33. 6. RASA IN THE EARLY MODERN WORLD, 1200-1650

6. RASA IN THE EARLY MODERN WORLD, 1200-1650

7. Introduction to the commentary, v. 5.

8. The second poem in particular had been the object of bravura analysis by Anandavardhana (DhĀ 3.20), Bhoja (ŚP 9.370, 11.117; SKĀ 5. 499, p. 731; so 1.146, p. 133), and Mammata (KP 7.65, given above), and would continue to elicit comment for centuries, among Mammata's commentators and elsewhere.

9. See Dhà p. 196, and KP 7.65, see notes 375-76.

10. Someshvara Bhatta on the KP actually reads bhāvātiśayasya (for prabhāvātiśayasya). See chapter 4.3 n. 375, and n. 13 below.

11. A number of the Amaru poems are about adulterous love affairs.

12. Author of the Kāmasutra.

13. Possibly a reference to the view of the commentator Vemabhupala (though he does not enumerate gestures, he takes the figure of the bow literally).

14. The straightforward translation in what follows, "the simile becomes the rasa-laden ornament," is impossible, since as the following quotation, as well as the comments on the next two poems, make clear, it is rasa itself that in such circumstances becomes an ornament, not an ornament that takes on traits of rasa. (I find no v. l. in the mss. consulted.)

15. And the rasa-laden statement itself is functioning as an ornament to the subject matter. Arjuna cites Dhà 2.5, above.

16. See KP 7.65, above.

17. DhĀ 3.20 (correct vācyānām to bādhyānām).

18. From Someshvara Bhatta on KP (p. 2227). Arjuna also cites as an example the famous verse on Bhurishravas's hand from the MBh (11.24.17), see KP 7.65, above.

19. The text here, ananubhūtānyavișayatayā, is probably corrupt (though mss. offer no good alternative). Chandidas, a later commentator on KP (7.65), notes that the figure "like a lover" can be interpreted either as a poetic fantasy (utpreksā) (the women react as if it were the case, which it cannot be, that this fire is a husband), or as a simile (they react as was actually the case in the past when their husbands misbehaved). Arjuna is apparently pointing to the latter.

20. Understand api (as bhinnakrama) with what follows.

21. I read rasasamgatau (with Jaipur Pothikhana ms. #525, for rasatām gatau of all editions).

22. In Arjuna's mind is no doubt Someshvara Bhatta: "The (poet's) emotion of desire, consisting of the ornament called the 'affectionate utterance,' is here rendered the subject matter that functions as dominant element" (KP p. 2227).

23. I conjecture angitvam (for angatvam) and -āpeksayaiva (for -āv eka eva).

24. Abhinavagupta. The v. is not found in the ABh, but the idea is expressed in Dhà 3.7, p. 325. But it is interesting that Arjuna refers to Abhinava as the author of a work he most certainly never saw (rather than as author of The Eye).

25. All of these illustrations have been omitted here, but they are available in RT, ed. Pollock.

26. ABh 1.266.11-15 (reading tv for bhavati with Hemachandra). The citations are from KĀ 2.279, 281, above.

27. Fragment #1a.

28. ABh 1.278.13.

29. Bhāv Vilās 3.2 (in the definition verse, 3.1, he speaks of rasa as a "fully developed vāsanā" of the sthāyī: thiti kī pūrana vāsanā sukavi kaha rasa soi; I thank Allison Busch for the reference).

30. Bhanu uses the rare term aupanayika.

31. The later critique of Bhanu's position is charted in Raghavan 1975: 155-58.

32. See Pollock, ed., 2009: xix and n.

27. The numbering is according to my edition; see there for further text-critical annotation and interpretation.

28. Compare Vachaspatimishra: na ca svalakșaņānurodhena lakșyasyānyathākaraņam yuktam parīkșyakāriņām (Nyāyavārttikatātparyațīkā in Nyāyadarśana p. 137).

29. Of a scene or the work as a whole.

30. aparipurna. In other words, it has not reached the state of a developed rasa.

31. Unclear; perhaps what is meant is that "reactions" are not actually reactions, but the visible means by which characters

react to rasa.

32. Contiguity, inherence, and the rest (Tarkasamgraha p. 22).

33. If we are to be consistent-though I am unsure about the accuracy of this interpretation-the third form of supermundane rasa would be the character's experience of a play (within the play), which is normally (for the actual viewer) considered a purely pleasurable experience. The rasas of dream and the imagination can obviously have an admixture of sorrow.

34. Śatakatrayam 3.14.

35. See Pañcadaśī 11.87, pratibimbananda, referring to a joy "reflected" or even imagined (the other two are brahmānanda and vāsanānanda). The "bliss" is what is experienced by the speaker in the poem, and bliss and rasa are essentially coextensive.

36. It is unclear why affection should be a transitory emotion of the tragic in the case of a child (unless the child's very "disappearance" as it grows up is implied). Note that Jiva Gosvamin concurs; see PS p. 66.14, below ("rasa of compassion, or in other words, parental affection"). Compare also ABh 1.335 above.

37. For the twelfth-century commentator Shridharasvamin see the introduction, n. 80. The first mention of the term bhaktirasa is found in the tenth-century Shaiva Stavacintāmani of Bhatta Narayana (v. 50), but whether it is used in an aesthetic sense or nontechnically ("nectar of devotion") cannot be determined (Stainton 2013: 175-78).

38. There is some uncertainty, due to assertions in the work itself, about its real author: Hemadri asked Vopadeva to allow the Pearls to pass under his own, Hemadri's, name, though it was actually the work of Vopadeva (BhM pp. 2, 321). Perhaps this was simply a kind of compliment.

39. BhPu 6.1.19.

40. The distinction (vihita/avihita) corresponds to the later vaidhi/rāgānuga pair (see BhRAS 1.2.6, 270): bhakti that derives from a scriptural commandment (preeminently the BhPu) and bhakti that "follows the trend of devotion and attachment of the people of Vraja who stood in actual relation to Krishna" (De 1932: 651).

41. Śṛngāratilaka 1.16.

42. BhPu 7.31.

43. Below Hemadri explains this new ordering (rather than "the erotic and the rest").

44. Synonyms of sensitivity, volitility, and stolidity.

45. Bharata.

46. Vopadeva.

47. alpaparikaratvāt; uncertain.

48. Hemadri cites DR 4.1 and Dhanika ad loc. and goes on to list the vibhavas and anubhavas from DR 4.4-8 and 4.26.

49. Lovers of Vishnu in his Krishna avatar.

50. I conjecture -nayebhyaś (for -nayaś).

51. KP 4.17; the sequence of Hemadri's thoughts seems to require that we understand the preceding two sentences as parenthetical, as I have done.

52. Source unknown, but perhaps borrowed from Shridhara; Bhoja defends the same idea, see ŚP 1.12+, above, and n. 71 there for Shridhara. Jiva Goswami, given his theology of practice, rejects the superiority of poetry to "drama" (see PS p. 70, below), as does Bhatta Tota (fragment #5, above) but for intellectual reasons.

53. I.e., that it is not a separate rasa but rather is to be categorized under one of the nine canonical rasas. See KA p. 106.15 and ABh 1.335.14 (the one time bhakti is mentioned in connection with rasa in the ABh; the passage parallel to KA, 1.261, is silent about bhakti, as is DhAL). Hemadri shows no other knowledge of the ABh elsewhere, and it is unclear how he would have been aware of Abhinava's position.

54. An argument made already by others; see, for example, Shridhara on KP 4, above.

55. See ŚP p. 632; SKĀ 5.23, 33.

56. ŚP p. 632.25; see also SKĀ 5.23, and the verse on p. 598.

57. While vatsala usually concerns parental affection, Bhoja cites the poem in the context of śrngāra.

58. vișayasaundarya-, compare SKĀ 5.8 (prose).

59. For Bhoja the stable emotion is actually ahankāra (ŚP p. 683; Hemadri throughout appears to be citing SKĀ rather than SP, though in any case his understanding of Bhoja is imperfect).

60. MVC 1.31.

61. See ŚP 633, above.

62. SKĀ 5.16,18.

63. And hence there are nine species of the devotional rasa that arises when a devotee hears or reads the stories of Krishna (the devotion rasa thus being conceived of as the overarching category and not a separate rasa).

64. The women are watching as Krishna leaves the capital.

65. BhPu 1.10.21 and the six verses that follow are omitted here. This illustrates the enjoyment of seeing (a clarification omitted by Hemadri, or lost).

66. The women of Hastinapura are still speaking.

67. BhPu 1.10.27.

68. The following eight verses are omitted.

69. I (rather desperately) conjecture -ānubhāvābhāvāt (for -ānubhāvāt).

70. Here it is evident that the distinction between rasa in the viewer/reader and rasa in the character (the latter of which

Hemadri claims, as we have seen, not to accept) almost vanishes.

71. BhPu 1.10.31.

72. The demon Bhauma's captive women, whom Krishna set free and married.

73. BhPu 10.59.44 (I follow Hemadri's syntactical analysis, rather than Shridhara's, and omit v. 45). The following verses, omitted here (BhPu 10.41.27-28), pertain to intercourse with the women of Mathura.

74. BhPu 10.44.13, vv. 10.44.14, 10.29.31-32 are omitted.

75. Only very occasionally in the remainder of the commentary is there explicit discussion of bhaktirasa as such. Thus on 19.1 (p. 299), the presentation of the heroic rasa, Hemadri notes that "With these three types of heroic rasa in mind, the author believes that the experience of the devotional rasa is impossible in the form of the 'heroic in battle,' and so begins with the 'heroic in munificence."

76. The commentary, published as anonymous by its first editor, was attributed to Lokanatha by De 1988: 257, though without providing evidence (a commentator of that name wrote also on the Vālmīki Rāmāyana). Several other commentaries are known,

including a Sārabodhinī by Vishvanatha Chakravartin, but the commentary recently printed under his name is in fact identical with that of Lokanatha.

77. paroksa and pratyaksa.

78. prākrta and aprākrta.

79. AK 5.63 (p. 122), and p. 141.

80. It is of course also mentioned in SKÃ, and Jiva shows he knew this text (PS p. 66).

81. See Lokanatha's comment, p. 141.

82. Such as the doctrine of five primary and seven secondary rasas (see next selection, n. 149).

83. See n. 90 below on the stable emotion named, simply, "emotion." Similarly Kavikarnapura's discussion of the charge of impropriety of Krishna's love affairs with the married women of Vraja; see n. 106, and PS pp. 119-21, both below.

84. The opposition was clear to Lokanatha, who was familiar with Jiva's writings. See his comment on v. 72.

85. The "supernatural" rasa is described on AK p. 131. As Bhattacharaya points out, Lokanatha's concern lies in the fact that Kavikarnapura holds rasa to belong solely to the audience, rejecting the reality of the rasa in the characters, which for Rupa and Jiva Gosvamin constitutes the primacy of bhaktirasa. Kavikarnapura's "deference" to the literary-critical tradition lies in his accepting that rasa must be pleasurable and hence can only pertain to the audience, and not the characters.

86. "The root": quoting SD 3.174.

87. I conjecture eka (for esa in both printed eds.) in 63c, in accordance with the vrtti and the later reference eka eva .. sthāyī (p. 130.1). The aesthetic mental state is always pleasurable, regardless of the particular mood of the aesthetic object.

88. svatantra, literally, "independently" various, whereas the stable emotion of the viewer is dependent on the characters'

emotions.

89. Bhoja's views are more complicated than Kavikarnapura appears to know, though it is true that both vātsalya and prema are added in ŚP (kārikā 6 et passim).

90. A technical use of the term (AK p. 147 below), deriving ultimately from Pratiharenduraja (on KASS 4.2) and affirmed for religious poetry in KP 4.35cd-4.36ab.

91. Reading with the editor's conjecture.

92. As the editor points out, Lokanatha's view is that of theological aesthetics, not that of literary theory. In addition, the emotion that Lokanatha here reckons a species of desire will later be distinguished from it (PS p. 100, below).

93. Lokanatha first claims that the aesthetic elements are not cognized (abhanam) when one is experiencing rasa, but in his conclusion he suggests that for Kavikarnapura the elements had to remain cognizable (-sahitasyaiva, etc.). See also the discussion of Kumarasvamin, PR p. 206, above.

94. Lokanatha takes "characters" to refer the "supernatural" characters mentioned below, which he further identifies as the "devotees," presumably those in the literary texts (compare Jiva Gosvamin on BRAS 2.5.100, below). The characters of high status will be the hero and heroine of the narrative, those to whom the "principal" (angi-) rasa of the work refers.

95. Lokanatha understands, "'It is the stable emotion,' sc., that undergoes change." But in the following vrtti it is the multiplicity of rasa that is at issue.

96. Lokanatha doubts the authenticity of the passage offering the analogy, and indeed, it is amiss (the example should illustrate the appearance of diversity of an entity through its conditioning factors, not its unity despite the conditioning factors).

97. Or in many, as in the case of the comic (p. 142).

98. For Rupa, there would appear to be no rasābhāsa of this sort. The only impropriety he recognizes is the ascription of emotion to insentient things or animals (BhRAS 2.4.228).

99. Malati was betrothed by the king to his brother-in-law in the MM, Rukmini by her elder brother to Shishupala in the MBh.

100. The text (source unknown) appears to be discussing a specific example, but I translate as a more general declaration.

101. I conjecture tathā hi (for tathāpi).

102. Source unknown.

103. anaucityarītyā. The reading aucityarītyā would certainly be easier.

104. śrūyate, or "given in scripture," as Lokanatha implies with his gloss: "in the poems and plays of great adepts (mahānubhāva)."

105. MBh 6.6.11 (variant). Also cited by Rupa Gosvamin, BSAS, 2.5.92cd, but in a different context.

106. For Rupa, the women of Vraja never had actual sexual intercourse with their husbands (De 1932: 676); for Jiva, the women, seen from the transcendental perspective, are not women at all but śaktis of the deity (PS p. 121). See also Ujjvalanīlamaņi p. 99: "The fact that a married woman is not permitted to be involved in the principal rasa in a drama is a rule promulgated only with respect to ordinary vulgar heroines. To quote: 'That a married woman is not permitted by poets to be involved with the dominant rasa does not apply to the women of Gokula, whose very avatars were instigated by Krishna, enemy of Kamsa and crestjewel in the circle of rasikas, in the hope of enjoying rasa."

107. "Pure love," kevalānurāga, a technical term, like kevalaprema in BhRAS 4.6.14. I read cetorañjakatāyāḥ (with Haridasasastri, for cetorañjakatayā).

108. Kavikarnapura is distinguishing his work not so much from those concerned with the rasa of real-life devotees as from those concerned in other ways with the spiritual dimension of rasa (so the editor ad loc.).

109. The characters in the Krishna story (the cowherd women, Uddhava, and so on) are also considered devotees (BhM, p. 167 with Hemadri, above). Kavikarnapura's argument suggests we are still at some historical remove from the view that the audience members are not only devotees but actual characters in the living pageant of Krishna.

110. When we are watching a play about them, the real characters-Rama, Sita, and so on-no longer actually exist (see Bhatta Nayaka's position, as explained by Dhanika, DR p. 210, above).

111. Compare SD 3.2-3, above.

112. Borrowed from Shri Shankuka fragment #1a, above (as is much else in the paragraph), mediated most likely through DhĀL

or KP.

113. The argument that follows presupposes that the stable emotions exist only in the characters, whereas the audience feels only pleasure no matter what the nature of the stable emotion represented (fear, repugnance, etc.) may be. 114. The world of the viewer/reader.

114. KP 4.44 (ed. Jhalkikar, p. 98).

115. I.e., since all the viewer's rasas are pleasurable.

116. The hero's friend who saves the heroine Malati when she is attacked by a tiger in MM.

117. A mundane character cannot feel joy in the face of fear and so cannot truly have a rasa experience; by contrast, the audience does have a joyful experience of the fearful rasa.

118. The twelve rasas are the standard eight and the peaceful, plus three described earlier (AK p. 123) and again in what follows: the rasas of parental affection, love (prema), and devotion, with their stable emotions possessiveness (mamakāra), tenderness (cittadrava) (p. 122), and desire understood asexually as "a mental state of delight." It is unclear why there should be ten and not eleven forms of the devotional rasa (not twelve, of course, since the devotional cannot be a subvariety of itself), unless this has something to do with the relationship of "love" and "the erotic" discussed on AK pp. 148-49. (The ten listed by the editor, p. 148 n., are not the "stable emotions" that Kavikarnapura specifically names.)

120. He means: because we are really one. The v. is presumably the author's own.

121. cittadrava, a new stable emotion.

122. See headnote for the unlikely connection with Bhoja's doctrine.

123. Source unknown.

124. The argument is convoluted, but this is inevitable in reworking the older notion of "emotion" poetry (especially in relationship to a deity), where the stable emotion cannot be fully developed, into the new devotional rasa. The parallel with Ujjvalanīlamaņi (sthāyibhāvaprakarana 142, p. 459, "emotion" as love, anurāga) may not indicate borrowing but only shared understanding.

125. The original characters imagined to be speaking in the verse.

126. Further detail in Haberman 2003: xxxi-xxxiii.

127. BhM 12.72 (p. 212) is cited in Ujjvalanīlamaņi p. 450 on premavaicitrya (love that leaves a woman unsatiated). He knows nothing of Kavikarnapura.

128. bhagavatprīti.

129. De 1932: 652-53.

130. Haberman 2003: lxvii.

131. ABh 1.271.5, 279, 285, above.

132. See PS pp. 68-70, below; see also De 1932: 656 n.

133. This is made clear by Lokanatha on AK pp. 118, 131.

134. Jiva takes on the latter issue directly in PS 110 [65.17], below. On the explicit exclusion of the Vedas from "literature," see Bhatta Tota fragment #2, above.

135. See again Lokanatha on AK p. 131, above.

136. The "erotic" was described only synoptically in the BhRAS, Rupa tells us, because it is "secret doctrine" (rahasyatvāt) and hence reserved for a second, esoteric text, namely, the Ujjvalanīlamani (see 1.2).

137. It is unclear what earlier portion of the work is meant (but see the later echoes, 2.5.2 and 2.5.72).

138. śravaādibhih. Compare 2.5.63.

139. Those produced by past lives and in the present.

140. I.e., as distinct from desire.

141. So Jiva.

142. The reading -anubhavādbhutaḥ strikes me as dubious.

143. The original confusingly reverses the concessive clause ("One may become aware ... although the rapture .... ").

144. The first verse is untraced; the second is SD 3.261.

145. See also PS110 [65.17], below, and BhR 2.75-76.

146. MBh 6.6.11 (actually, the "Book of Bhishma," not the "Book of Effort"); the "ancients" include Shankara, who cites the verse in his commentary on Brahmasūtra 2.1.6 (as noted also by Jiva).

147. There is no such verse in the NS; the idea is Bhatta Nayaka's.

148. That is, when the character is separated from Krishna.

149. Krishna showed his virtues in the fullest plenitude (the third of the three stages of the plenitude of his earthly manifestation, BhRAS 2.1.220-223) when he was a boy in Vraja, something equal to (or even greater than, see BhRAS 1.2.58, cited by

Jiva) his grandeur as universal lord (in the case of Shri) or actual husband (in the case of Rukmini, both likely indicated by ramā; see Jiva). Rupa goes on to discuss primary and secondary types of the devotional rasa.

150. rasaśāstrīya-, a neologism. Jiva here cites DR 4.34, above.

151. That is, the Blessed One, his attendants, the sound of his flute, and so on.

152. Source unknown.

153. Here used in the sense of scholars, rather than people who experience the rasa. He may have in mind Hemachandra or even Abhinavagupta (see BhM p. 167, above).

154. The son of the antigod Hiranyakashipu, he resisted his father's admonitions and remained firm in his devotion to Vishnu (BhPu 7.8).

155. Jiva cites SD 3.2, 3.8, above. He goes on to briefly contrast the difference between mundane and supermundane rasa in their origin and the mode of aesthetic experience, citing SD 3.2 for the former and BhPu 4.3.23 for the latter, which also is said to exceed the experience of brahma (BhPu 4.9.10).

156. Jiva apparently sees the last two as subtypes of one rasa.

157. Jiva here cites Dharmadatta from the SD 3.2, above.

158. On BhPu 10.43.17.

159. Jiva cites SKA 5.23 and illustration v. 74, perhaps borrowed from BhM.

160. Jiva cites BhPu 11.19.41 and 36.

161. Jiva cites BhPu 1.5.10-11, as well as Rukmini's statement in 10.60.45.

162. Jiva cites BhPu 10.21.19 and 10.17.15.

163. BhPu 1.1.3. Jiva here offers an extended exegesis of the verse.

164. Whereas the real rasa experience must by definition be entirely pleasurable. See SD 3.17, above, from which Jiva borrows some of his ideas here.

165. That is, present-day devotees.

166. Presumably the arguments on, e.g., PS p. 1.

167. The "goddesses" refer to the cowherd wives; Vritra was a demon beheaded by Indra and merged with Narayana (BhPu 6.7- 13); the elephant king called upon Narayana to rescue him from a crocodile (BhPu 8.2-4); Shuka is the narrator of the BhPu; Bharata (Jadabharata, Bharata the Mute) was reborn as a deer for ignoring Narayana, and then as a Brahman who sought divine wisdom, and thus is the only case that seems to illustrate Jiva's point.

168. Jiva here (and below where ellipses are provided) cites various descriptions from the BhPu of, for example, Krishna's eyes and his flute.

169. Brahmasamhitā 5.67-68, a description of Shvetadvipa, home of Vishnu. Jiva notes that, when the verse goes on to list song as something "relished," it shows that "like drama, singing is also productive of rasa," one of the few explicit references to the existence of rasa in domains other than literary.

170. Jiva here cites SD 3.13.

171. I conjecture iva (for eva).

172. I conjecture antahpāta (for antapātaḥ).

173. Presumably a reference to Bhagavadgītā (e.g., 18.68). Technically, the tragic rasa requires that the separation of the lovers be permanent; this feature alone distinguishes it from the erotic thwarted.

174. Vasudeva was Krishna's father, Gada, Krishna's brother.