29. King and State

Āpastamba

छन्दः कल्पो व्याकरणं ज्योतिषं निरुक्तं शीक्षा छन्दोविचितिर् इति ॥11 व्याख्याताः सर्ववर्णानां साधारणवैशेषिका धर्माः राज्ञः तु विशेषाद् वक्ष्यामः ॥1 भृत्यानाम् अनुपरोधेन क्षेत्रं वित्तं च ददद् ब्राह्मणेभ्यो यथाअर्हम् अनन्तांल् लोकान् अभिजयति ॥1 ब्राह्मणस्वान्य् अपजिगीषमाणो राजा यो हन्यते तम् आहुर् आत्मयूपो यज्ञो ऽअनन्तदक्षिण इति ॥2 एतेनअन्ये शूरा व्याख्याताः प्रयोजने युध्यमानाः तनुत्यजः ॥3

1 We have explained the general and specific Laws of all the classes. We will now present specifically the Laws pertaining to a king. ... 8 The king should put up in the lodge at least those guests who are vedic scholars. 9 They should be given accommodation, as well as beds, food, and drink, in accordance with their distinction. 10 The king should not live more opulently than his elders and ministers. 11 And in his realm no one should suffer from hunger, illness, cold, or heat, either through want or by design. 1 If he gives land and wealth to Brahmins according to their worth without depriving his own dependents, he will win eternal worlds. 2 When a king is killed attempting to recover property stolen from Brahmins, they call it a sacrifice at which his own body serves as the sacrificial post and an unlimited amount is given as the sacrificial fee. This explanation covers also other heroes who sacrifice their lives fighting for a just cause. [A 2.25.1, 8–11; 2.26.1–3]

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Gautama

द्वौ लोके धृतव्रतौ राजा ब्राह्मणश् च बहुश्रुतः । ॥1 । ॥2 प्रसूतिरक्षणम् असंकरो धर्मः । ॥3

1 There are in the world two who uphold the proper way of life-the king and the Brahmin deeply learned in the Vedas. 2 And on them depend the life of the fourfold human race, of internally conscious creatures, and of those that move about, fly, and crawl; 3 as well as their increase, protection, non-intermixture, and adherence to the Law. [G 8.1–3]

राजा सर्वस्येष्टे ब्राह्मनवर्जम् । ॥1 साधुकारी साधुवादी । ॥2 त्रय्याम् आन्वीक्षिक्या वाभिविनीतः । ॥3 शुचिर् जितेन्द्रियो गुणवत्सहायोपायसंपन्नः । ॥4 समः प्रजासु स्यात् । ॥5 हितम् आसां कुर्वीत । ॥6 तम् उपर्यासीनम् अधस्ताद् उपासीरन्न् अन्येब्राह्मणेभ्यः । ॥7 ते ऽप्य् एनं मन्येरन् । ॥8 वर्णान् आश्रमांश् च न्यायतो ऽभिरक्षेत् । ॥9 चलतश् चैतान् स्वधर्मे स्थापयेत् । ॥10 धर्मस्य ह्य् अंशभाग् भवतीति । ॥11 । ॥18

1 The king rules over all except Brahmins. 2 He should be correct in his actions and speech 3 and trained in the triple Veda and logic. 4 Let him be upright, keep his senses under control, surround himself with men of quality, and adopt sound policies. 5 He should be impartial towards his subjects 6 and work for their welfare. 7 As he sits on a high seat, all except Brahmins should pay him homage seated at a lower level, 8 and even Brahmins should honor him. 9 He should watch over the social classes and the orders of life in conformity with their rules, 10 and those who stray he should guide back to their respective duties (dharma), 11 "for the king," it is stated, "takes a share of their merits (dharma)." ... 15 He should also pay heed to what his astrologers and augurs tell him, 16 for, according to some, his welfare depends also on that. 17 In the fire within the assembly hall, he should perform rites to secure prosperity in connection with a propitiation, festive day, military expedition, long life, or auspiciousness, as well as rites to stir enmity, to subdue or slay his enemies, or to bring them to their knees. 18 His officiating priests shall carry out the other rites as prescribed. [G 11.1–11, 15–18]

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Vasiṣṭha

चतुर्थषष्ठअष्टमकालभोजी ॥8 स्वधर्मस्राज्ञस्पालनम्भूतानाम्तस्यअनुष्ठानात् सिद्धिः ॥1 भयकारुण्यहानम्जरामर्यम्वैएतत् सत्त्त्रम् आहुर् विद्वांसः ॥2

1 To take care of creatures is the special duty of a king, and he attains success by fulfilling it. 2 To give up fear and pity, wise men say, is truly for him a sacrificial session lasting until old age. 7 After inquiring into all the Laws specific to various regions, castes, and families, the king should make the four classes adhere to the Laws proper to them 8 and punish them when they deviate from them. [Va 19.1–2, 7–8]

राजनि च प्रेते दद्यात् प्रासङ्गिकम् ॥29 एतेन मातृवृत्तिस्व्याख्याता ॥30 राजमहिष्यास्पितृव्यमातुलान् राजा बिभृयात् ॥31 तत्बन्धून्चअन्यान्च ॥32 राजपत्न्यस्ग्रासआच्छादनम्लभेरन् ॥33 अनिच्छन्त्यस्वा प्रव्रजेरन् ॥34

29 When the former king has died, he should give the requisites for the occasion. 30 This provision entails the maintenance of his mother. 31 The king should maintain the deceased king's chief queen and his paternal and maternal uncles. 32–3 His women folk and other wives also should receive food and clothing. 3 Or, if they are unwilling, they may become wandering ascetics. [Va 19.29–34]

यमगीतम्चअत्र श्लोकम् उदाहरन्ति ॥48 नअद्य दोषसस्ति राज्ञाम्वै व्रतिनाम्न च सत्रिणाम् ॥48 ऐन्द्रस्थानम् उपासीनास्ब्रह्मभूतास्हि ते सदा इति ॥48 हि ते सदाइति ॥48

48 In this connection they also quote a verse proclaimed by Yama: "The stain of impurity does not affect kings, as well as people performing vows and sacrificial sessions, for they are always seated on the throne of Indra and become one with Brahman." [Va 19.48]

Āpastamba

क्षेमकृद् राजा यस्य विषये ग्रामे ऽअरण्ये वा तस्करभयं न विद्यते ॥15

15 A king provide's protection only when there is no fear of thieves in the villages or wild tracts of his realm. [A 2.25.15]

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Gautama

राज्ञो ऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् । ॥7 न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् । ॥8 बिभृयाद् ब्राह्मणाञ् श्रोत्रियान् । ॥9 निरुत्साहांश् च ब्राह्मणान् । ॥10 अकरांश् च । ॥11 उपकुर्वाणांश् च । ॥12

7 To a king pertain, in addition, the protection of all creatures, 8 as also meting out just punishment. 9 He should support Brahmins who are vedic scholars, 10 non-Brahmins who are unable to work, 11 those who are exempt from taxes, 12 and novice students. [G 10.7–12]

चौरहृतम् अपजित्य यथास्थानम् गमयेत् । ॥46 कोशाद् वा दद्यात् । ॥47 रक्ष्यं बालधनम् आ व्यवहारप्रापणात् । ॥48 समावृत्तेर् वा । ॥48

46 When property is stolen by thieves, the king should recover it and return it to its rightful owner 47 or pay compensation from his treasury. 48 He should keep the property of children safely until they reach the legal age or have completed their studies. [G 10.46–8]

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Baudhāyana

षड्भागभृतो राजा रक्षेत् प्रजाः ॥1

1 Receiving one sixth as taxes, a king should protect his subjects. [B 1.18.1]

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Vasiṣṭha

त्रयस्वर्णास्ब्राह्मणस्य निर्देशेन वर्तेरन् ॥39 ब्राह्मणस्धर्मान् प्रब्रूयात् ॥40 राजा चअनुशिष्यात् ॥41

39 The three classes shall abide by the instructions of the Brahmin. 40 The Brahmin shall proclaim their duties, 41 and the king shall govern them accordingly. [Va 1.39–41]

क्लीबौन्मत्तान् राजा बिभृयात् ॥35 तत्गामित्वात्रिक्थस्य ॥36

35 The king should maintain people who are impotent or mad, 36 because their estates go to him. [Va 19.35–6]

संपन्नम्च रक्षयेत् ॥6 राजबालधनानि ॥7 अप्राप्तव्यवहाराणाम् ॥8 प्राप्तकाले तु तत्यत् ॥9

6 He should, moreover, protect what he has won, 7 as also the property of royal children 8 and minors. 9 When they have reached the legal age, however, it should be handed over to them. [Va 16.6–9]

Āpastamba

दक्षिणाद्वारं वेश्म पुरं च मापयेत् ॥2 अन्तरस्यां पुरि वेश्म ॥3 तस्य पुरस्ताद् आवसथः तद् आमन्त्रणम् इत्य् आचक्षते ॥4 दक्षिणेन पुरं सभा दक्षिणौदग्द्वारा यथाउभयं संदृश्येत बहिर् अन्तरं चैति ॥5 सर्वेष्व् एवअजस्रा अग्नयः स्युः ॥6 अग्निपूजा च नित्या यथा गृहमेधे ॥7

2 He should have a residence and a fort constructed, with their gates facing the south. 3 The residence is within the fort, 4 and in front of the residence is the lodge, which is known as the Audience Hall, 5 To the south of the fort is the assembly hall with doors on both the south and the north sides so that one can see what goes on within and without. 6 In every one of these buildings fires should be kept burning continuously, 7 and every day offerings should be made in these fires in the same manner as at the domestic ritual. [A 2.25.2–7]

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Gautama

चशालाग्नौ कुर्यात् । ॥17

17 In the fire within the assembly hall, he should perform rites to secure prosperity in connection with a propitiation, festive day, military expedition, long life, or auspiciousness, as well as rites to stir enmity, to subdue or slay his enemies, or to bring them to their knees. [G 11.17]

Āpastamba

ग्रामेषु नगरेषु चआर्यान्शुचीन् सत्यशीलान् प्रजागुप्तये निदध्यात् ॥4 तेषां पुरुषाः तथागुणा एव स्युः ॥5 सर्वतो योजनं नगरं तस्करेभ्यो रक्ष्यम् ॥6 क्रोशो ग्रामेभ्यः ॥7 तत्र यत्मुष्यते तैः तत् प्रतिदाप्यम् ॥8

4 To protect his subjects, he should appoint over villages and towns Aryas who are upright and honest. 5 Their subordinates should also be men possessing the very same qualities. 6 They must protect a town from thieves up to nine miles on all sides, 7 and a village up to a couple of miles. 8 They must be forced to make good anything that is stolen within those limits. [A 2.26.4–8]

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Gautama

। ॥12 तत्प्रसूतः कर्माणि कुर्वीत । ॥13 ब्रह्मप्रसूतं हि क्षत्त्रम् ऋध्यते न व्यथत इति चविज्ञायते । ॥14

12 He should appoint as his personal priest a Brahmin who is learned, born in a good family, eloquent, handsome, mature, and virtuous; who lives according to the rules; and who is austere. 13 He should undertake rites only with his support, 14 "for a Kṣatriya, when he is supported by a Brahmin," it is said, "prospers and never falters." [G 11.12–4]

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Baudhāyana

सर्वतोधुरं पुरोहितं वृणुयात् ॥7 तस्य शासने वर्तेत ॥8

7 The king should select as his personal priest a man pre-eminent in all matters 8 and follow his instructions. [B 1.18.7–8]

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Vasiṣṭha

वेधसस्वा राजा श्रेयान् गृध्रपरिवारम्स्यात् ॥21 गृध्रपरिवारम्वा राजा श्रेयान् ॥22 गृध्रपरिवारम्स्यात्न गृध्रस्गृध्रपरिवारम्स्यात् ॥23 परिवाराथि दोषास्प्रादुर्भवन्ति ॥24 स्तेयहारविनाशनम्च ॥25 तस्मात् पूर्वम् एव परिवारम्पृच्छेत् ॥26

21 Is a king, shifty like a reed, better off surrounded by vulture-eyed courtiers? 22 Or is he better off without an entourage of vulture-eyed courtiers? 23 He should surround himself with an entourage of vulture-eyed courtiers, but he should not be a vulture surrounded by vulture-eyed courtiers. 24 For it is the courtiers who bring to light crimes, 25 including theft, robbery, and oppression. 26 At the outset, therefore, he should make inquiries of his courtiers. [Va 16.21–6]

तस्मात्गार्हस्थ्यनैयमिकेषु पुरोहितम्दध्यात् ॥3 विज्ञायते ब्रह्मपुरोहितम्राष्ट्रम् ऋध्नोतिइति ॥4 उभयस्य पालनात् ॥5 असामर्थ्यात्च ॥6

3 Therefore, he should appoint a personal priest to carry out the obligations incumbent on a householder. 4 It is stated: "When a Brahmin has been appointed as the king's personal priest, the kingdom prospers", 5 for thus both sets of duties are taken care of, 6 because he is unable to do both. [Va 19.3–6]

Āpastamba

धार्म्यं शुल्कम् अवहारयेत् ॥9 अकरः श्रोत्रियः ॥10 सर्ववर्णानां च स्त्रियः ॥11 कुमाराश् च प्राग् व्यञ्जनेभ्यः ॥12 ये च विद्याअर्था वसन्ति ॥13 तपस्विनश् च ये धर्मपराः ॥14 शूद्रश् च पादअवनेक्ता ॥15 अन्धमूकबधिररोगविष्टाश् च ॥16 ये व्यर्था द्रव्यपरिग्रहैः ॥17

9 The king should get them to collect lawful taxes. 10 The following persons are exempt from taxes: vedic scholars, 11 women of all classes, 12 pre-pubescent boys, 13 those who are living in someone's house for the purpose of study. 14 ascetics devoted to the Law, 15 Śūdras who are personal servants, 16 people who are blind, dumb, deaf, and sick, 17 and those who are excluded from acquiring property. [A 2.26.9–17]

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Gautama

राज्ञो बलिदानं कर्षकैर्दशमम् अष्टमं षष्ठं वा । ॥24 पशुहिरण्ययोर् अप्य् एके पञ्चाशद्भागः । ॥25 विंशतिभागः शुल्कः पण्ये । ॥26 मूलफलपुष्पौषधमधुमांसतृनेन्धनानांषष्ठः । ॥27 तद्रक्षणधर्मित्वात् । ॥28 तेषु तु नित्ययुक्तः स्यात् । ॥29 अधिकेन वृत्तिः । ॥30 शिल्पिनो मासि मास्य् एकैकं कर्म कुर्युः । ॥31 एतेनात्मनोपजीविनो व्याख्याताः । ॥32 नौचक्रीवन्तश् च । ॥33 भक्तं तेभ्यो दद्यात् । ॥34 पण्यं वणिग्भिर् अर्थापचयेन देयम् । ॥35

24 Farmers shall pay one-tenth, or one-eighth, or one-sixth of their produce to the king as taxes. 25 According to some, there is a tax of one-fiftieth on cattle and gold. 26 There is a duty of one-twentieth on merchandise, 27 and one-sixtieth on roots, fruits, flowers, medicine, honey, meat, grass, and firewood. 28 The ground for taxation is the king's duty to protect the people; 29 he should always be attentive to them. 30 The king shall obtain his livelihood by means of this additional duty of his. 31 Every month each artisan shall work one day for the king. 32 This applies also to people who live by manual labor 33 and to those who operate boats and carriages, 34 The king should give them food when they work for him. 35 Every month traders should give the king a piece of merchandise below its market value. [G 10.24–35]

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Baudhāyana

परिमार्जनद्रव्याणि गोशकृन्मृद्भस्मैति ॥5 षड्भागभृतो राजा रक्षेत् प्रजाः ॥1

1 Receiving one-sixth as taxes, a king should protect his subjects. 14 The duty on goods imported by sea is 10 per cent plus a choice piece of merchandise. 15 He should assess an equitable tax also on other types of merchandise corresponding to their value, a tax that would not be oppressive. [B 1.18.1, 14–5]

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Vasiṣṭha

राजा तु धर्मेणअनुशासन् षष्ठम्धनस्य हरेत् ॥42 अन्यत्र ब्राह्मणात् ॥43 इष्टापूर्तस्य तु षष्ठम् अंशम्भजतिइति ह ॥44 ब्राह्मणस्वेदम् आढ्यम्करोति ब्राह्मणो आपदसुद्धरति तस्मात्ब्राह्मणसनाद्यः सोमसस्य राजा भवतिइति ह ॥45 प्रेत्य चआभ्युदयिकम् इति ह विज्ञायते ह विज्ञायतेइति ॥46

42 Governing in accordance with the Law, however, the king may take in taxes a sixth part of their wealth, 43 except from Brahmins. 44 Indeed, it is said: "From them he takes as his share a sixth part of their sacrifices and good works"; 45 "The Brahmin makes the Veda rich; the Brahmin rescues from misfortune. Therefore, the Brahmin is not to be fed upon; Soma is his king"; 46 and "After death, moreover, he prospers." [Va 1.42–46]

संयाने दशवाहवाहिनी द्विगुणकारिणी स्यात् ॥17 प्रत्येकम्प्रपास्स्युः ॥18 पुंषाम्शतअवरअर्ध्यम्चआहवयेत् ॥19 अव्यर्थास्स्त्रियस्स्युः ॥20 कराष्ठीला माषस्शरमध्यापस्पादस्कार्षापणास्स्युः ॥21 निरुदकः तरस्मोष्यः ॥22 अकरस्श्रोत्रियस्राजपुमान् अनाथप्रव्रजितबालवृद्धतरुणप्रजाताः ॥23 प्राक्गामिकास्कुमार्यस्भृतपत्न्यस्च ॥24 बाहुभ्याम् उत्तरन्शतगुणम्दद्यात् ॥25 नदीकक्षवनदाहशैलौपभोगास्निष्करास्स्युः ॥26 ततुपजीविनस्वा दद्युः ॥27 प्रतिमासम् उद्वाहकरम्तुआगमयेत् ॥28

17 For water transport, a boat should have ten oarsmen and two sets of equipment. 18 Each vessel should have its own drinking water supply. 19 It should carry a load of not more than one hundred men; 20 and one and a half times that many women. 21 If the river's width is such that an arrow shot from the shore will land in the middle, then the toll is eight Masas; whereas if it lands beyond that, then the toll is a quarter Karsapana. 22 When the water level is low, the toll is one Masa. 23 The following are exempt from toll: vedic scholars, officials of the king, destitutes, wandering ascetics, children, old people, youngsters, and new mothers; 24 as also couriers, young women, and widows. 25 If someone crosses a river swimming. he should be made to pay one hundred time the toll. 26 There shall be no taxes on what is obtained from rivers, thickets, forests, cremation places, and mountains; 27 or else, people who gain a living in this manner may give something. 28 From artisans, however, he should collect taxes every month. [Va 19.17–28]

शुल्के चअपि मानवम्श्लोकम् उदाहरन्ति ॥37 न भिन्नकार्षापणम् अस्ति शुल्के न शिल्पवृत्तस्न शिशौ न दूते ॥37 न भैक्षलब्धे न हृतअवशेषे न श्रोत्रिये प्रव्रजिते न यज्ञे इति ॥37

37 With reference to taxes, they also quote this verse of Manu: "There is no tax on an amount less than one Kārṣapaṇa, as also on craftsmen, children, and messengers; on what is received as alms or what remains after a robbery; and on vedic scholars, wandering ascetics, and sacrifices." [Va 19.37]

Āpastamba

युद्धे तद् योगा यथाउपायम् उपदिशन्ति तथा प्रतिपत्तव्यम् ॥10 न्यस्तआयुधप्रकीर्णकेशप्राञ्जलिपराङावृत्तानाम् आर्या वधं परिचक्षते ॥11

10 In war, people should conduct themselves according to the strategies taught those proficient in such matters. 11 Aryas condemn the killing of those who have thrown down their weapons, who have dishevelled hair, who fold their hands in supplication, or who are fleeing. [A 2.10.10–1]

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Gautama

योगश् च विजये । ॥13 भये विशेषेण । ॥14 चर्या च रथधनुर्भ्याम् । ॥15 सङ्ग्रामे संस्थानम् अनिवृत्तिश् च । ॥16 न दोषो हिंसायाम् आहवे । ॥17 । ॥18 क्षत्रियश् चेद्

अन्यः तम् उपजीवेत् तद्वृत्त्या । ॥19 जेता लभेत सांग्रामिकं वित्तम् । ॥20 वाहनं तु राज्ञः । ॥21 उद्धारश् चापृथग्जये । ॥22 अन्यत् तु यथार्हं भाजयेद् राजा । ॥23

13 He should also take measures to ensure victory, 14 especially when danger threatens; 15 travel about in a chariot armed with a bow; 16 and stand firm in battle without fleeing. 17 He commits no sin if he kills someone in battle, 18 except the following: those who have lost their horses, charioteers, or arms; those who join their hands in supplication or have dishevelled hair; those who are fleeing or hunkering down; those who have climbed on to a ledge or a tree; messengers; and those who say they are cows or Brahmins. 19 If another Kṣatriya depends on the king for his livelihood, he too must participate in the king's undertakings. 20 The victor should take the booty of battle, 21 but the mounts go to the king, 22 as well as a choice portion of the booty unless it has been won in single combat. 23 Everything else, however, the king should distribute equitably among his men. [G 10.13–23]

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Baudhāyana

संग्रामे न निवर्तेत ॥9 न कर्णिभिर् न दिग्धैः प्रहरेत् ॥10 भीतमत्तौन्मत्तप्रमत्तविसंनाहस्त्रीबालवृद्धब्राह्मणैर् नयुध्येत ॥11 अन्यत्रआततायिनः ॥12 अथअप्य् उदाहरन्ति ॥13 अध्यापकं कुले जातं यो हन्याद् आततायिनम् ॥13 न तेन भ्रूणहा भवति मन्युः तन् मन्युम् ऋच्छति इति ॥13

9 The king should not turn back in battle 10 or strike with barbed or poisoned weapons. 11 He should not engage in battle people who are afraid, intoxicated, mad, or delirious, or who have lost their armor; as also women, children, old people, and Brahmins, 12 unless they are trying to kill him. 13 Now they also quote: "When someone kills even a teacher born in an illustrious family who is trying to kill him, it does not make him a murderer of a learned Brahmin; there wrath recoils on wrath." [B 1.18.9–13]

Gautama

प्रनष्टम् अस्वामिकम् अधिगम्य राज्ञे प्रब्रूयुः । ॥36 विख्याप्य संवत्सरं राज्ञा रक्ष्यम् । ॥37 ऊर्ध्वम् अधिगन्तुश् चतुर्थं राज्ञः शेषः । ॥38

36 If someone finds lost property whose owner is unknown, he should disclose it to the king. 37 The king should have it publicized and keep it safely for a year, 38 after which time a quarter goes to the finder and the rest to the king. 43 A treasure-trove is the property of the king, 44 except when it is found by an upright Brahmin. 45 According to some, even a non-Brahmin who discloses a find should receive one-sixth. [G 10.36–8, 43–5]

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Baudhāyana

अब्राह्मणस्य प्रनष्टस्वामिकं रिक्थं संवत्सरंपरिपाल्य राजा हरेत् ॥16

16 When the owner has disappeared, the king should look after his estate for one year, after which he may appropriate it, so long as it does not belong to a Brahmin. [B 1.18.16]

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Vasiṣṭha

प्रहीणद्रव्याणि राजगामीनि भवन्ति ॥19 ततसन्यथा राजा मन्त्रिभिस्सह नागरैस्च कार्याणि कुर्यात् ॥20

19 Abandoned property belongs to the king. 20 If it is not abandoned, the king, together with ministers and city folk, should administer the property. [Va 16.19–20]

अप्रज्ञायमानम्वित्तम्यसधिगच्छेत्राजा तथरेतधिगन्त्रे षष्ठम् अंशम्प्रदाय ॥13 ब्राह्मणस्चेतधिगच्छेत् षट्सु कर्मसु वर्त्तमानस्न राजा हरेत् ॥14

13 If someone finds a treasure whose owner is unknown, the king may take it after giving one-sixth to the finder. 14 If, however, the treasure is found by a Brahmin devoted to the six occupations proper to him, the king should not take it. [Va 3.13–4]

Gautama

स्वामी रिक्थक्रयसंविभागपरिग्रहाधिगमेषु । ॥39 ब्राह्मणस्याधिकं लब्धम् । ॥40 क्षत्रियस्य विजितम् । ॥41 निर्विष्टं वैश्यशूद्रयोः । ॥42

39 Ownership is established by inheritance, purchase, partition, possession, and discovery; 40 additionally, acceptance for Brahmins, 41 conquest for Kṣatriyas, 42 and wages for Vaiśyas and Sūdras. [G 10.39–42]

अजडापौगण्डधनं दशवर्षभुक्तं परैः संनिधौभोक्तुः । ॥37 न श्रोत्रियप्रव्रजितराजपुर्षैः । ॥38 पशुभूमिस्त्रीणाम् अनतिभोगः । ॥39

37 When others make use of the property of a person who is neither mentally incapacitated nor a minor before his very eyes for ten years, it belongs to the user, 38 unless the user is a vedic scholar, a wandering ascetic, or a royal officer. 39 There is no such limit on the period of use in the case of cattle, land, and women. [G 12.37–9]

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Vasiṣṭha

लिखितम्साक्षिणस्भुक्तिस्प्रमाणम्त्रिविधम्स्मृतम् ॥10 धनस्वीकरणम्पूर्वम्धनी धनम् अवाप्नुयात् इति ॥10 मार्गक्षेत्रेभ्यस्विसर्गः तथा परिवर्त्तनम् ॥11 तरुणगृहेषुअर्थअन्तरेषु त्रिपादमात्रम् ॥12 गृहक्षेत्रविरोधे सामन्तप्रत्ययः ॥13 सामन्तविरोधे लेख्यप्रत्ययः ॥14 प्रत्यभिलेख्यविरोधे ग्रामनगरवृद्धश्रेणीप्रत्ययः ॥15 अथअपिउदाहरन्ति ॥16 पैतृकम्क्रीतम् आधेयम् अन्वाधेयम्प्रतिग्रहम् ॥16 यज्ञातुपगमस्वेणिः तथा धूमशिखाअष्टमी इति ॥16 तत्र भुक्तअनुभुक्तदशवर्षम् ॥17 अन्यथाअपिउदाहरन्ति ॥18 आधिस्सीमा बालधनस्निक्षेपौपनिधिस्त्रियः ॥18 राजस्वम्श्रोत्रियद्रव्यम्न संभोगेन हीयते ॥18

10 Written evidence, witnesses, and possession are, according to traditional texts, the three types of evidence for claiming title to a property. In this way an owner may reclaim a property that had previously belonged to him. 11 Land must be surrendered for the road in a field through which a road runs, as also space for turning a cart. 12 Between newly built houses and highways one should allow a passage three feet wide. 13 When there is a dispute regarding a house or a field, the testimony of neighbors provides the proof. 14 When neighbors provide contradictory evidence, written documents provide the proof. 15 When conflicting documents are produced, the proof is based on the testimony of aged inhabitants of the town or village and that of guilds. 16 Now, they also quote: "Ancestral property, what is bought, a pledge, things received by a wife at her wedding, a gift, what one receives for conducting a sacrifice, property of reunited coparceners, and the eighth, wages." 17 Any of these is lost to the owner when it is used by someone else continuously for ten years. 18 But they also quote a verse to the contrary: "A pledge, a boundary, property of minors, an open deposit, a sealed deposit, women, and the property of the king or a vedic scholar are not lost to the owner by being used by someone else." [Va 16.10–8]

Āpastamba

अनार्यां शयने बिभ्रेद् ददद् वृद्धिं कषायपः अब्राह्मण इव वन्दित्वा तृणेष्व् आसीत पृष्ठतप् ॥10

10 When someone takes a non-Arya woman to bed, lends money on interest, drinks a decoction, or pays obeisance in a manner unworthy of a Brahmin, he should sit on a spread of grass letting the sun scorch his back. [A 1.27.10]

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Gautama

कुसीदवृद्धिर् धर्म्या विंशतिः पञ्चमाषिकी मासम् । ॥29 नातिसांवत्सरीम् एके । ॥30 चिरस्थाने द्वैगुण्यं प्रयोगस्य । ॥31 भुक्ताधिर् न वर्धते । ॥32 दित्सतो ऽवरुद्धस्य च । ॥33 चक्रकालवृद्धिः । ॥34 कारिताकायिकाशिखाधिभोगाश् च । ॥35 कुसीदं पशूपजलोमक्षेत्रशदवाह्येषु नातिपञ्चगुणम् । ॥36

29 The legal rate of interest is five Masas a month for twenty. 30 According to some, this rate does not apply for longer than a year. 31 If the loan remains outstanding for a longer period of time, the principal is doubled. 32 No interest accrues if the lender makes use of the borrower's collateral, 33 or when the borrower is eager to settle the debt but is prevented from doing so. 34 The types of interest are: cyclical rate, periodic rate, 35 contractual rate, manual labor, daily rate, and use of the collateral: 36 In the case of animal products, wool, farm produce, and beasts of burden, the interest shall not exceed five times the loan. [G 12.29–36]

कृषिवाणिज्ये वास्वयंकृते । ॥5 कुसीदं च । ॥6

5 A Brahmin may also engage in agriculture and trade if he does not do the work himself, 6 and in lending money on interest. [G 10.5–6]

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Baudhāyana

वैश्यः कुसीदम् उपजीवेत् ॥21 पञ्चविंशतिः त्व् एव पञ्चमाषिकी स्यात् ॥22 अथअप्य् उदाहरन्ति ॥23 यः समर्घम् ऋणं गृह्य महाअर्घं संप्रयोजयेत् ॥23 स वै वार्द्धुषिको नाम सर्वधर्मेषु गर्हितः ॥23 वृद्धिं च भ्रूणहत्यां च तुलया समतोलयत् ॥23 अतिष्ठद् भ्रूणहा कोट्यां वार्द्धुषिः समकम्पत इति ॥23 गोरक्षकान् वाणिजकांः तथा कारुकुशीलवान् ॥24 प्रेष्यान् वार्द्धुषिकांश् चैव विप्रान्शूद्रवद् आचरेत् ॥24 कामं तु परिलुप्तकृत्याय कदर्याय नास्तिकाय पापीयसेपूर्वौ दद्याताम् ॥25

21 A Vaiśya may live by lending money on interest, 22 but only at a rate of five Masas for twenty-five. 23 Now, they also quote: "When a man takes a loan at the going rate of interest and then lends it at a higher rate, he is an usurer and is denounced in all the codes of Law. Usury and abortion were once weighted in a balance. The abortionist rose to the top, while the usurer trembled. 24 Brahmins who are cattle herders, traders, artisans, bards, servants, and usurers should be treated like Śūdras." 25 Men of the first two classes, nevertheless, may freely lend money on interest to people who neglect their ritual duties, to misers, to infidels, and to wicked people. [B 1.10.21–5]

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Vasiṣṭha

ब्राह्मणराजन्यौ वार्धुषी न दद्याताम् ॥40 अथअपिउदाहरन्ति ॥41 समर्घम्धान्यम् उद्धृत्य महाअर्घम्यस्प्रयच्छति ॥41 स वै वार्धुषिकस्नाम ब्रह्मवादिषु गर्हितः ॥41 ब्रह्महत्याम्च वृद्धिम्च तुलया समतोलयत् ॥42 अतिष्ठत्भ्रूणहा कोट्याम्वार्धुषिस्समकम्पत इति ॥42 कामम्वा परिलुप्तकृत्याय पापीयसे दद्याताम् ॥43 द्विगुणम्हिरण्यम्त्रिगुणम्धान्यम् ॥44 धान्येनएव रसास्व्याख्याताः ॥45 पुष्पमूलफलानि च ॥46 तुलाधृतम् अष्टगुणम् ॥47 अथअपिउदाहरन्ति ॥48 द्विकम्त्रिकम्चतुष्कम्च पञ्चकम्च शतम्स्मृतम् ॥48 मासस्य वृद्धिम्गृह्णीयात्वर्णानाम् अनुपूर्वशः ॥48 राजा तु मृतभावेन द्रव्यवृद्धिम्विनाशयेत् ॥49 पुनर्राजअभिषेकेण द्रव्यमूलम्च वर्धते ॥49 वसिष्ठवचनप्रोक्ताम्वृद्धिम्वार्धुषिके शृणु ॥50 पञ्च माषाः तु विंशत्या एवम्धर्मस्न हीयते इति ॥50 न हीयते इति ॥50

40 Brahmins and Kṣatriyas shall not lend anything on interest. 41 Now, they also quote: "When a man who acquires grain at the going rate of interest and lends it at a higher rate, he is an usurer and is denounced by vedic savants. 42 Usury and abortion were once weighted in a balance. The abortionist rose to the top, while the usurer trembled." 43 Or else, they may freely lend on interest to someone who neglects his ritual duties or to lowly person. 44 The interest on gold is double the principal, on grain triple the principal. 45 The rule with respect to grain applies to seasonings, 46 as well as flowers, roots, and fruits. 47 The interest on articles measured by weight is eight times the principal. 48 Now, they also quote: "Two, three, four, or five per cent a month is laid down in traditional texts, and he may charge these rates of interest according to the order of the classes. 49 When the king dies, however, the interest on loans ceases to accrue. The principal begins to accrue interest again when the new king is anointed. 50 Listen to the rate of interest laid down by Vasiṣṭha for moneylenders: five Māṣas for twenty. In this way the Law is not violated." [Va 2.40–50]

Vasiṣṭha

गार्हस्थ्यअङ्गानाम्च मानौन्माने रक्षिते स्याताम् ॥13 अधिष्ठानात्न नीहारस्स्वअर्थानाम् ॥14 मानमूल्यमात्रम्नैहारिकम्स्यात् ॥15 महामहयोस्स्थानात् पथस्स्यात् ॥16

13 Measures and weights should be made secure. 14 Export of goods is not permitted from the capital city, 15 Only the selling price or the value of the merchandise is subject to exportation. 16 During the two festive times, however, there is no crime and there should be no punishment. [Va 19.13–16]

Āpastamba

सभाया मध्ये ऽअधिदेवनम् उद्धत्यअवोक्ष्यअक्षान् निवपेद् युग्मान् वैभीतकान् यथाअर्थान् ॥12 आर्याः शुचयः सत्यशीला दीवितारः स्युः ॥13 आयुधग्रहणं नृत्तगीतवादित्राणिइति राजअधीनेभ्यो ऽअन्यत्र न विद्येरन् ॥14

12 In the middle of the assembly hall he should erect a gaming table, sprinkle it with water, and place there dice-they should be in pairs, of Vibhitaka seeds, and in adequate numbers. 13 Aryas who are upright and honest may gamble there. 14 Weapons contests, dancing, singing, and concerts should not be held without the presence of royal officials. [A 2.25.12–4]