process of visualization explained by Lama Zopa (a contemporary spiritual master of

Tibetan Buddhism), the symbolic association of colours with kāya, vāk and citta has been

described. Three syllables are visualized on the form of Shakyamuni Buddha: Om in white on

his forehead, Ah in red on his throat, Hum in blue on his heart. They enter the body of a

practitioner through his or her forehead, throat and heart. These three syllables signify the

unsurpassable knowledge of a Buddha’s kāya, vāk and citta. Rays from the three syllables

entering into the body of the practitioner means that they have received infinite knowledge of

the Buddha’s kāya, vāk and citta. Cf. Lama Yeshe and Zopa Rinpoche 1994 (1982): 74-77.

Aesthetics of Buddhist Maṇḍala and the Doctrine of Vāk | 267

another. It seems that the symbolism of colours should be read in any particular context

in a limited sense, perhaps piece by piece. Nevertheless the fact remains that the primary

colours are used harmoniously in the maṇḍala of Alchi, regardless of the riddle of any

supposed unifying principle of colour schemes. Since the present volume concerns

one’s intuitive response to maṇḍalas, even the doctrinal interpretation of colour would

not directly help in understanding exactly how colours work to creating visually

dynamic maṇḍalas.

The use of primary colours to express the Ultimate is a distinctive method that

conforms to tantric soteriology. It is distinguished from the artistic method of the Far

East where the quest for the Universal Principle excluded all primary colours from

their paintings. The style of landscape painting of the Far East had been institutionalized

during the Northern Song period (CE 960-1127) in China, and its philosophy has been

established in accordance with the religious ideal of New Confucianism in its quest

for the Universal Principle. The Universal Principle had been conceived as the

Absolute Spirit transcendent to all mundane life. Then, in the Yuan period (CE 1271-

1368), the ascetic character became stronger in landscape paintings within an

environment of political seclusion. At this stage of development, the use of colour in

art fell away, and paintings with bright colours were regarded as a reflection of worldly

desire, which was vulgar. The Zen drawing of a circle, which has been compared

earlier in the book with maṇḍalas, is also associated with such an artistic tradition

with limited use of colour. The colours in the methodology of these artistic expressions

are defined to be saṃsāra (the mundane) or worldly attractions that deprive one of a

mind clear enough to see Dharma. In the expression of the Highest Truth, saṃsāra

finds no place; thus, these colours are surpassed by black ink. In these paintings, colours

are eschewed in favour of empty white spaces and a few strokes of ink. We see opposite

forces at play in the Buddhist maṇḍalas, in terms of their attitudes towards colours,

though both ultimately aim at the same goal.

In the context of Buddhist maṇḍalas, colour is to be interpreted on the basis of a

different logic: “We cannot see colours without light: that we see colours proves the

existence of light”. In darkness, neither colour nor form is distinct. Thus, distinct colours

indicate the presence of light. The physical characteristics of colours refresh our

understanding of them;53 colours are not the properties of objects, but are themselves

phenomena. Attention to the physical characteristics of colours subsequently leads

53 Cf. Maund 2006.

268 |

one to see colour as a mere illusion, a view which somewhat resembles the negation

of the Mādhyamika philosophers in denying any phenomenal object to be an

independent entity. However, one should keep in mind that they certainly exist at the

empirical level, and that they are further fully explored in the arts, as seen in maṇdalas.

In phenomena, they are perceived due to the interaction between light and object. The

subsequent wavelength created by the interaction between an object and the light

appears in the form of a distinct colour. The unique qualities of an object react in an

unique way to light. Because objects have various degrees of reflectivity and light

absorption, they appear to have different colours. However, colours are not merely

illusions. While the constructed nature of colour demonstrates the illusory nature of

phenomena, it shows "the power" that projects such an array of colours despite that

objects do not physically bear colour within them. At the same time, it underlines the

power of cognition that accompanies sensory activities to make distinct colours

discernible. Thus, it may be remarked that "the power that projects and cognizes the

multiplicity" is implied in the notion of distinct colours. The phenomenon of multiple

colours is the revelation of such power. The power that functions at the sensory organs

and produces the cognition of distinct objects or colours represents vaikharī vā k in

the framework of the vā k theory.

In regard to the colours of a maṇḍala, one may suppose that the distinct primary

colours of maṇḍalas are a revelation of the power that projects these colours and

stimulates our senses to cognize their distinctiveness. As the five colours in maṇḍala

represent the five kulas (lineages) which are the five channels of evolution and

manifestation, they suggest this very principle of manifestation. From the perspective

of the theory of vā k, creation is characterized by the process of distinction and

differentiation. It is vaikharī vā k that functions as the power of differentiation and

separation at the level of aparāśakti. The fact that the five primary colours are present

in a maṇḍala implies that the power which brings about differentiation and distinction

• i.e. vaikharī vā k - is at work. And the fact that we perceive distinct primary colours

in a maṇḍala signifies that we have encountered the presence of vaikharī vā k in tangible

form.

The artistic aptitude to create such a wide range of colours and hues in Alchi further

emphasizes the principle of vaikharī vā k. In fact, it is this colour technique that endows

maṇḍalas of Alchi with their great quality of corporeality. Comparing the repainted

part with the original painting, one notices what role the colours play in generating

their aesthetic power. Where the design is repainted, not only are the forms crudely

drawn, but also the colouring has been done in single tones, without any of the delicate

hues. The crude execution of the repainting reveals no lively spirit, and thus the colour

pigments pasted on the wall do not transform into a pratibimba (reflected image). In

contrast, the original colours applied in are shaded and variegated. The delicate shading

creates the sense of volume and gives weight to the bodies of the deities. In contrast to

the naturalistic rendition of the bodies of the deities, their dhotis and the ornaments

are flat in shade, and the halos and nimbus are painted in stark single tones. These

decisions observed in the colour scheme imply the intention towards differentiation:

the volume of a breast is differentiated from that of the hand; the weight of flesh is

different from that of cloth, and so on. Thus, the observer encounters the principle of

distinctiveness and particularity, characteristic of the realm of phenomena, having

found its place in the picture of Ultimate Dharma.

VI.3.6 The Fusion of the Distinct and the Indistinct

Let us bring together what has been discussed above. Firstly, the large scale of

mandalas in Alchi has been seen vital in setting forth the subtle fusion between the

subject and the object while observed. When the large circle is exhibited before the

viewer, it encompasses their sight and demands their subjective involvement, which

is comparable to the state of identification between the subject and the object during

meditative visualization. Secondly, the geometric principle inherent in mandala has

been broadly outlined in terms of two constituents: (i) the geometric layout, and (ii)

the position and pose of the divine body. In these analyses, the geometric principle

has been primarily seen as the means to incorporate distinct forms within the non-

distinct whole. Circles and basic geometric shapes build the divine palace in order to

accommodate the concrete forms of deities. The deities are positioned in an orderly

array according to their status, and their limbs are arranged in conformity to the

geometric foundation. Due to its strong orientation towards the non-distinct, the

geometric principles of the mandalas of Alchi have been categorized in the present

book as the gross form of madhyamā vāk. Their indistinct nature and their simple

forms are comparable to the sound of a drum, which had been referred to as the gross

form of madhyamā vāk in the Tantrāloka. Next studied was the proficient execution

of bodies and details such as scarves, dhotis, jewelleries and the like. The delicate

curvilinear forms found in their details breathe sensual vitality into the corporeal forms

of deities whose poses have been structured upon a fixed geometric basis. These distinct

parts of limbs and ornaments are shown in varying degrees of detail in the mandalas

of Alchi. The incorporation of some ornamentation into a larger unit was exemplified

in the case of the scarves and dhotis that create the waves through the empty spaces of

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Voice of the Void

the nimbus, as if revealing the nature of the Cosmic Mind in the form of vibrations (spanda). Then, we pondered the significance of the use of primary colours in maṇdalas. The phenomenon of colour perception has been reflected as “the power” that makes objects appear with distinct characteristics. The power adheres both in the perceived and the perceiver. Having reflected upon the phenomenon of distinct colours and our sense perception, we interpreted the presence of primary colours in the maṇḍalas as the revelation of vaikharī vāk, the principle of differentiation, and that the subtle execution of colour stands for the accomplished action of vaikharī vāk.

The geometric principle represents the cosmic principle, and holds the key to the methodology of the maṇḍalas of Alchi, expressing the Essence (tattvarūpa) through perceptible forms (pratirūpa). In the image-making tradition of India, the geometric principles are the means to cause the Cosmic Mind to pervade through the image of the human body. They are not merely symbolic, but in practice they are the compositional principle through which the distinct parts are restored to a harmonious whole. As an artistic principle, geometric forms have expressive quality and communicative power due to their innate dynamism. Therefore, they evoke particular natures and emotions through which the Essence reveals itself in distinct forms, and through which the distinct forms recall the Essence. The nature and emotion that the geometric forms evoke are non-discursive and indistinct. Thus, depicting the bodily form on the framework of geometric principles signifies the fusion between the distinct form and the non-distinct Essence. In Alchi, the intention to integrate distinct forms within the fold of the non-distinct whole is explicitly demonstrated in the different types of outlining the forms: whereas the divine forms are more lightly drawn, the geometric layout of maṇḍala is bold. In the Vajradhātu Maṇḍala in the dukhang it is clear that the circles and squares constituting the basic geometric structure are accentuated by strong black outlines, whereas the figures of the deities are more delicately outlined, with thin lines of red or blue. On the other hand, one can see a counterbalance of geometric principles in these accomplished works of art, in the curvilinear bodies of deities, in the detailed patterns on dhotis, or delicate ornaments - all painted with every colour at hand. The geometric principle, representing madhyamā vāk, turns the artistic creations towards the non-distinct whole, while the differentiating principle of vaikharī vāk full and exclusively realizes the separate, distinct details. Through vaikharī vāk, distinct forms are completed. And it is the manifestation of these detailed forms and colours that endows the symbolic image of maṇḍala with earthly life. On the other hand, it is the nature of madhyamā vāk that infuses the distinct creations with the sense of non-distinct whole. Without any

connection with the Essence, the distinct parts are lifeless. The maṇdalas of Alchi are

based on two equally prominent principles, of vaikharī vāk and madhyamā vāk. Then,

how do we come to the hypothesis that the maṇdalas of Alchi are the gross form of

paśyantī vāk? For that, we need dwell on the actual experience of seeing them.

Looking at these maṇdalas, their distinct elements and the non-distinct principles

are not separate. Although madhyamā vāk and vaikharī vāk have been examined

separately in our analyses, they are not isolated from each other in the maṇdalas, and

our perception of these two are inseparable. Hindu yantras or Zen drawings of a circle

may be said to be the gross form of madhyamā vāk. However, the maṇdalas with

anthropomorphic forms of divinities are neither the gross form of madhyamā vāk nor

that of vaikharī vāk. In the maṇdalas of Alchi, these two principles are equally

powerful, and they together contribute to the visual dynamism. In the earlier analyses

we have observed how the bodily parts are integrated on a geometric basis to the non-

distinct Essence, and how the diverse parts are connected together to express the nature

of this Essence. In fact, the madhyamā vāk and the vaikharī vāk brought forth from

the earlier analyses are the fundamental principles of the creation of form within those

maṇdalas. When these two principles are successfully made evident in an artistic

endeavour, together they create a flow, dynamism of vision where the various discrete

forms are fused into a non-distinct whole yet at the same time with their distinct natures

themselves also harmoniously finding their place within that whole. Immediately when

we see the maṇdalas of Alchi, we are physically included into it. Though our eyes are

naturally first led to the centre, our vision does not rest on the central figure, but the

rhythmic repetition of form strikes us. Layers of circles, squares and triangles, both

visible and invisible, constantly produce a visibly sensuous rhythm. The divine forms,

with their strong attachment to the underlying geometric structure, add to the vibrant

melody through their curvilinear forms. Colours and forms abound, in various notes,

meters and stresses. Forms are mixed and melted into one another within the great

circle of unity. The unity of the whole predominates over the distinct parts, and the

distinct parts enliven the life of the whole. The distinct forms of vaikharī vāk are

fused with one another and the dynamic interrelations of forms created by virtue of

madhyamā vāk re-orientate the forms towards the formless Essence. Thus, the visual

fullness of the maṇdalas in Alchi, representing the gross form of paśyantī vāk, echoes

the sound of a murmuring brook and the music of a string instrument, where each note

contains the depth of the whole and the whole swirls in the great Void.

VII.

Aesthetic Power of the Maṇḍalas of Alchi

VII.1 Immersion into the Paśyantī vāk

The primary purpose of a maṇḍala is to aid in the process of identification between the self and the Essence. Herein lies the difference between a maṇḍala and a beautiful but mundane object. Beautiful objects, if they encourage attachment which feeds desire, obstruct the clarity of the mind and thereby taint the processing of sensual data preventing any direct insight, which in Buddhism is called pratyakṣa. Attachment has the tendency of separating subject from object, because it binds both in a rigid pose; it fastens both of them to their phenomenal names and forms, and hampers them from the mixing with each other fluidly. Due to the separated condition of subject and object, the process of identification does not occur, and one's perception is occupied by names, categories and judgements. On the contrary, maṇḍalas are intended for the practice of identification, which re-orientates the dualistic relationship between the subject and the object. In religious practice, the maṇḍala opens the path of self-identification between the practitioner and the divinity, causing the Essence to resume its circulating throughout the body of the practitioner. In an aesthetic context, its paśyantī form accommodates the immersion of the viewer into the Essence and leads to the state of tanmayībhūti, identification with the Essence. The Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad confirms the potentiality of the visual forms, leading to union with the Divine.

As by sacrificial offerings rain is produced, thus by a harmonious form the mood of meditation is induced. As from rain food is produced thus from meditation arises absorption. By absorption men become divinized. As from food the life arises, thus from the state of absorption they experience union with That. The mind becomes steady.1

1 Cf. VSU II.22 comm., tr. Boner, Sarma and Bäumer 2000: 64, Sanskrit text p. 169: yathā'hutyā vrṣṭirbhavati tathā rūpasaubhagād dhyānābhavah sampratiṣṭhate | yathā parjanyādannaṃ sambhavati tathā dhyānāllaya upajāyate | layānmanujā divyā bhavanti | yathā'nnāt prāṇaḥ sañcarati tathā layāttadbhāva manubhavanti, mano niścalam bhavati |

Aesthetic Power of Alchi Mandalas

1273

Here, the reference to “the harmonious form” is especially significant in the present

context, because it is one of the primary characteristics of the gross form (sthūla) of

paśyantī vāk. Thus, the maṇḍala, which has been devised to nurture the state of

identification and immersion, had to be shaped in the harmonious form of sthūla-paśyantī.

The aesthetic experience of the paśyantī form of a maṇḍala depends on both the

subject and the object of the experience. If the visual aspect of a maṇḍala is seen only

through the physical eyes, and if their colours and forms are not relished through their

greater unity, they remain at the level of vaikharī. Without the process of immersing

the self into the visual object, the maṇḍala’s paśyantī form cannot be perceived, because

paśyantī is characterized by the awareness of both the unity and every distinct part.

Without the internal state of immersion, the synthetic insight cannot come into play.

Therefore, when we say that the maṇḍala is a gross form of paśyantī vāk, this speaks

of its visual potentiality, fulfilled only through its dependence on the viewer. The

experience of the paśyantī form of a maṇḍala depends not only on the viewer but also

on the artistic standard of its execution. I would say that not every maṇḍala exemplifies

the gross form of paśyantī; and the above discussion on the paśyantī form of maṇḍala

has focused on the examples of Alchi. It is comparable to the fact that not every series

of musical notes represents sthūla-paśyantī. When a series of musical notes is not

skilfully performed, it cannot be said to be a gross form of paśyantī merely because

the composition has the potentiality to represent paśyantī vāk. Likewise, it is obvious

that different maṇḍalas are of different qualities, though sharing a common theme.

Artistic skill has an invaluable part to play in bringing forth the powerful harmony of

sthūla-paśyantī. Here, the artists should be both technically trained as well as

acquainted with that which they express - i.e. “the Essence”. If we compare the artistic

requirement for a maṇḍala with the case of the Zen drawing of a circle, the difference

is clear. In the latter case, no artistic training is necessary, whereas one should be

spiritually trained so as to invoke power into one’s work.

The discourse on the aesthetic power of sthūla-paśyantī mentioned in TĀ2 may be

considered in relation to the question of how maṇḍalas appeal to the heart of people

beyond their doctrinal content or associated meanings. While explaining about the

gross form of paśyantī, Abhinavagupta states in TĀ that the who is immersed in the

form of nāda instantly experiences the state of tanmayībhūti (identification) because

of its closeness to samvid (Divine Consciousness).3 It is significant that the aesthetic

2 TĀ III.238b (vol. II: 579): avibhāgaikarūpatvaṃ mādhuryamaśaktirucyate ‖

3 TĀ III.239b-240a (vol. II: 579):

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Voice of the Void

quality of paśyantī vāk has been grounded on the basis of samvid. Samvid (Divine Consciousness) may be understood as co-equivalent to other terms such as Mahāvairocana or Sarvavid, all of which are ultimately Dharmadhātu. When the discourse on the aesthetic power of sthūla-paśyantī is applied to the maṇdalas of Alchi, we come to the conclusion that when we are immersed in the paśyantī form of maṇdalas, we experience the state of tanmayībhūti because of the maṇdalas' resemblance to samvid. The supposition that the aesthetic power of these maṇdalas originates from their closeness to samvid is consistent with the realization brought by our preliminary studies on the Buddhist scriptures: maṇdalas appeal to the heart of people even without any discursive knowledge about them because they resemble the Ultimate Dharma (dharmadhātu), and so they are understood on a non-discursive level by the viewer.

VII.2 Aesthetic Viewing of Maṇḍalas

Consequently, a basic synthesis can be formulated: artistically executed maṇḍalas are the reflection (pratibimba) of the Divine Consciousness (samvid), the Ultimate Dharma (dharmadhātu) and the Perfect Enlightenment (sambodhi). By taking the paśyantī form that resembles samvid, maṇḍalas embrace the viewer, allowing them to merge into the visual form of Consciousness. In the religious practices of visualization or meditation, formless Consciousness is experienced internally. However, it takes a visible form by means of the arts - in other words, Parāvāk, the source of expression, expresses Herself directly through the act of arts in the paśyantī form of a maṇḍala. Here, art may be compared to recollection (smaraṇa) and meditation (samādhāna) in the sense that its integrating act approaches paśyantī vāk. The aesthetic dimension of the maṇḍala differs from its spiritual experience during the practice of visualization in the matter of the externalization of the Essence. A difference also lies in how this visual element is processed. The religious practice of visualizing a maṇḍala involves its conceptual construction, and symbolic ideas are imposed upon the figures. The religious practitioner should learn the connotations and interpretations of what they visualize. For them, an external maṇḍala is meaningless without studying every detail. In the process of visualization, illusory images are deliberately constructed, and the practitioner is actively engaged in the act of imagination. On the contrary, when the maṇḍala is the object of an aesthetic viewing, it is free from doctrinal conceptions, and our eyes can see it with a purer vision. In that

→ tadasyāṃ nādarūpāyāṃ samvitsavidhavṛttitah || sājātyāntarma[ttanma]yībhūtirjhagityevopalabhyate |

sense, the aesthetic observation of a maṇḍala is related to the philosophy of pratyakṣa

(direct insight). Pratyakṣa has been recognized in Buddhist logic as the primary means

of true knowledge, which may have contributed to the growing importance of visual

representations as a soteriological vehicle in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Particularly with

the development of tantric soteriology, it possibly could have helped form the

philosophical foundation for the elaborate visual creations of maṇḍalas.

VII.2.1 Pratyakṣa

Pratyakṣa, direct insight, is free from thought constructs (vikalpa). It means "pure

seeing" that brings true knowledge without the involvement of any discriminative

acts, like judgement or naming. For a definition of pratyakṣa, the first chapter of the

Pramāṇasamuccaya by Dignāga provides with invaluable references.4 In this text,

pratyakṣa is defined as "free from mental or conceptual construction (kalpanā)",5 and

kalpanā here means the act of associating (yojanā) an object with names or assigning

any verbal designations.6 Also, it is stated:

That which is devoid of such conceptual construction is called pratyakṣa.7

In Dignāga's definition of pratyakṣa, it is its nirvikalpa (devoid of mental

constructions) aspect that has been pre-eminently placed. The practice of visualization,

though said to lead one to the realization of the True Dharma, is distinguished from

the method of pratyakṣa in terms of dealing with one's approach to thought construction

(kalpanā). If pratyakṣa is the method of "the non-dursive observation of citta", the

practice of visualization allows one to see citta by means of discursive construction,

supported by the sense-vijñānas and by manas. On the other hand, the aesthetic

appreciation of a maṇḍala is close to pratyakṣa because it is devoid of the discursive

function of manas.

The direct perception of certain images has been recognized in the Buddhist

4 The chapter of the text concerning pratyakṣa consists of an argument for the characteristics of

pratyakṣa and the discussion on the nature of the two aspects of cognition – the subject and

the object.

5 PS I.3, tr. Hattori 1968: 25.

6 Ibid.: cf. Dvādaśāra-Nayacakra of Mallavādin (ed. together with ‘Nyāyāgamānusārinī

Nayacakravṛtti of Siṅhasūri’ by Muni Jambuvijaya. Śrī Ātmanand Jain Granthamālā no. 92,

Bhavnagar, 1966: 59.2-60.1): atha ka kalpanā nāma-jāti-guṇa-kriyā-dravya-svarūpāpanna-

vastv-antara-nirūpaṇānusmaraṇa-vikalpanā (cf. Hattori 1968: 83).

7 PS I.30: yatraiṣā kalpanā nāsti tat pratyakṣam (cf. Hattori 1968: 86).

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tradition to lead one to a synthetic awareness. This is demonstrated by the legendary

story about the first portrait of the Buddha. When Bimbisāra sent the portrait of the

Buddha to his dharma companion, Utrayana, “he merely glanced at this portrait and

had an intuitive understanding of reality”.8 Another story related to this portrait of the

Buddha also mentions that merely seeing the portrait of the Buddha induced a profound

experience.9 To speak more specifically about maṇḍala, Buddhaguhya writes that the

visual form of a maṇḍala leads the mind to be identified with the Divine Essence.

Buddhaguhya’s reference seems to make particular reference to the pāśyantī nature

of the graphic maṇḍala:

Your mind is grasped in perceptual image of maṇḍala, if it becomes one-pointed without

shifting from that, then the mind is definitely contented, and you should know that the mind

which has become contented in that manner is the abode of the mantras, that is, the heart.10

This implies that the pratibimba maṇḍala is not separated from the tattvarūpa or

svabhāva-maṇḍala, and therefore the absorption into pratibimba causes the mind to

be permeated by the Divine Essence. The supposition that “one’s immersion into the

perceptual image of maṇḍala causes the mind’s permeation by the Divine Essence”

affirms the association of the aesthetic observation of a maṇḍala with pratyakṣa.

VII. 2.2 Parāvāk and Pratyakṣa

Though the term pratyakṣa certainly emphasizes the role of the senses, there are other

types of pratyakṣa than only that perception which is based on the sense-organs.

Dignāga refers to a mental perception (manasaṃ samvitti) as pratyakṣa: despite that

it is not dependent on any sense-organ, it is taken to be pratyakṣa, as it is free from

kalpanā.11 Two kinds of mental perceptions are given; that of external objects, and

that of the self-awareness (svasaṃvitti) of the internal state.12 While the conceptual

8 Gega Lama 1983, vol. I: 42.

9 Gega Lama 1983, vol. I: 42.

10 MVT VI.103 comm., tr. Hodge 2003: 203.

11 Cf. PS I.6.

12 Ibid. According to the Vrtti, the former means the inner perception that cognizes the sense

perception free from conceptual construction, and the latter means the inner perception of

internal states such as desire, anger, pleasure or pain, etc. The Vrtti of PS I.6 says, “The mental

perception which, taking a thing of colour, etc., for its object occurs in the form of immediate

experience (anubhava) is also from conceptual construction. The self-awareness

(svasamvedana) of desire, anger, ignorance, pleasure, pain, etc., is [also recognized as] mental

perception because it is not dependent on any sense-organ” (Tr. Hattori 1968: 27).

construction is kalpanā, the non-conceptual awareness (svasamvid), the pure perception of conceptual construction (kalpanā-jñāna), is a pratyakṣa. In addition, the " yogin's intuition, which is not associated (avyavakirṇa) with any conceptual construction of the āgama and apprehends only a thing in itself" also exemplifies the pratyakṣa.13 Knowing that there are types of pratyakṣa which are not based on any sense-organ, one understands that the pratyakṣa cannot be confined to immediate sense perception. Pratyakṣa is primarily the direct perception of reality in the nature of nirvikalpa, which is non-discursive and non-distinct. The English translation of the term as a "direct sense perception" can cause misunderstanding, because sense perception is ordinarily characterized by its tendency towards discrimination and distinction, which is the opposite of pratyakṣa. The essential discourse of the theory of pratyakṣa lies not in "the senses" but in the "pure sight", consistent with the penetrating concept of darśana in Indian traditions. The verbal root of the term darśana (√drś) means "to see" as much as does the root √paś, from which the term paśyantī is derived. Thus, the notions of pratyakṣa and paśyantī conjoin within the Indian tradition of darśana. In its meaning of "visionary", paśyantī is the level of cognition in which the seers comprehend reality and "the Real" with their intuitive vision. The same emphasis on one's direct perception of the reality is essential to the philosophy of pratyakṣa. Furthermore, the etymology of pratyakṣa given by Dignāga reveals another important facet of pratyakṣa that coincides with paśyantī vāk:

Because akṣa (the sense-organ) is the specific cause (asādhāraṇa-hetu), it is called pratyakṣa (literally "belonging to each sense-organ"), not prativiṣaya (literally "belonging to each object").14

It is significant that the term opposite to akṣa has been said to be viṣaya (the object of the sense). If the object has been used as the antonym of akṣa, akṣa implies the subject. Akṣa has been translated in the above passage as "the sense-organ", and pratyakṣa as "belonging to each sense-organ". Yet, akṣa is also translated as "sensual perception", and pratyakṣa into "before the eyes", "direct" or "visible".15 The consideration of alternative translations and of the different types of pratyakṣa underlines its adherence to subjectivity; pratyakṣa connotes "direct insight" rather than "sense perception". These two characteristics of insight and subjectivity remind one of the etymological

13 Cf. PS I.6 and Vrtti: yoginām apy āgama-vikalpāvyavakirṇam artha-mātradarśanam pratyakṣam, tr. Hattori 1968: 27.

14 Vrtti of PS in between I.3 and I.4, tr. Hattori 1968: 26.

15 Cf. Monier-Williams 1872: 3.

description of paśyantī vāk given in Jayaratha's commentary to TĀ: it is called paśyantī (seeing or visionary), "since she is a form of the Subject who sees (draṣṭṛ)".16

The prevalence of the light of cit (Consciousness) and the absence of vācyavācakakrama (the process of what is expressed and what expresses) in paśyantī-vāk also coincide with the nature of pratyakṣa. When the maṇḍala is defined as the gross form of paśyantī, aesthetic immersion into the maṇḍala is more convincingly understood as pratyakṣa due to the parāmarśa nature (synthetic awareness) of paśyantī vāk, and due to its closeness to samvid (Divine Consciousness). If one wants to affirm the spirituality of the visual elements of a maṇḍala in a philosophical context, one need look at the relationship between the doctrine of vāk and the philosophy of pratyakṣa. We see the influence of the philosophy of pratyabhijñā (re-cognition), fundamental to the doctrine of the four levels of vāk.17 As we have seen in the notions of Śūnya, Dharmakāya, Ālayavijñāna and Tathāgatagarbha, Mahāyāna Buddhism has conceived the Ultimate as having the nature of nirvikalpa. As the system of eight vijñānas demonstrates, the six sense-vijñānas construct the dualistic discrimination (vikalpa) of objects, and these vikalpas obstruct the view of the Ultimate. As the philosophy of pratyakṣa focuses on the discussion on the relation between the nirvikalpa (without thought construction) and the savikalpa (with thought construction), the doctrine of vāk primarily deals with the relation between the non-discursive Whole and the discursive multiple forms. Broadly, the doctrine of vāk is reminiscent of the idea of attaining pratyakṣa free from vācyavācaka bhāvanā (the principle of the expression and the expressed, or the subject and the object) in that the nirvikalpa awareness of Parāvāk is reached by means of overcoming the vācyavācaka bhāvanā of vaikhari vāk. Parāvāk can be compared to the state which is manifested in pratyakṣa, with its characteristics of "nirvikalpa cognition". In both cases, the element of pure sight predominates, and no distinct conception of an object exists. The nirvikalpa cognition is inexpressible in discursive words.18 The key point that true knowledge is defined to be "nirvikalpa free from the

16 Jayaratha's comm. on TĀ III.236 (vol. II: 577), tr. Padoux 1992: 170-71.

17 Cf. Padoux 1992: 180: "One knows that the thought of such authors as Abhinavagupta was strongly influenced by Buddhist logic. For Abhinavagupta, for instance, dualistic thought (vikalpa) is a mental construct which follows and is based upon an initial moment of thought devoid of all thought construction (nirvikalpa), which is pure thought, direct perception (pratyakṣa) of the supreme reality."

18 In PS I.5, it is given: "A thing possessing many properties cannot be cognized in all its aspects by the sense. The object of the sense is the form (rūpam) which is to be cognized [simply] as it is (svasamvedya) and which is inexpressible (anirdeśyam)." (Tr. Hattori 1968: 27).

bondage of vācyavācaka" is the same in both paradigms. There are technical differences between these two concepts, however, regarding (i) the relation between nirvikalpa and savikalpa;19 (ii) the nature of vācyavācaka bhāvanā;20 and (iii) the evaluation of vācyavācaka bhāvanā.21 Since the point of this work is not to dwell

19 In Śāntarakṣita’s definition, kalpana is the “apprehension” associated with an expression (abhilāpinī pratītiḥ) (cf. TS 1213, tr. Funayama 1992: 61). Free from kalpana, pratyakṣa is “essentially not a cause of verbal expression, etc. (klptihetutvādyātmikāna tu)” (TS 1213, tr. Funayama 1992: 62.) Here, we find a description of the nirvikalpa state contrary to what is explained in the doctrine of vāk. In the doctrine of vāk, the nirvikalpa state is the existential basis for savikalpa states. The problem of whether nirvikalpa state is the basis of the act of kalpana or if it is separate from it is related to the discussion of whether the conceptual construction occurs simultaneously with the sense perception (indriyavijñāna) or afterwards. The logicians of Vijñānavāda Buddhism argue for the simultaneous occurrence of sense perception and conception: “[sense cognition] is thus directly experienced in co-existence with a conceptual mental cognition (vikalpakamanojñāna). Therefore, it is evident that sense-perception is devoid of conception” (TS 1245, tr. Funayama 1992: 97). The simultaneity of indriyavijñāna and manovijñāna is the logical basis of why the former is devoid of the latter, and therefore fulfils the condition to be pratyakṣa. That they occur sequentially means that the former contains the element of the latter, and therefore cannot be pratyakṣa. In the concept of pratyakṣa, nirvikalpa occurs simultaneously with savikalpa, therefore is not associated with the latter, while the former leads one to the right knowledge and pleasure, the latter is the cause of ignorance and pain.

In contrast, the doctrine of vāk emphasizes that the vācya to the vācaka (vācyavācaka bhāvanā) exists also in Parāvāk, though hidden (saṃhrtarūpa). In the Pratyabhijñā philosophy of Trika Śaivism, the difference between nirvikalpa and savikalpa is merely based on the matter of which form the principle of expression (śabdabhāvanā) takes. (Cf. ĪPK I.5.19; ĪPVV, vol. II: 239-40; Torella 2001: 872.)

20 They share the view that the vācyavācaka bhāvanā is the cause of bondage. However, the question about the essential nature of vācyavācaka bhāvanā is interpreted in different ways in these two doctrines, depending on their views on the relation between nirvikalpa and savikalpa. In the doctrine of vāk, though vācyavācaka bhāvanā functions at the vaikharī level, it is in its essence the manifestation of the Ultimate, and it inheres fundamentally within Parāvāk. On the contrary, in the theory of pratyakṣa, vācyavācaka bhāvanā is not at all associated with nirvikalpa, and it inheres only in the field of savikalpa.

21 The problem of how the vācyavācaka bhāvanā is dealt with is also seen in their understanding of the relationship between nirvikalpa and savikalpa. In the doctrine of vāk, both vācya and vācaka would be re-absorbed to the original state of Parāvāk through the parāparā (or nirvikalpa-savikalpa) levels of madhyamā and paśyantī, whereas vācyavācaka bhāvanā is declared to be false in the theory of pratyakṣa. We see in the philosophy of pratyakṣa the rejection of the validity of vācyavācaka bhāvanā for attaining the right knowledge: “Hence, it is maintained that a signifier-signified relation (vācyavācaka) is only a falsely imputed thing”. (TS 1261, tr. Funayama 1992: 110)

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upon these details, we shall curtail the discussion by ascribing the differences to the

fact that pratyakṣa denotes a direct insight, which is an act or a means to Supreme

Knowledge, whereas Parāvāk indicates the supreme state of pure consciousness. The

theory of pratyakṣa describes the nirvikalpa of pure cognition, whereas the doctrine

of vāk describes the nirvikalpa of the Parāvāk state. It will be more precise to place

pratyakṣa as co-equivalent to pratyavamarśa (or vimarśa) - i.e. the non-discursive

cognition of Parāvāk - rather than to Parāvāk itself.

Pratyavamarśa, described in ĪPV is analogous to the pratyakṣa:

Pratyavamarśa is “sounding forth” by nature that expresses internally (antarabhilāp-

ātmakaśabdanasvabhāvah). This śabdana (sounding forth) indeed has nothing to do with

the “conventional” (saṅketanirapekṣam). The uninterrupted camatkāra (avicchinna-

camatkārātmaka) that is seen as an internal nod of the head gives life to the letters a, etc. that

is the conventional sound on the plane of māyā (akārādimāyīyasāṅketikaśabda), for she is

the basis of the awareness of fragmented objects (pratyavamarśāntarbhittibhūtatvāt).22

The pratyavamarśa is seen here as “not associated with any conventional”, which

reminds us of pratyakṣa that is defined as pure cognition separate from conventional

language.23 It is the camatkāra aspect of Parāvāk that comes into contact with the

conventional. Despite being the origin of every cognition, the pratyavamarśa aspect

of Parāvāk transcends all fragmented cognition based on convention. In the ĪPK,

Utpaladeva may have had pratyakṣa in his mind when he wrote:

Even at the moment of the direct perception (sākṣātkārakṣame pi) there is a reflective

awareness (vimarśah).24

As the author’s vrtti clarifies, the vimarśa here is “the pratyavamarśa of the object

(arthapratyavamarśah) in a subtle form”.25

If pratyakṣa can be compared to pratyavamarśa or vimarśa, the śabdana nature of

the latter may also be found in the former. Ascribing śabdana - the principle of

22 ĪPV 1, 5, 13 (vol. I: 252-54), tr. Padoux 1992: 175-76 with emendation.

23 “The object free from verbal convention is not connected with a word (śabdena yojyate) and

there is no conception (vikalpa) which is beyond the connection with a word (śabdayojana).”,

It is so because the word involves the fault of over-extension (atiprasaṅga). (Cf. TS 1260,

Kamalāśīla’s comm., tr. Funayama 1992: 111) Śabdayojana means nāmajātyādiyojanā, which

is the definition of conception by Dignāga. Also cf. TS 1257-58, tr. Funayama 1992: 108.

24 ĪPK I.5.19, tr. Torella 2002: 125.

25 Cf. Ibid.

Aesthetic Power of Alchi Mandalas

281

expression or the nature of “sounding forth” - to pratyakṣa does not contradict the theory of pratyakṣa. When it is stated that there is no cognition of any object in pratyakṣa, the “object” here means “a causal basis (nibandhana) that is qualified by qualifiers (viśeṣanaviśiṣṭārthagrahaṇam) for ascertaining a given conceptuality (savikalpakabhāva)”.26 “No cognition of an object” in pratyakṣa clearly indicates the absence of any foundation that might cause discursive thought or discrete form. In the ĪPVV, Abhinavagupta explains about śabdhanā in respect to the state of nirvikalpa. He says that the śabdabhāvanā (the principle of expression) subsists within the nirvikalpa state in a contracted form, and it expands in the savikalpa state.27 The śabdana nature of pratyakṣa is implied in Ānandavardhana's statement in the Dhvanyāloka, where dhvani has been compared to pratyakṣa:

We may let our definition of dhvani stand just as the definition of pratyakṣa stands in Buddhist doctrine.28

Dhvani in DhĀ denotes more than “a sound” or “the primeval sound”. It signifies the true Subject (ātma) of the poetry that invokes the Essence with suggestive power (vyañjakatva). The reference to the Buddhist pratyakṣa in relation to dhvani on the one hand confirms the relationship between pratyakṣa and pratyavamarśa (the non-discursive cognition of Parāvāk), and on the other hand it discloses the śabdana nature of pratyakṣa. Above all, as observed earlier in the quotation from MVT (VI.19-20) it was seen that Vairocana's state of samādhi emanated the primeval sound, from which arose first the four modes of A and then every subsequent conventional sound - that makes things known. Vairocana's deep samādhi would simply be in the state of nirvikalpa, and it is not different from pratyakṣa, as yogic insight is also thought to be pratyakṣa. The Ultimate Dharma conceived in the form of sound - as, for example, Sarvatathāgata or Dharmadhātu-Vāgīśvara - reaffirms the śabdana nature of pratyakṣa. Furthermore, as pratyakṣa is the cognition of Prajñā or the cognitive state of Prajñā (which is beyond rational discursive level of knowledge), it is more reasonably conceived of having the germ of activity or expression (śabdana) within,

26 TS 1257-8, tr. Funayama 1992: 108.

27 Cf. ĪPVV I.5.19, p. 240: samvrtā hi śabdabhāvanā prasāritāṃśabdabhāvanām-vividhakalpanārūpām apeksya tathābhūtavaividhyakaplanāvaikalyāt nirvikalpeti ucyate. See Torella 2001: 872. The term śabdabhāvanā is a penetrating principle also in the philosophy of Bhartrhari, which seem to have developed to the concept of Parāvāk by the Pratyabhijñā philosophers.

28 DhĀ III.47, author's vrtti, tr. Ingalls et al. 1990: 672.

since Prajñā is associated with creative inspiration (pratibhā) and considered to be that which spontaneously brings forth every expression and action.29

Maṇdalas are not merely the foundation of the practice of visualization. The philosophy of pratyakṣa urges us to recognize the visual aspect of a maṇḍala in its own right and to evaluate the aesthetic immersion in respect of its own spirituality. Abhinavagupta maintained the aesthetic savour (rasanā, carvanā, āsvāda, bhoga) to be one of the types of perception (pratītiḥ)30 and affirmed that aesthetic perception is different from discerning any denotation or interpretation.31 It may be said that the aesthetic observation of maṇḍala has a spiritual value even without involving any doctrinal interpretation. They are themselves replete with significant images, and an aesthetic immersion into these forms is akin to pratyakṣa. The accord between the aesthetic immersion into a maṇḍala and the pratyakṣa throws light on the innate spirituality of the visual components of the maṇḍala.

29 In Abhinavagupta’s definition of pratibhā, we see a direct association of prajñā with the creative inspiration: “Pratibhā is a prajñā capable of creating new things” (DhĀL I.6, tr. Ingalls et al. 1990: 120). In Mahāyāna Buddhism prajñā is inseparable from karuṇā, which spontaneously produces the expressions or the actions.

30 Traditional categories of perceptions counted by Abhinavagupta in DhĀL II.4 are sensory (prātyakṣikī), inferential (ānumānikī), verbal (āgamotthā), intuitional (pratibhānakrtā) and yogic (yogipratyakṣjā) perception.

31 Cf. DhĀL II.4, tr. Ingalls et al. 1990: 224, Sanskrit text p. 84.

Conclusion

Maṇdalas are the reflective images of the formless Essence, which may be called Dharmadhātu, Śūnya or Bodhicitta within the paradigm of the symbolic language of Buddhism. What maṇdalas ultimately represent is the formless Essence. The main task of the present work was to explain in what way the perceptual forms of maṇdalas resemble the formless Śūnya. The subtle levels between the formless origin and the perceptible forms have been articulated in the vocabulary of sound in the spiritual traditions of India; therefore, the philosophy of vāk has been chosen in the present volume to study the relationship between the tangible maṇdalas and their formless origin. The doctrine of four levels of vāk introduces the paradigm of transformation that confers the means by which phenomenal objects are truly none other than a form of the Ultimate. Here, the Buddhist maṇdalas of Alchi are suggested to be the physical manifestation of paśyantī vāk, which lays the ground to explain how maṇdalas resemble Śūnya. Their resemblance to Śūnya is ascertained on the basis that paśyantī vāk is close to Saṃvid and to Parāvāk.

The Buddhist maṇdalas of Alchi have been developed according to certain visual principles by means of which they attain the harmonious melody of paśyantī vāk. However, the application of such visual principles does not promise any success in drawing out paśyantī via a maṇḍala. Without the heart and skill of an artist, the visual guidelines remain mere potential, and without any immersion on the side of viewer, even a properly-made efficacious maṇḍala cannot convey the subtle sound of paśyantī vāk. I have attempted to illustrate the paśyantī form of maṇḍalas by analysing their visual principles. Although I have introduced certain elements as factors that constitute the paśyantī form of a maṇḍala, it should be confessed that the flowing music of paśyantī vāk is not merely the total sum of these visual characteristics. This retrospection may remind us of certain discussions in Indian aesthetics about the relationship between aesthetic essence (rasa) and its constituents - vibhāva, anubhāva, vyabhicaribhāva, sthāyibhāva - asking "where does rasa come from?", or "is rasa merely the sum of the four constituents?". As for the question, "then what brings forth the paśyantī form of a maṇḍala?" we need to turn our attention to an important teaching

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of the doctrine of vāk: various levels of vāk adhere to Parāvāk. Parāvāk – comparable

to the dynamic face of the Buddhist concept of Śūnya - is pratibhā, the incessant

source of inspiration for artistic creation. The visual principles observed in the paśyantī

form of Alchi maṇdalas are the channel through which the Ultimate Dharma is

revealed, and through which one’s vision leads the self to the Ultimate Dharma.

However, those maṇdalas which merely imitate the visual codes without taking in the

vibrating inspiration of Parāvāk, these have no power to appeal to the heart. It is

comparable to the statement that mantras have no effect if they are not empowered by

the heart. Thus, the visual elements that have been introduced during our analysis

should be especially viewed in their relation to the “Essence” to explain the paśyantī

form of maṇḍala. When the graphic maṇḍala imparts paśyantī derived from the direct

inspiration of Parāvāk, the vācya and vācaka aspects of the maṇḍala are identified,

and the maṇḍala becomes in truth the abode of the Ultimate Dharma, just as Tantras

affirm.

Through their logical language, the Buddhist texts describe and attempt to prove

the real nature of Śūnya. These logical languages appeal to the human brain and help

to have the proper understanding of Śūnya. However, does the language of logic help

in experiencing it? As is asserted in the Tantrāloka, the harshness of ordinary language

does not help us to identify ourselves with the object of speech. Even when revealed

through logical language, Śūnya remains in the realm of the object, unless it is relished.

Meditation overcomes the separation of subject and object, and demonstrates a way

in which Śūnya is experienced; the maṇḍala-based practice of visualization certainly

represents a way of experiencing Śūnya. Yet it is not the only way to experience Śūnya

through a maṇḍala. Whereas Śūnya remains in the internal space in the practice of

visualization, it is revealed in the physical form of a maṇḍala. We need to recognize

the aesthetic appreciation of a maṇḍala to be another way of approaching Śūnya,

distinguished from visualization practice; the maṇḍala has a spiritual value even apart

from its religious context.

In the maṇḍalas of Alchi we have seen how diverse postures, attributes and colours

as well as geometric elements have been required to create the visual dhvani

(resonance) that invokes Śūnya. The paśyantī nature of the maṇḍala, in its resemblance

to nāda or the murmur of a brook, instantly touches the heart of the viewer and absorbs

them into an otherworldly realm. Śūnya is what the maṇḍala expresses, and its visual

forms are the sound which calls upon Śūnya. In the paśyantī manifestation, the ultimate

meaning of the maṇḍala is identified with its external form. Through the arts that

create that paśyantī form, the ultimate meaning is experienced in a reflective form,

and meaning and form melt together to become the non-distinct Whole. The non-

differentiation between the meaning and the words in the paśyantī vāk of a maṇḍala

explains why maṇḍalas are distinguished from ordinary images, and why they are

used in the religious practices in attempt to identify oneself with Śūnya.

We often come across a certain prejudice among modern scholars, viewing the

ancient religious arts without any regard for individuality or creativity. They stress

the precise rules that had to be observed in the traditional way of representing the

Divine. This idea finds its root in the modern assumption that individual creativity

always clashes with tradition, and that following a tradition denotes the suppression

of the individual. However, we often see that the same maṇḍala design might be of

variable aesthetic standards. The difference in our aesthetic responses to them has to

be more than the variation of personal judgements based on liking or disliking it.

There is certainly a factor of individuality in the creative process of maṇḍalas that

allows for this range of aesthetic standards. We should re-examine whether our concept

of creativity is not confined to the matter of "a new shape" or "a new composition".

The maṇḍalas of Alchi lay in front of us another perspective to see creativity: creativity

is the ability to directly communicate with the creative source, which according to

Trika Śaivism is identical with Pratibhā, Parāvāk, Citi, Śakti and Vimarśa, and is at

times symbolized as the Feminine Absolute (Devī). Here, creativity manifests this

Source through the enlivening energy of that very Source, thus bringing together the

meaning and the expression. They demonstrate the successful arts that re-present the

deepest level of the Universal Mind in a tangible form. It is the artist's creativity that

allows the subtle paśyantī vāk to be unfolded within the corporeal form of a maṇḍala,

and at the same time that artist's creativity is the very revelation of the dynamics of

Parāvāk. In the maṇḍalas of Alchi, the artist's creativity is affirmed in their ability to

evoke the presence of Śūnya and to generate its dynamic power through established

forms - rather than blithely introducing new shapes. Not only does the paśyantī form

of a maṇḍala resembles the Universal Mind, but also the very arts that brought forth

such forms mirror the Universal Mind, Śūnya.

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"Pramāṇasamuccaya with vṛtti", tr. Masaaki Hattori in On Perception, Being the Pratyaksapariccheda of Dignāga's Pramāṇasamuccaya from the Sanskrit Fragments and the Tibetan Version, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1968.

RGV

Ratnagotravibhāga Mahāyānottaratantrasāstra (of Asaṅga), ed. E.H. Johnston, Patna: Bihar Research Society, 1950.

A Study on the Ratnagotravibhāga, tr. Jikido Takasaki (Serie Orientale Roma, 33), Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 1966.

Uttaratantrat of Maitreya, containing E.H. Johnston's edition of the Sanskrit text and E. Obermiller's English translation, ed. Hari S. Prasad, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1997.

Introduction to the Buddhist Tantric Systems: Mkhas-grub-rje's Rgyud sde spyiḥi rnam par gźag pa rgyas par brjod (Fundamentals of the Buddhist Tantras) with Original Text and Annotation, tr. F.D. Lessing and Alex Wayman, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998 (repr. of the 2nd edn. first published: The Hague, 1968).

SM

Sādhanamālā, 2 vols., ed. Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, Gaekwad's Oriental Series, 26 and 41, Baroda: Oriental Institute, 1925-28.

The Indian Buddhist Iconography: Mainly Based on the Sādhanamālā and Cognate Tāntric Texts and Rituals, Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1968.

SDPT

The Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra: Elimination of All Evil Destinies, tr. Tadeusz Skorupski, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.

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STTS

Sarva-Tathāgata-Tattva-Saṅgraha, Facsimile Reproduction of a Tenth-Century Sanskrit Manuscript from Nepal, ed. David L. Snellgrove and Lokesh Chandra (Śata-Piṭaka Series, 269), New Delhi, 1981.

Sarva-Tathāgata-Tattva-Saṅgraha: Sanskrit Text with Introduction and Illustrations of Mandalas, ed. Lokesh Chandra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1987.

Sarvatathāgatattvasaṁgraha, Chapter I: Vajradhātumahāmaṇḍalavidhivistāra, tr. Rolf W. Giebel from the Chinese text Vajraśekhara-Sūtra, in Two Esoteric Sūtras: The Adamantine Pinnacle-Sūtra and the Susiddhikara-Sūtra, tr. from Chinese (Taisho, vol. 18, nos. 865, 893), BDK English Tripitaka 29-II, 30-III, Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2001.

Sacred Books of the East, Buddhist Mahāyāna Texts, containing pt. I: Buddhacarita of Aśvagoṣa (tr. E.B. Cowell) and pt. II: The Larger Sukhāvatī Vyūha, The Smaller Sudhāvatī Vyūha, The Vajracchedika, The Larger Prajñāpāramitā Hrdaya Sūtra, The Small Prajñāpāramitā Hrdaya Sūtra (tr. F. Max Müller) and The Amitāyur-Dhyāna-Sūtra (tr. J. Takakusu), ed. F. Max Muller, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1968.

TS

Śāntarakṣita: Tattvasaṅgraha: A Treatise on the Buddhist Doctrine of Universal Momentariness, Calcutta: Vijaya-Veena, 1988.

B. Trika Śaivism

DhĀ/DhĀL

The Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhana with the Locana of Abhinavagupta, tr. Daniel H.H. Ingalls, Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson and M.V. Patwardhan, ed. with an introduction by Daniel H.H. Ingalls, Cambridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 1990.

The Dhvanyāloka of Ānandavardhanāchārya. ed, by MM. Pt. Durgāprasād and Kāśīnāth Pandurang Parab, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1998 (reprinted from 1935 edition).

ĪPK/ĪPV

The Īśvarapratyabhijñākārikā of Utpaladeva with the Author's Vrtti, Critical edition and annotated translation by Raffaele Torella, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, corrected edition 2002.

Bhāskarī: A Commentary on the Īśvarapratyabhijñāvimarśinī of Ācārya Abhinavagupta, ed. K.A. Subramania Iyer/K.C. Pandey, vol. I: Varanasi (1938), 2nd edn. 1998; vol. II: Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (1950), 2nd edn. 1986; vol. III: An English Translation by K.C. Pandey, Varanasi (1954), 2nd edn. 1998.

ĪPVV

The Īśvarapratyabhijñāvivrtivimarśinī of Abhinavagupta, 3 vols., ed. Pandit Madhusudan Kaul Shastri (KSTS: 60, 62, 65), Bombay: Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1938-43.

N T

Netratantra with the Commentary Uddyota by Kṣemarāja, 2 vols. (KSTS: 46 and 61), Bombay: Tatva-Vivechaka Press, 1926 and 1939.

Parāprāveśikā of Ksemarāja, ed. with Notes by Paṇḍit Mukunda Rāma Shāstrī (KSTS: 15), Bombay: Tatva-Vivechaka Press, 1918.

P Hr

Pratyabhijñāhrdayam: The Secret of Self-Recognition, Sanskrit text with English translation, notes and introduction by Jaideva Singh, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1st edn. 1963, repr. 2003.

PTV

The Parā-Trimshikā with Commentary by Abhinava Gupta, ed. with notes by M.M. Paṇḍit Mukunda Rāma Shāstrī (KSTS: 18), Jammu & Kashmir Research Department, 1918, repr. New Delhi: Aroma Publishing House, 1991.

Parātrīśikā-Vivaraṇa: The Secret of Tāntric Mysticism, English translation with notes and running exposition by Jaideva Singh, ed. Bettina Bäumer, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988, repr. 2000.

ŚD

Śivadrṣṭi of Somānanda, with Utpaladeva's Vrtti (KSTS: 54), Srinagar: Jammu & Kashmir Research Department, 1934.

Shaiva Devotional Songs of Kashmir: A Translation and Study of Utpaladeva's Shivastotravali by Constantina Rhodes Bailly, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1987; Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1990.

SpK/SpV

Spandakārikās of Vasugupta with the Nirṇaya by Kṣemarāja, ed. Madhusudan Kaul (KSTS: 42), Srinagar: Kashmir Pratap Steam Press, 1925.

Spanda-Kārikās: The Divine Creative Pulsation, the Kārikās and the Spanda-Nirṇaya, tr. Jaideva Singh, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1980 repr. 1994.

Stanzas on Vibration: The Spandakārikā with Four Commentaries, tr. with an introduction and exposition by Mark S.G. Dyczkowski, Varanasi: Dilip Kumar Publishers, 1994.

ŚS/ŚSV

Śiva Sūtras: The Yoga of Supreme Identity, Text of the Sūtras and the Commentary Vimarśinī of Kṣemarāja, tr. Jaideva Singh, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979, repr. 2000.

The Śivasūtravimarśinī of Kṣemarāja: Being a Commentary on the Śivasūtra of Vasugupta, ed. Jagadisha Chandra Chatterji (KSTS: 1), Srinagar, 1911, repr. New Delhi: Bibliotheca Orientalia, 1990.

The Aphorisms of Śiva: The Śiva Sūtra with Bhāskara's Commentary, the Vārttika, tr. with expositions and notes by Mark S.G. Dyczkowski, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992; Varanasi: Indica, 1998.

290 |

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SvT

The Svacchandatantram with Commentary ‘Udyota’ of Kṣemarāja, ed. Vraj Vallabh Dwivedi,

2 vols., Delhi: Parimal Publications, 1985.

TĀ

The Tantrāloka of Abhinavagupta with the Commentary of Jayaratha (KSTS), Allahabad-Srinagar-

Bombay, 1918-38, repr. ed. R.C. Dwivedi and Navjivan Rastogi, 8 vols, Delhi: Motilal

Banarsidass, 1987.

La Lumière sur les Tantras. Chapitres 1 à 5 du Tantrāloka. Traduits et commentés par Lilian

Silburn et André Padoux (Publications de l’Institute de Civilisation Indienne, Série in-8, fasc.

66), Paris: Édition-Diffusion de Boccard, 1998.

Abhinavagupta: The Kula Ritual, as Elaborated in Chapter 29 of the Tantrāloka, John R. Dupuche,

Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2003.

Tantrasāra of Abhinavagupta (KSTS: 17), ed. Mukanda Rāma Shāstrī, Bombay, 1918.

VBh

Vijñāna Bhairava: The Practice of Centring Awareness, tr. Bettina Bäumer, commentary Swami

Lakshman Joo, Varanasi: Indica Books, 2002.

Yoginīhrdayam, with Dipikā, ed. V.V. Dviveda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1988.

C. Miscellaneous

Abhinava-Bhāratī: Nāṭyaśāstra, vol. I, ed. Manavalli Ramakrishna Kavi (Gaekwad’s Oriental

Series: 36), Baroda: Central Library, 1926.

Aesthetic Rapture: The Rasādhyāya of the Nāṭyaśāstra, 2 vols., tr. and ed. J.L. Masson and M.V.

Patwardhan. Poona: Deccan College, 1970.

Mystic Tales of Lama Taranatha: A Religio-Sociological History of Mahayana Buddhism, tr.

Bhupendranath Datta, Calcutta: Ramakrishna Vedanta Math, 1957.

rGyal-rabs gsal-ba'i me-long by Sa-skya-pa bSod-nams-rgyal-mtshan, Beijing, 1981.

Śāradātilakatantram, ed. Arthur Avalon, 2 vols. (Tantrik Texts: 16, 17), Calcutta 1933, repr.

Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1985.

Tibetan Buddhist Historiography: The Mirror Illuminating the Royal Genealogies, An annotated

translation of the XIVth Century Tibetan Chronicle: rGyal-rabs gsal-ba'i me-long, tr. Per K.

Sørensen, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1994.

VP

Vākyapadīya of Bhartrhari, with the Vrtti and the Paddhati of Vrṣabhadeva, Kāṇḍa I, ed. K.A.

Subramania Iyer, Poona: Deccan College, 1966.

English translation of Vākyapadīya of Bhartrhari with the Vrtti, chapter I by K.A. Subramania

Iyer, Poona: Deccan College, 1965.

VSU

Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad: The Essence of Form in Sacred Art, Sanskrit Text, English Translation and Notes, tr. Alice Boner, Sadasiva Rath Sarma and Bettina Bäumer, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000 (first published in 1982).

Vishnudharmottara (Part III): A Treatise on Indian Painting and Image-Making, tr. Stella Kramrisch, Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 2nd rev. and enlarged edn. 1928.

Studies and Articles

Aklujkar, Ashok, 2001, “The Word Is the World: Nondualism in Indian Philosophy of Language”, Philosophy East & West, 51(4).

Anacker, Stefan, 1984, Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor (including Vādavidhi, Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa, Karmasiddhiprakaraṇa, Vimśatikā, Trimśikā, Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya and Trisvabhāvanirdeśa), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Bäumer, Bettina, 2011, Abhinavagupta’s Hermeneutics of the Absolute Anuttaraprakriyā: An Interpretation of His Parātrīśikā Vivarana, Shimla: Indian Institute of Advanced Study & New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.

——, 2001 (ed.), Kalātattvakośa, vol. I: Pervasive Terms: Vyāpti, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (rev. edn. of the first print in 1988).

——, 1992 (ed.), Kalātattvakośa, vol. II: Concepts of Space and Time, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts.

Bäumer, Bettina and John R. Dupuche 2005 (eds.), Void and Fullness in the Buddhist, Hindu and Christian Traditions: Śūnya-Pūrṇa-Plerôma, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.

——, 2008, “Light and Reflection: The Metaphysical Background of Aesthetics in Kashmir Śaivism”. in Aesthetic Theories and Forms in Indian Tradition (History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilzation, Volume VI Part I), ed. Kapila Vatsyayan and D.P. Chattopadhyaya, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. pp. 127-48.

Bhattacharyya, Benoytosh, 1925-28 (ed.), Sādhanamālā, 2 vols. (Geakwad’s Oriental Series: 26 and 41), Baroda: Oriental Institute.

——, 1968, The Indian Buddhist Iconography Mainly Based on the Sādhanamālā and Cognate Tāntric Texts and Rituals, Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya.

——, 1972 (ed.), Niṣpannayogāvalī of Mahāpaṇḍita Abhayākaragupta, Baroda: Oriental Institute.

Bhattacharyya, Dipak C., 1974, Tantric Buddhist Iconographic Sources, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.

——, 1981, “The Vajrāvalī-maṇḍalopāyikā of Abhayākaragupta”, in Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A. Stein, ed. Michel Strickmann (Mélanges Chinois et Bouddhiques: 20), Bruxelles: Institut Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises.

Bhattacharyya, N.N. 1999 (ed.), Tantric Buddhism: Centennial Tribute to Dr Benoytosh Bhattacharyya, New Delhi: Manohar.

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Boner, Alice, 1962, Principles of Composition of Hindu Sculpture: Cave Temple Period, Leiden: Brill.

Boner, Alice, Sadasiva Rath Sarma and Bettina Bäumer, 2000, Vāstusūtra Upaniṣad: The Essence of Form in Sacred Art, Sanskrit text, English translation and notes, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (first published in 1982).

Brauen, Martin, 1997, The Mandala: Sacred Circle in Tibetan Buddhism, Boston: Shambhala.

Bucknell, Roderick and Martin Stuart, 1986, The Twilight Language: Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism, London: Curzon Press.

Bühnemann, Gudrun, 1999, "Buddhist Deities and Mantras in the Hindu Tantras: The Tantrasārasaṅgraha and the Īśānaśivagurudevapaddhati", Indo-Iranian Journal, 42.

——, 2003 (ed.), Maṇḍalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions. Leiden/Boston: Brill.

——, 2005, "Buddhist Maṇḍalas", in Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edn. vol. VIII, Detroit/New York.

Bühnemann, Gudrun and Musashi Tachikawa, 1991 (eds), Niṣpannayogāvalī: Two Sanskrit Manuscripts from Nepal (Bibliotheca Codicum Asiaticorum; 5), Tokyo: The Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies.

Chakravarty, Hemendra Nath, 1992, "Bindu" in Kalātattvakośa, vol. II: Concepts of Space and Time, ed. Bettina Bäumer, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, pp. 1-24.

——, 1999, "Sthūla-sūkṣma-para", in Kalātattvakośa, vol. IV, ed. Advaitavadini Kaul and Sukumar Chattopadhyay, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, pp. 75-316.

——, 2001a, "Bīja", in Kalātattvakośa, vol. I: Pervasive Terms: Vyāpti, ed. Bettina Bäumer, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, pp. 155-77 (rev. edn. of the first print in 1988).

——, 2001b, "Prāṇa", in Kalātattvakośa, vol. I: Pervasive Terms: Vyāpti, ed. Bettina Bäumer, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, pp. 123-53.

Chandra, Lokesh, 1993, "Nāma-Saṅgīti Is a Hymn of Advaya Names", in Cultural Horizons of India, vol. III, ed. Lokesh Chandra, New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, pp. 381-94.

——, 1987 (ed.), Sarva-Tathāgata-Tattva-Saṅgraha: Sanskrit Text with Introduction and Illustrations of Maṇḍalas, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

——, 1995, "From the Goddesses of Plaosan to the Dhāraṇī-maṇḍala at Alchi", in Cultural Horizons of India, vol. IV, ed. Lokesh Chandra, New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan, pp. 167-75.

——, 2003, "Mañjuśrī", in Dictionary of Buddhist Iconography, vol. 8, New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.

Chandra, Lokesh and Raghu Vira, 1995, Tibetan Maṇḍalas: Vajrāvalī and Tantra-samuccaya, New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture.

Choi, Soon-taek, 1998, Zen Calligraphy and Paintings of Korea, Seoul: Hakmun Publishing Co. (최 순택, 한국의 선서화, 학문사, 서울, 1998).

Cleary, Thomas 1989, Entry into the Realm of Reality: The Text. translation of Gaṇdavyūha-Sūtra, Boston & Shaftesbury: Shambala.

Conze, Edward, 1967 (1949 & 1951), "The Iconography of the Prajñāpāramitā", in Oriental Art II 2 & III 3 (repr. in Conze 1967a).

——, 1967 (1960), "The Development of Prajñāpāramitā Thought", in Buddhism and Culture: Dedicated to D.T. Suzuki in Commemoration of His Ninetieth Birthday, ed. S. Yamaguchi, Kyoto, 1960, pp. 24-45 (repr. in Conze 1967a).

——, 1967a, Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies: Selected Essays by Edward Conze, Oxford: Bruno Cassirer.

——, 1978, The Prajnaparamita Literature, Tokyo: Reiyukai, 2nd edn.

Coward, Harold G. and K. Kunjunni Raja, 1990 (ed.), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. V: The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Princeton: Princeton University Press and Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Dagens, Bruno, 1992, "Māna in the Arts: Architecture and Image-making", in Kalātattvakośa, vol. II, ed. Bettina Bäumer, New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, pp. 367-84.

Datta, Bhupendranath, 1957 (tr.), Mystic Tales of Lama Taranatha: A Religio-Sociological History of Mahayana Buddhism, Calcutta: Ramakrishna Vedanta Math.

Davidson, Ronald M., 1981 (tr.), "The Litany of Names of Mañjuśrī: Text and Tranlsation of the Mañjuśrīnāmasamgīti", in Tantric and Taoist Studies in Honour of R.A. Stein, vol. I, ed. M. Strickmann. Bruxelles: Institut Belge des Hautes Études Chinoises, pp. 1-69.

——, 2002, Indian Esoteric Buddhism: A Social History of the Tantric Movement, New York: Columbia University Press.

Dayal, Har, 1970 (repr.), The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass (Originally London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1932).

Dehejia, Harsha V., 1997, Pārvatidarpana: An Exposition of Kāśmir Śaivism Through the Images of Śiva and Pārvatī, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

——, 1996, Advaita of Art, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Dupuche, John R., 2003, Abhinavagupta: The Kula Ritual as Elaborated in Chapter 29 of the Tantrāloka, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Dutt, Nalinaksha, 1985, Buddhism in Kashmir, Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers.

Dwivedi, R.C., 1991/1992, "Bhartṛhari and Kashmir Śaivism", Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (ABORI), Vols. LXXII/LXXIII (1991/92).

Dyczkowski, Mark S.G., 1987, The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism, Albany: State University of New York Press; Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989.

——, 1992, The Aphorisms of Śiva: The Śiva Sūtra with Bhāskara's Commentary, the Vārttika, tr. with expositions and notes by Mark S.G. Dyczkowski, Albany: State University of New York Press; Varanasi: Indica, 1998.

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——, 1994, Stanzas on Vibration: The Spandakārikā with Four Commentaries, tr. with an introduction and exposition, Varanasi: Dilip Kumar Publishers.

Falk, Maryla, 1943, Nāmarūpa and Dharmarūpa, Calcutta: University of Calcutta.

Farrow, G.W. and I. Menon, 1992 (tr. & eds.), The Concealed Essence of the Hevajra Tantra, with the Commentary Yogaratnamālā, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.

Fürlinger, Ernst, 2006, “Is Cit ‘Consciousness’? Hermeneutical Reflections”, Abhinavagupta: Reconsiderations (Evam: Forum on Indian Representations, 4: 1-2), ed. Makarand Paranjape & Sunthar Visuvalingam, New Delhi: Samvad India Foundation, 2006, pp. 204-10.

——, 2009, The Touch of Śakti: A Study in the Non-dualistic Śaivism of Kashmir, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld.

Funayama, Toru, 1992, A Study of "Kalpanāpodha": A Translation of the Tattvasamgraha VV.1212-1263 by Śāntarakṣita and the Tattvasamgrahapañjikā by Kamalaśīla on the Definition of Direct Perception, Kyoto 1992.

Garfield, Jay L., 1995 (tr.), Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way: Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, New York: Oxford University Press.

——, 2002, Empty Words: Buddhist Philosophy and Cross-Cultural Interpretation, New York: Oxford University Press.

Gega Lama, 1983, Principles of Tibetan Art, 2 vols, Darjeeling: Jamyang Singe.

Giebel, Rolf W., 2001 (tr.), Two Esoteric Sutras: The Adamantine Pinnacle Sutra and The Susiddhikara Sutra, translated from Chinese (Taishō 18, (865, 893), BDK English Tripitaka 29-II, 30-II, Berkeley: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research.

Gnoli, Raniero, 1957, “Śivadrṣṭi by Somānanda”, East and West, 8(1), pp. 16-22.

——, 1985, The Aesthetic Experience According to Abhinavagupta, Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 3rd edn.

Goepper, Roger, 1984, Alchi: Buddhas, Goddesses, Mandalas: Murals in a Monastery of the Western Himalaya, Köln: DuMont Buchverlag.

Goepper, Roger and Jaroslav Poncar, 1996, Alchi, Ladakh's Hidden Buddhist Sanctuary: The Sumtsek, London: Serindia Publications.

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Goudriaan, Teun, 1992 (ed.), Ritual and Speculation in Early Tantrism: Studies in Honor of André Padoux, Albany: State University of New York Press; Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, 1993.

Goudriaan, Teun and Sanjukta Gupta, 1981, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

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Pramāṇasamuccaya, from the Sanskrit fragments and the Tibetan versions, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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——, 1964 (ed.), Man and His Symbols, London: Aldus Book.

——, 1973, Mandala Symbolism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 3rd edn.

——, 1996, The Psychology of Kundalini Yoga, notes of the seminar given in 1932, ed. Sonu Shamdasam London: Routledge.

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Klimburg-Salter, Deborah E., 1982 (ed.), Silk Route and the Diamond Path: Esoteric Buddhist

Art on the Trans-Himalayan Trade Routes, Los Angeles: UCLA Art Council.

—, 1997, Tabo: A Lamp for the Kingdom. Early Indo-Tibetan Buddhist Art in the Western

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—, 1999, “The Dharmadhātu-vāgīśvara-mañjuśrī-maṇḍala. Tabo Du khan”, in Tabo Studies

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Index

A (syllable) 97-98, 100-01,

112-17, 176

Abhayākaragupta, 16-17, 130

Abhinavagupta, 12, 16, 27,

112, 142, 146, 152-61, 165,

168-69, 172, 182-83, 192-93,

203-05, 208-09, 211, 218,

221-23, 225, 273, 281-82

abhisambodhi (Perfect

Enlightenment), 94, 134

absorption, 272

adhiṣṭhāna (transformation)

108-10

Ādi Buddha, 64, 99, 101, 116,

122-23

aesthetic experience, 154-55,

158, 200-05, 209-14, 225,

272, 274, 278, 282

aesthetics, Indian, 12-13, 200,

204, 283

ahaṃ, 156, 167, 170, 172-77

Ajanta Caves, 217

ākāśa, 183, 189

Ākāśagarbha, 50, 73

Aklujkar, A., 142

akṣa, 277

akṣara, 103-05, 111, 113, 123

Akṣayamatinirdeśasūtra, 190

Akṣobhya, 11, 52, 61, 64, 74-

75, 78, 88, 100

akula, 64

ālayavijñāna, 188, 191-97,

265, 278

Alchi, 4, 9, 11, 14-16, 19, 25-

29, 45, 47-48, 75, 77, 83,

111, 124, 129-30, 137-38,

140, 216-20, 224-28, 232-33,

236-37, 246, 248-52, 254,

257-60, 265-74, 283-85

Amitābha, 31-32, 52, 61, 64,

74-75, 77-78, 88, 100

Amoghasiddhi, 52, 61, 64, 74-

75, 78, 88, 100

Amoghavajra, 17-18

anāhata, 111, 161, 164, 197

ānanda (bliss), 162, 181, 199-

201, 210, 213

Ānandagarbha, 19

Ānandavardhana, 281

Anāśrita Śiva, 180, 183-84

antahkarana, 151-52, 155

anusandhāna (intention) 205,

220

anusvāra, 114-15, 164, 177

anuttara, 110, 142, 144-46,

158, 165, 167-68, 170, 182-

83, 185, 191, 205, 222

Anuttarayoga Tantra, 4-5

aparā, 144, 150-51, 164, 205,

268

Āryasarasvatī, 139

Āryaśrīmālā Sūtra, 197

Asaṅga, 191, 197

Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāra-

mitā, 130-31

ātman, 234

Avalokiteśvara, 31-32, 50, 83,

232, 259

Avataṃsaka Sūtra, 113

Bhairava, 144, 166, 181

Bhartṛhari, 12, 112, 142, 160,

281

Bhattacharyya, D. C., 132

Bhaṭṭa Nāyaka, 200

bhedābheda (difference and

non-difference), 157, 188

bīja, 100-03, 112, 118, 162,

197

bimba, 102, 109-10, 141, 205

bindu, 123-24, 162-66, 212,

234, 236, 238, 251, 253

parābindu, 164

bodha, 166, 220, 234, 236

bodhicitta, 2, 4-6, 51, 88, 99,

101-09, 131, 166, 176, 203-

04, 217, 234, 283

and mantra, 175

Bodhidharma, 2

bodhimanda (core of

Enlightenment), 96, 118

Bodhisattva, 31-32, 80, 95,

189, 196, 252-53, 259-60

Sixteen Bodhisattvas, 31, 47-

51, 64-68, 73, 75-76, 79,

121, 246

Sixteen Mahābodhisattvas,