2. Sources and Arbiters of Dharma
i. Sources of Dharma
Āpastamba
धर्मज्ञसमयः प्रमाणम् ।2 वेदाश्च ।3
2 The authority (for the Laws) rests on their acceptance by those who know the Law 3 and on the Vedas. [A 1.1.2-3]
ब्राह्मणोक्ता विधयस्तेषामुत्सन्नाः पाठाः प्रयोगादनुमीयन्ते ।10 यत्र तु प्रीत्युपलब्धितः प्रवृत्तिर्न तत्र शास्त्रमस्ति ।11 तदनुवर्तमानो नरकाय राध्यति ।12
10 All rites are described in the Brāhmaṇas. The lost Brāhmaṇa passages relating to some of them are inferred from usage. 11 When a practice is undertaken because of the pleasure derived from it, it does not presuppose a vedic text. 12 A man who follows such a practice prepares himself for hell. [A 1.12.10-12]
एवं सत्यार्यसमयेनाविप्रतिषिद्धम् ।6 आर्यसमयो ह्यगृह्यमाणकारणः ।8
6 That being the case, the above provision does not go against the accepted practice of the Āryas, ... 8 for the accepted practice of the Āryas has no tangible motive. [A 1.12.6, 8]
Gautama
वेदो धर्ममूलम् ।1 तद्विदां च स्मृतिशीले ।2
1 The root of Law is the Veda, 2 as well as the tradition and practice of those who know the Veda. [G 1.1-2]
श्रुतं तु सर्वेभ्यो गरीयः ।21 तन्मूलत्वाद्धर्मस्य ।22 श्रुतेश्च ।23
21 But vedic learning is the most important of all 22 because it is the root of Law 23 and because it is so stated in the vedic texts. [G 6.21-23]
तस्य व्यवहारो वेदो धर्मशास्त्राण्यङ्गान्युपवेदाः पुराणम् ।19
19 His administration of justice shall be based on the Veda, the Legal Treatises, the Vedic Supplements, the Subsidiary Vedas, and the Purāṇa. [G 11.19]
Baudhāyana
उपदिष्टो धर्मः प्रतिवेदम् ।1 तस्याऽनु व्याख्यास्यामः ।2 स्मार्तो द्वितीयः ।3 तृतीयः शिष्टागमः ।4 शिष्टाः खलु विगतमत्सरा निरहङ्काराः कुम्भीधान्या अलोलुपा दम्भदर्पलोभमोहक्रोधविवर्जिताः ।5 धर्मेणाधिगतो येषां वेदः सपरिबृंहणः । शिष्टास्तदनुमानज्ञाः श्रुतिप्रत्यक्षहेतव इति ।।6
1 The Law is taught in each Veda, 2 in accordance with which we will explain it. 3 What is given in the tradition is the second, 4 and the conventions of cultured people are the third. 5 Now, cultured people are those who are free from envy and pride, possess just a jarful of grain, and are free from covetousness, hypocrisy, arrogance, greed, folly, and anger. 6 "Cultured people are those who have studied the Veda together with its supplements in accordance with the Law, know how to draw inferences from them, and are able to adduce as proofs express vedic texts." [B 1.1.1-6]
Vasiṣṭha
श्रुतिस्मृतिविहितो धर्मः ।4 तदलाभे शिष्टाचारः प्रमाणम् ।5 शिष्टः पुनरकामात्मा ।6 अगृह्यमाणकारणो धर्मः ।7
4 The Law is set forth in the vedic and traditional texts. 5 When these do not address an issue, the practice of cultured people becomes authoritative. 6 Now, a cultured man is free from desires. 7 The Law has no tangible motive. [Va 1.4-7]
पारंपर्यागतो येषां वेदः सपरिबृंहणः । ते शिष्टा ब्राह्मणा ज्ञेयाः श्रुतिप्रत्यक्षहेतवः ।43
43 Those Brahmins, in whose families the study of the Veda together with its supplements is hereditary, and who are able to adduce as proofs express vedic texts, should be recognized as cultured people. [Va 6.43]
ii. Extent of the Veda
Āpastamba
षडङ्गो वेदः ।10 छन्दःकल्पो व्याकरणं ज्योतिषं निरुक्तं शीक्षा छन्दोविचितिरिति ।11 शब्दार्थारम्भणानां तु कर्मणां समाम्नायसमाप्तौ वेदशब्दः । तत्र संख्या विप्रतिषिद्धा ।12 अङ्गानां तु प्रधानैरव्यपदेश इति न्यायवित्समयः ।13
10 The Veda has six supplements: 11 ritual expositions of the Veda, grammar, astronomy, etymology, phonetics, and metrics. 12 [OBJECTION] The term "Veda", however, extends to the entire body of traditional texts dealing with rites undertaken on the authority of explicit vedic injunctions or meanings implicit in vedic statements, contradicting thereby the number given above. 13 [ANSWER] Experts in exegesis, on the contrary, are in agreement that supplementary texts should not be called by the name of the principal texts. [A 2.8.10-13]
iii. Arbiters of Dharma
Āpastamba
यथोक्तमन्यदतः परिषत्सु ।38
38 With respect to particulars not given here, one should follow the directives of legal assemblies. [A 1.11.38]
अनसूयुर्दुष्प्रलम्भः स्यात्कुहकशठनास्तिकबालवादेषु ।5 न धर्माधर्मौ चरत आवां स्व इति । न देवगन्धर्वा न पितर इत्याचक्षतेऽयं धर्मोऽयमधर्म इति ।6 यत्त्वार्याः क्रियमाणं प्रशंसन्ति स धर्मो यद्गर्हन्ते सोऽधर्मः ।7 सर्वजनपदेष्वेकान्तसमाहितमार्याणां वृत्तं सम्यग्विनीतानां वृद्धानामात्मवतामलोलुपानामदाम्भिकानां वृत्तसादृश्यं भजेत ।8 एवमुभौ लोकावभिजयति ।9
5 Let him not become vexed or easily deceived by the pronouncements of hypocrites, crooks, infidels, and fools. 6 The Righteous and the Unrighteous do not go around saying, "Here we are!" Nor do gods, Gandharvas, or ancestors declare, "This is righteous and that is unrighteous." 7 An activity that Āryas praise is righteous, and what they deplore is unrighteous. 8 He should model his conduct after that which is unanimously approved in all regions by Āryas who have been properly trained, who are elderly and self-possessed, and who are neither greedy nor deceitful. 9 In this way he will win both worlds. [A 1.20.5-9]
सा निष्ठा या विद्या स्त्रीषु शूद्रेषु च ।11 आथर्वणस्य वेदस्य शेष इत्युपदिशन्ति ।12 कृच्छ्रा धर्मसमाप्तिः समाम्नातेन । लक्षणकर्मणा तु समाप्यते ।13 तत्र लक्षणम् । सर्वजनपदेष्वेकान्तसमाहितमार्याणां वृत्तं सम्यग्विनीतानां वृद्धानामात्मवतामलोलुपानामदाम्भिकानां वृत्तसादृश्यं भजेत । एवमुभौ लोकावभिजयति ।14 स्त्रीभ्यः सर्ववर्णेभ्यश्च धर्मशेषान् प्रतीयादित्येके ।15
11 The knowledge found among women and Śūdras forms the conclusion, 12 and they point out that it is a subsidiary component of the Atharva Veda. 13 It is difficult to gain mastery of the Law by means of scriptures alone, but by acting according to the markers one can master it. 14 And the markers in this case are as follows: he should model his conduct after that which is unanimously approved in all regions by Āryas who have been properly trained, who are elderly and self-possessed, and who are neither greedy nor deceitful. In this way he will win both worlds. 15 According to some, one should learn the remaining Laws from women and people of all classes. [A 2.29.11-15]
Gautama
अनाज्ञाते दशावरैः शिष्टैरूहवद्भिरलुब्धैः प्रशस्तं कार्यम् ।48 चत्वारश्चतुर्णां पारगा वेदानां प्रागुत्तमात्त्रय आश्रमिणः पृथग्धर्मविदस्त्रय इत्येतान्दशावरान्परिषदित्याचक्षते ।49 असंभवे त्वेतेषां श्रोत्रियो वेदविच्छिष्टो विप्रतिपत्तौ यदाह ।50 यतोऽयमप्रभवो भूतानां हिंसानुग्रहयोगेषु ।51
48 In matters that are unclear, one should follow what is endorsed by a minimum of ten persons who are cultured, skilled in reasoning, and free from greed. 49 A legal assembly is said to consist of a minimum of ten members-four who have mastered the four Vedas, three belonging to the three orders enumerated first, and three who know three different Legal Treatises. 50 When such persons are unavailable, however, one should follow in doubtful cases what is recommended by a learned and cultured Brahmin who knows the Veda, 51 because such a man is incapable of hurting or favoring creatures. [G 28.48-51]
यच्चात्मवन्तो वृद्धाः सम्यग्विनीता दम्भलोभमोहवियुक्ता वेदविद आचक्षते तत्समाचरेत् ।62
62 And whatever people who are self-possessed, elderly, properly trained, and free from hypocrisy, greed, and perplexity, and who know the Vedas instruct him to do, he should carry it out. [G 9.62]
Baudhāyana
तदभावे दशावरा परिषद् ।7 अथाप्युदाहरन्ति । चातुर्वैद्यं विकल्पी च अङ्गविद्धर्मपाठकः । आश्रमस्थास्त्रयो विप्राः पर्षदेषा दशावरा ॥8 पञ्च वा स्युस्त्रयो वा स्युरेको वा स्यादनिन्दितः । प्रतिवक्ता तु धर्मस्य नेतरे तु सहस्रशः ॥9 यथा दारुमयो हस्ती यथा चर्ममयो मृगः । ब्राह्मणश्चानधीयानस्त्रयस्ते नामधारकाः ॥10 यद्वदन्ति तमोमूढा मूर्खा धर्ममजानतः । तत्पापं शतधा भूत्वा वक्तॄन्समधिगच्छति ॥11 बहुद्वारस्य धर्मस्य सूक्ष्मा दुर्गा गतिः । तस्मान्न वाच्यो ह्येकेन बहुज्ञेनापि संशये ॥12 धर्मशास्त्रस्थारूढा वेदखड्गधरा द्विजाः । क्रीडार्थमपि यद् ब्रूयुः स धर्मः परमः स्मृतः ॥13 यथाश्मनि स्थितं तोयं मारुतार्कौ प्रणाशयेत् । तद्वत्कर्तरि यत्पापं जलवत्संप्रलीयते ॥14 शरीरं बलमायुश्च वयः कालं च कर्म च । समीक्ष्य धर्मविद्बुद्ध्या प्रायश्चित्तानि निर्दिशेत् ॥15 अव्रतानाममन्त्राणां जातिमात्रोपजीविनाम् । सहस्रशः समेतानां परिषत्त्वं न विद्यत इति ॥16
7 When these fail to address an issue, it falls on a legal assembly with a minimum of ten members. 8 Now, they also quote these verses: "Four men, each proficient in one of the four Vedas, one exegete, one man who knows the Vedic Supplements, one legal scholar, and three learned Brahmins belonging to three different orders of life-these constitute a legal assembly with a minimum of ten members. 9 Or they could be five, or three; or even a single man, if he is of unimpeachable conduct, may explain the Law, but not others, be they in their thousands. 10 An uneducated Brahmin is like an elephant made of wood or a deer made of leather: all three are so only in name. 11 When fools, befuddled by darkness, make a pronouncement without knowing the Law, that sin, compounded a hundredfold, engulf those who proclaim it. 12 The Law has many gates and its path is narrow and difficult to follow. When there is a doubt, therefore, one man, however learned, should not pronounce on it. 13 When twice-born men, riding in the chariot of the Legal Treatises and wielding the sword of the Veda, make a pronouncement even in jest, that, the tradition tells us, is the highest Law. 14 As the wind and the sun make the water collected on a stone disappear, so a sin clinging to a sinner vanishes like that water. 15 A man who knows the Law should determine the penances after examining a man's build, strength, and age, as well as the time and the deed. 16 Even if people who have not kept the vows or studied the Veda and who use their caste only to make a living come together in their thousands, they are incapable of constituting a legal assembly." [B 1.1.7-16]
Vasiṣṭha
चातुर्विद्यो विकल्पी च अङ्गविद्धर्मपाठकः । आश्रमस्थास्त्रयो मुख्याः पर्षदेषा दशावरा ।20
20 Four men, each proficient in one of the four Vedas; one exegete; one who knows the Vedic Supplements; one legal scholar; and three leading men belonging to three different orders of life-these constitute a legal assembly with a minimum of ten members. [Va 3.20]
अव्रतानाममन्त्राणां जातिमात्रोपजीविनाम् । सहस्रशः समेतानां परिषत्त्वं न विद्यते ।5 यद्वदन्ति तमोमूढा मूर्खा धर्ममजानतः । तत्पापं शतधा भूत्वा तद्वक्तॄनधिगच्छति ।6 चत्वारो वा त्रयो वापि यं ब्रूयुर्वेदपारगाः । स धर्म इति विज्ञेयो नेतरेषां सहस्रशः ।7
5 Even if people who do not keep to their vows or study the Veda and who use their caste only to make a living come together in their thousands, they are incapable of constituting a legal assembly. 6 When fools, befuddled by darkness, make a pronouncement without knowing the Law, that sin, compounded a hundredfold, engulf those who proclaim it. 7 When three or four experts in the Veda proclaim something, it should be recognized as the Law, not what others say, be they in their thousands. [Va 3.5-7]
यश्च काष्ठमयो हस्ती यश्च चर्ममयो मृगः । यश्च विप्रोऽनधीयानस्त्रयस्ते नामधारकाः ।11
11 An elephant made of wood, a deer made of leather, and an uneducated Brahmin: all these three are so only in name. [Va 3.11]
त्रैविद्यवृद्धा यं ब्रूयुर्धर्मं धर्मविदो जनाः । पवने पावने चैव स धर्मो नात्र संशय इति ।16
16 What men who have a deep knowledge of the three Vedas and are learned in the Law declare to be the Law, that, undoubtedly, is the Law for cleansing and for administering cleansing. [Va 1.16]
त्रयो वर्णा ब्राह्मणस्य निर्देशेन वर्तेरन् ।39 ब्राह्मणो धर्मान्प्रब्रूयात् ।40 राजा चानुशिष्यात् ।41
39 The three classes shall abide by the instructions of the Brahmin. 40 The Brahmin shall proclaim their duties, 41 and the king shall govern them accordingly. [Va 1.39-41]